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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definite_and_indefinite_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Definite and indefinite forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definite_and_indefinite_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noun_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Noun cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Absolutive_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absolutive_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Absolutive case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absolutive_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ergative_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ergative_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Ergative case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ergative_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instrumental-Directional_Case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instrumental-Directional_Case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Instrumental-Directional Case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instrumental-Directional_Case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbial_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbial_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Adverbial case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbial_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pro-drop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pro-drop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Pro-drop</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pro-drop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noun_and_adjective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_and_adjective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Noun and adjective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_and_adjective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creating_nouns_from_adjective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creating_nouns_from_adjective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Creating nouns from adjective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creating_nouns_from_adjective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Possessive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstratives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstratives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Demonstratives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demonstratives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demonstratives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demonstratives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conjugation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjugation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Conjugation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjugation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pronouns subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Personal pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstrative_Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstrative_Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Demonstrative Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstrative_Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessive_Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Possessive Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indefinite_pronoun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indefinite_pronoun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Indefinite pronoun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indefinite_pronoun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Verbs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transitivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Transitivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Person_Markers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Person_Markers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Person Markers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Person_Markers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_о-_Prefix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_о-_Prefix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>The о- Prefix</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_о-_Prefix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamic_and_static_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamic_and_static_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Dynamic and static verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynamic_and_static_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Tenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Valency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Valency_increasing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valency_increasing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.1</span> <span>Valency increasing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valency_increasing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Moods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imperative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7.1</span> <span>Imperative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7.2</span> <span>Conditional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conditional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concessive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concessive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7.3</span> <span>Concessive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concessive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affirmative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affirmative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7.4</span> <span>Affirmative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affirmative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participle_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participle_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participle_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Absolutive_Participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absolutive_Participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8.1</span> <span>Absolutive Participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absolutive_Participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ergative_Participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ergative_Participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8.2</span> <span>Ergative Participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ergative_Participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oblique_Participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oblique_Participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8.3</span> <span>Oblique Participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oblique_Participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temporal_Participle_щы-" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temporal_Participle_щы-"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8.4</span> <span>Temporal Participle щы-</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temporal_Participle_щы--sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locative_Participle_зыдэ-" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locative_Participle_зыдэ-"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8.5</span> <span>Locative Participle зыдэ-</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locative_Participle_зыдэ--sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manner_Participle_зэры-" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manner_Participle_зэры-"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8.6</span> <span>Manner Participle зэры-</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manner_Participle_зэры--sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reason_Participle_щIэ-" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reason_Participle_щIэ-"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8.7</span> <span>Reason Participle щIэ-</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reason_Participle_щIэ--sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Masdar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Masdar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.9</span> <span>Masdar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Masdar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.10</span> <span>Negative form</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positional_conjugation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positional_conjugation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.11</span> <span>Positional conjugation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positional_conjugation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Adjectives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Adjectives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Affixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Affixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opinion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opinion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Opinion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opinion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scaliness_of_an_adjective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scaliness_of_an_adjective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Scaliness of an adjective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scaliness_of_an_adjective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_of_the_adjective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_of_the_adjective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>State of the adjective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_of_the_adjective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Adverbs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Adverbs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adverbs_of_place" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs_of_place"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Adverbs of place</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs_of_place-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs_of_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs_of_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Adverbs of time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs_of_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs_of_amount" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs_of_amount"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Adverbs of amount</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs_of_amount-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs_of_quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs_of_quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Adverbs of quality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs_of_quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Unions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjunctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjunctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Conjunctions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conjunctions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conjunctions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conjunctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Simple_conjunctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Simple_conjunctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Simple conjunctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Simple_conjunctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complex_conjunctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complex_conjunctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Complex conjunctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complex_conjunctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Particles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postpositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postpositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Postpositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postpositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Word Formation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Word_Formation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Word Formation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Word_Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compounding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Compounding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun_+_Noun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_+_Noun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1.1</span> <span>Noun + Noun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_+_Noun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noun_+_Verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_+_Verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1.2</span> <span>Noun + Verb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_+_Verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Derivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc--ей" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#-ей"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2.1</span> <span>-ей</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc--ей-sublist" 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<span>Fractional numbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fractional_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label 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aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">System and structure of the Kabardian language</div> <p><b>Eastern Circassian grammar</b> (<a href="/wiki/Kabardian_language" title="Kabardian language">Kabardian</a>: <span lang="kbd">Къэбэрдеибзэ адыгабзэ</span>), as described in this article, is the <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> of standard <a href="/wiki/Kabardian_language" title="Kabardian language">East Circassian</a> also known as Kabardian, as spoken and written by the Kabardian and Besleney communities primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Kabardino-Balkaria" title="Kabardino-Balkaria">Kabardino-Balkarian Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karachay-Cherkessia" title="Karachay-Cherkessia">Karachay-Cherkessian Republic</a> in Russia. </p><p>Eastern Circassian is <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">ergative–absolutive</a>, predominatly marks <a href="/wiki/Head-directionality_parameter#Head-final_languages" title="Head-directionality parameter">head final</a> and its normal word order is <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Subject–object–verb word order">SOV</a> (Subject-Object-Verb). Its nouns are remarkably simple, only marking for 2 numbers and case (which is frequently optional). Its verbal morphology however is the most complex part of the language, being inflected with <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a>, making it very <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic_language" title="Polysynthetic language">polysynthetic</a>. A verb can be marked for several <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">persons</a> (polypersonality), <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, tense, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>, causative and with a large array of preverbs. Notions such as "can", "must", and "if", usually expressed as separate words in most European languages, are typically expressed with verbal suffixes in Eastern Circassian. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ergative–absolutive"><span id="Ergative.E2.80.93absolutive"></span>Ergative–absolutive</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ergative–absolutive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kabardian is an <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">ergative–absolutive</a> language. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative">nominative–accusative</a> languages, such as English, where the single argument of an <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verb</a> ("She" in the sentence "She walks.") behaves grammatically like the agent of a <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive verb</a> ("She" in the sentence "She finds it."), in <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">ergative–absolutive</a> language the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of an intransitive verb behaves like the <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> of a transitive verb, and differently from the agent of a transitive verb. For example, the word щӏалэ "boy" in the intransitive sentence щӏалэр малӏэ "the boy dies" behaves grammatically different from the word щӏалэ "boy" in the transitive sentence щӏалэм ар еукӏы "the boy kills it". </p><p>Nouns in Kabardian can have the following roles in a sentence: </p> <ul><li>Ergative case: Marked as -м /-m/, it serves to mark the one that causes change by doing the verb.</li> <li>Absolutive case: Marked as -р /-r/, it serves to mark the one that is changed by the verb's, i.e. it is being created, altered, moved or ended by the verb.</li> <li>Oblique case: Also marked as -м /-m/, it serves to mark the <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applicative_voice" title="Applicative voice">applicative</a> case roles. It acts as the indirect object in the sentence and its state is not changed by the verb, i.e. we have no indication of what happens to it or how it behaves after the verb.</li></ul> <p>In intransitive verbs the subject is in the absolutive case thus it indicates that the subject is changing (created, altered, moved or ended). </p> <ul><li>In this example the boy is changing by moving:</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Щӏалэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Щӏалэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">макӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">макӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is going</p></div><p style="display: none;">Щӏалэр макӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;">Щӏалэ-р макӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy.ABS {(s)he is going}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy is going."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>In this example the man is changing by moving. The verb еуэн /jawan/ "to hit" describes the movement of hitting and not the impact itself, so we have no indication of what happens to the object (the wall in this case).</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Лӏыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Лӏы-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʼər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">man.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэпкъым</p><p style="margin: 0px;">дэпкъы-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dapqəm</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">wall.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="oblique case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">йоуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">йоуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jowa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is hitting</p></div><p style="display: none;">Лӏыр дэпкъым йоуэ</p><p style="display: none;">Лӏы-р дэпкъы-м йоуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʼər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dapqəm</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jowa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">man.ABS wall.OBL {(s)he is hitting}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man is hitting the wall." <br /> <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "the man is hitting at the wall."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In transitive verbs the subject is in the ergative case thus it indicates that the subject causes change to the object which gets the absolutive case. </p> <ul><li>In this example the wall changes by being destroyed (it was altered). The verb къутэн /qʷətan/ "to destroy" does not indicate how the subject (boy) destroyed the wall thus we have no indication of the boy changing, making him the one that causes the change (and not the one that changes).</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Щӏалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Щӏалэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэпкъыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">дэпкъы-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dapqər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">wall.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">икъутащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">икъутащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jəqʷətaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he destroyed</p></div><p style="display: none;">Щӏалэм дэпкъыр икъутащ</p><p style="display: none;">Щӏалэ-м дэпкъы-р икъутащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dapqər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jəqʷətaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy.ERG wall.ABS {(s)he destroyed}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy destroyed the wall."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>In this example the rock changes by moving (motion in air), the man causes the change and the wall acts as the indirect object of the preposition.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Лӏым</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʼəm</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">man.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мывэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">məvar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">rock.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэпкъым</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dapqəm</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">wall.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="oblique case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">тедзэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tajd͡za]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is throwing at</p></div><p style="display: none;">Лӏым мывэр дэпкъым тедзэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʼəm</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">məvar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dapqəm</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tajd͡za]</span></p><p style="display: none;">man.ERG rock.ABS wall.OBL {(s)he is throwing at}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man is throwing the rock at the wall."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>It is important to distinguish between the intransitive and transitive verb, because the subject and object noun cases as well as the sentences' verb conjunctions (the prefixes that indicate person) depend on it. A fault in this can change the meaning of the sentence drastically, switching the roles of the subject and object. For instance, look at the following two sentences: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Щӏалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Щӏалэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">пщащэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">пщащэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɕaːɕar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">йолъэгъу</p><p style="margin: 0px;">йолъэгъу</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jawɬaʁʷ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is seeing</p></div><p style="display: none;">Щӏалэм пщащэр йолъэгъу</p><p style="display: none;">Щӏалэ-м пщащэ-р йолъэгъу</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɕaːɕar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jawɬaʁʷ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy.ERG girl.ABS {(s)he is seeing}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy is seeing the girl."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Щӏалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Щӏалэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="oblique case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">пщащэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">пщащэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɕaːɕar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">йоплъ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">йоплъ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jawpɬ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is looking at</p></div><p style="display: none;">Щӏалэм пщащэр йоплъ</p><p style="display: none;">Щӏалэ-м пщащэ-р йоплъ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɕaːɕar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jawpɬ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy.OBL girl.ABS {(s)he is looking at}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The girl is looking at the boy."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Even though the noun cases of the word boy кӏалэ are the same (In the Ergative-Oblique case marked as -м), they behave grammatically different because the verb еплъын "to look" is considered an intransitive verb in contrast to the verb елъэгъун "to see" which is transitive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Noun">Noun</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Noun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singular_and_plural">Singular and plural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Singular and plural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A Circassian noun can be in one of the following two states: singular or plural </p><p>Singular number is marked by a null <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a>, while plural nouns use the -хэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">-xa</i></span>) suffix, which is attached to the main form of the word. A noun in its plural form must be in its definite form, meaning it must include case markers such as -р or -м. </p><p>For example: singular: </p> <ul><li>унэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">wəna</i></span>): home → унэ<b>хэ</b>р (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">wəna<b>xa</b>r</i></span>) homes</li> <li>тхылъ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">txəɬ</i></span>): book → тхылъ<b>хэ</b>р (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">txəɬ<b>xa</b>r</i></span>) books</li></ul> <p>Names and vocative uses of a noun are exempt of this rule. </p> <ul><li>къардэн<b>хэ</b> лъэпкъышхуэщ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">qaːrdan<b>xa</b> ɬapqəʃxʷaɕ</i></span>): The Kardan(ov)s are a large family/tribe</li> <li>фымыпIащIэ, цIыкIу<b>хэ</b>! (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">fəməpʼaːɕʼa tsəkʷʼ<b>xa</b></i></span>): Don't hurry, children!</li> <li>ныбжьэгъу<b>хэ</b>, зэIущIэм зыкъыкIэрывмыгъэху! (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">nəbʑaʁʷ<b>xa</b> zaʔʷəɕʼam zəqətʃʼarəvməʁaxʷ</i></span>): Comrades, don't be late for the meeting!</li></ul> <p>However, the plural marking on the noun is optional in most cases. It is however frequently encoded in other parts of the sentence which are mandatory, for example the verb or possessive marking. </p> <ul><li>сабийм жеIэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">saːbəjm ʒajʔa</i></span>): the child speaks vs сабийм ж<b>а</b>Iэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">saːbəjm ʒ<b>aː</b>ʔa</i></span>): the children speak</li> <li>сабийм и хьэл (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">saːbəjm jə ħaɮ</i></span>): the child's character vs сабийм <b>я</b> хьэл (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">saːbəjm <b>jaː</b> ħaɮ</i></span>): the children's character</li></ul> <p>As a side note, the suffix -хэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">-xa</i></span>) is also present in verbs to denote that the absolutive participant is plural. However similarly, it is only optional. For example: </p> <ul><li>ар макӏуэ he is going → ахэр макӏуэхэ: they are going</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collective_nouns">Collective nouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Collective nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Collective nouns, such as жылэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʒəɮa</i></span>) village, къуажэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">qʷaːʒa</i></span>) village, хьэблэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ħabɮa</i></span>) district, унагуэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">wənaːʁʷa</i></span>) family, are noteworthy, in regards to the usage of the plural. All of them, can also refer to the members of that group and if they do the noun acts as a <a href="/wiki/Plurale_tantum" title="Plurale tantum">plurale tantum</a> which can't have. </p> <ul><li>жылэм <b>я</b> Iэр <b>я</b>Iэтмэ, сэри си Iэр сIэтынщ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʒəɮam <b>jaː</b> ʔar <b>jaː</b>ʔatma, sarəj səj ʔar sʔatənɕ</i></span>): if the villagers vote, I will also vote (lit. if the villagers raise their hands, I will raise my hand too)</li> <li>ар мы жылэм щопсэу (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">aːr mə ʒəɮam ɕawpsawə</i></span>): he lives in this village</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definite_and_indefinite_forms">Definite and indefinite forms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Definite and indefinite forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Circassian nouns usually have either definite or indefinite form. The idea behind this concept is close to the idea of definite/indefinite articles in English. The definite form of Circassian nouns have -р or -м (noun cases) formats at the end of the word. For example: щӏалэ "boy" – indefinite noun (has none of the definite formats) – it can be used in generalizations or when the boy is unknown to either the "speaker" or "listener" (a/an or zero article in English); щӏалэр, щӏалэм "the boy" – it is used when the mentioned boy is well known to both the "speaker" and "listener". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noun_cases">Noun cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Noun cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kabardian also declines nouns into four different cases, each with corresponding suffixes: <a href="/wiki/Absolutive_case" title="Absolutive case">absolutive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adverbial_case" title="Adverbial case">adverbial</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Absolutive_case" title="Absolutive case">absolutive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative</a> cases are considered primary cases, while <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adverbial_case" title="Adverbial case">adverbial</a> periphery cases, which means they have less of a core functionality and are frequently built on primary cases </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">Suffix </th> <th rowspan="2">example </th></tr> <tr> <th>Cyrillic </th> <th>IPA </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Absolutive_case" title="Absolutive case">Absolutive</a> </td> <td>р </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> </td> <td>щӏалэр <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːlar]</span> ('the boy') </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">Ergative</a>-<a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">Oblique</a> </td> <td>м </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> </td> <td>щӏалэм <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːlam]</span> ('the boy's') </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> </td> <td>(м)кӏэ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/(m)t͡ʃʼa/</span> </td> <td>щӏалэмкӏэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮamt͡ʃʼa]</span> ('using the boy') </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_case" title="Adverbial case">Adverbial</a> </td> <td>ыу </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əw/</span> </td> <td>щӏалу <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaɮəw]</span> ('boy') </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Absolutive_case">Absolutive case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Absolutive case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Has the suffix -р <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> (e.g. щӏалэр <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar]</span> 'the boy', щӏалэхэр <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮaxar]</span> ('the boys'), шыр <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃər]</span> 'the horse'). The absolutive case usually expresses subject in conjunction with intransitive verbs or direct object in conjunction with transitive verbs: For example: </p><p>In the following example, Щӏалэр is in the absolutive case, it points to the subject (the boy), and the sentence is in the absolutive form with an intransitive verb (кӏуащ); </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>щӏалэр</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>щӏалэ-р</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>ɕʼaːɮar</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">еджапӏэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">еджапӏэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jad͡ʒaːpʼam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the school.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">кӏуащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">кӏу-ащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʷʼaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he went</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>щӏалэр</b> еджапӏэм кӏуащ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>щӏалэ-р</b> еджапӏэ-м кӏу-ащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>ɕʼaːɮar</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jad͡ʒaːpʼam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʷʼaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>the boy.ABS</b>} {the school.ERG} {(s)he went}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>the boy</b> went to the school"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In the following example, джанэр is in the absolutive case, it points to the direct object (the shirt which is being laundered), and the sentence is in the ergative form (after the form of its subject – Бзылъфыгъэм) with a transitive verb (егыкӏы). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>бзылъхугъэм</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>бзылъхугъ-эм</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>bzəɬxʷəʁam</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the woman.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">джанэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">джанэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡ʒaːnar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the shirt.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">егыкӏы</p><p style="margin: 0px;">егыкӏы</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaɣət͡ʃʼə]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he laundries it</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>бзылъхугъэм</b> джанэр егыкӏы</p><p style="display: none;"><b>бзылъхугъ-эм</b> джанэ-р егыкӏы</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>bzəɬxʷəʁam</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡ʒaːnar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaɣət͡ʃʼə]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>the woman.ERG</b>} {the shirt.ABS} {(s)he laundries it}</p><p style="clear: left;">"the woman laundries <b>the shirt</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ergative_case">Ergative case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ergative case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Has the suffix -м <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-m/</span> (e.g. щӏалэм <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam]</span> 'the boy's', щӏалэхэм <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮaxam]</span> 'the boys'', щым <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃəm]</span> 'the horse's). This case has two roles: Ergative role and Oblique role. </p> <ul><li>The Ergative role functions as subject in conjunction with transitive verbs.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>лӏым</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>лӏы-м</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>ɬʼəm</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the man.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мафӏэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">мафӏэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːfʼar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the fire.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">егъэункIыфI</p><p style="margin: 0px;">∅-и-о-гъэункIыфI</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaʁawəntʃʼəfʼ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he extinguishes it</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>лӏым</b> мафӏэр егъэункIыфI</p><p style="display: none;"><b>лӏы-м</b> мафӏэ-р ∅-и-о-гъэункIыфI</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>ɬʼəm</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːfʼar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaʁawəntʃʼəfʼ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>the man.ERG</b>} {the fire.ABS} {(s)he extinguishes it}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>the man</b> extinguishes the fire"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>The Oblique role functions as indirect object with both transitive and intransitive verbs.</li></ul> <p>An example with an intransitive verb йоджэ "reads" and indirect object тхылъым "book". </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>тхылъым</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>тхылъ-ым</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>txəɬəm</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the book.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="oblique case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBL</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">йоджэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">∅-∅+e-о-джэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jawd͡ʒa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he reads</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэр <b>тхылъым</b> йоджэ</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-р <b>тхылъ-ым</b> ∅-∅+e-о-джэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>txəɬəm</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jawd͡ʒa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{the boy.ABS} {<b>the book.OBL</b>} {(s)he reads}</p><p style="clear: left;">"the boy reads <b>the book</b>" <br /> <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "the boy is involved in reading <b>the book</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>An example with an transitive verb ирет "gives" and indirect object пщащэм "girl". </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыӏэрысэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">мыӏэрысэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">məʔarəsər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the apple.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>пщащэм</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>пщащэм</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>pɕaːɕam</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the girl.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="oblique case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBL</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ирет</p><p style="margin: 0px;">∅-и-∅+е-о-т</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jərajt]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he gives it to</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэм мыӏэрысэр <b>пщащэм</b> ирет</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-м мыӏэрысэ-р <b>пщащэм</b> ∅-и-∅+е-о-т</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">məʔarəsər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>pɕaːɕam</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jərajt]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{the boy.ERG} {the apple.ABS} {<b>the girl.OBL</b>} {(s)he gives it to}</p><p style="clear: left;">"the boy gives the apple to <b>the girl</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The Ergative-Oblique case can also be used as an adverbial modifier. For example: </p> <ul><li>Студентхэм махуэм ӏуэху ящӏащ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">stəwdajntxam maːxʷam ʔʷaxʷ jaːɕʼaɕ</i></span>): "The students have worked during the day" (махуэм – adverbial modifier of time).</li> <li>Щӏалэхэр мэзым кӏуахэщ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ɕʼaːɮaxar mazəm kʷʼaːxaɕ</i></span>): "The boys went to the forest" (мэзым – adverbial modifier of place).</li></ul> <p>The Ergative-Oblique case is used in possessive constructions. For example: </p> <ul><li>лIым и унэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ɬʼəm jə wəna</i></span>): the man's house, house of the man</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Instrumental-Directional_Case">Instrumental-Directional Case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Instrumental-Directional Case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indefinite nouns are marked by the affix -кӏэ : тхылъ-кӏэ, "by/with book", ӏэ-кӏэ "by/with hand". definite nouns express this case using the ergative affix -м in conjunction with the affix -кӏэ: уадэ-м-кӏэ "by/with the hammer", тхылъ-м-кӏэ "by/with the book". </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">сэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>къэрэндащкӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>къэрэндащ-кӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>qarandaːɕt͡ʃʼa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>pencil.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сотхэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">сотхэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sawtxa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I write</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэ <b>къэрэндащкӏэ</b> сотхэ</p><p style="display: none;">сэ <b>къэрэндащ-кӏэ</b> сотхэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>qarandaːɕt͡ʃʼa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sawtxa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">I <b>pencil.INS</b> {I write}</p><p style="clear: left;">"I write <b>using a pencil</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>адыгэбзэкӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>адыгэбзэ-кӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>aːdəɣabzat͡ʃʼa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>using Circassian language.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мэпсалъэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">мэпсалъэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">mapsaːɬa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is speaking</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэр <b>адыгэбзэкӏэ</b> мэпсалъэ</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-р <b>адыгэбзэ-кӏэ</b> мэпсалъэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>aːdəɣabzat͡ʃʼa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">mapsaːɬa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy.ABS {<b>using Circassian language.INS</b>} {(s)he is speaking}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy is speaking <b>(using) Circassian language</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The Instrumental case can also mark the direction of action: </p> <ul><li><ul><li>гъуэгу /ʁʷaɡʷ/ road → гъуэгумкӏэ /ʁʷaɡʷəmt͡ʃʼa/ from the road (direction).</li> <li>унэ /wəna/ house → унэмкӏэ /wənamt͡ʃʼa/ from the house.</li> <li>хы /xə/ sea → хымкӏэ /xəmt͡ʃʼa/ from the sea (direction).</li></ul></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">дэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[da</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">we</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>къуажэмкӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>къуажэ-мкӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>qʷaːʒamt͡ʃʼa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">village.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">докӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">докӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dawkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">we go</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэ <b>къуажэмкӏэ</b> докӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;">дэ <b>къуажэ-мкӏэ</b> докӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[da</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>qʷaːʒamt͡ʃʼa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dawkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">we village.INS {we go}</p><p style="clear: left;">"we are going <b>in the direction of the village</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Том,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Том,</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tom</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">Tom (name)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">нобэди</p><p style="margin: 0px;">нобэди</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nawbadi</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">еджапӏэмкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">еджапӏэ-мкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jad͡ʒaːpʼamt͡ʃʼa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">school.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ныщӏыхьэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ныщӏыхьэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nəɕʼəħa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">stop by</p></div><p style="display: none;">Том, нобэди еджапӏэмкӏэ ныщӏыхьэ</p><p style="display: none;">Том, нобэди еджапӏэ-мкӏэ ныщӏыхьэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tom</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nawbadi</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jad͡ʒaːpʼamt͡ʃʼa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nəɕʼəħa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{Tom (name)} today school.INS {stop by}</p><p style="clear: left;">"Tom, come to our <b>school</b> today"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adverbial_case">Adverbial case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Adverbial case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Has the suffix -уэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wa/</span>, or -у <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əw/</span> (e.g. щӏалу <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮəw]</span> 'boy'). The adverbial case usually expresses a transition into something, or definition (clarification, which often works like the English words -which, -who, -that... ) of a name. It points to the real (literal, not grammatical) subject in the sentence. For example: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">лӏыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">лӏыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʼər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">man.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>профессорэу</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>профессор-эу</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>profesoraw</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>professor.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="adverb(ial)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ADV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">хъуащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">хъу-ащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">χʷaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he became</p></div><p style="display: none;">лӏыр <b>профессорэу</b> хъуащ</p><p style="display: none;">лӏыр <b>профессор-эу</b> хъу-ащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʼər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>profesoraw</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">χʷaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">man.ABS <b>professor.ADV</b> {(s)he became}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man became <b>a professor</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>лӏыжьу</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>лӏыжъ-у</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>ɬʼəʑəw</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">old man.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="adverb(ial)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ADV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щысар</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щыс-а-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕəsaːr</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the one that sit</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">кӏуэжащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">кӏуэ-ж-ащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʷʼaʒaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he returned</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>лӏыжьу</b> щысар кӏуэжащ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>лӏыжъ-у</b> щыс-а-р кӏуэ-ж-ащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>ɬʼəʑəw</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕəsaːr</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʷʼaʒaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{old man.ADV} {the one that sit} {(s)he returned}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>The old man</b> who had sat there, left."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">лӏыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">лӏы-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʼər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">man.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>тхьэмаду</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>тхьэмад-у</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>tħamaːdəw</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>leader.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="adverb(ial)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ADV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дзэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">дзэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡zam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">army.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="oblique case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">къыхэкӏыжащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">къыхэкӏыжащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qəxat͡ʃʼəʒaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he returned</p></div><p style="display: none;">лӏыр <b>тхьэмаду</b> дзэм къыхэкӏыжащ</p><p style="display: none;">лӏы-р <b>тхьэмад-у</b> дзэ-м къыхэкӏыжащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʼər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>tħamaːdəw</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡zam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qəxat͡ʃʼəʒaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">man.ABS <b>leader.ADV</b> army.OBL {(s)he returned}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man has returned from the army <b>as an officer</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pro-drop">Pro-drop</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pro-drop"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kabardian is a <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_language" title="Pro-drop language">pro-drop language</a>. The subject and the object pronouns are sometimes omitted when verb conjugations reflect <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>. </p> <ul><li>Both subject and object are mentioned :</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">пщащэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">пщащэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɕaːɕar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the girl.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">елъэгъу</p><p style="margin: 0px;">елъэгъу</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaɬaʁʷə]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is seeing</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэм пщащэр елъэгъу</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-м пщащэ-р елъэгъу</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɕaːɕar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaɬaʁʷə]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{the boy.ERG} {the girl.ABS} {(s)he is seeing}</p><p style="clear: left;">"the boy is seeing the girl"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>If the direct object is not mentioned :</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>щӏалэм</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>щӏалэ-м</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>ɕʼaːɮam</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">елъэгъу</p><p style="margin: 0px;">елъэгъу</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaɬaʁʷə]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is seeing</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>щӏалэм</b> елъэгъу</p><p style="display: none;"><b>щӏалэ-м</b> елъэгъу</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>ɕʼaːɮam</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaɬaʁʷə]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>the boy.ERG</b>} {(s)he is seeing}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>the boy</b> is seeing him/her/it"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>If the subject is not mentioned :</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>пщащэр</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>пщащэ-р</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>pɕaːɕar</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the girl.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">елъэгъу</p><p style="margin: 0px;">елъэгъу</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaɬaʁʷə]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is seeing</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>пщащэр</b> елъэгъу</p><p style="display: none;"><b>пщащэ-р</b> елъэгъу</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>pɕaːɕar</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaɬaʁʷə]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>the girl.ABS</b>} {(s)he is seeing}</p><p style="clear: left;">"(s)he is seeing <b>the girl</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>If both subject and object are not mentioned :</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>елъэгъу</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>елъэгъу</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaɬaʁʷə]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is seeing</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>елъэгъу</b></p><p style="display: none;"><b>елъэгъу</b></p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaɬaʁʷə]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{(s)he is seeing}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>(s)he is seeing him/her/it</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noun_and_adjective">Noun and adjective</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Noun and adjective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Kabardian, if a noun is accompanied by an adjective, the adjective is always placed right after the noun and also gets the grammatical role suffixes instead of the noun. </p> <ul><li>Absolutive case</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">пщэщэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕaɕa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>дахэр</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>daːxar</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the pretty.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">макӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is going</p></div><p style="display: none;">пщэщэ <b>дахэр</b> макӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕaɕa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>daːxar</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">girl {<b>the pretty.ABS</b>} {(s)he is going}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>the pretty</b> girl is going"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>Ergative case</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>кӏыхьэм</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>t͡ʃʼəħam</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the long.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ешхы</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaʃxə</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">he is eating a/the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыӏэрысэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">məʔarəsa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the apple.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ <b>кӏыхьэм</b> ешхы мыӏэрысэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>t͡ʃʼəħam</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaʃxə</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">məʔarəsa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy {<b>the long.ERG</b>} {he is eating a/the} {the apple.ABS}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>the long</b> boy is eating the apple"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>Instrumental case</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">къэрэндащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[qarandaːɕ</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">pencil</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>папцӏэмкӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>papt͡sʼamt͡ʃʼa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">sharp.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сотхэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sawtxa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I am writing</p></div><p style="display: none;">къэрэндащ <b>папцӏэмкӏэ</b> сотхэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[qarandaːɕ</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>papt͡sʼamt͡ʃʼa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sawtxa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">pencil sharp.INS {I am writing}</p><p style="clear: left;">"I am writing <b>with (using) the sharp</b> pencil"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participle"><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Kabardian someone (person) or something (animal, plant, object) that does a specific verb (or something happened to him/it) can be represented with the verb word with the additional suffix -э (a) (for present tense -рэ (-ra)). For example: </p> <ul><li>макӏуэ /maːkʷ'a/ – he is going → кӏуэр /kʷʼar/ – (one), who is going</li> <li>машхэхэ /maːʃxaxa/ – they are eating → шхэхэр /ʃxaxar/ – (ones), who are eating.</li> <li>лэжьащ /ɮaʑaːɕ/ – he worked → лэжьар /ɮaʑaːr/ – (one), who worked.</li> <li>лӏэнущ /ɬʼanəwɕ/ – he will die → лӏэнур /ɬʼanəwr/ – (one), who will die.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>кӏуэр</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>кӏуэ-р</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷʼar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the person that is going.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">си</p><p style="margin: 0px;">си</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">səj</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">my</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">къуэш</p><p style="margin: 0px;">къуэш</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qʷaʃ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">brother</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>кӏуэр</b> си къуэш</p><p style="display: none;"><b>кӏуэ-р</b> си къуэш</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷʼar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">səj</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qʷaʃ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{the person that is going.ABS} {my} {brother}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>the person that is going</b> is my brother"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creating_nouns_from_adjective">Creating nouns from adjective</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Creating nouns from adjective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Kabardian someone (person) or something (animal, plant, object) that have a specific adjective can be presented with the adjective word with the additional noun case suffix (absolutive, ergative, etc.) For example: </p> <ul><li>дахэ /daːxa/ – pretty → дахэр /daːxar/ – the pretty person (absolutive case).</li> <li>ӏэфӏ /ʔafʼə/ – tasty → ӏэфӏэр /ʔafʼar / – the tasty ones (absolutive case).</li> <li>щӏыӏэ /ɕʼəʔa/ – cold → щӏыӏэм /ɕʼəʔam/ – in the cold (ergative case).</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>хуабэм</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>хуабэ-м</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>xʷaːbam</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the heat.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">хэт</p><p style="margin: 0px;">хэт</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xat]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is standing in</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэр <b>хуабэм</b> хэт</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-р <b>хуабэ-м</b> хэт</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>xʷaːbam</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xat]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{the boy.ABS} {<b>the heat.ERG</b>} {(s)he is standing in}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy is standing <b>in the heat</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possessive">Possessive</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Possessive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Possessive cases are one of the most important grammatical characteristics of nouns in the Circassian language. Singular Circassian nouns of the proprietary form are expressed by the following prefixes: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronoun </th> <th>Prefix </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>First person </td> <td>си- </td> <td>си-тхы́лъ "my book"; </td></tr> <tr> <td>Second person </td> <td>уи- </td> <td>уи-тхы́лъ "your book"; </td></tr> <tr> <td>Third person </td> <td>и- </td> <td>и-тхы́лъ "his book". </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Plural nouns have these prefixes: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronoun </th> <th>Prefix </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>First person </td> <td>ди- </td> <td>д-у́н "our home". </td></tr> <tr> <td>Second person </td> <td>фи- </td> <td>фи-у́н "your home". </td></tr> <tr> <td>Third person </td> <td>я- </td> <td>я-у́н "their home". </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demonstratives">Demonstratives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Demonstratives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kabardian has three demonstratives: а /ʔaː/, мо /mo/ and мы /mə/. </p><p>а /ʔaː/ </p> <ol><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/that" class="extiw" title="wikt:that">that</a> <dl><dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>а</b> ӏанэ</span></span> — <b>that</b> table</dd> <dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>а</b> пщащэ</span></span> — <b>that</b> girl</dd> <dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>а</b> щӏалэм жыӏэ</span></span> — <b>that</b> boy is saying</dd></dl></li></ol> <ul><li>The determiner <span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady">'а'</span></span> /ʔaː/ refer to a referent that is far away and invisible to both the speaker and the listener(s). It is similar to the English language determiner <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/this" class="extiw" title="wikt:this">that</a>, but with the condition that the referent has to be invisible or far away.</li></ul> <p>мо /maw/ </p> <ol><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/that" class="extiw" title="wikt:that">that</a> <dl><dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>мо</b> ӏанэ</span></span> — <b>that</b> table</dd> <dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>мо</b> пщащэ</span></span> — <b>that</b> girl</dd> <dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>мо</b> щӏалэм жыӏэ</span></span> — <b>that</b> boy is saying</dd></dl></li></ol> <ul><li>The determiner <span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady">'мо'</span></span> refer to a referent that is visible and in a known distance from both the speaker and the listener(s) (both the speaker and the listener(s) can see the referent). It is similar to the English language determiner <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/this" class="extiw" title="wikt:this">that</a>, but with the condition that the referent has to be visible.</li></ul> <p>мы /mə/ </p> <ol><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/this" class="extiw" title="wikt:this">this</a> <dl><dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>мы</b> ӏанэ</span></span> — <b>this</b> table</dd> <dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>мы</b> пщащэ</span></span> — <b>this</b> girl</dd> <dd><span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady"><b>мы</b> щӏалэм жыӏэ</span></span> — <b>this</b> boy is saying</dd></dl></li></ol> <ul><li>The determiner <span title="Adyghe-language text"><span lang="ady">'мы'</span></span> refer to a referent that is close to both the speaker and the listener(s). It is exactly like the English language determiner <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/this" class="extiw" title="wikt:this">this</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conjugation"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Conjugation</a></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Conjugation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The demonstratives can be used to express different things like: </p> <dl><dd>Location: адэ "there", модэ "there", мыдэ "here".</dd> <dd>Similarity: апхуэд "like that", мопхуэд "like", мыпхуэд "like this".</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_pronouns">Personal pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Kabardian, only the first and second person, singular and plural, pronouns have dedicated words. Effectively speaking in terms of usage, <i>а</i> is the third person pronoun, however that is a demonstrative (for more details see <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Demonstrative_Pronouns">here</a>). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">1st-person </th> <th colspan="2">2nd-person </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Absolutive </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sa</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэ</p><p style="display: none;">sa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">da</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэ</p><p style="display: none;">da</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wa</p></div><p style="display: none;">уэ</p><p style="display: none;">wa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fa</p></div><p style="display: none;">фэ</p><p style="display: none;">fa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ergative </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sa</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэ</p><p style="display: none;">sa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">da</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэ</p><p style="display: none;">da</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wa</p></div><p style="display: none;">уэ</p><p style="display: none;">wa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fa</p></div><p style="display: none;">фэ</p><p style="display: none;">fa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэркӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sart͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэркӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">sart͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэркӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dart͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэркӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">dart͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэркӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wart͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">уэркӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">wart͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фэркӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fart͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">фэркӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">fart͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Adverbial </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэру</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sarəw</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэру</p><p style="display: none;">sarəw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэру</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">darəw</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэру</p><p style="display: none;">darəw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэру</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">warəw</p></div><p style="display: none;">уэру</p><p style="display: none;">warəw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фэру</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">farəw</p></div><p style="display: none;">фэру</p><p style="display: none;">farəw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>сэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>сэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>sa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>I</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">тхылъым</p><p style="margin: 0px;">тхылъы-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">txəɬəm</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the book.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">седжащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">се-дж-ащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sajd͡ʒaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he read</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>сэ</b> тхылъым седжащ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>сэ</b> тхылъы-м се-дж-ащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>sa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">txəɬəm</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sajd͡ʒaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;"><b>I</b> {the book.ERG} {(s)he read}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>I</b> read the book"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>дэркӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>дэр-кӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>dart͡ʃʼa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>For us.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мы</p><p style="margin: 0px;">мы</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">mə</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">шхыныр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">шхыны-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃxənər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the food.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">лъапӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">лъапӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɬaːpʼa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">expensive</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>дэркӏэ</b> мы шхыныр лъапӏэ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>дэр-кӏэ</b> мы шхыны-р лъапӏэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>dart͡ʃʼa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">mə</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃxənər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɬaːpʼa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>For us.INS</b>} this {the food.ABS} expensive</p><p style="clear: left;">"This food is expensive <b>for us</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demonstrative_Pronouns">Demonstrative Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Demonstrative Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Demonstrative pronouns are мы "this", мо "that", а "that". There is a contradistinction between 'мы' and 'мо' on how far the referred object is. The pronoun 'а' is neutral on this matter. Third person pronouns are expressed as demonstrative pronouns. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="3">Demonstratives </th></tr> <tr> <th>а </th> <th>мо </th> <th>мы </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">Singular </th> <th>Absolutive </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ар</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aːr</p></div><p style="display: none;">ар</p><p style="display: none;">aːr</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мор</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mor</p></div><p style="display: none;">мор</p><p style="display: none;">mor</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mər</p></div><p style="display: none;">мыр</p><p style="display: none;">mər</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ergative </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">абы</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aːbə</p></div><p style="display: none;">абы</p><p style="display: none;">aːbə</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мобы</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mobə</p></div><p style="display: none;">мобы</p><p style="display: none;">mobə</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыбы</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">məbə</p></div><p style="display: none;">мыбы</p><p style="display: none;">məbə</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">абыкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aːbət͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">абыкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">aːbət͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мобыкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mobət͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">мобыкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">mobət͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыбыкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">məbət͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">мыбыкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">məbət͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Adverbial </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">арэу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aːraw</p></div><p style="display: none;">арэу</p><p style="display: none;">aːraw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">морэу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">moraw</p></div><p style="display: none;">морэу</p><p style="display: none;">moraw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мырэу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">məraw</p></div><p style="display: none;">мырэу</p><p style="display: none;">məraw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">Plural </th> <th>Absolutive </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ахэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aːxar</p></div><p style="display: none;">ахэр</p><p style="display: none;">aːxar</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мохэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">moxar</p></div><p style="display: none;">мохэр</p><p style="display: none;">moxar</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыхэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">məxar</p></div><p style="display: none;">мыхэр</p><p style="display: none;">məxar</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ergative </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">абыхэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aːbəxam</p></div><p style="display: none;">абыхэм</p><p style="display: none;">aːbəxam</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мобыхэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mobəxam</p></div><p style="display: none;">мобыхэм</p><p style="display: none;">mobəxam</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыбыхэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">məbəxam</p></div><p style="display: none;">мыбыхэм</p><p style="display: none;">məbəxam</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">абыхэмкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aːbəxamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">абыхэмкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">aːbəxamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мобыхэмкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mobəxamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">мобыхэмкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">mobəxamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыбыхэмкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">məbəxamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">мыбыхэмкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">məbəxamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Adverbial </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ахэрэу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aːxaraw</p></div><p style="display: none;">ахэрэу</p><p style="display: none;">aːxaraw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мохэрэу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">moxaraw</p></div><p style="display: none;">мохэрэу</p><p style="display: none;">moxaraw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыхэрэу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">məxaraw</p></div><p style="display: none;">мыхэрэу</p><p style="display: none;">məxaraw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>мыбы</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>мыбы</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>məbə</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>This.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏакхъуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏакхъуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕʼaːqχʷa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">a bread</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">йошхы</p><p style="margin: 0px;">йо-шхы</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jawʃx]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he eats</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>мыбы</b> щӏакхъуэ йошхы</p><p style="display: none;"><b>мыбы</b> щӏакхъуэ йо-шхы</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>məbə</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕʼaːqχʷa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jawʃx]</span></p><p style="display: none;"><b>This.ERG</b> {a bread} {(s)he eats}</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>This person/animal</b> eats bread"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>мыбыкӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>мыбы0кӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>məbət͡ʼa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>This way.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ0р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕʼaːɮar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">къакӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">къа-кӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qaːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he is coming</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>мыбыкӏэ</b> щӏалэр къакӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>мыбы0кӏэ</b> щӏалэ0р къа-кӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>məbət͡ʼa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕʼaːɮar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qaːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>This way.INS</b>} {the boy.ABS} {(s)he is coming}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy is coming <b>from this way</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possessive_Pronouns">Possessive Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Possessive Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Plurality </th> <th rowspan="2">Person </th> <th colspan="2">Prefix </th> <th rowspan="2">meaning </th> <th rowspan="2">example </th></tr> <tr> <th>Cyrillic </th> <th>IPA </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Singular </th> <td><b>1st person</b> </td> <td>си- </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/səj-/</span> </td> <td>"my" </td> <td>сиунэ /səjwəna/ – my house; ситхылъ /səjtxəɬ/ – my book </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>2nd person</b> </td> <td>уи- </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wəj-/</span> </td> <td>"your" </td> <td>уиунэ /wəjwəna/ – your house; уитхылъ /wəjtxəɬ/ – your book </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>3rd person</b> </td> <td>и- </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/jə-/</span> </td> <td>"his" </td> <td>иунэ /jəwəna/ – his house; итхылъ /jətxəɬ/ – his book </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Plural </th> <td><b>1st person</b> </td> <td>ди- </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dəj-/</span> </td> <td>"our" </td> <td>диунэ /dəjwəna/ – our house; дитхылъ /dəjtxəɬ/ – our book </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>2nd person</b> </td> <td>фи- </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fəj-/</span> </td> <td>"your" </td> <td>фиунэ /fəjwəna/ – your house; фитхылъ /fəjtxəɬ/ – your book </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>3rd person</b> </td> <td>я- </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/jaː-/</span> </td> <td>"their" </td> <td>яунэ /jaːwəna/ – their house; ятхылъ /jaːtxəɬ/ – their book </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>си</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>си</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>səj</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>my</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">унэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">унэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">wəna</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фыкъакӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">фы-къа-кӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fəqaːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">come.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>си</b> унэ фыкъакӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>си</b> унэ фы-къа-кӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>səj</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">wəna</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fəqaːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="display: none;"><b>my</b> house come.PL</p><p style="clear: left;">"Come to <b>my</b> house"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>ди</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>ди</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>dəj</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>Our</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">машинэкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">машинэ-кӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːʃinat͡ʃʼa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">using the car.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">къалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">къалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the city.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">докӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">до-кӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dawkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">we are going</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>ди</b> машинэкӏэ къалэм докӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>ди</b> машинэ-кӏэ къалэм до-кӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>dəj</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːʃinat͡ʃʼa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dawkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="display: none;"><b>Our</b> {using the car.INS} {the city.ERG} {we are going}</p><p style="clear: left;">"we are going to the city with <b>our</b> car"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">1st-person </th> <th colspan="2">2nd-person </th> <th colspan="2">3rd-person </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Absolutive </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэсий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sasəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэсий</p><p style="display: none;">sasəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэдий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dadəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэдий</p><p style="display: none;">dadəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэуий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wawəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">уэуий</p><p style="display: none;">wawəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фэфий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fafəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">фэфий</p><p style="display: none;">fafəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">jəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">ий</p><p style="display: none;">jəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">яй</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">jaːj</p></div><p style="display: none;">яй</p><p style="display: none;">jaːj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ergative </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэсый</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sasəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэсый</p><p style="display: none;">sasəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэдий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dadəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэдий</p><p style="display: none;">dadəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэуий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wawəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">уэуий</p><p style="display: none;">wawəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фэфий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fafəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">фэфий</p><p style="display: none;">fafəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ий</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">jəj</p></div><p style="display: none;">ий</p><p style="display: none;">jəj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">яй</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">jaːj</p></div><p style="display: none;">яй</p><p style="display: none;">jaːj</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэсиемкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sasəjamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэсиемкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">sasəjamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэдиемкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tatəjamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэдиемкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">tatəjamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэуиемкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wawəjamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">уэуиемкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">wawəjamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фэфиемкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʃʷaʃʷəjamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">фэфиемкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">ʃʷaʃʷəjamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">иемкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">jəjamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">иемкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">jəjamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">яемкӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">jaːjamt͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">яемкӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">jaːjamt͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Adverbial </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэсийу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sasəjaw</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэсийу</p><p style="display: none;">sasəjaw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэдийу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dadəjaw</p></div><p style="display: none;">дэдийу</p><p style="display: none;">dadəjaw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэуийу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wawəjaw</p></div><p style="display: none;">уэуийу</p><p style="display: none;">wawəjaw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">фэфийу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fafəjaw</p></div><p style="display: none;">фэфийу</p><p style="display: none;">fafəjaw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">иеу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">jəjaw</p></div><p style="display: none;">иеу</p><p style="display: none;">jəjaw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">яеу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">jaːjaw</p></div><p style="display: none;">яеу</p><p style="display: none;">jaːjaw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indefinite_pronoun">Indefinite pronoun</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Indefinite pronoun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Kabardian whole one – зыгоруэ, Serves for indication of all notions corresponding to English words "someone", "something", "someone", "something", "sometime", "somewhere", etc. Зыгуэрэ changes either as noun – in number and in cases: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular form </th> <th>Plural form </th></tr> <tr> <th>Absolutive </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">зыгуэрэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zəɡʷara</p></div><p style="display: none;">зыгуэрэ</p><p style="display: none;">zəɡʷara</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">зыгуэрэхэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zəɡʷaraxar</p></div><p style="display: none;">зыгуэрэхэр</p><p style="display: none;">zəɡʷaraxar</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ergative </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">зыгуэрэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zəɡʷaram</p></div><p style="display: none;">зыгуэрэм</p><p style="display: none;">zəɡʷaram</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">зыгорэхэмэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zəɡʷaraxama</p></div><p style="display: none;">зыгорэхэмэ</p><p style="display: none;">zəɡʷaraxama</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">зыгуэрэ(м)кӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zəɡʷara(m)t͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">зыгуэрэ(м)кӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">zəɡʷara(m)t͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">зыгуэрэхэ(м)кӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zəɡʷaraxa(m)t͡ʃʼa</p></div><p style="display: none;">зыгуэрэхэ(м)кӏэ</p><p style="display: none;">zəɡʷaraxa(m)t͡ʃʼa</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Adverbial </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">зыгуэрэу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zəɡʷaraw</p></div><p style="display: none;">зыгуэрэу</p><p style="display: none;">zəɡʷaraw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">зыгуэрэхэу</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zəɡʷaraxaw</p></div><p style="display: none;">зыгуэрэхэу</p><p style="display: none;">zəɡʷaraxaw</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kabardian_verbs" title="Kabardian verbs">Kabardian verbs</a></div> <p>In Kabardian, like all <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian languages</a>, the verb is the most inflected part of speech. Verbs are typically <a href="/wiki/Head_final" class="mw-redirect" title="Head final">head final</a> and are conjugated for tense, person, number, etc. Some of Circassian verbs can be morphologically simple, some of them consist only of one morpheme, like: кӏуэ "go", щтэ "take". However, generally, Circassian verbs are characterized as structurally and semantically difficult entities. Morphological structure of a Circassian verb includes affixes (prefixes, suffixes) which are specific to the language. Verbs' affixes express meaning of subject, direct or indirect object, adverbial, singular or plural form, negative form, mood, direction, mutuality, compatibility and reflexivity, which, as a result, creates a complex verb, that consists of many morphemes and semantically expresses a sentence. For example: укъазогъэпсэлъэж "I am forcing you to talk to them again" consists of the following morphemes: у-къы-я-с-о-гъэ-псэлъэ-ж, with the following meanings: "you (у) from there (къы) to them (я) I (с) am (о) forcing (гъэ) speak (псэлъэ) again (ж)". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitivity">Transitivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Transitivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs in Kabardian can be <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitive verbs">transitive</a> (<b>лъэIэс</b>) or <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Intransitive verbs">intransitive</a> (<b>лъэмыIэс</b>). The main difference is that a base intransitive verb governs only over 1 argument, the subject in the absolutive/nominative case (<b>-р</b>), while a base transitive verb governs over 2 arguments, the subject in the ergative case (<b>-м</b>) and the direct object in the absolutive/nominative case (<b>-р</b>). </p><p>Below the intransitive verb <i>плъэн</i> "to look" and transitive verb <i>лъагъун</i> "to see Y" are used to demonstrate that. With <i>лIы</i> "man" and <i>жыг</i> "tree". </p> <ul><li>лIыр плъэнщ: the man will look</li> <li>лIым жыгыр илъэгъунщ: the man will see the tree</li></ul> <p>One major difference between the two is that transitive verbs mark a third person subject while intransitives don't mark it. The simply reason is that the absolutive third person is a null-morpheme (∅-), while the ergative has dedicated morphemes for singular and plural (и- <i>jə-</i> and я- <i>jaː-</i>). </p><p>Below are a few further example sentences with intransitive verbs: </p> <ul><li>Жэмахъуэр щытщ "The shepherd is standing (there)";</li> <li>Пэсакӏуэр макӏуэ "The security guard is going";</li> <li>Лӏыр мэжей "The man is sleeping".</li></ul> <p>Below are a few further example sentences with transitive verbs: </p> <ul><li>Щӏалэм письмор етх "The boy is writing the letter";</li> <li>Пхъащӏэм уадэр къищтащ "The carpenter took out the hammer";</li> <li>Хьэм тхьэкIумэкӏыхьыр къиубыдащ "The dog has caught the hares".</li></ul> <p>There are also ambitransitive verbs (can be used as intransitive and transitive without (almost) any morphological change). Most of these are agentive, with only some being patientive. For example: </p> <ul><li>тракторыр мавэ: "the tractor plows"</li> <li>тракторым щӀыр евэ: "the tractor plows the land"</li> <li>абджыр мэкъутэ "The glass is broken",</li> <li>щӏалэм абджыр екъутэ "The boy is breaking the glass".</li></ul> <p>Through valency increasing operations, both intransitive and transitive verbs can get one or more indirect objects. One frequent way is to use preverbs, for example the generic preverb е- "to/at". Thus intransitive verbs can also govern over 2 arguments only that the cases are switched (since the subject is in the absolutive and the indirect object in the ergative (oblique). For example: </p> <ul><li>Щӏалэр пщащэм еплъащ "The boy looked at the girl",</li> <li>щIалэм мыIэрысэр пщащэм иритащ "the boy gave the apple to the girl"</li> <li>Лӏыр жыгым щӏэлъщ "The man lies under the tree".</li> <li>Щӏалэр тхылъым йоджэ "The boy reads the book".</li></ul> <p>Intransitive verbs can be turned into transitive with the causative affix -гъэ- (meaning "to force, to make"). For example: </p> <ul><li>Ар мажэ "He is running", but Абы ар е-гъа-жэ "He forces him to run",</li> <li>Ар матхэ "He is writing", but Абы ар е-гъа-тхэ "He makes him write".</li></ul> <p>The verbs in the first sentences мажэ "is running", матхэ "is writing" are intransitive, and the verbs in the second sentences егъажэ "forces ... to run", егъатхэ "makes ... to write" are already transitive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Person_Markers">Person Markers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Person Markers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The differentiation of person markers depends upon the parameters of person, number, and case. Interestingly, the first and second person markers bear a close resemblance to their respective pronouns. </p><p>Presented below are the foundational markers which are subject to change contingent upon their surrounding environment. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Absolutive </th> <th>Ergative </th> <th>Oblique </th></tr> <tr> <td>1S</td> <td>сы-</td> <td>с-</td> <td>с- </td></tr> <tr> <td>2S</td> <td>у(ы)-</td> <td>у-/б-</td> <td>у-/б- </td></tr> <tr> <td>3S</td> <td>∅-</td> <td>и-</td> <td>∅- </td></tr> <tr> <td>1P</td> <td>ды-</td> <td>д-</td> <td>д- </td></tr> <tr> <td>2P</td> <td>фы-</td> <td>ф-</td> <td>ф- </td></tr> <tr> <td>3P</td> <td>∅- (-хэ)</td> <td>я-</td> <td>я- </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A cursory glance reveals that the markers undergo minimal transformations across the cases. The principal modification between absolutive and ergative markers is the -ы suffixed to the absolutive markers, and the inclusion of markers for the third person in the ergative case. </p><p>The second person singular marker warrants special attention. The true base form of the ergative is /w/, however because of the writing system, this doesn't get distinguished from the absolutive marker /wə/, as both are written with the letter <у>. In addition, in most places /w/ gets hardened, so that it might appear that б or п are the base forms. </p><p>Depending on the environment, the person markers change their phonological appearance. </p><p>The person marker gets the voicedness of the following consonant, i.e. voiceless, voiced or ejective, however, orthographically ejectivity is simply treated as voiceless. </p> <ul><li><b>п</b>тхащ "you wrote it" from ∅-<b>у</b>-тхы-ащ</li> <li><b>т</b>щIыну "we'll do it" from ∅-<b>д</b>-щIы-ну</li> <li><b>з</b>дзащ "I threw it" from ∅-<b>с</b>-дзы-ащ</li></ul> <p>Between vowels, the person markers get voiced. </p> <ul><li>у<b>з</b>олъэгъу "I see you" from у-<b>с</b>-о-лъэгъу</li> <li>къы<b>з</b>оплъ "X looks at me" from ∅-къы-<b>с</b>+е-о-плъ</li></ul> <p>In front of consonants, the second person singular ergative у- marker gets hardened to a labial plosive. Before vowels and intervocalically there is more variation. E.g.: </p> <ul><li>и<b>б</b>от "you give it to him" from ∅-∅+е-<b>у</b>-о-ты</li> <li>е<b>п</b>т-а-щ "you gave it to him" from ∅-∅+е-<b>у</b>-ты-а-щ</li> <li><b>б</b>ухащ "you started it" from ∅-<b>у</b>-ух-а-щ</li> <li>къы<b>у</b>итащ "he gave it to you" from ∅-<b>у</b>+е-и-ты-а-щ</li> <li>къ<b>о</b>плъ "he looks at you" from ∅-къы-<b>у</b>+е-плъы</li> <li><b>у</b>ухащ "you started it" from ∅-<b>у</b>-ух-а-щ</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_о-_Prefix"><span id="The_.D0.BE-_Prefix"></span>The о- Prefix</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The о- Prefix"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The о- prefix is a morpheme which can't be neatly categorized, as it spans over various categories be it tense, mood, dynamicity and polarization. It is only used in positive, dynamic, indicative, present tense verbs. </p><p>Originally, this morpheme was probably *уэ-, however transformed into о- in most phonological contexts. </p> <ul><li>с<b>о</b>шх "I'm eating it" from ∅-с-<b>о</b>-шхы but сшхащ "I ate it" from ∅-с-шхы-а-щ</li></ul> <p>Most notably it transformed into мэ- word initially. </p> <ul><li><b>мэ</b>лажьэ "he works" from ∅-<b>о</b>-лэжьэ but с<b>о</b>лажьэ "I eat" from сы-<b>о</b>-лэжьэ</li> <li><b>ма</b>шхэ "he eats" from ∅-<b>о</b>-шхэ but с<b>о</b>шхэ "I eat" from сы-<b>о</b>-шхэ</li></ul> <p>It and the ergative third person singular person marker и- combine into е-. </p> <ul><li><b>е</b>шх "he eats it" from ∅-и-<b>о</b>-шхы</li></ul> <p>While the ergative third person plural person marker я- eats it. </p> <ul><li><b>я</b>шх "they eat it" from ∅-я-<b>о</b>-шхы</li></ul> <p>It and the preverb е- combine into йо-. </p> <ul><li>й<b>о</b>плъ "he looks at it" from ∅-∅+е-о-плъы</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynamic_and_static_verbs">Dynamic and static verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Dynamic and static verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kabardian verbs can be either dynamic or static. </p><p>Dynamic verbs express (process of) actions that are taking place (natural role of verbs in English): </p> <dl><dd>Сэ сожэ: "I am running";</dd> <dd>Сэ сокӏуэ: "I am going",</dd> <dd>Сэ солъэгъу: "I am seeing it",</dd> <dd>Сэ жызоӏэ: "I am saying it".</dd></dl> <p>Static verbs express states or results of actions: </p> <dl><dd>Сэ сыщытщ: "I am standing",</dd> <dd>Сэ сыщылъщ: "I am lying.",</dd> <dd>Сэ сыпхъащӏщ: "I am a carpenter",</dd> <dd>Сэ сытрактористщ: "I am a tractor-driver".</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tenses">Tenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Tenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Tense </th> <th>Suffix </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">Present</a> </td> <td>~(р) /~(r)/ </td> <td>макӏуэ /maːkʷʼa/ </td> <td>(s)he is going; (s)he goes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">Preterite</a> </td> <td>~ащ /~aːɕ/ </td> <td>кӏуащ /kʷʼaːɕ/ </td> <td>(s)he went </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pluperfect" title="Pluperfect">Pluperfect</a> </td> <td>~гъащ /~ʁaːɕ/ </td> <td>кӏуэгъащ /kʷʼaʁaːɕ/ </td> <td>(s)he went a long time ago" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Categorical Future </td> <td>~нщ /~nɕ/ </td> <td>кӏуэнщ /kʷʼanɕ/ </td> <td>(s)he will go </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">Factual Future</a> </td> <td>~нущ /~nəwɕ/ </td> <td>кӏуэнущ /kʷʼanəwɕ/ </td> <td>(s)he will go, (s)he is about to go </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">Imperfect</a> </td> <td>~(р)т /~(r)t/ </td> <td>кӏуэ(р)т /kʷʼa(r)t/ </td> <td>(s)he was going </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anterior Perfect (Perfect II) </td> <td>~ат /~aːt/ </td> <td>кӏуат /kʷʼaːt/ </td> <td>(then) (s)he went </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anterior Pluperfect </td> <td>~гъат /~ʁaːt/ </td> <td>кӏуэгъат /kʷʼaʁaːt/ </td> <td>(then) (s)he went a long time ago" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future II Categorical </td> <td>~нт /~nt/ </td> <td>кӏуэнт /kʷʼant/ </td> <td>(s)he was about to go / (s)he would go </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future II Factual </td> <td>~нут /~nəwt/ </td> <td>кӏуэнут /kʷʼanəwt/ </td> <td>(s)he was about to go / (s)he would go </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Valency">Valency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Valency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">Verb valency</a> is the number of <a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">arguments</a> controlled by a verbal predicate. It is very close to the concept of transitivity, in the sense that base intransitive verbs are monovalent, while base transitive verbs are bivalent. </p><p>Most operations in Kabardian are valency increasing operations, in frequency as well as in amount of morphemes. Those operations usually affect the transitivity, or rather any operations which affects the transitivity (almost) always affects the valency. </p><p>Among the valency increasing operations is the causative prefix and the various preverbs. E.g.: </p> <ul><li>ар мажэ: he runs -> абы ар е<b>гъа</b>жэ: he makes him run</li> <li>ар матхэ: he writes -> абы ар е<b>гъа</b>тхэ: he makes him write</li></ul> <p>Among the valency decreasing operations is the reflexive person marker. E.g.: </p> <ul><li>абы уэ уехуапэ: he clothes you -> абы <b>з</b>ехуапэ: he dresses (lit. he clothes himself)</li> <li>хъыджэбзым хьэкъущыкъур итхьэщIащ: the girl washee the dishes -> хъыджэбзым <b>з</b>итхьэщIащ: the girl washee herself</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Valency_increasing">Valency increasing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Valency increasing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Prefix </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>Causative</td> <td>гъэ~ [ʁa~]</td> <td>"to force, to make"</td> <td>гъэ-плъэн [ʁapɬan] <br /> "to make him look at" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Comitative</td> <td>дэ~ [da~]</td> <td>"with"</td> <td>д-еплъын [dajpɬən] <br /> "to look with" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Benefactive</td> <td>хуэ~ [xʷa~]</td> <td>"for"</td> <td>ху-еплъын [xʷajpɬən] <br /> "to look for" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Malefactive</td> <td>фӏ~ [fʼa~]</td> <td>"against one's interest"</td> <td>фӏ-еплъын [fʼajpɬən] <br /> "to look against his interest" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Reflexive</td> <td>зэ~ [za~]</td> <td>"self"</td> <td>зэ-плъын [zapɬən] <br /> "to look at oneself" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moods">Moods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Moods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperative">Imperative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Imperative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The imperative mood denotes a command. </p><p>As its subject, the imperative mood can only have the second person as its subject. It is formed by stripping away all tense suffixes from the verb, with the specialty that the positive second-person singular form doesn't mark the subject. The negative is marked by мы-. </p><p><br /> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>meaning </th> <th>positive singular </th> <th>negative singular </th> <th>positive plural </th> <th>negative plural </th></tr> <tr> <td>кIуэн</td> <td>to go</td> <td>кIуэ</td> <td>умыкIуэ</td> <td>фыкIуэ</td> <td>фымыкIуэ </td></tr> <tr> <td>тхын</td> <td>to write Y</td> <td>тхы</td> <td>умытх</td> <td>фтхы</td> <td>фымытх </td></tr> <tr> <td>къэщтэн</td> <td>to take Y</td> <td>къэщтэ</td> <td>къыумыщтэ</td> <td>къэфщтэ</td> <td>къэвмыщтэ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conditional">Conditional</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Conditional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conditional mood is expressed with suffix -мэ: сы-кIуэ-мэ "if I go", сы-жэ-мэ "if I run", с-щIэ-мэ "if I do". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concessive">Concessive</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Concessive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Concessive mood is expressed with suffix -ми: сы-кIуэ-ми "even if I go", сы-жэ-ми "even if I run", с-щIэ-ми "even if I do". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Affirmative">Affirmative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Affirmative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Affirmative form is expressed with the affix -къэ: кӏуэ-къэ "isn't he is going?", гыщӏэ-къэ "isn't he washing?". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participle_2">Participle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kabardian has a rich participle morphology. </p><p>Usually, all arguments of a verb can be the pivot of participles. In addition, there are participles which may denote place, time, reason, manner, etc, which are independent from the arguments. </p><p>Other than not being able to change the grammatical category of mood, participle can mark for everything else what normal verbs can. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Absolutive_Participle">Absolutive Participle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Absolutive Participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The absolutive participle denotes the absolutive argument of a verb. If that verb is intransitive, it refers to the subject, if it is transitive it refers to the direct object. Absolutive participles are marked by a null morpheme. </p><p>Intransitive verbs: </p> <ul><li>кIуэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">kʷʼar</i></span>): one, who goes (cf. кIуэн (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">kʷʼan</i></span>): to go)</li> <li>жэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʒar</i></span>): one, who runs (cf. жэн (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʒan</i></span>): to run)</li></ul> <p>Intransitive verbs with preverbs: </p> <ul><li>ежьэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jaʑar</i></span>): one, who waits for Y (cf. ежьэн <span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jaʑan</i></span>): to wait for Y)</li> <li>еплъыр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">japɬər</i></span>): one, who looks at Y (cf. еплъын (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">japɬən</i></span>): to look at Y)</li></ul> <p>Transitive verbs: </p> <ul><li>илъэгъур (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jəɬaːʁʷər</i></span>): one, whom X sees (cf. лъагъун (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ɬaːʁʷən</i></span>): to see Y)</li> <li>ишэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jəʃar</i></span>): one, whom X leads (cf. шэн (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʃan</i></span>): to lead Y)</li></ul> <p>Transitive verbs with preverb: </p> <ul><li>зэхихыр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zaxəjxər</i></span>): one, whom X hears (cf. зэхэхын (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zaxaxən</i></span>): to hear Y)</li> <li>жыпIар (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʒəpʔaːr</i></span>): that, what you said (cf. жыIэн (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʒəʔan</i></span>): to say Y)</li> <li>иритыр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jərəjtər</i></span>): that, what X gives to Z (cf. етын (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jatən</i></span>): to give Y to Z)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ergative_Participle">Ergative Participle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Ergative Participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ergative participle denotes the ergative argument of a verb. This participle is only present in transitive verbs and refers to the subject. It is marked by зы-. </p><p>Transitive verbs: </p> <ul><li><b>зы</b>лъагъу (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>zə</b>ɬaːʁʷər</i></span>): one, who sees Y (cf. лъагъун (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ɬaːʁʷən</i></span>): to see Y)</li> <li><b>зы</b>шэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>zə</b>ʃar</i></span>): one, who leads Y (cf. шэн (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʃan</i></span>): to lead Y)</li></ul> <p>Transitive verbs with preverb: </p> <ul><li>жы<b>зы</b>Iар (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʒə<b>zə</b>ʔaːr</i></span>): one, who said Y (cf. жыIэн (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ʒəʔan</i></span>): to say Y)</li> <li>зэхэ<b>зы</b>хыр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zaxa<b>zə</b>xər</i></span>): one, who hears Y (cf. зэхэхын (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zaxaxən</i></span>): to hear Y)</li> <li>е<b>зы</b>тыр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ja<b>zə</b>tər</i></span>): one, who gives Y to Z (cf. етын (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jatən</i></span>): to give Y to Z)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oblique_Participle">Oblique Participle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Oblique Participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The oblique participle denotes the oblique argument of a verb. This participle is present in every verb which has an oblique argument, usually only possible by having a preverb. It is marked by зы-. One can argue that it is simply the ergative participle, but simply applied on a preverb, however it may be useful to differentiate them, because oblique participles don't denote the subject of a verb (the ergative participle can only denote the subject) in addition they exist for transitive and intransitive verbs (the ergative participle only exists for transitive verbs). </p><p>Intransitive verbs with preverbs: </p> <ul><li><b>з</b>эжьэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>z</b>aʑar</i></span>): one, whom X waits for (cf. ежьэн <span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jaʑan</i></span>): to wait for Y)</li> <li><b>з</b>эплъыр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>z</b>apɬər</i></span>): one, who X looks at (cf. еплъын (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">japɬən</i></span>): to look at Y)</li> <li>сы<b>зы</b>тесыр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">sə<b>zə</b>tajsər</i></span>): that, what I sit on (cf. тесын (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">tajsən</i></span>): to sit on Y)</li></ul> <p>Transitive verbs with preverb: </p> <ul><li><b>зы</b>ритыр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>zə</b>rəjtər</i></span>): one, to whom X gives Y (cf. етын (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">jatən</i></span>): to give Y to Z)</li></ul> <p>Sentence Examples: </p> <ul><li>дыгъуасэ хъыджэбз сы<b>зы</b>хуэзар дахэщ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">dəʁʷaːsa χədʒabz sə<b>zə</b>xʷazaːr daːxaɕ</i></span>): the girl, whom I met yesterday is pretty</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Temporal_Participle_щы-"><span id="Temporal_Participle_.D1.89.D1.8B-"></span>Temporal Participle щы-</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Temporal Participle щы-"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This participle denotes time as well as location, depending on the context. It is marked by щы-. </p> <ul><li><b>щы</b>лажьэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>ɕə</b>ɮaːʑar</i></span>): when, X works</li></ul> <p>Sentence examples: </p> <ul><li>Ар <b>щы</b>лажьэр унэрщ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">aːr <b>ɕə</b>ɮaːʑar wənarɕ</i></span>): he works at home (lit. where he works is home)</li> <li>Ар <b>щы</b>лажьэр сощIэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">aːr <b>ɕə</b>ɮaːʑar sawɕʼa</i></span>): I know where/when he works</li> <li>Уэ укъы<b>щы</b>кIуэжам <b>щыгъуэ</b> сэ унэм сыщыIакъым (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">wa wəqə<b>ɕə</b>kʷʼaːm <b>ɕəʁʷa</b> sa wənam səɕəʔaːqəm</i></span>): I wasn't home when you arrived</li> <li>Си шыпхъур къы<b>щ</b>алъхуам <b>щыгъуэ</b> сэ илъэсибл сыхъуат (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">səj ʃəpχʷər qə<b>ɕ</b>aːɬxʷaːm <b>ɕəʁʷa</b> sa jəɬasəjbɮ səχʷaːt</i></span>): When my sister was born, I was already seven years old.</li> <li>сы<b>щ</b>илъэгъум, ар жащ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">sə<b>ɕ</b>əjɬaʁʷəm, ar ʒaːɕ</i></span>): When he saw me, he ran away</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Locative_Participle_зыдэ-"><span id="Locative_Participle_.D0.B7.D1.8B.D0.B4.D1.8D-"></span>Locative Participle зыдэ-</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Locative Participle зыдэ-"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The locative participle denotes the place. It is marked by здэ-. </p> <ul><li><b>здэ</b>лажьэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>zda</b>ɮaːʑar</i></span>): where, X works</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manner_Participle_зэры-"><span id="Manner_Participle_.D0.B7.D1.8D.D1.80.D1.8B-"></span>Manner Participle зэры-</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Manner Participle зэры-"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The manner participle denotes the manner. It is marked by зэры-. </p> <ul><li><b>зэры</b>лажьэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>zarə</b>ɮaːʑar</i></span>): how, X works</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reason_Participle_щIэ-"><span id="Reason_Participle_.D1.89I.D1.8D-"></span>Reason Participle щIэ-</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Reason Participle щIэ-"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reason participle denotes the reason. It is marked by щIэ-. </p> <ul><li><b>щIэ</b>лажьэр (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn"><b>ɕʼa</b>ɮaːʑar</i></span>): reason, why X works</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Masdar">Masdar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Masdar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Masdar (a form of verb close to gerund) in the Kabardian language is expressed with the suffix -н: </p> <dl><dd>тхы-н "a write (writing)",</dd> <dd>жэ-н "a run (running)",</dd> <dd>щтэ-н "a take (taking)",</dd> <dd>псэлъэ-н "a talk (talking)",</dd> <dd>дзы-н "a throw (throwing)".</dd></dl> <p>Masdar has grammatical cases: </p> <dl><dd>Absolutive жэны-р,</dd> <dd>Ergative жэны-м,</dd> <dd>Instrumental жэны-м-кӏэ,</dd> <dd>Adverbial жэн-у</dd></dl> <p>and different forms for different person: </p> <dl><dd>сы-жэн "I will run",</dd> <dd>у-жэн "you will run",</dd> <dd>жэн "he will run".</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_form">Negative form</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Negative form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Adyghe language negative form of a word is expressed with different morphemes (prefixes, suffixes). In participles, adverbial participles, masdars, imperative, interrogative and other forms of verbs their negative from is expressed with the prefix -мы, which, usually, goes before the root morpheme, that describes the main meaning: </p> <dl><dd>у-мы-тх "you don't write",</dd> <dd>у-мы-кӏу "you don't go",</dd> <dd>сы-къы-пхуэ-мы-щэмэ "if you can't bring me",</dd> <dd>у-къа-мы-гъа-к1уэмэ "if you aren't forced to come".</dd></dl> <p>In verbs the negative meaning can also be expressed with the suffix -къым, which usually goes after the suffixes of time-tenses. For example: </p> <dl><dd>сы-тэджыр-къым "I am not getting up",</dd> <dd>сы-тэ-джа-къым "I have not got up",</dd> <dd>сы-тэджыну-къым "I will not get up".</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positional_conjugation">Positional conjugation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Positional conjugation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Kabardian, the positional prefixes are expressing being in different positions and places and can also express the direction of the verb. Here is the positional conjugation of some dynamic verbs, showing how the prefix changes the indicated direction of the verb: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Position </th> <th rowspan="2">Prefix </th> <th colspan="2">Example </th></tr> <tr> <th>Looking </th> <th>Throwing </th></tr> <tr> <td>Body position/Pose</td> <td>щы~ [ɕə~]</td> <td>щеплъэ [ɕajpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking at that place"</td> <td>щедзы [ɕajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing at that place" </td></tr> <tr> <td>On</td> <td>те~ [taj~]</td> <td>теплъэ [tajpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking on"</td> <td>тедзэ [tajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing at" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Under</td> <td>щӏэ~ [ɕʼa~]</td> <td>щӏаплъэ [ɕʼaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking under"</td> <td>щӏедзэ [ɕʼajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing under" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Through</td> <td>хэ~ [xa~]</td> <td>хаплъэ [xaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking through"</td> <td>хедзэ [xajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing through" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Within some area</td> <td rowspan="2">дэ~ [da~]</td> <td>даплъэ [daːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking at some area"</td> <td>дедзэ [dajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing at some area" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Inside an object</td> <td>даплъэ [daːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking inside an object"</td> <td>дедзэ [dajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing inside an object" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Around</td> <td>ӏу~ [ʔʷə~]</td> <td>ӏуаплъэ [ʔʷaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking around"</td> <td>ӏуедзэ [ʔʷajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing around" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Inside</td> <td>и~ [jə~]</td> <td>еплъэ [japɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking inside"</td> <td>редзэ [rajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing inside" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hanged/Attached</td> <td>пы~ [pə~]</td> <td>пэплъэ [papɬa] <br /> "(s)he is searching by looking"</td> <td>педзэ [pajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is hanging by throwing" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Behind</td> <td>къуэ~ [qʷa~]</td> <td>къуаплъэ [qʷaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking behind"</td> <td>къуедзэ [qʷajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing behind" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aside</td> <td>го~ [ɡʷa~]</td> <td>гуаплъэ [ɡʷaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking aside"</td> <td>гуедзэ [ɡʷajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing aside" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Against</td> <td>пэӏу~ [paʔʷə~]</td> <td>пэӏуаплъэ [paʔʷaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking against"</td> <td>пэӏуедзэ [paʔʷajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing against" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Backwards</td> <td>зэщӏ~ [zaɕʼ~]</td> <td>зэщӏаплъэ [zaɕʼaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking backwards"</td> <td>зэщӏедзэ [zaɕʼajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing backwards" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Inside within</td> <td>кӏуэцӏы~ [kʷʼat͡sʼə~]</td> <td>кӏуэцӏаплъэ [kʷʼat͡sʼaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking within inside"</td> <td>кӏуэцӏедзэ [kʷʼat͡sʼajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing within inside" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Toward</td> <td>кӏэлъы~ [kʲʼaɬə~]</td> <td>кӏэлъэплъэ [ɬapɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking toward"</td> <td>кӏэлъедзы [ɬajd͡zə] <br /> "(s)he is throwing toward" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Past</td> <td>блэ~ [bɮa~]</td> <td>блэплъы [bɮapɬə] <br /> "(s)he is looking past"</td> <td>бледзэ [bɮajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing past" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Over</td> <td>щхьэпыры~ [ɕħapərə~]</td> <td>щхьэпырыплъы [ɕħapərəpɬə] <br /> "(s)he is looking over"</td> <td>щхьэпыредзэ [ɕħapərajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing over" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Directly</td> <td>жьэхэ~ [ʑaxa~]</td> <td>жьэхаплъэ [ʑaxaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is glaring at one's face"</td> <td>жьэхедзэ [ʑaxajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing at one's face" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mouth</td> <td>жьэдэ~ [ʑada~]</td> <td>жьэдаплъэ [ʑadaːpɬa] <br /> "(s)he is looking at a mouth"</td> <td>жьэдедзэ [ʑadajd͡za] <br /> "(s)he is throwing at a mouth" </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Here is the positional conjugation of some verbs, showing how the root changes indicate position: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>stands </th> <th>sits </th> <th>lies </th></tr> <tr> <td>Body position/Pose</td> <td>щыт (<i>ɕət</i>)</td> <td>щыс (<i>ɕəs</i>)</td> <td>щылъ (<i>ɕəɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>On</td> <td>тет (<i>tajt</i>)</td> <td>тес (<i>tajs</i>)</td> <td>телъ (<i>tajɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Under</td> <td>щIэт (<i>ɕ’at</i>)</td> <td>щIэс (<i>ɕ’as</i>)</td> <td>щIэлъ (<i>ɕ’aɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Among</td> <td>хэт (<i>xat</i>)</td> <td>хэс (<i>xas</i>)</td> <td>хэлъ (<i>xaɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Within some area</td> <td>дэт (<i>dat</i>)</td> <td>дэс (<i>das</i>)</td> <td>дэлъ (<i>daɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Behind</td> <td>ӏут (<i>ʔʷət</i>)</td> <td>ӏyc (<i>ʔʷəs</i>)</td> <td>ӏулъ (<i>ʔʷəɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Inside</td> <td>ит (<i>jət</i>)</td> <td>иc (<i>jəs</i>)</td> <td>илъ (<i>jəɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hanged or attached</td> <td>пыт (<i>pət</i>)</td> <td>пыc (<i>pəs</i>)</td> <td>пылъ (<i>pəɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Corner or behind</td> <td>къуэт (<i>qʷat</i>)</td> <td>къуэc (<i>qʷas</i>)</td> <td>къуэлъ (<i>qʷaɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Side</td> <td>гуэт (<i>gʷat</i>)</td> <td>гуэc (<i>gʷas</i>)</td> <td>гуэлъ (<i>gʷaɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>In front of</td> <td>пэӏут (paʔʷət)</td> <td>пэӏуc (paʔʷəs)</td> <td>пэӏулъ (paʔʷəɬ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Inside within</td> <td>кӏуэцӏыт (<i>kʷʼat͡sʼət</i>)</td> <td>кӏуэцӏыс (<i>kʷʼat͡sʼəs</i>)</td> <td>кӏуэцӏылъ (<i>kʷʼat͡sʼəɬ</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slope</td> <td>кӏэрыт (kʲʼarət)</td> <td>кӏэрыс (kʲʼarəs)</td> <td>кӏэрылъ (kʲʼarəɬ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Over</td> <td>щхьэпырыт (ɕħapərət)</td> <td>щхьэпырыс (ɕħapərəs)</td> <td>щхьэпырылъ (ɕħapərəɬ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Directly</td> <td>жьэхэт (ʑaxat)</td> <td>жьэхэс (ʑaxas)</td> <td>жьэхэлъ (ʑaxaɬ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Toward the mouth</td> <td>жьэдэт (ʑadat)</td> <td>жьэдэс (ʑadas)</td> <td>жьэдэлъ (ʑadaɬ) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Examples: </p><p>щыт – [someone or something] stands (as a pose); </p><p>Iут – [someone or something] stands (behind); </p><p>щIэт – [someone or something] stands (under) </p><p>тет – [someone or something] stands (above) </p><p>дэт – [someone or something] stands (between), etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the morphological point of view adjectives in the Circassian language are not very different from nouns. In combinations with nouns they lose their grammatical independence. Adjectives form their plural form the same way nouns do, they also use the same affixes to form different grammatical cases (from Absolutive to Adverbial). </p><p>Adjectives can be either qualitative or relative. </p><p>Adjectives can be in singular or plural form: хужы "white" (singular) – хужы-хэ-р "whites" (plural). </p><p>They switch grammatical cases similarly to nouns: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Absolutive_case" title="Absolutive case">Absolutive</a> </td> <td>хужыр </td> <td>хужыхэр </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">Ergative</a>-<a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">Oblique</a> </td> <td>хужым </td> <td>хужыхэм </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> </td> <td>хужы(м)кӏэ </td> <td>хужыхэ(м)кӏэ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_case" title="Adverbial case">Adverbial</a> </td> <td>хужу </td> <td>хужыху </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A qualitative adjective as a compliment in a sentence goes after the word it describes: к1алэ дэгъу "good boy", унэ лъагэ "high house"; a relative adjective goes before it: пхъэ уадэ "wooden hammer", гъущӏ пӏэкӏор "iron bed". In the second case adjectives do not change their form, only the appropriate nous do. For example: in plural – пхъэ унэ "wooden house". </p><p>In different grammatical cases: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Absolutive_case" title="Absolutive case">Absolutive</a> </td> <td>пхъэ унэр </td> <td>пхъэ унэхэр </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">Ergative</a>-<a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">Oblique</a> </td> <td>пхъэ унэм </td> <td>пхъэ унэхэм </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> </td> <td>пхъэ унэ(м)кӏэ </td> <td>пхъэ унэхэ(м)кӏэ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_case" title="Adverbial case">Adverbial</a> </td> <td>пхъэ уну </td> <td>пхъэ унэху </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Combining adjectives with nouns it is possible to produce a great lot of phrases: пщэщэ дахэ "beautiful girl", щӏалэ дэгъу "good boy", цӏыху кӏыхьэ "long man", гъуэгу занщӏэ "straight road", удз шхъуантӏэ "green grass" and so on. These phrases can be easily included into sentences. If a noun has a certain grammatical case, the adjective gets the suffix of the case instead of the noun, for example щӏэлэ лъэщы-р "the strong boy (abs.) and уадэ псынщӏэ-мкӏэ "using the light hammer (ins.). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Сэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">нобэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nawba</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">пщэщэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɕaɕa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">a girl</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>дахэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>daːxa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>beautiful</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">слъэгъуащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sɬaʁʷaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I saw</p></div><p style="display: none;">Сэ нобэ пщэщэ <b>дахэ</b> слъэгъуащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nawba</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɕaɕa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>daːxa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sɬaʁʷaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">I today {a girl} <b>beautiful</b> {I saw}</p><p style="clear: left;">"I have seen a <b>beautiful</b> girl today."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Дэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[da</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">we</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">гъуэгу</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʁʷagʷ</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">road</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>занщӏэм</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>zaːnɕʼam</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>straight.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дырыкӏуащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dərəkʷʼaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">we were walking</p></div><p style="display: none;">Дэ гъуэгу <b>занщӏэм</b> дырыкӏуащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[da</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʁʷagʷ</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>zaːnɕʼam</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dərəkʷʼaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">we road <b>straight.ERG</b> {we were walking}</p><p style="clear: left;">"We were walking on the <b>straight</b> road."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Circassian qualitative adjectives also have comparative and superlative forms. For example: нэхъ хужы "whiter, more white" (comparative form) and янэхъ хужы "whitest, most white", </p><p>The Comparative degree is formed by auxiliary word нэхъ: </p> <dl><dd>Ар абы нэхъ лъагэ – he is higher than you,</dd> <dd>Нэхъ ины хъущ – He became bigger [More big became],</dd> <dd>Нэхъ лӏыгъэ къызхэбгъэлъын хуей – You must be braver.</dd></dl> <p>The superlative degrees is formed by auxiliary word анахь (more than all...): </p> <dl><dd>Ар пщащэмэ янэхъ дахэ – She is the most beautiful among the girls,</dd> <dd>Ар псоми янэхъ лъагэ – It is the highest,</dd> <dd>Псэри шхын янэхъ дэгъумкӏэ игъэшхащ – (S)he feeds him with the tastiest meal,</dd> <dd>Ар псоми янэхъ лъэщ – He is the strongest.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affixes">Affixes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Affixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following suffixes are added to nouns: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Suffix </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>~щӏэ (~ɕʼa)</td> <td>new</td> <td>унащӏэ (new house) </td></tr> <tr> <td>~жьы (~ʑə)</td> <td>old</td> <td>унэжьы (old house) </td></tr> <tr> <td>~шхуэ (~ʃxʷa)</td> <td>large</td> <td>унэшхуэ (large house) </td></tr> <tr> <td>~цӏыкӏу (~t͡sʼəkʷʼ)</td> <td>small</td> <td>унэцӏыкӏу (small house) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following suffixes are added to adjectives: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Suffix </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>~ӏуэ (~ʔʷa)</td> <td>slightly</td> <td>стырыӏуэ (slightly spicy) </td></tr> <tr> <td>~щэ (~ɕa)</td> <td>too much</td> <td>дыджыщэ (too much bitter) </td></tr> <tr> <td>~дэд (~dad)</td> <td>very</td> <td>дэгъудэд (very good) </td></tr> <tr> <td>~кӏей (~t͡ʃʼej)</td> <td>pretty</td> <td>дэгъукӏей (pretty good) </td></tr> <tr> <td>~ншэ (~nʃa)</td> <td>lacking</td> <td>акъылыншэ (mindless) </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Мы</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mə</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">джанэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡ʒaːnar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">shirt</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">уэркӏэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">wart͡ʃʼa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">for you</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>иныӏуэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jənəʔʷa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>slightly big</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">Мы джанэр уэркӏэ <b>иныӏуэ</b></p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mə</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡ʒaːnar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">wart͡ʃʼa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jənəʔʷa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">this shirt {for you} {<b>slightly big</b>}</p><p style="clear: left;">"This shirt is <b>slightly big</b> for you"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Мы</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mə</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сурэтыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">səwratər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">painting</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">дэхэ<b>дэд</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">daxadad]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>very</b> beautiful</p></div><p style="display: none;">Мы сурэтыр дэхэ<b>дэд</b></p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mə</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">səwratər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">daxadad]</span></p><p style="display: none;">this painting {<b>very</b> beautiful}</p><p style="clear: left;">"This painting is <b>very beautiful</b>"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opinion">Opinion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Opinion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To indicate a thought or an opinion of someone, the prefix фӏэ~ (fʼa~) is added to the adjective. This can also be used on nouns but it is very uncommon. For example: </p> <ul><li>дахэ "pretty" → фӏэдах "it's pretty for him.</li> <li>дэхагъ "as pretty" → фӏэдэхащ "it was pretty for him.</li> <li>ӏэфӏ "tasty" → фӏэӏэфӏ "it is tasty for him.</li> <li>плъыжьы "red" → фӏэплъыжь "it is red for him.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэхэмэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-хэ-мэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ʃaːlaxama</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the boys.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>яфӏэдахкъым</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>я-фӏэ-дахэ-къым</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaːʃʷadaːxap</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>it was not pretty for them</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">си</p><p style="margin: 0px;">си</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">si</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">my</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">джанэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">джанэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡ʒaːna]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">shirt</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэхэмэ <b>яфӏэдахкъым</b> си джанэ</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-хэ-мэ <b>я-фӏэ-дахэ-къым</b> си джанэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ʃaːlaxama</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jaːʃʷadaːxap</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">si</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡ʒaːna]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>the boys.ERG</b>} {<b>it was not pretty for them</b>} my shirt</p><p style="clear: left;">"my shirt <b>was not beautiful for</b> the boys."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scaliness_of_an_adjective">Scaliness of an adjective</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Scaliness of an adjective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The suffix ~гъэ (~ʁa) is appended to indicate a measure of a certain adjective. Usually it is used for measurable adjectives like length, height, weight, size, strength and speed but it can be used on any adjective such as good, tasty, beauty, etc. This suffix can be used to scale adjectives, for instance, the word ӏэфӏы-гъэ (from the adjective ӏэфӏы "tasty") can be used to express different levels/qualities of tastiness. This suffix turns the adjective to a noun. </p> <ul><li>кӏыхьэ /t͡ʃʼaħə/ – long → кӏыхьэгъэ /t͡ʃʼaħəʁa/ – length.</li> <li>ӏэтыгъэ /ʔatəʁa/ – high → ӏэтыгъагъэ /ʔatəʁaːʁa/ – height.</li> <li>псынщӏэ /psənɕʼa/ – fast → псынщӏагъэ /psənɕʼaːʁa/ – speed.</li> <li>хуабэ /xʷaːba/ – hot → хуабагъэ /xʷabaːʁa/ – heat.</li> <li>ӏувы /ʔʷəvə/ – wide → ӏувыгъэ /ʔʷəvəʁa/ – width.</li> <li>дахэ /daːxa/ – beautiful → дэхагъэ /daxaːʁa/ – beauty.</li> <li>ӏэфӏы /ʔafʼə/ – tasty → ӏэфӏыгъэ /ʔafʼəʁa/ – level of tastiness.</li> <li>дэгъу /daʁʷə/ – good → дэгъугъэ /daʁʷəʁa/ – level of goodness.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">пхъэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pχam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the wood.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">и</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jə</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">its</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>ӏувыгъэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>jəʔʷəvəʁa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>width</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">65</p><p style="margin: 0px;">65</p><p style="margin: 0px;">65</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сантиметр</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saːntimetr]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">centimeters</p></div><p style="display: none;">пхъэм и <b>ӏувыгъэ</b> 65 сантиметр</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pχam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jə</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>jəʔʷəvəʁa</b></span> 65 <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saːntimetr]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{the wood.ERG} its <b>width</b> 65 centimeters</p><p style="clear: left;">"The wood's <b>width</b> is 65 centimeters"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>лъэщыгъэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>ɬaɕəʁa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>strength</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">хэлъ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xaɬ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">it is laying in</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэм <b>лъэщыгъэ</b> хэлъ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>ɬaɕəʁa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xaɬ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy.ERG <b>strength</b> {it is laying in}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy has <b>strength</b> in him."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State_of_the_adjective">State of the adjective</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: State of the adjective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The suffix ~гъакӏэ (~ʁaːt͡ʃʼa) is appended to adjectives to form nouns meaning "the state of being the adjective", in contract to the suffix ~гъэ which is used to measure and scale the adjective. Some examples: </p> <ul><li>кӏыхьэ /t͡ʃʼaħə/ – long → кӏыхьэгъакӏэ /t͡ʃʼaħəʁaːt͡ʃʼa/ – lengthiness; longness.</li> <li>псынщӏэ /psənɕʼa/ – fast → псынщӏэгъакӏэ /psənɕʼaʁaːt͡ʃʼa/ – speediness.</li> <li>кӏуащӏэ /kʷʼaːɕʼa/ – strong → кӏуэщӏэгъакӏэ /kʷʼaɕʼaʁaːt͡ʃʼa/ – strongness.</li> <li>лъэщ /ɬaɕ/ – strong → лъэщыгъакӏэ /ɬaɕəʁaːt͡ʃʼa/ – strongness.</li> <li>дахэ /daːxa/ – pretty → дэхэгъакӏэ /daxaʁaːt͡ʃʼa/ – prettiness.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">сэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">мыӏэрысэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">мыӏэрыс-эм</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">məʔarəsəm</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">apple.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">и</p><p style="margin: 0px;">и</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jə</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">its</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>ӏэфӏыгъакӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>ӏэфӏы-гъакӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>ʔaʃʷʼəʁaːt͡ʃʼa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>tastiness</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сыкъегъатхъэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">сы-къ-е-гъа-тхъэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">səqajʁaːtχa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I enjoy it</p></div><p style="display: none;">сэ мыӏэрысэм и <b>ӏэфӏыгъакӏэ</b> сыкъегъатхъэ</p><p style="display: none;">сэ мыӏэрыс-эм и <b>ӏэфӏы-гъакӏэ</b> сы-къ-е-гъа-тхъэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">məʔarəsəm</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jə</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>ʔaʃʷʼəʁaːt͡ʃʼa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">səqajʁaːtχa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">I apple.ERG its {<b>tastiness</b>} {I enjoy it}</p><p style="clear: left;">"I enjoy the apple's <b>tastiness</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Adverbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Kabardian language adverbs belong to these groups: adverbs of place, adverbs of time, adverbs of quality and adverbs of amount. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs_of_place">Adverbs of place</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Adverbs of place"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>адэ – "there" (invisible).</li> <li>модэ – "there" (visible).</li> <li>мыдэ – "here".</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>модэкӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>модэ-кӏэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>modat͡ʃʼa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>over there.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">тучаныр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">тучан-ыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tut͡ʃaːnər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">shop.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ӏут</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ӏут</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔʷərt]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">it is standing</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>модэкӏэ</b> тучаныр ӏут</p><p style="display: none;"><b>модэ-кӏэ</b> тучан-ыр ӏут</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>modat͡ʃʼa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tut͡ʃaːnər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔʷərt]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{<b>over there.INS</b>} shop.ABS {it is standing}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The shop is placed <b>over there</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>адэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>адэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>aːda</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>there</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕʼaːɮar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">кӏуащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">кӏу-ащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʷʼaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="single argument of canonical intransitive verb">S</abbr>)he went</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>адэ</b> щӏалэр кӏуащ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>адэ</b> щӏалэ-р кӏу-ащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<b>aːda</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕʼaːɮar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʷʼaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;"><b>there</b> boy.ABS {(S)he went}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy went <b>there</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs_of_time">Adverbs of time</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Adverbs of time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>нобэ – "today".</li> <li>дыгъуасэ – "yesterday".</li> <li>пщэдей – "tomorrow".</li> <li>мыгъэ – "this year".</li> <li>иджы – "now".</li> <li>иджыри – "still"</li> <li>иджыпсту – "right now".</li> <li>пщэдджыжьым – "at morning".</li> <li>шэджагъуэм – "at noon".</li> <li>жэщым – "in the night".</li> <li>зэманым – "in the past".</li> <li>етӏанэ – "afterwards"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs_of_amount">Adverbs of amount</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Adverbs of amount"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>мащӏэ – "few".</li> <li>тӏэкӏу – "a bit".</li> <li>тӏэкӏурэ – "few times, for a short period of time".</li> <li>куэд "a lot".</li> <li>куэдрэ "a lot of times, for a long period of time".</li> <li>ӏаджэ "many".</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ахъщэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ахъщэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aːχɕa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">money</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>куэд</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>куэд</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>kʷad</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>a lot</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">иӏ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">иӏ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jəʔ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he has</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэм ахъщэ <b>куэд</b> иӏ</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-м ахъщэ <b>куэд</b> иӏ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aːχɕa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>kʷad</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jəʔ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy.ERG money {<b>a lot</b>} {(s)he has}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy has <b>a lot of</b> money."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">жэщым</p><p style="margin: 0px;">жэщы-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒaɕəm</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">night.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">лӏыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">лӏы-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɬʼər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">man.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>тӏэкӏурэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>тӏэкӏурэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʼakʷʼra</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>short period of time</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">макӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">макӏуэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he went</p></div><p style="display: none;">жэщым лӏыр <b>тӏэкӏурэ</b> макӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;">жэщы-м лӏы-р <b>тӏэкӏурэ</b> макӏуэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒaɕəm</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɬʼər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʼakʷʼra</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːkʷʼa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">night.ERG man.ABS {<b>short period of time</b>} {(s)he went}</p><p style="clear: left;">"In the night, the man goes <b>for a small period of time</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs_of_quality">Adverbs of quality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Adverbs of quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adverbs of this group are formed from the appropriate qualitative adjectives using the suffix ~у /~w/. Adverbs in this group describe the manner in which the verb was done. </p> <ul><li>къабзэ "clean" → къабзу "cleanly"</li> <li>жыжьэ "far" → жыжьу "far",</li> <li>псынщӏэ "quick" → псынщӏэу "quickly",</li> <li>дахэ "beautiful" → даху "beautifully",</li> <li>благъэ "near" → благъу "nearly".</li> <li>лъэщ "powerful" → лъэщу "powerfully".</li> <li>щабэ "soft" → щабу "softly"</li> <li>быдэ "firm" → быду "firmly"</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>жыжьу</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>жыжь-у</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>ʒəʑəw</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>far.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="adverb(ial)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ADV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">жащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ж-ащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he ran</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэр <b>жыжьу</b> жащ</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-р <b>жыжь-у</b> ж-ащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>ʒəʑəw</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">boy.ABS <b>far.ADV</b> {(s)he ran}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy ran <b>far</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэм</p><p style="margin: 0px;">щӏалэ-м</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the boy.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">шхыныр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">шхын-ыр</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃxənər</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">food.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>дэгъу</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>дэгъу-у</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>daʁʷəw</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">excellently</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ищӏащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ищӏ-ащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jəɕʼaːɕ]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he done it</p></div><p style="display: none;">щӏалэм шхыныр <b>дэгъу</b> ищӏащ</p><p style="display: none;">щӏалэ-м шхын-ыр <b>дэгъу-у</b> ищӏ-ащ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕʼaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃxənər</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>daʁʷəw</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">jəɕʼaːɕ]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{the boy.ERG} food.ABS excellently {(s)he done it}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy done the food <b>excellently</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">пщащэр</p><p style="margin: 0px;">пщащэ-р</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕaːɕar</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the girl.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>даху</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>дах-у</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>daːxəw</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>beautifully</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">матхэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">матхэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːtxa]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(s)he writes</p></div><p style="display: none;">пщащэр <b>даху</b> матхэ</p><p style="display: none;">пщащэ-р <b>дах-у</b> матхэ</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕaːɕar</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>daːxəw</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maːtxa]</span></p><p style="display: none;">{the girl.ABS} <b>beautifully</b> {(s)he writes}</p><p style="clear: left;">"The girl writes <b>beautifully</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unions">Unions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Unions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In English the word "and" is used to connect parts of speech with others, while in Circassian, there are different ways to connect different parts of speech with others. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">Suffix </th> <th rowspan="2">Example </th></tr> <tr> <th>Cyrillic </th> <th>IPA </th></tr> <tr> <td>Indefinite nouns </td> <td>рэ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ra/</span> </td> <td>щӏалэ-рэ пщащэ-рэ къэкӏуахэщ<br />"a boy and a girl came." </td></tr> <tr> <td>Definite nouns </td> <td>мрэ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mra/</span> </td> <td>щӏалэ-мрэ пщащэ-мрэ къэкӏуахэщ<br />"the boy and the girl came." </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pronouns </td> <td>рэ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ra/</span> </td> <td>сэ-рэ о-рэ дыкӏуащ<br />"You and I went." </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indefinite adjectives </td> <td>ри </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ri/</span> </td> <td>щӏэлэ кӏыхьэ-ри пщащэ дахэ-ри къэкӏуахэщ<br />"a tall boy and a pretty girl came." </td></tr> <tr> <td>Definite adjectives </td> <td>мри </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mri/</span> </td> <td>щӏэлэ кӏыхьэ-мри пщащэ дахэ-мри къэкӏуахэщ<br />"a tall boy and a pretty girl came." </td></tr> <tr> <td>Numbers </td> <td>рэ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ra/</span> </td> <td>щӏэлэ тӏу-рэ пщащэ щы-рэ къэкӏуахэщ<br />"two boys and three girls came." </td></tr> <tr> <td>Universal nouns </td> <td>и </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> </td> <td>щӏал-и пщащ-и къэкӏуахэщ<br />"boys and girls came." </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adverbs </td> <td>мкӏи </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mt͡ʃʼi/</span> </td> <td>махуэ-мкӏи жэщы-мкӏи къэкӏуахэщ<br />"they came in the day and in the night." </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The conjunctions ыкӏи /ət͡ʃəj/ "and" can also be used to connect different parts of speech. </p> <dl><dd>Verbs: Щӏалэр йоджэ ыкӏи матхэ "The boy reads and writes".</dd> <dd>Adjectives: Щӏалэр дахэ ыкӏи кӏыхьэ "The boy is handsome and tall".</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Conjunctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conjunctions in the Circassian language play the same role like in English, they are used to connect together, in different ways, words or parts of a difficult sentence. According to structure of Circassian conjunctions they can be separated into two groups: simple and complex. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Simple_conjunctions">Simple conjunctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Simple conjunctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among simple Circassian conjunctions are: </p> <ul><li>ыкӏи – "and".</li> <li>е – "or".</li> <li>ауэ – "but".</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Сэ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">сыкӏуащ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">səkʷʼaːɕ</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I went</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">къалэм,</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qaːɮam</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">city.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>ауэ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>aːwa</b></span></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>but</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">къэзгъэзэжакъым</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qazʁazaʒaːqəm]</span></p><p style="margin: 0px;">I didn't return</p></div><p style="display: none;">Сэ сыкӏуащ къалэм, <b>ауэ</b> къэзгъэзэжакъым</p><p style="display: none;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">səkʷʼaːɕ</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qaːɮam</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><b>aːwa</b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">qazʁazaʒaːqəm]</span></p><p style="display: none;">I {I went} city.ERG <b>but</b> {I didn't return}</p><p style="clear: left;">"I went to the city, <b>but</b> I haven't returned."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complex_conjunctions">Complex conjunctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Complex conjunctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>арщхьэкӀэ – "because".</li> <li>aтӀэ – "in spite of".</li> <li>хьэмэ – "or".</li> <li>сыту – "as".</li> <li>щхьэкӀэ – "though".</li> <li>сыт щхьэкӀэ – "because (of) / why".</li> <li>папщӀэ – "for".</li> <li>папщӀэкӀэ – "as".</li> <li>щыгъуэ – "when".</li> <li>зэ-зэ – "first…then".</li> <li>е-е – "either-or".</li> <li>къудейуэ – "as soon as".</li> <li>ару – "just".</li> <li>пэтми – "although".</li> <li>щытмэ – "if".</li> <li>ипкъ иткӀэ – "therefore".</li> <li>къыхэкӀкӀэ – "because / that’s why".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Particles">Particles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Circassian language participles are different both by their semantics and structure. Semantically they fall into the following groups: affirmative, negative, interrogative, intensive, indicatory and stimulating. </p> <ul><li>дыдэ – "quite, very".</li> <li>уеблэмэ – "even".</li> <li>пIэрэ – "whether, really".</li> <li>мис – "here".</li> <li>мес – "there (near by)".</li> <li>кхъы1э – "please".</li> <li>нэхъ – "more".</li> <li>нэхърэ – "more than".</li> <li>хьэуэ – "no".</li> <li>нтIэ – "yes".</li> <li>акъудей (аркъудей) – "quite not".</li> <li>къудей – "just now".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postpositions">Postpositions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Postpositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Circassian language, as well as in other Ibero-Caucasian languages, role of prepositions belongs to postpositions. It is difficult to define the exact count of postpositions in the Circassian language, because even such major parts of speech as nouns (from the point of view of their functionality) sometimes can be included into the group, together with some verb prefixes. For example, in the sentence Тхылъыр столым телъ "The book is lying on the table" the noun has no preposition, but the meaning remains clear because in the verb те-лъ "is lying" the prefix те- expresses something's being on a surface, so this form of the verb literally means "on the surface is lying". </p><p>Nouns and adverbs sometimes play role of postpositions. For example, nous that describe different parts of human body (head, nose, side and so on) sometimes function as postpositions. For example: Фызыр лӏым ипэ иту кӏуащ "The wife went in front of the husband" (the preposition "in front of" in the Circassian sentence is expressed by the phrase ипэ иту "being in front of his nose"). </p><p>Nouns and pronouns combine with a postposition in the ergative grammatical case only. For example, the postposition деж "near, beside" requires a word in the ergative case: </p> <ul><li>жыгы-м деж "near the tree".</li></ul> <p>Postpositions can attach possessive prefixes to themselves. For example, in singular: </p> <ul><li>сэ с-а-деж "near me",</li> <li>о у-а-деж "near you",</li> <li>абы и деж "near him";</li></ul> <p>in plural: </p> <ul><li>дэ д-а-деж "near us",</li> <li>фэ ф-а-деж "near you",</li> <li>ахэмэ я деж "near them".</li></ul> <p>The following words are used as postpositions in the Circassian language: </p> <ul><li>ипIэкIэ "before".</li> <li>пщ1ондэ "before".</li> <li>щыгъуэ "during".</li> <li>икIуэцIкI "inside".</li> <li>лъандэ "since".</li> <li>къэскIэ "until".</li> <li>нэс "until".</li> <li>деж "near".</li> <li>дежкIэ "at".</li> <li>иужь "after".</li> <li>пащхьэ "in front of".</li> <li>щ1ыбагъ "behind".</li> <li>щIагъ "under".</li> <li>нэмыщI "except".</li> <li>фIэкIа "except".</li> <li>къэс "every".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Word_Formation">Word Formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Word Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compounding">Compounding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Compounding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noun_+_Noun"><span id="Noun_.2B_Noun"></span>Noun + Noun</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Noun + Noun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>адэ-анэ: parents (cf. адэ: father, анэ: mother)</li> <li>джэдкъаз: domesticated bird (cf. джэд: chicken, къэз: goose)</li> <li>мэкъумэш: harvest (cf. мэкъу: hay, анэ: millet)</li> <li>мастэIуданэ: sewing kit (cf. мастэ: ??, Iуданэ: needle)</li> <li>джанэгъуэншэдж: set of clothes (cf. джанэ: shirt, гъуэншэдж: pants)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noun_+_Verb"><span id="Noun_.2B_Verb"></span>Noun + Verb</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Noun + Verb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This strategy is very similar to the English one, which gives words like pickpocket, cutthroat, scarecrow. </p> <ul><li>пхъащIэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">pχaːɕʼa</i></span>): carpenter (cf. пхъэ: wood, щIэн: to do Y)</li> <li>пщэдэлъ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">pɕadaɬ</i></span>): scarf (cf. пщэ: wood, дэлъын: to lie at Y)</li> <li>псышэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">psəʃa</i></span>): water carrier (cf. псы: water, шэн: to lead Y)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derivation">Derivation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Derivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="-ей"><span id="-.D0.B5.D0.B9"></span>-ей</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: -ей"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A suffix denoting a tree. </p> <ul><li>д<b>ей</b> (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">d<b>aj</b></i></span>): walnut/hazelnut tree (cf. дэ: nut)</li> <li>абрикос<b>ей</b> (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">aːprəjkaws<b>aj</b></i></span>): apricot tree (cf. абрикос: apricot)</li> <li>бали<b>ей</b> (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">baːɮəj<b>aj</b></i></span>): cherry tree (cf. балий: cherry)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="зэ-"><span id=".D0.B7.D1.8D-"></span>зэ-</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: зэ-"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>зэадэзэкъуэ (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zaaːdazaqʷa</i></span>): father and son</li> <li>зэанэзэпхъу (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zaaːnazapχʷ</i></span>): mother and daughter</li> <li>зэдэлъхузэшыпхъу (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zadaɬxʷzaʃəpχʷ</i></span>): brother and sister</li> <li>зэлӀзэфыз (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zaɬʼzafəz</i></span>): husband and wife</li> <li>зэныбжьэгъу (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">zanəbʑaʁʷ</i></span>): friends</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="-тэ"><span id="-.D1.82.D1.8D"></span>-тэ</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: -тэ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is an unproductive suffix, which creates new verbs from other verbs. </p> <ul><li>лъэ<b>тэ</b>н (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">ɬa<b>ta</b>n</i></span>): to fly (cf. лъэн: to jump)</li> <li>кIуэ<b>тэ</b>н (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">kʷʼa<b>ta</b>n</i></span>): to move (cf. кIуэн: to go)</li> <li>къу<b>тэ</b>н (<span title="Kabardian-language romanization"><i lang="kbd-Latn">qʷə<b>ta</b>n</i></span>): to break Y (cf. къун: to beat Y up)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numbers">Numbers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Numbers from zero to ten are specific words</li></ul> <dl><dd><b>1</b> зы <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a3\/Ady-1.oga\/Ady-1.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[z\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ady-1.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/Ady-1.oga/Ady-1.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ady-1.oga" title="File:Ady-1.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>2</b> тӀу <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/41\/Ady-2.oga\/Ady-2.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[t\u02b7\u02bc\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ady-2.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/41/Ady-2.oga/Ady-2.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʷʼə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ady-2.oga" title="File:Ady-2.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>3</b> щы <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/5c\/Ady-3.oga\/Ady-3.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[\u0255\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ady-3.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Ady-3.oga/Ady-3.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ady-3.oga" title="File:Ady-3.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>4</b> плӀы <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/4b\/Ady-4.oga\/Ady-4.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[p\u026c\u02bc\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ady-4.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Ady-4.oga/Ady-4.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɬʼə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ady-4.oga" title="File:Ady-4.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>5</b> тху <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-5" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/3\/3c\/Kbd-txho.oga\/Kbd-txho.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[tx\u02b7\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Kbd-txho.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3c/Kbd-txho.oga/Kbd-txho.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[txʷə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Kbd-txho.oga" title="File:Kbd-txho.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>6</b> хы <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-6" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/96\/Ady-6.oga\/Ady-6.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[x\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ady-6.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/96/Ady-6.oga/Ady-6.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ady-6.oga" title="File:Ady-6.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>7</b> блы <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-7" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/7f\/Lh2.ogg\/Lh2.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[b\u026e\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Lh2.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7f/Lh2.ogg/Lh2.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɮə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Lh2.ogg" title="File:Lh2.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>8</b> и <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-8" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/e6\/Ady-8.oga\/Ady-8.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[j\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ady-8.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Ady-8.oga/Ady-8.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ady-8.oga" title="File:Ady-8.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>9</b> бгъу <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-9" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/7a\/Ady-9.oga\/Ady-9.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[b\u0281\u02b7\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ady-9.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Ady-9.oga/Ady-9.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bʁʷə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ady-9.oga" title="File:Ady-9.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd> <dd><b>10</b> пщӏы <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-10" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/1\/13\/Pshaa.ogg\/Pshaa.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[p\u0255\u02bc\u0259]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pshaa.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/13/Pshaa.ogg/Pshaa.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼə]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Pshaa.ogg" title="File:Pshaa.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></dd></dl> <ul><li>Numbers from eleven to nineteen are built with the word for ten, followed by кӏу (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷʼə]</span>) and the unit digit:</li></ul> <dl><dd><b>11</b> пщӏыкӀуз <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼəz]</span></dd> <dd><b>12</b> пщӏыкӀутIу <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼətʷʼ]</span></dd> <dd><b>13</b> пщӏыкӀущ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼəɕ]</span></dd> <dd><b>14</b> пщӏыкӀуплI <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼəpɬʼ]</span></dd> <dd><b>15</b> пщӏыкӀутху <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼətxʷ]</span></dd> <dd><b>16</b> пщӏыкӀух <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼəx]</span></dd> <dd><b>17</b> пщӏыкӀубл <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼəbɮ]</span></dd> <dd><b>18</b> пщӏыкӀуй <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼəj]</span></dd> <dd><b>19</b> пщӏыкӀубгъу <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɕʼəkʷʼəbʁʷ]</span>}</dd></dl> <ul><li>The tens follow a <a href="/wiki/Vigesimal" title="Vigesimal">vigesimal</a> system from forty up, with the exception of fifty:</li></ul> <dl><dd><b>20</b> тӀощӏ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʷʼaɕʼə]</span> (20)</dd> <dd><b>21</b> тӀощӏэ зырэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʷʼaɕʼəra<span class="wrap"> </span>zəra]</span> (20 and 1)</dd> <dd><b>22</b> тӀощӏэ тIурэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʷʼaɕʼəra<span class="wrap"> </span>tʷʼəra]</span> (20 and 2)</dd> <dd><b>23</b> тӀощӏэ щырэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʷʼaɕʼəra<span class="wrap"> </span>ɕəra]</span> (20 and 3)</dd> <dd>...</dd> <dd><b>30</b> щэщӏ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕaɕʼ]</span> (30)</dd> <dd><b>31</b> щэщӏрэ зырэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕaɕʼra<span class="wrap"> </span>zəra]</span> (30 and 1)</dd> <dd><b>32</b> щэщӏрэ тIурэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕaɕʼra<span class="wrap"> </span>tʷʼəra]</span> (30 and 2)</dd> <dd>...</dd> <dd><b>40</b> плIыщI <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɬʼəɕʼ]</span> (20 × 2)</dd> <dd><b>50</b> тхущI,<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[txʷəɕʼ]</span> (half-hundred)</dd> <dd><b>60</b> хыщI,<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xəɕʼ]</span> (20 × 3)</dd> <dd><b>70</b> блыщI <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɮəɕʼ]</span> (20 × 3 and 10)</dd> <dd><b>80</b> ищI <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jəɕʼ]</span> (20 × 4)</dd> <dd><b>90</b> бгъущI <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bʁʷəɕʼ]</span> (20 × 4 and 10)</dd></dl> <ul><li>One hundred is щэ (ɕa). The hundreds are formed by the hundred word root (щ (ɕ)) followed by -и-</li></ul> <p>(-i-) and the multiplier digit root. </p> <dl><dd><b>100</b> щэ (ɕa)</dd> <dd><b>101</b> щэрэ зырэ (ɕara zəra) (100 and 1)</dd> <dd><b>110</b> щэрэ пщӏырэ (ɕara pʃʼəra) (100 and 10)</dd> <dd><b>200</b> щитӀу (ɕitʷʼ) (100 × 2)</dd> <dd><b>201</b> щитӀурэ зырэ (ɕitʷʼəra zəra) (200 × 2 and 1)</dd> <dd><b>300</b> щищ (ɕiɕ) (100 × 3)</dd> <dd><b>400</b> щиплӀ (ɕipɬʼ) (100 × 4)</dd> <dd><b>500</b> щитху (ɕitxʷ) (100 × 5)</dd> <dd><b>600</b> щих (ɕix) (100 × 6)</dd> <dd><b>700</b> щибл (ɕibɮ) (100 × 7)</dd> <dd><b>800</b> щий (ɕij) (100 × 8)</dd> <dd><b>900</b> щибгъу (ɕibʁʷ) (100 × 9)</dd></dl> <ul><li>One thousand is мин (min). The thousands are formed by the thousand word root (мин (məjn))</li></ul> <p>followed by -и- (-i-) and the multiplier digit root. </p> <dl><dd><b>1000</b> мин (min)</dd> <dd><b>1001</b> минрэ зырэ (minra zəra) (1000 and 1)</dd> <dd><b>1010</b> минрэ пщӏырэ (minra pʃʼəra) (1000 and 10)</dd> <dd><b>1100</b> минрэ щэрэ (minra ɕara) (1000 and 100)</dd> <dd><b>2000</b> минитӀу (minitʷʼ) (1000 × 2)</dd> <dd><b>3000</b> минищ (miniɕ) (1000 × 3)</dd> <dd><b>4000</b> миниплӀ (minipɬʼ) (1000 × 4)</dd> <dd><b>5000</b> минитху (minitxʷ) (1000 × 5)</dd> <dd><b>6000</b> миних (minix) (1000 × 6)</dd> <dd><b>7000</b> минибл (minibɮ) (1000 × 7)</dd> <dd><b>8000</b> миний (minij) (1000 × 8)</dd> <dd><b>9000</b> минибгъу (minibʁʷ) (1000 × 9)</dd> <dd><b>10000</b> минипщӏ (minipʃʼ) (1000 × 10)</dd> <dd><b>11000</b> минипщӀыкӀуз (minipʃʼəkʷʼəz) (1000 × 11)</dd> <dd><b>12000</b> минипщӀыкӀутIу (minipʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼ) (1000 × 12)</dd> <dd><b>20000</b> минитӀощӏ (minitʷʼaɕʼə) (1000 × 20)</dd> <dd><b>100000</b> минищэ (miniɕa) (1000 × 100)</dd> <dd><b>200000</b> минищитӀу (miniɕitʷʼ) (1000 × 200)</dd></dl> <p>When composed, the hundred word takes the -рэ (-ra) suffix, as well as the ten and the unit if any (e.g.: щэрэ зырэ (ɕara zəra) [101], щэрэ тIурэ (ɕara tʷʼəra) [102], щэрэ пщӀыкӀузырэ (pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼəra) [111], щитӀурэ щэщӀырэ плIырэ (ɕitʷʼəra ɕat͡ʃəra pɬʼəra) [234]). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ordinal_numbers">Ordinal numbers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Ordinal numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Except апэрэ/япэрэ – first (aːpara/jaːpara) are formed by prefix я- (jaː-) and suffix – нэрэ (- nara). For</li></ul> <p>example: ятIунэрэ – second (jaːtʷʼənara), ящынэрэ – third (jaːɕənara), яплIынэрэ – fourth (jaːpɬʼənara). </p> <dl><dd><b>first</b> – Япэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaːpa]</span></dd> <dd><b>second</b> – ЕтIуанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jatʼaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>third</b> – Ещанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaɕaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>firth</b> – Еянэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jajaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>tenth</b> – ЕпщIанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[japɕʼaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>eleventh</b> – ЕпщыкIузанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[japɕʼəkʷʼəzaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>sixteenth.</b> – ЕпщыкIуханэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[japɕʼəkʷʼəxaːna]</span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrete_numbers">Discrete numbers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Discrete numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Зырыз – in ones, one by one</dd> <dd>ТIурытI – in twos, two by two</dd> <dd>Щырыщ – in threes, three by three</dd> <dd>ПлIырыплI – in fours, four by four</dd> <dd>Тхурытху – in fives, five by five</dd> <dd>Хырых – in sixes, six by six</dd> <dd>Блырыбл – in sevens, seven by seven</dd> <dd>Ири – in eights, eight by eight</dd> <dd>Бгъурыбгъу – in nines, nine by nine</dd> <dd>ПщIырыпщI – in tens, ten by ten</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fractional_numbers">Fractional numbers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Fractional numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><b>half (1÷2)</b> – Ныкъуэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nəqʷa]</span></dd> <dd><b>one third (1÷3)</b> – щанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>two thirds (2÷3)</b> – щанитӏу <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕaːnitʷʼ]</span> (1÷3 × 2)</dd> <dd><b>one fourth (1÷4)</b> – плӀанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɬʼaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>two fourths (2÷4)</b> – плӀанитӏу <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɬʼaːnitʷʼ]</span> (1÷4 × 2)</dd> <dd><b>three fourths (3÷4)</b> – плӀанищ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɬʼaːniɕ]</span> (1÷4 × 3)</dd> <dd><b>one fifth (1÷5)</b> – тфанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tfaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one sixth (1÷6)</b> – ханэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one seventh (1÷7)</b> – бланэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[blaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one eighth (1÷8)</b> – янэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one ninth (1÷9)</b> – бгъуанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bʁʷaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one tenth (1÷10)</b> – пщӀанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʃʼaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one eleventh (1÷11)</b> – пщӀыкӏузанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʃʼəkʷʼəzaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one twelfth (1÷12)</b> – пщӀыкӏутӏуанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one twentieth (1÷20)</b> – тӏощӏанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʷʼaɕʼaːna]</span></dd> <dd><b>one hundredth (1÷100)</b> – щанэ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕaːna]</span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_language" title="Kabardian language">Kabardian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassia" title="Circassia">Circassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabardian_grammar&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Аркадьев, П. М.; Ландер, Ю. А.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. <i>Введение. Основные сведения об адыгейском языке</i> в кн.: "Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка" под ред.: П. М. Аркадьев, А. Б. Летучий, Н. Р. Сумбатова, Я. Г. Тестелец. Москва: РГГУ, 2009 (Arkadiev, P. M.; Lander, Yu. A.; Letuchiy, A. B.; Sumbatova, N. R.; Testelets, Ya. G. <i>Introduction. Basic information about Adyghe language</i> in "Aspects of polysyntheticity: studies on Adyghe grammar" edited by: P. M. Arkadiev, A. B. Letuchiy, N. R. Sumbatova, Ya. G. Testelets. Moscow, RGGU, 2009) (<b>in Russian</b>) <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_grammars" title="Template talk:Language grammars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_grammars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages1168" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">Grammars</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies">Phonologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><b>Grammars</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_grammar" title="Afrikaans grammar">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_grammar" title="Faroese grammar">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_grammar" title="Icelandic grammar">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language#Grammar" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_grammar" title="Colognian grammar">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_grammar" title="Swedish grammar">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_grammar" title="West Frisian grammar">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_grammar" title="Breton grammar">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_grammar" title="Cornish grammar">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_grammar" title="Welsh grammar">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloquial_Welsh_morphology" title="Colloquial Welsh morphology">colloquial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Welsh_morphology" title="Literary Welsh morphology">literary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_grammar" title="Catalan grammar">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_grammar" title="Dalmatian grammar">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_grammar" title="Istro-Romanian grammar">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a></li> <li>Lombard <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_grammar" title="Eastern Lombard grammar">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_grammar" title="Western Lombard grammar">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_grammar" title="Portuguese grammar">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_grammar" title="Spanish grammar">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grammar" title="Venetian grammar">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_grammar" title="Latvian grammar">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_grammar" title="Lithuanian grammar">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language#Grammar" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Morphology" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_grammar" title="Kurdish grammar">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sorani_grammar" title="Sorani grammar">Sorani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language#Grammar" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_grammar" title="Estonian grammar">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_grammar" title="Ingrian grammar">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_grammar" title="Komi grammar">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_grammar" title="Livonian grammar">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_grammar" title="Meänkieli grammar">Meänkieli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_grammar" title="Udmurt grammar">Udmurt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language#Grammar" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_grammar" title="Turkmen grammar">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_grammar" title="Uyghur grammar">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language#Grammar" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language#Grammar" title="Yakut language">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language#Grammar" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_grammar" title="Adyghe grammar">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_grammar" title="Basque grammar">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_grammar" title="Georgian grammar">Georgian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kabardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_grammar" title="Ubykh grammar">Ubykh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight_grammar" title="Central Atlas Tamazight grammar">Central Atlas Tamazight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_grammar" title="Kabyle grammar">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_grammar" title="Somali grammar">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language#Morphology" title="Fula language">Fula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pular_grammar" title="Pular grammar">Pular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_grammar" title="Otjiherero grammar">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_grammar" title="Sesotho grammar">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_grammar" title="Zulu grammar">Zulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Japanese grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language#Grammar" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_grammar" title="Burmese grammar">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzongkha grammar">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Tibetan_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Tibetan grammar">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Has_Hlai_grammar" title="Has Hlai grammar">Has Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_grammar" title="Lao grammar">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language#Grammar" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_grammar" title="Evenki grammar">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language#Grammar" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_grammar" title="Cebuano grammar">Cebuano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_grammar" title="Hawaiian grammar">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_grammar" title="Ilocano grammar">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_grammar" title="Massachusett grammar">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_grammar" title="Munsee grammar">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_grammar" title="Ojibwe grammar">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawat_grammar" title="Nawat grammar">Nawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language#Grammar" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> 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grammar">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BCvi_grammar" title="Naʼvi grammar">Naʼvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenya_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenya grammar">Quenya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_grammar" title="Esperanto grammar">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingua_grammar" title="Interlingua grammar">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingue_grammar" title="Interlingue grammar">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar" title="Lingua Franca Nova grammar">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Constructed_languages" 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