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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Different approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Different_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_global_North" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_global_North"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>In the global North</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_global_North-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_"Global_South"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_"Global_South""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>In the "Global South"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_"Global_South"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Vietnam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadtentwicklung" title="Stadtentwicklung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stadtentwicklung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desarrollo_comunitario" title="Desarrollo comunitario – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Desarrollo comunitario" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EB%8F%99%EC%B2%B4_%EA%B0%9C%EB%B0%9C" title="공동체 개발 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공동체 개발" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li 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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Community" title="Category:Community">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccf;padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">Community</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Noun_Project_Community_icon_627732.svg/100px-Noun_Project_Community_icon_627732.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Noun_Project_Community_icon_627732.svg/150px-Noun_Project_Community_icon_627732.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Noun_Project_Community_icon_627732.svg/200px-Noun_Project_Community_icon_627732.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender"> Academic studies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">Social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_practice" title="Community practice">Community practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_studies" title="Internet studies">Internet studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender"> Key concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_(sociology)" title="Affinity (sociology)">Affinity (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_engagement" title="Community engagement">Community engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_education" title="Community education">Community education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_cohesion" title="Community cohesion">Community cohesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_interest" title="Community of interest">Community of interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_practice" title="Community practice">Community practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">Community of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_place" title="Community of place">Community of place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_service" title="Community service">Community service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_politics" title="Community politics">Community politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">Group cohesiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Group (sociology)">Group (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">Group dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_community" title="Imagined community">Imagined community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosocial_behavior" title="Prosocial behavior">Prosocial behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_community" title="Sense of community">Sense of community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small-group_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-group communication">Small-group communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobornost" title="Sobornost">Sobornost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_death" title="Social death">Social death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_rejection" title="Social rejection">Social rejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_support" title="Social support">Social support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidarity (sociology)">Solidarity (sociology)</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Community development</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community-based_management" title="Community-based management">Community-based management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_building" title="Community building">Community building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_economic_development" title="Community economic development">Community economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_development_planning" title="Community development planning">Community development planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_organizing" title="Community organizing">Community organizing</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_community" title="Outline of community">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Community_building" title="Category:Community building">Category:Community building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Community_development" title="Category:Community development">Category:Community development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Localism_(politics)" title="Category:Localism (politics)">Category:Localism (politics)</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Community" title="Template:Community"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Community" title="Template talk:Community"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Community" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Community"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The United Nations defines <b>community development</b> as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems."<sup id="cite_ref-unterm_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unterm-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a broad concept, applied to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens, and professionals to improve various aspects of communities, typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities. </p><p>Community development is also understood as a professional discipline, and is defined by the International Association for Community Development as "a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes participative democracy, sustainable development, rights, economic opportunity, equality and social justice, through the organisation, education and empowerment of people within their communities, whether these be of locality, identity or interest, in urban and rural settings".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people with the skills they need to effect change within their communities. These skills are often created through the formation of social groups working for a common agenda. Community developers must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger <a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">social institutions</a>. </p><p><i>Community development</i> as a term has taken off widely in anglophone countries, i.e. the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, as well as other countries in the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>. It is also used in some countries in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> with active community development associations in <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>. The <i>Community Development Journal</i>, published by <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, since 1966 has aimed to be the major forum for research and dissemination of international community development theory and practice.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Community development approaches are recognised internationally. These methods and approaches have been acknowledged as significant for local social, economic, cultural, environmental and political development by such organisations as the UN, WHO, OECD, World Bank, Council of Europe and EU. There are a number of institutions of higher education offer community development as an area of study and research such as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a>, <a href="/wiki/SOAS_University_of_London" title="SOAS University of London">SOAS University of London</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Balsillie_School_of_International_Affairs" title="Balsillie School of International Affairs">Balsillie School of International Affairs</a>, among others. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are complementary definitions of community development. </p><p>The United Nations defines <i>community development</i> broadly as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems."<sup id="cite_ref-unterm_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unterm-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the International Association for Community Development defines it as both a practice based profession and an academic discipline. Following the adoption of the IACD definition in 2016, the association has gone on to produce International Standards for Community Development Practice. The values and ethos that should underpin practice can be expressed as: Commitment to rights, solidarity, democracy, equality, environmental and social justice. The purpose of community development is understood by IACD as being to work with communities to achieve participative democracy, sustainable development, rights, economic opportunity, equality and social justice. This practice is carried out by people in different roles and contexts, including people explicitly called professional <a href="/wiki/Community_Worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Community Worker">community workers</a> (and people taking on essentially the same role but with a different job title), together with professionals in other occupations ranging from <a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">social work</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adult_education" title="Adult education">adult education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Youth_work" title="Youth work">youth work</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_professional" title="Health professional">health disciplines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">environmental education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Local_economic_development" title="Local economic development">local economic development</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_regeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban regeneration">regeneration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a> and more who seek to apply community development values and adopt community development methods. Community development practice also encompasses a range of occupational settings and levels from development roles working with communities, through to managerial and strategic community planning roles. </p><p>The Community Development Challenge report, which was produced by a working party comprising leading UK organizations in the field including the (now defunct) Community Development Foundation, the (now defunct) <a href="/wiki/Community_Development_Exchange" title="Community Development Exchange">Community Development Exchange</a> and the (now defunct) Federation for Community Development Learning defines community development as: </p> <blockquote><p>A set of values and practices which plays a special role in overcoming poverty and disadvantage, knitting society together at <a href="/wiki/Grassroots_democracy" title="Grassroots democracy">the grass roots</a> and deepening democracy. There is a community development profession, defined by national occupational standards and a body of theory and experience going back the best part of a century. There are active citizens who use community development techniques on a voluntary basis, and there are also other professions and agencies which use a community development approach or some aspects of it.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Community Development Exchange defines community development as: </p> <blockquote><p>both an occupation (such as a community development worker in a local authority) and a way of working with communities. Its key purpose is to build communities based on justice, equality and mutual respect. </p><p>Community development involves changing the relationships between ordinary people and people in positions of power, so that everyone can take part in the issues that affect their lives. It starts from the principle that within any community there is a wealth of knowledge and experience which, if used in creative ways, can be channeled into collective action to achieve the communities' desired goals. </p><p> Community development practitioners work alongside people in communities to help build relationships with key people and organizations and to identify common concerns. They create opportunities for :the community to learn new skills and, by enabling people to act together, community development practitioners help to foster social inclusion and equality.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Different_approaches">Different approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Different approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are numerous overlapping approaches to community development. Some focus on the processes, some on the outcomes/ objectives. They include: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=ArtsAction_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ArtsAction Group (page does not exist)">Arts, Culture, and Development</a></b>; focuses on the role of arts and culture in community development, social transformation<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Community_Engagement" class="mw-redirect" title="Community Engagement">Community Engagement</a></b>; focuses on relationships at the core of facilitating "understanding and evaluation, involvement, exchange of information and opinions, about a concept, issue or project, with the aim of building social capital and enhancing social outcomes through decision-making” (p. 173).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Self-help" title="Self-help">Women Self-help Group</a></b>; focusing on the contribution of women in settlement groups.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Community <a href="/wiki/Capacity_building" title="Capacity building">capacity building</a></b>; focusing on helping communities obtain, strengthen, and maintain the ability to set and achieve their own development objectives.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Large_Group_Capacitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Large Group Capacitation">Large Group Capacitation</a></b>; an adult education and social psychology approach grounded in the activity of the individual and the social psychology of the large group focusing on large groups of unemployed or semi-employed participants, many of whom with Lower Levels of Literacy (LLLs).</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">Social capital</a> formation</b>; focusing on benefits derived from the cooperation between individuals and groups.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct Action">Nonviolent direct action</a></b>; when a group of people take action to reveal an existing problem, highlight an alternative, or demonstrate a possible solution to a social issue which is not being addressed through traditional societal institutions (governments, religious organizations or established trade unions) to the satisfaction of the direct action participants.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></b>, focusing on the "development" of <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> as measured by their economies, although it includes the processes and policies by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its people.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Community_economic_development" title="Community economic development">Community economic development</a></b> (CED); an alternative to conventional <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> which encourages using local resources in a way that enhances economic outcomes while improving social conditions. For example, CED involves strategies which aim to improve access to affordable housing, medical, and child care.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Worker_cooperative" title="Worker cooperative">worker cooperative</a> is a progressive CED strategy that operates as businesses both managed and owned by their employees. They are beneficial due to their potential to create jobs and providing a route for grassroots political action. Some challenges that the worker cooperative faces include the mending of the cooperative’s identity as both business and as a democratic humanitarian organization. They are limited in resources and scale.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></b>; which seeks to achieve, in a balanced manner, economic development, social development and environmental protection outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Community-driven_development" title="Community-driven development">Community-driven development</a></b> (CDD), an <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> model which shifts overreliance on central governments to local communities.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Asset-based_community_development" title="Asset-based community development">Asset-based community development</a></b> (ABCD); is a methodology that seeks to uncover and use the strengths within communities as a means for sustainable development.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Faith-based community development</b>; which utilizes faith-based organizations to bring about community development outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Community-based_participatory_research" title="Community-based participatory research">Community-based participatory research</a></b> (CBPR); a partnership approach to <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> that equitably involves, for example, <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">community</a> members, organizational representatives, and researchers in all aspects of the research process and in which all partners contribute expertise and share decision making and ownership, which aims to integrate this knowledge with community development outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Community_organizing" title="Community organizing">Community organizing</a></b>; an approach that generally assumes that social change necessarily involves conflict and social struggle in order to generate collective power for the powerless.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Participatory_planning" title="Participatory planning">Participatory planning</a></b> including community-based planning (CBP); involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>; or, community-level planning processes, urban or rural.<sup id="cite_ref-REFALPHA_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-REFALPHA-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McTague,_C._2013_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McTague,_C._2013-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Town-making</b>; or machizukuri (まちづくり) refers to a Japanese concept which is "an umbrella term generally understood as citizen participation in the planning and management of a living environment".<sup id="cite_ref-Posio_2018_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Posio_2018-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can include redevelopment, revitalization, and post-disaster reconstruction, and usually emphasizes the importance of local citizen participation. In recent years, cooperation between local communities and contents tourism (such as video games, anime, and manga) has also become a key driver of machizukuri in some local communities, such as the tie-up between CAPCOM's Sengoku Basara and the city of Shiroishi.<sup id="cite_ref-Yamamura_2018_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamamura_2018-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a></b> focuses on the use of a language so that it serves the needs of a community. This may involve the creation of books, films and other media in the language. These actions help a small language community to preserve their language and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Methodologies focusing on the educational component of community development, including the community-wide empowerment that increased educational opportunity creates.</li> <li>Methodologies addressing the issues and challenges of the <a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a>, making affordable training and access to computers and the Internet, addressing the marginalisation of local communities that cannot connect and participate in the global <a href="/wiki/Online_community" title="Online community">Online community</a>. In the United States, nonprofit organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Per_Scholas" title="Per Scholas"><i>Per</i> Scholas</a> seek to “break the cycle of poverty by providing education, technology and economic opportunities to individuals, families and communities” as a path to development for the communities they serve.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>There are a myriad of job titles for community development workers and their employers include public authorities and voluntary or non-governmental organisations, funded by the state and by independent grant making bodies. Since the nineteen seventies the prefix word 'community' has also been adopted by several other occupations from the police and health workers to planners and architects, who have been influenced by community development approaches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amongst the earliest community development approaches were those developed in Kenya and British East Africa during the 1930s. Community development practitioners have over many years developed a range of approaches for working within local communities and in particular with disadvantaged people. Since the nineteen sixties and seventies through the various anti poverty programmes in both developed and developing countries, community development practitioners have been influenced by structural analyses as to the causes of disadvantage and poverty i.e. inequalities in the distribution of wealth, income, land, etc. and especially political power and the need to mobilise people power to affect social change. Thus the influence of such educators as <a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a> and his focus upon this work. Other key people who have influenced this field are <a href="/wiki/Saul_Alinsky" title="Saul Alinsky">Saul Alinsky</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rules_for_Radicals" title="Rules for Radicals">Rules for Radicals</a>) and <a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">E. F. Schumacher</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Small_Is_Beautiful" title="Small Is Beautiful">Small Is Beautiful</a></i>). There are a number of international organisations that support community development, for example, <a href="/wiki/Oxfam" title="Oxfam">Oxfam</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Hunger_Project" title="The Hunger Project">The Hunger Project</a> and Freedom from Hunger, run community development programs based upon community development initiatives for relief and prevention of malnutrition. Since 2006 the Dragon Dreaming Project Management techniques have spread to 37 countries and are engaged in an estimated 3,250 projects worldwide. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_global_North">In the global North</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In the global North"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 19th century, the work of the Welsh early <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> thinker <a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</a> (1771–1851), sought to develop a more perfect community. At <a href="/wiki/New_Lanark" title="New Lanark">New Lanark</a> and at later communities such as <a href="/wiki/Oneida_Community" title="Oneida Community">Oneida</a> in the USA and the <a href="/wiki/New_Australia_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="New Australia Movement">New Australia Movement</a> in Australia, groups of people came together to create <a href="/wiki/Utopian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopian">utopian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intentional_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Intentional communities">intentional communities</a>, with mixed success. Some such communities, formed <i>ex nihilo</i>, contrast the concepts of the development of a community at a later stage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States in the 1960s, the term "community development" began to complement and generally replace the idea of <a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">urban renewal</a>, which typically focused on physical development projects - often at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class"> working-class</a> communities. One of the earliest proponents of the term in the United States was social scientist <a href="/wiki/William_W._Biddle" title="William W. Biddle">William W. Biddle</a> (100-1973).<sup id="cite_ref-in_memoriam_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-in_memoriam-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1960s, philanthropies such as the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Foundation" title="Ford Foundation">Ford Foundation</a> and government officials such as Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> took an interest in local nonprofit organizations. A pioneer was the <a href="/wiki/Bedford_Stuyvesant_Restoration_Corporation" title="Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation">Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation</a> in Brooklyn, which attempted to apply <a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_skills&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Business skills (page does not exist)"> business</a> and <a href="/wiki/Management_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Management skills">management skills</a> to the social mission of uplifting low-income residents and their neighborhoods. Eventually such groups became known as "<a href="/wiki/Community_development_corporation" title="Community development corporation">Community development corporations</a>" or CDCs. Federal laws, beginning with the 1974 <a href="/wiki/Housing_and_Community_Development_Act_of_1974" title="Housing and Community Development Act of 1974">Housing and Community Development Act</a>, provided a way for state and municipal governments to channel funds to CDCs and to other <a href="/wiki/Non-profit_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit organization">nonprofit organizations</a>. </p><p>National organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Neighborhood_Reinvestment_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neighborhood Reinvestment Corporation">Neighborhood Reinvestment Corporation</a> (founded in 1978 and known since 2005 as <a href="/wiki/NeighborWorks_America" title="NeighborWorks America">NeighborWorks America</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Local_Initiatives_Support_Corporation" title="Local Initiatives Support Corporation">Local Initiatives Support Corporation</a> (LISC) (founded in 1980), and the <a href="/wiki/Enterprise_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterprise Foundation">Enterprise Foundation</a> (founded in 1981) have built extensive networks of affiliated local <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonprofit">nonprofit</a> organizations to which they help provide financing for numerous physical- and <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change"> social-development</a> programs in urban and <a href="/wiki/Types_of_rural_communities" title="Types of rural communities">rural communities</a>. The CDCs and similar organizations have been credited by some with starting the process that stabilized and revived seemingly hopeless <a href="/wiki/Inner-city" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner-city">inner-city</a> areas such as <a href="/wiki/South_Bronx" title="South Bronx">the South Bronx</a> in New York City. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the UK, community development has had two main traditions. The first was as an approach for preparing for the <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation">independence</a> of countries from the former <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in the 1950s and 1960s. Domestically, community development first came into public prominence with the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)"> Labour</a> Government's anti deprivation programmes of the latter 1960s and 1970s. The main example of this activity, the CDP (Community Development Programme), piloted local area-based community development. This influenced a number of largely urban local authorities, in particular in Scotland with <a href="/wiki/Strathclyde" title="Strathclyde">Strathclyde</a> Region's major community-development programme (the largest at the time in Europe). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gulbenkian_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulbenkian Foundation">Gulbenkian Foundation</a> was a key funder of commissions and reports which influenced the development of community development in the UK from the latter 1960s to the 1980s. This included recommending that there be a national institute or centre for community development, able to support practice and to advise government and local authorities on policy. This resulted in the forma establishment in 1991 of the Community Development Foundation. In 2004 the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_United_Kingdom_Trust" title="Carnegie United Kingdom Trust"> Carnegie UK Trust</a> established a commission of inquiry into the future of rural community development, examining such issues as land reform and climate change. Carnegie funded over sixty rural community-development <a href="/wiki/Action_research" title="Action research"> action-research</a> projects across the UK and Ireland and national and international communities of practice to exchange experiences. This included the International Association for Community Development (IACD). </p><p>In 1999 the <a href="/wiki/First_Blair_ministry" title="First Blair ministry">Labour Government</a> established a UK-wide organisation responsible for setting <a href="/wiki/Professional_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional training"> professional-training</a> standards for all education and development practitioners working within local communities. This organisation, PAULO – the National Training Organisation for Community Learning and Development, was named after <a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a> (1921-1997). It was formally recognised by <a href="/wiki/David_Blunkett" title="David Blunkett">David Blunkett</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Education_and_Employment" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State for Education and Employment">Secretary of State for Education and Employment</a>. Its first chair was Charlie McConnell, the Chief Executive of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Community_Education_Council" title="Scottish Community Education Council">Scottish Community Education Council</a>, who had played a lead role in bringing together a range of occupational interests under a single national-training standards body, including <a href="/wiki/Community_education" title="Community education">community education</a>, community development and development education. The inclusion of community development was significant as it was initially uncertain as to whether it would join the National Training Organisation (NTO) for Social Care. The Community Learning and Development NTO represented all the main employers, trades unions, professional associations and national-development agencies working in this area across the four nations of the UK. </p><p>The new body used the wording "community learning and development" to acknowledge that all of these occupations worked primarily within local communities, and that this work encompassed not just providing less formal learning support but also a concern for the wider holistic development of those communities – socio-economically, environmentally, culturally and politically. By bringing together these occupational groups this created for the first time a single recognised employment-sector of nearly 300,000 full- and part-time paid staff within the UK, approximately 10% of these staff being full-time. The NTO continued to recognise the range of occupations within it, for example specialists who work primarily with young people, but all agreed that they shared a core set of professional approaches to their work. In 2002 the NTO became part of a wider <a href="/wiki/Sector_skills_council" title="Sector skills council"> Sector Skills Council</a> for lifelong learning. </p><p>The UK currently hosts the only global network of practitioners and activists working towards social justice through community development approach, the International Association for Community Development (IACD).<sup id="cite_ref-IACD_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IACD-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IACD, formed in the USA in 1953, moved to Belgium in 1978 and was restructured and relaunched in Scotland in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-IACDhistory_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IACDhistory-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Community development in Canada has roots in the development of co-operatives, <a href="/wiki/Credit_union" title="Credit union">credit unions</a> and <i>caisses populaires</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Antigonish_Movement" title="Antigonish Movement">Antigonish Movement</a> which started in the 1920s in <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, through the work of Doctor <a href="/wiki/Moses_Coady" title="Moses Coady">Moses Coady</a> and Father <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Tompkins_(priest)" title="Jimmy Tompkins (priest)">James Tompkins</a>, has been particularly influential in the subsequent expansion of community economic development work across Canada. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Community development in Australia has often focussed on <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal Australian">Aboriginal Australian</a> communities, and during the period of the 1980s to the early 21st century funds channelled through the Community Employment Development Program, where Aboriginal people could be employed in "a work for the dole" scheme, gave the chance for non-government organisations to apply for a full or part-time worker funded by the Department for Social Security. Dr Jim Ife, formerly of <a href="/wiki/Curtin_University" title="Curtin University">Curtin University</a>, organised a ground-breaking text-book on community development.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_"Global_South""><span id="In_the_.22Global_South.22"></span>In the "Global South"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In the "Global South""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Community planning techniques drawing on the history of utopian movements became important in the 1920s and 1930s in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Africa">East Africa</a>, where community development proposals were seen as a way of helping local people improve their own lives with indirect assistance from colonial authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mohandas K. Gandhi</a> adopted African community development ideals as a basis of his South African Ashram, and then introduced it as a part of the Indian <a href="/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">Swaraj</a> movement, aiming at establishing <a href="/wiki/Economic_interdependence" title="Economic interdependence">economic interdependence</a> at village level throughout India. With <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Indian independence</a>, despite the continuing work of <a href="/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a> in encouraging <a href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">grassroots</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a>, India under its first Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> adopted a mixed-economy approach, mixing elements of socialism and capitalism. During the fifties and sixties, India ran a massive community development programme with focus on rural development activities through government support. This was later expanded in scope and was called integrated rural development scheme [IRDP]. A large number of initiatives that can come under the community development umbrella have come up in recent years. </p><p>The main objective of community development in India remains to develop the villages and to help the villagers help themselves to fight against poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, etc. The beauty of Indian model of community development lies in the homogeneity of villagers and high level of participation. </p><p>Community development became a part of the <a href="/wiki/Arusha_Declaration" title="Arusha Declaration">Ujamaa Villages</a> established in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a>, where it had some success in assisting with the delivery of education services throughout rural areas, but has elsewhere met with mixed success. In the 1970s and 1980s, community development became a part of "Integrated Rural Development", a strategy promoted by <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> Agencies and <a href="/wiki/World_Bank_Group" title="World Bank Group">the World Bank</a>. Central to these policies of community development were: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Adult literacy</a> programs, drawing on the work of Brazilian educator <a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a> and the "<a href="/wiki/Each_One_Teach_One" class="mw-redirect" title="Each One Teach One">Each One Teach One</a>" adult literacy teaching method conceived by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Laubach" title="Frank Laubach">Frank Laubach</a>.</li> <li>Youth and women's groups, following the work of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Serowe_Brigades&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serowe Brigades (page does not exist)">Serowe Brigades</a> of <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091125064832/http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_1=au&ERICExtSearch_Operator_1=OR&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_1=%22Van+Rensburg+Patrick%22&searchtype=authors%7CMr">Patrick van Rensburg</a>.</li> <li>Development of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_business_ventures&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Community business ventures (page does not exist)">community business ventures</a> and particularly <a href="/wiki/Cooperatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperatives">cooperatives</a>, in part drawn on the examples of <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Arizmendiarrieta" title="José María Arizmendiarrieta">José María Arizmendiarrieta</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mondrag%C3%B3n_Cooperative_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mondragón Cooperative Corporation">Mondragon Cooperatives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Basque_Country_(autonomous_community)" title="Basque Country (autonomous community)">Basque</a> region of Spain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_education" title="Compensatory education">Compensatory education</a> for those missing out in the <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">formal education</a> system, drawing on the work of <a href="/wiki/Open_educational_resources" title="Open educational resources">Open Education</a> as pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Young,_Baron_Young_of_Dartington" title="Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington">Michael Young</a>.</li> <li>Dissemination of <a href="/wiki/Alternative_technology" title="Alternative technology">alternative technologies</a>, based upon the work of <a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">E. F. Schumacher</a> as advocated in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Small_Is_Beautiful:_A_Study_of_Economics_As_If_People_Mattered" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered">Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered</a></i></li> <li>Village nutrition programs and <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">permaculture</a> projects, based upon the work of Australians <a href="/wiki/Bill_Mollison" title="Bill Mollison">Bill Mollison</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Holmgren" title="David Holmgren">David Holmgren</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Village water supply</a> programs</li></ul> <p>In the 1990s, following critiques of the mixed success of "top down" government programs, and drawing on the work of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Putnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Putnam">Robert Putnam</a>, in the rediscovery of <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a>, community development internationally became concerned with social capital formation. In particular the outstanding success of the work of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Yunus" title="Muhammad Yunus">Muhammad Yunus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Grameen_Bank" title="Grameen Bank">Grameen Bank</a> from its inception in 1976, has led to the attempts to spread <a href="/wiki/Microcredit" title="Microcredit">microenterprise credit</a> schemes around the world. Yunus saw that social problems like poverty and disease were not being solved by the market system on its own. Thus, he established a banking system which lends to the poor with very little interest, allowing them access to entrepreneurship.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work was honoured by the 2006 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>. </p><p>Another alternative to "top down" government programs is the participatory government institution. Participatory governance institutions are organizations which aim to facilitate the participation of citizens within larger decision making and action implementing processes in society. A case study done on municipal councils and social housing programs in Brazil found that the presence of participatory governance institutions supports the implementation of poverty alleviation programs by local governments.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Human_scale_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Human scale development">human scale development</a>" work of <a href="/wiki/Right_Livelihood_Award" title="Right Livelihood Award">Right Livelihood Award</a>-winning Chilean economist <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Max_Neef" class="mw-redirect" title="Manfred Max Neef">Manfred Max Neef</a> promotes the idea of development based upon fundamental human needs, which are considered to be limited, universal and invariant to all human beings (being a part of our human condition). He considers that <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a> results from the failure to satisfy a particular human need, it is not just an absence of money. Whilst human needs are limited, Max Neef shows that the ways of satisfying human needs is potentially unlimited. Satisfiers also have different characteristics: they can be violators or destroyers, pseudosatisfiers, inhibiting satisfiers, singular satisfiers, or synergic satisfiers. Max-Neef shows that certain satisfiers, promoted as satisfying a particular need, in fact inhibit or destroy the possibility of satisfying other needs: e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">arms race</a>, while ostensibly satisfying the need for protection, in fact then destroys subsistence, participation, affection and freedom; <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">formal democracy</a>, which is supposed to meet the need for participation often disempowers and <a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">alienates</a>; commercial <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, while used to satisfy the need for <a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">recreation</a>, interferes with understanding, creativity and identity. <a href="/wiki/Synergy" title="Synergy">Synergic</a> satisfiers, on the other hand, not only satisfy one particular need, but also lead to satisfaction in other areas: some examples are <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>; self-managed production; <a href="/wiki/Popular_education" title="Popular education">popular education</a>; democratic <a href="/wiki/Community_organization" title="Community organization">community organizations</a>; <a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">preventative medicine</a>; meditation; educational games. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Community development in India was initiated by Government of India through Community Development Programme (<a href="/wiki/Community_development_block_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Community development block in India">CDP</a>) in 1952. The focus of CDP was on rural communities. But, professionally trained social workers concentrated their practice in urban areas. Thus, although the focus of community organization was rural, the major thrust of Social Work gave an urban character which gave a balance in service for the program.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vietnam">Vietnam</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vietnam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>International organizations apply the term community in Vietnam to the local administrative unit, each with a traditional identity based on traditional, cultural, and kinship relations.<sup id="cite_ref-Yen_329–340_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yen_329–340-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Community development strategies in Vietnam aim to organize communities in ways that increase their capacities to partner with institutions, the participation of local people, transparency and equality, and unity within local communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Yen_329–340_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yen_329–340-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social and economic development planning (SDEP) in Vietnam uses top-down centralized planning methods and decision-making processes which do not consider local context and local participation. The plans created by SDEP are ineffective and serve mainly for administrative purposes. Local people are not informed of these development plans.<sup id="cite_ref-Yen_329–340_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yen_329–340-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Participatory_rural_appraisal" title="Participatory rural appraisal">participatory rural appraisal</a> (PRA) approach, a research methodology that allows local people to share and evaluate their own life conditions, was introduced to Vietnam in the early 1990s to help reform the way that government approaches local communities and development. <a href="/wiki/Participatory_rural_appraisal" title="Participatory rural appraisal">PRA</a> was used as a tool for mostly outsiders to learn about the local community, which did not effect substantial change.<sup id="cite_ref-academic.oup.com_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The village/<a href="/wiki/Commune_(Vietnam)" title="Commune (Vietnam)">commune</a> development (VDP/CDP) approach was developed as a more fitting approach than <a href="/wiki/Participatory_rural_appraisal" title="Participatory rural appraisal">PRA</a> to analyze local context and address the needs of rural communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Yen_329–340_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yen_329–340-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> VDP/CDP participatory planning is centered around Ho Chi Minh's saying that "People know, people discuss and people supervise."<sup id="cite_ref-academic.oup.com_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> VDP/CDP is often useful in Vietnam for shifting centralized management to more decentralization, helping develop local governance at the grassroots level.<sup id="cite_ref-academic.oup.com_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Local people use their knowledge to solve local issues.<sup id="cite_ref-academic.oup.com_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They create mid-term and yearly plans that help improve existing community development plans with the support of government organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-academic.oup.com_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although VDP/CDP has been tested in many regions in Vietnam, it has not been fully implemented for a couple reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-academic.oup.com_31-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The methods applied in VDP/CDP are human resource and capacity building intensive, especially at the early stages. It also requires the local people to have an "initiative-taking" attitude. People in the remote areas where VDP/CDP has been tested have mostly passive attitudes because they already receive assistance from outsiders.<sup id="cite_ref-academic.oup.com_31-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There also are no sufficient monitoring practices to ensure effective plan implementation. Integrating VDP/CDP into the governmental system is difficult because the Communist Party and Central government's policies on decentralization are not enforced in reality.<sup id="cite_ref-academic.oup.com_31-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">Non-governmental organizations</a> (NGO) in Vietnam, legalized in 1991, have claimed goals to develop <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a>, which was essentially nonexistent prior to the <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Đổi Mới</a> economic reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-:052_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:052-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NGO operations in Vietnam do not exactly live up to their claimed goals to expand civil society.<sup id="cite_ref-:222_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:222-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:052_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:052-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is mainly due to the fact that NGOs in Vietnam are mostly donor-driven, urban, and elite-based organizations that employ staff with ties to the Communist Party and Central government.<sup id="cite_ref-:222_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:222-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NGOs are also overlooked by the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Fatherland_Front" title="Vietnamese Fatherland Front">Vietnam Fatherland Front</a>, an umbrella organization that reports observations directly to the Party and Central government.<sup id="cite_ref-:052_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:052-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since NGOs in Vietnam are not entirely non-governmental, they have been coined instead as 'VNGOs.'<sup id="cite_ref-:052_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:052-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most VNGOs have originated from either the state, hospital or university groups, or individuals not previously associated with any groups.<sup id="cite_ref-:052_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:052-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> VNGOs have not yet reached those most in need, such as the rural poor, due to the entrenched power networks' opposition to lobbying for issues such the rural poor's land rights.<sup id="cite_ref-:222_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:222-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a> is prevalent in nearly all Vietnamese civic organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Authoritarian practices are more present in inner-organizational functions than in organization leaders' worldviews.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These leaders often reveal both authoritarian and libertarian values in contradiction.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Representatives of Vietnam's NGO's stated that disagreements are normal, but conflicts within an organization should be avoided, demonstrating the one-party "sameness" mentality of authoritarian rule.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_building" title="Community building">Community building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_communities" title="Complete communities">Complete communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_education" title="Community education">Community education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_engagement" title="Community engagement">Community engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_practice" title="Community practice">Community practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_workshop" title="Organization workshop">Organization workshop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_community_development" title="Rural community development">Rural community development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">Urbanism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-unterm-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-unterm_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-unterm_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714225617/http://unterm.un.org/DGAACS/unterm.nsf/8fa942046ff7601c85256983007ca4d8/526c2eaba978f007852569fd00036819?OpenDocument">"Community development"</a>. <i>UNTERM</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-05-06</span></span> – via School of Oriental and African Studies, London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Development+and+Change&rft.atitle=Creating+Civil+Society%3F+The+Emergence+of+NGOs+in+Vietnam&rft.date=1999-10&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.michaelgray.ca%2Fwriting%2Farticles%2FVNGO.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunity+development" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:222-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:222_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:222_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:222_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMercer2002" class="citation journal cs1">Mercer, Clare (2002). "NGOs, civil society and democratization: a critical review of the literature". <i>Progress in Development Studies</i>. <b>2</b>: 5–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1191%2F1464993402ps027ra">10.1191/1464993402ps027ra</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154384357">154384357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Development+Studies&rft.atitle=NGOs%2C+civil+society+and+democratization%3A+a+critical+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=5-22&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1191%2F1464993402ps027ra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154384357%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mercer&rft.aufirst=Clare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunity+development" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWischermann2013" class="citation journal cs1">Wischermann, Jorg (July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.giga-hamburg.de/de/publication/civic-organizations-in-vietnams-one-party-state-supporters-of-authoritarian-rule">"Civic Organizations in Vietnam's One-Party State: Supporters of Authoritarian Rule?"</a>. <i>GIGA Working Papers</i>. <b>228</b> – via German Institute of Global and Area Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GIGA+Working+Papers&rft.atitle=Civic+Organizations+in+Vietnam%27s+One-Party+State%3A+Supporters+of+Authoritarian+Rule%3F&rft.volume=228&rft.date=2013-07&rft.aulast=Wischermann&rft.aufirst=Jorg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.giga-hamburg.de%2Fde%2Fpublication%2Fcivic-organizations-in-vietnams-one-party-state-supporters-of-authoritarian-rule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunity+development" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li>Briggs, Xavier de Souza, and Elizabeth Mueller and Mercer Sullivan, From Neighborhood to Community: Evidence on the Social Effects of Community Development Corporation. Community Development Research Center, 1997.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ferguson_(economist)" title="Ronald Ferguson (economist)">Ferguson, Ronald F.</a> and William T. Dickens, eds., Urban Problems and Community Development. <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a> Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8157-1875-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8157-1875-6">0-8157-1875-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-1875-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-1875-8">978-0-8157-1875-8</a></li> <li>Grogan, Paul and Tony Proscio, Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival. Westview Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-3952-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-3952-9">0-8133-3952-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3952-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3952-8">978-0-8133-3952-8</a></li> <li>von Hoffman, Alexander, House by House, Block by Block: The Rebirth of America's Urban Neighborhoods. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2003, Ppbck. ed., 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-517614-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-517614-6">0-19-517614-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517614-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517614-8">978-0-19-517614-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamesNadarajahHaiveStead2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a>; Nadarajah, Yaso; Haive, Karen; Stead, Victoria (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3230875"><i>Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea</i></a> (PDF). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sustainable+Communities%2C+Sustainable+Development%3A+Other+Paths+for+Papua+New+Guinea&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Nadarajah%2C+Yaso&rft.au=Haive%2C+Karen&rft.au=Stead%2C+Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3230875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunity+development" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingslowHorton1998" class="citation cs2">Kingslow, Marcia E.; Horton, Carol (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kingslow-assoc.com/images/AssetBldg___CommDev.pdf"><i>An Overview of the Major Asset Building and Community Development Literatures</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Chicago, IL: Kingslow Associates<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Overview+of+the+Major+Asset+Building+and+Community+Development+Literatures&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pub=Kingslow+Associates&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Kingslow&rft.aufirst=Marcia+E.&rft.au=Horton%2C+Carol&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kingslow-assoc.com%2Fimages%2FAssetBldg___CommDev.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunity+development" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMageeJamesScerri2012" class="citation journal cs1">Magee, Liam; <a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a>; Scerri, Andy (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/5178539">"Measuring Social Sustainability: A Community-Centred Approach"</a>. <i>Applied Research in the Quality of Life</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 239–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11482-012-9166-x">10.1007/s11482-012-9166-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145257262">145257262</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Research+in+the+Quality+of+Life&rft.atitle=Measuring+Social+Sustainability%3A+A+Community-Centred+Approach&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=239-61&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11482-012-9166-x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145257262%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Magee&rft.aufirst=Liam&rft.au=James%2C+Paul&rft.au=Scerri%2C+Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F5178539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunity+development" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>McConnell, Charlie, Community Learning and Development: The Making of an Empowering Profession. Community Learning Scotland/PAULO, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0%2B947919%2B75%2B9" title="Special:BookSources/0+947919+75+9">0 947919 75 9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilverman2003" class="citation journal cs1">Silverman, Robert Mark (2003). "Progressive Reform, Gender, and Institutional Structure: A Critical Analysis of Citizen Participation in Detroit's Community Development Corporations (CDCs)". <i>Urban Studies</i>. <b>40</b> (13): 2731–2750. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0042098032000146867">10.1080/0042098032000146867</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145732284">145732284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Urban+Studies&rft.atitle=Progressive+Reform%2C+Gender%2C+and+Institutional+Structure%3A+A+Critical+Analysis+of+Citizen+Participation+in+Detroit%27s+Community+Development+Corporations+%28CDCs%29&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=2731-2750&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0042098032000146867&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145732284%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Silverman&rft.aufirst=Robert+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunity+development" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSloman,_Annie2012" class="citation journal cs1">Sloman, Annie (January 2012). "Using Participatory Theatre in International Community Development". <i>Community Development Journal</i>. <b>47</b> (1): 42–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcdj%2Fbsq059">10.1093/cdj/bsq059</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Community+Development+Journal&rft.atitle=Using+Participatory+Theatre+in+International+Community+Development&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42-57&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcdj%2Fbsq059&rft.au=Sloman%2C+Annie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunity+development" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <ul><li>Towards Shared International Standards for Community Development Practice. IACD. 2018</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Community_development&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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