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<li id="toc-Ancient_times_and_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_times_and_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ancient times and Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_times_and_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-15th_to_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#15th_to_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>15th to 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-15th_to_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Modern conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_parks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_parks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>National parks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_parks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation_and_preservation_in_20th_century_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation_and_preservation_in_20th_century_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Conservation and preservation in 20th century United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation_and_preservation_in_20th_century_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_wilderness_designations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_wilderness_designations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Formal wilderness designations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formal_wilderness_designations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formal wilderness designations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formal_wilderness_designations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>International</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Finland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Western Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>International movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Extent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Critique</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Critique-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Critique subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human–nature_dichotomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human–nature_dichotomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Human–nature dichotomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human–nature_dichotomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Documentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Documentaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Wilderness</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="برية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="برية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamingawan" title="Kamingawan – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kamingawan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vildmark" title="Vildmark – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vildmark" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildnis" title="Wildnis – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wildnis" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Crgloodus" title="Ürgloodus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ürgloodus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturaleza_salvaje" title="Naturaleza salvaje – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Naturaleza salvaje" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sova%C4%9Dejo" title="Sovaĝejo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sovaĝejo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_eremu" title="Basa eremu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Basa eremu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%D8%AA_%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%B4" title="طبیعت وحش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="طبیعت وحش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalit%C3%A9_(environnement)" title="Naturalité (environnement) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Naturalité (environnement)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%A9%EB%AC%B4%EC%A7%80" title="황무지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="황무지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daji" title="Daji – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daji" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divljina" title="Divljina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Divljina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Czara" title="Ọzara – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ọzara" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alam_liar" title="Alam liar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alam liar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%AD%C3%B0erni" title="Víðerni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Víðerni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_(ecologia)" title="Wilderness (ecologia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Wilderness (ecologia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%96%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%98%D7%91%D7%A2_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%99" title="אזור טבע בראשיתי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אזור טבע בראשיתי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrlaukis" title="Tyrlaukis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tyrlaukis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadon" title="Vadon – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vadon" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alam_liar" title="Alam liar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Alam liar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildernis_(natuur)" title="Wildernis (natuur) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wildernis (natuur)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E7%94%9F%E5%9C%B0%E5%9F%9F" title="原生地域 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原生地域" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villmark" title="Villmark – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Villmark" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%DA%93%DB%90_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%85%DB%90" title="شاړې سيمې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="شاړې سيمې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzicz" title="Dzicz – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dzicz" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natureza_selvagem" title="Natureza selvagem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Natureza selvagem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%83lb%C4%83ticie" title="Sălbăticie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sălbăticie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Дикие земли – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дикие земли" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natyra_e_eg%C3%ABr" title="Natyra e egër – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Natyra e egër" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Wilderness" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divjina" title="Divjina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Divjina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%99%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Дивљина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Дивљина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Er%C3%A4maa" title="Erämaa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Erämaa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vildmark" title="Vildmark – Swedish" lang="sv" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about wildland. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/The_Wilderness_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="The Wilderness (disambiguation)">The Wilderness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilderness_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Wilderness (disambiguation)">Wilderness (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Wildness" title="Wildness">Wildness</a> or <a href="/wiki/The_bush" title="The bush">The bush</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rockymountainnps_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Rockymountainnps_%281%29.jpg/220px-Rockymountainnps_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Rockymountainnps_%281%29.jpg/330px-Rockymountainnps_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Rockymountainnps_%281%29.jpg/440px-Rockymountainnps_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/White_Goat_Wilderness_Area" title="White Goat Wilderness Area">White Goat Wilderness Area</a> in <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Rockies" title="Canadian Rockies">Canadian Rockies</a>, Canada</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Little_Beaver_valley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Little_Beaver_valley.jpg/220px-Little_Beaver_valley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Little_Beaver_valley.jpg/330px-Little_Beaver_valley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Little_Beaver_valley.jpg/440px-Little_Beaver_valley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1311" data-file-height="886" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Mather_Wilderness" title="Stephen Mather Wilderness">Stephen Mather Wilderness</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> state of <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Innoko_Wilderness.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Innoko_Wilderness.jpg/220px-Innoko_Wilderness.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Innoko_Wilderness.jpg/330px-Innoko_Wilderness.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Innoko_Wilderness.jpg/440px-Innoko_Wilderness.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="698" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Innoko_Wilderness" title="Innoko Wilderness">Innoko Wilderness</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> state of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> in the summer</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Wilderness</b> or <b>wildlands</b> (usually in the <a href="/wiki/Plurale_tantum" title="Plurale tantum">plural</a>) are <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth's</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environments</a> that have not been significantly modified by <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">human activity</a>, or any <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">nonurbanized</a> <a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">land</a> not under extensive <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term has traditionally referred to terrestrial environments, though <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">growing attention</a> is being placed on <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine wilderness</a>. Recent maps of wilderness<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggest it covers roughly one-quarter of Earth's terrestrial surface, but is being rapidly degraded by human activity.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even less wilderness remains in the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>, with only 13.2% free from intense human activity.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some governments establish protection for <b>wilderness areas</b> by law to not only <a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">preserve what already exists</a>, but also to promote and advance a natural expression and development. These can be set up in preserves, conservation preserves, national forests, national parks and even in urban areas along rivers, <a href="/wiki/Gulch" title="Gulch">gulches</a> or otherwise undeveloped areas. Often these areas are considered important for the survival of certain <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, ecological studies, <a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">conservation</a>, solitude and <a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">recreation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may also preserve historic <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> traits and provide habitat for wild <a href="/wiki/Flora_(plants)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora (plants)">flora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna_(animals)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna (animals)">fauna</a> that may be difficult to recreate in <a href="/wiki/Zoo" title="Zoo">zoos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arboretum" title="Arboretum">arboretums</a> or <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratories</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_times_and_Middle_Ages">Ancient times and Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient times and Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From a visual arts perspective, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of <a href="/wiki/Landscape_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Landscape art">landscape art</a> occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Tang_Dynasty_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Tang Dynasty art">Tang Dynasty</a> (618–907). The tradition of representing nature <i>as it is</i> became one of the aims of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_painting" title="Chinese painting">Chinese painting</a> and was a significant influence in Asian art. Artists in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Shan_shui" title="Shan shui">Shan shui</a> (lit. <i>mountain-water-picture</i>), learned to depict mountains and rivers "from the perspective of nature as a whole and on the basis of their understanding of the laws of nature<span class="nowrap"> </span>… as if seen through the eyes of a bird". In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting "scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For most of <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>, the greater part of Earth's terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated on settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire and Chinese Empire. <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>, the Great <a href="/wiki/Mauryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan">Mauryan</a> King, defined the first laws in the world to protect <a href="/wiki/Flora_and_fauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora and fauna">flora and fauna</a> in <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Edicts of Ashoka</a> around the 3rd century B.C. In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of England">Kings of England</a> initiated one of the world's first conscious efforts to protect natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunt</a> wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness. Nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and the land from villagers gathering firewood.<sup id="cite_ref-History_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar measures were introduced in other European countries. </p><p>However, in European cultures, throughout the Middle Ages, wilderness generally was not regarded worth protecting but rather judged strongly negative as a dangerous place and as a moral counter-world to the realm of culture and godly life.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirchhoff_pp.443_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirchhoff_pp.443-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "While archaic nature religions oriented themselves towards nature, in medieval Christendom this orientation was replaced by one towards divine law. The divine was no longer to be found in nature; instead, uncultivated nature became a site of the sinister and the demonic. It was considered corrupted by <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">the Fall</a> (<i>natura lapsa</i>), becoming a vale of tears in which humans were doomed to live out their existence. Thus, for example, mountains were interpreted [e.g, by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Burnet_(theologian)" title="Thomas Burnet (theologian)">Thomas Burnet</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>] as ruins of a once flat earth destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a>, with the seas as the remains of that Flood."<sup id="cite_ref-Kirchhoff_pp.443_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirchhoff_pp.443-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "If <a href="/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">paradise</a> was early man's greatest good, wilderness, as its antipode, was his greatest evil."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="15th_to_19th_century">15th to 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 15th to 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wilderness was viewed by colonists as being evil in its resistance to their control.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">puritanical</a> view of wilderness meant that in order for colonists to be able to live in North America, they had to destroy the wilderness in order to make way for their '<a href="/wiki/Civilized" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilized">civilized</a>' society.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilderness was considered to be the root of the colonists' problems, so to make the problems go away, wilderness needed to be destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the first steps in doing this, is to <a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">get rid of trees</a> in order to clear the land.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Military metaphors describing the wilderness as the "enemy" were used, and settler expansion was phrased as "[conquering] the wilderness".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In relation to the wilderness, <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> were viewed as <a href="/wiki/Savage_(pejorative_term)" title="Savage (pejorative term)">savages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relationship between Native Americans and the land was something colonists did not understand and did not try to understand.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mutually beneficial relationship was different from how colonists viewed the land only in relation to how it could benefit themselves by waging a constant battle to beat the land and other living organisms into submission.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The belief colonists had of the land being only something to be used was based in Christian ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the earth and animals and plants were created by a Christian God for human use, then the cultivation by colonists was their God-given goal.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the idea that what European colonists saw upon arriving in North America was pristine and devoid of humans is untrue due to the existence of Native Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land was shaped by Native Americans through practices such as fires.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burning happened frequently and in a controlled manner.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The landscapes seen in the US today are very different from the way things looked before colonists came.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Fire</a> could be used to maintain food, cords, and baskets.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the main roles of frequent fires was to prevent the out of control fires which are becoming more and more common.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of wilderness having <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsic value</a> emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western world</a> in the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a> artists <a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">John Constable</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a> turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Prior to that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings. <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>'s poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture.<sup id="cite_ref-History_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the mid-19th century, in Germany, "Scientific Conservation", as it was called, advocated "the efficient utilization of <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a> through the application of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>". Concepts of <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a> based on the German approach were applied in other parts of the world, but with varying degrees of success.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilderness_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilderness-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of the 19th century wilderness became viewed not as a place to fear but a place to enjoy and protect; hence came the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation movement</a> in the latter half of the 19th century. Rivers were rafted and mountains were climbed solely for the sake of recreation, not to determine their geographical context. </p><p>In 1861, following an intense lobbying by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Barbizon_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbizon school">Barbizon school</a>, the French Waters and Forests Military Agency set an "artistic reserve" in <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_Fontainebleau" title="Forest of Fontainebleau">Fontainebleau State Forest</a>. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is thought to be the first <a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">nature reserve</a> in the world.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_conservation">Modern conservation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Global conservation became an issue at the time of the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> in the late 1940s. The British established great <a href="/wiki/Nature_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature reserves">wildlife preserves</a> there. As before, this interest in conservation had an economic motive: in this case, <a href="/wiki/Big-game_hunter" class="mw-redirect" title="Big-game hunter">big game hunting</a>. Nevertheless, this led to growing recognition in the 1950s and the early 1960s of the need to protect large spaces for wildlife conservation worldwide. The <a href="/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wildlife Fund">World Wildlife Fund</a> (WWF), founded in 1961, grew to be one of the largest conservation organizations in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-History_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early conservationists advocated the creation of a legal mechanism by which boundaries could be set on human activities in order to preserve natural and unique lands for the enjoyment and use of future generations. This profound shift in wilderness thought reached a pinnacle in the US with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Wilderness_Act" title="Wilderness Act">Wilderness Act</a> of 1964, which allowed for parts of <a href="/wiki/U.S._National_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. National Forest">U.S. National Forests</a> to be designated as "wilderness preserves". Similar acts, such as the 1975 <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wilderness_Areas_Act" title="Eastern Wilderness Areas Act">Eastern Wilderness Areas Act</a>, followed. </p><p>Nevertheless, initiatives for wilderness conservation continue to increase. There are a growing number of projects to <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest_conservation" title="Tropical rainforest conservation">protect tropical rainforests</a> through conservation initiatives. There are also large-scale projects to conserve wilderness regions, such as Canada's <a href="/wiki/Boreal_Forest_Conservation_Framework" title="Boreal Forest Conservation Framework">Boreal Forest Conservation Framework</a>. The Framework calls for conservation of 50 percent of the 6,000,000 square kilometres of boreal forest in Canada's north.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the World Wildlife Fund, organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Conservation_Society" title="Wildlife Conservation Society">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>, the <a href="/wiki/WILD_Foundation" title="WILD Foundation">WILD Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_Conservancy" title="The Nature Conservancy">The Nature Conservancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_International" title="Conservation International">Conservation International</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Wilderness_Society_(United_States)" title="The Wilderness Society (United States)">The Wilderness Society (United States)</a> and many others are active in such conservation efforts. </p><p>The 21st century has seen another slight shift in wilderness thought and theory. It is now understood that simply drawing lines around a piece of land and declaring it a wilderness does not necessarily make it a wilderness. All <a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">landscapes</a> are intricately connected and what happens outside a wilderness certainly affects what happens inside it. For example, <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> from <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> and the California Central Valley affects Kern Canyon and <a href="/wiki/Sequoia_National_Park" title="Sequoia National Park">Sequoia National Park</a>. The national park has miles of "wilderness" but the air is filled with pollution from the valley. This gives rise to the paradox of what a wilderness really is; a key issue in 21st century wilderness thought. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ahja_j%C3%B5e_%C3%BCrgorg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ahja_j%C3%B5e_%C3%BCrgorg.jpg/1144px-Ahja_j%C3%B5e_%C3%BCrgorg.jpg" decoding="async" width="1144" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ahja_j%C3%B5e_%C3%BCrgorg.jpg/1716px-Ahja_j%C3%B5e_%C3%BCrgorg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ahja_j%C3%B5e_%C3%BCrgorg.jpg/2288px-Ahja_j%C3%B5e_%C3%BCrgorg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6700" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A view of wilderness in Estonia</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_parks">National parks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: National parks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Toro_Wilderness.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/El_Toro_Wilderness.jpg/260px-El_Toro_Wilderness.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/El_Toro_Wilderness.jpg/390px-El_Toro_Wilderness.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/El_Toro_Wilderness.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="303" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/El_Toro_Wilderness" title="El Toro Wilderness">El Toro Wilderness</a> within the <a href="/wiki/El_Yunque_National_Forest" title="El Yunque National Forest">El Yunque National Forest</a> in <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The creation of <a href="/wiki/National_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="National Park">national parks</a>, beginning in the 19th century, preserved some especially attractive and notable areas, but the pursuits of <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle (sociology)">lifestyle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">recreation</a> combined with increases in <a href="/wiki/Human_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population">human population</a> have continued to result in human modification of relatively untouched areas. Such human activity often negatively impacts native flora and fauna. As such, to better protect critical habitats and preserve low-impact recreational opportunities, legal concepts of "wilderness" were established in many countries, beginning with the United States (see below). </p><p>The first National Park was <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellowstone">Yellowstone</a>, which was signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant on 1 March 1872.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Act of Dedication declared Yellowstone a land "hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When national parks were established in an area, the Native Americans that had been living there were forcibly removed so visitors to the park could see nature without humans present.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> National parks are seen as areas untouched by humans, when in reality, humans existed in these spaces, until settler colonists came in and forced them off their lands in order to create the national parks.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept glorifies the idea that before settlers came, the US was an uninhabited landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This erases the reality of Native Americans, and their relationship with the land and the role they had in shaping the landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such erasure suggests there were areas of the US which were historically unoccupied, once again erasing the existence of Native Americans and their relationship to the land.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of Yellowstone, the Grand Canyon, and Yosemite, the 'preservation' of these lands by the US government was what caused the Native Americans who lived in the areas to be systematically removed.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian Mark David Spence has shown that the case of Glacier National Park and the Blackfeet people who live there is a perfect example of such erasure.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Blackfeet people had specifically designated rights to the area, but the 1910 Glacier National Park act made void those rights.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The act of 'preserving' the land was specifically linked to the exclusion of the Blackfeet people.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The continued resistance of the Blackfeet people has provided documentation of the importance of the area to many different tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The world's second national park, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_National_Park" title="Royal National Park">Royal National Park</a>, located just 32 km to the south of <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, was established in 1879.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The U.S. concept of national parks soon caught on in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, which created <a href="/wiki/Banff_National_Park" title="Banff National Park">Banff National Park</a> in 1885, at the same time as the transcontinental <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a> was being built. The creation of this and other parks showed a growing appreciation of wild nature, but also an economic reality. The railways wanted to entice people to travel west. Parks such as Banff and Yellowstone gained favor as the railroads advertised travel to "the great wild spaces" of North America. When outdoorsman Teddy Roosevelt became president of the United States, he began to enlarge the U.S. National Parks system, and established the National Forest system.<sup id="cite_ref-History_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1920s, travel across North America by train to experience the "wilderness" (often viewing it only through windows) had become very popular. This led to the commercialization of some of <a href="/wiki/National_Parks_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="National Parks of Canada">Canada's National Parks</a> with the building of great hotels such as the <a href="/wiki/Banff_Springs_Hotel" title="Banff Springs Hotel">Banff Springs Hotel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chateau_Lake_Louise" title="Chateau Lake Louise">Chateau Lake Louise</a>. </p><p>Despite their similar name, national parks in <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> are quite different from <a href="/wiki/National_park" title="National park">national parks</a> in many other countries. Unlike most other countries, in England and Wales, designation as a national park may include substantial settlements and human land uses which are often integral parts of the landscape, and land within a national park remains largely in private ownership. Each park is operated by its own <a href="/wiki/National_park_authority" title="National park authority">national park authority</a>. </p><p>The United States philosophy around wilderness preservation through National Parks has been attempted in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, people living in those countries have different ideas surrounding wilderness than people in the United States, thus, the US concept of wilderness can be damaging in other areas of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India is more densely populated and has been settled for a long time.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are complex relationships between agricultural communities and the wilderness.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this is the Project Tiger parks in India.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By claiming areas as no longer used by humans, the land moves from the hands of poor people to rich people.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having designated tiger reserves is only possible by displacing poor people, who were not involved in the planning of the areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This situation places the ideal of wilderness above the already existing relationships between people and the land they live on.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By placing an imperialistic ideal of nature onto a different country, the desire to reestablish wilderness is being put above the lives of those who live by working the land.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conservation_and_preservation_in_20th_century_United_States">Conservation and preservation in 20th century United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Conservation and preservation in 20th century United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the late 19th century, it had become clear that in many countries wild areas had either disappeared or were in danger of disappearing. This realization gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation movement</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, partly through the efforts of writers and activists such as <a href="/wiki/John_Burroughs" title="John Burroughs">John Burroughs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Muir" title="John Muir">John Muir</a>, and politicians such as <a href="/wiki/U.S._President" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. President">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Teddy Roosevelt</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cook_Lake_Bridger_Wilderness.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Cook_Lake_Bridger_Wilderness.jpg/280px-Cook_Lake_Bridger_Wilderness.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Cook_Lake_Bridger_Wilderness.jpg/420px-Cook_Lake_Bridger_Wilderness.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Cook_Lake_Bridger_Wilderness.jpg/560px-Cook_Lake_Bridger_Wilderness.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Cook Lake in the Bridger Wilderness, <a href="/wiki/Bridger-Teton_National_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridger-Teton National Forest">Bridger-Teton National Forest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>, U.S.</figcaption></figure> <p>The idea of protecting nature for nature's sake began to gain more recognition in the 1930s with American writers like <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a>, calling for a "land ethic" and urging wilderness protection. It had become increasingly clear that wild spaces were disappearing rapidly and that decisive action was needed to save them. Wilderness preservation is central to <a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">deep ecology</a>; a philosophy that believes in an inherent worth of all living beings, regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs.<sup id="cite_ref-barry_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-barry-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two different groups had emerged within the US environmental movement by the early 20th century: the conservationists and the preservationists. The initial consensus among conservationists was split into "utilitarian conservationists" later to be referred to as conservationists, and "aesthetic conservationists" or preservationists. The main representative for the former was <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a>, first Chief of the United States Forest Service, and they focused on the <i>proper use of nature,</i> whereas the preservationists sought the <i>protection of nature from use.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Wilderness_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilderness-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Put another way, conservation sought to regulate human use while preservation sought to eliminate human impact altogether. The management of US public lands during the years 1960s and 70s reflected these dual visions, with conservationists dominating the Forest Service, and preservationists the Park Service<sup id="cite_ref-Young_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_wilderness_designations">Formal wilderness designations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Formal wilderness designations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International">International</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: International"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Conservation_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="World Conservation Union">World Conservation Union</a> (IUCN) classifies wilderness at two levels, 1a (<a href="/wiki/Strict_nature_reserve" title="Strict nature reserve">strict nature reserves</a>) and 1b (Wilderness areas).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There have been recent calls for the World Heritage Convention to better protect wilderness<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to include the word wilderness in their selection criteria for Natural Heritage Sites </p><p>Forty-eight countries have wilderness areas established via legislative designation as IUCN protected area management Category 1b sites that do not overlap with any other IUCN designation. They are: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Canada, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Finland, French Guiana, Greenland, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Norway, Northern Mariana Islands, Portugal, Seychelles, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Tanzania, United States of America, and Zimbabwe. At publication, there are 2,992 marine and terrestrial wilderness areas registered with the IUCN as solely Category 1b sites.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Twenty-two other countries have wilderness areas. These wilderness areas are established via administrative designation or wilderness zones within protected areas. Whereas the above listing contains countries with wilderness exclusively designated as Category 1b sites, some of the below-listed countries contain protected areas with multiple management categories including Category 1b. They are: Argentina, Bhutan, Brazil, Chile, Honduras, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nepal, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Venezuela, and Zambia.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The German National Strategy on Biological Diversity aims to establish wilderness areas on 2% of its terrestrial territory by 2020 (7,140 km<sup>2</sup>). However, protected wilderness areas in Germany currently only cover 0.6% of the total terrestrial area. In absence of pristine landscapes, Germany counts national parks (IUCN Category II) as wilderness areas.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government counts the whole area of the 16 national parks as wilderness. This means, also the managed parts are included in the "existing" 0,6%. There is no doubt, that Germany will miss its own time-dependent quantitative goals, but there are also some critics, that point a bad designation practice: Findings of disturbance ecology, according to which process-based nature conservation and the 2% target could be further qualified by more targeted area designation, pre-treatment and introduction of <a href="/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna">megaherbivores</a>, are widely neglected.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2019 the government supports bargains of land that will then be designated as wilderness by 10 Mio. Euro annually.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German minimum size for wilderness candidate sites is normally 10 km<sup>2</sup>. In some cases (i.e. swamps) the minimum size is 5 km<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finland">Finland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Finland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wilderness_areas_of_Finland" title="Wilderness areas of Finland">Wilderness areas of Finland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsarmitunturin_er%C3%A4maata_07.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tsarmitunturin_er%C3%A4maata_07.JPG/220px-Tsarmitunturin_er%C3%A4maata_07.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tsarmitunturin_er%C3%A4maata_07.JPG/330px-Tsarmitunturin_er%C3%A4maata_07.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tsarmitunturin_er%C3%A4maata_07.JPG/440px-Tsarmitunturin_er%C3%A4maata_07.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tsarmitunturi_Wilderness_Area" title="Tsarmitunturi Wilderness Area">Tsarmitunturi Wilderness Area</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There are twelve wilderness areas in the <a href="/wiki/Sami_native_region_(Finland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sami native region (Finland)">Sami native region</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Lapland,_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Lapland, Finland">Finnish Lapland</a>. They are intended both to preserve the wilderness character of the areas and further the traditional livelihood of the Sami people. This means e.g. that reindeer husbandry, hunting and taking wood for use in the household is permitted. As population is very sparse, this is generally no big threat to the nature. Large scale reindeer husbandry has influence on the ecosystem, but no change is introduced by the act on wilderness areas. The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) classifies the areas as "VI Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 1861, the French Waters and Forests Military Agency (Administration des Eaux et Forêts) put a strong protection on what was called the « artistic reserve » in Fontainebleau State Forest. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is known to be the first World nature reserve. </p><p>Then in the 1950s,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Integral Biological Reserves (Réserves Biologiques Intégrales, RBI) are dedicated to man free ecosystem evolution, on the contrary of Managed Biological reserves (Réserves Biologiques Dirigées, RBD) where a specific management is applied to conserve vulnerable species or threatened habitats. </p><p>Integral Biological Reserves occurs in French State Forests or City Forests and are therefore managed by the <a href="/wiki/National_Forests_Office_(France)" title="National Forests Office (France)">National Forests Office</a>. In such reserves, all harvests coupe are forbidden excepted exotic species elimination or track safety works to avoid fallen tree risk to visitors (already existing tracks in or on the edge of the reserve). </p><p>At the end of 2014,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there were 60 Integral Biological Reserves in French State Forests for a total area of 111,082 hectares and 10 in City Forests for a total of 2,835 hectares. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece">Greece</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Greece" title="National parks of Greece">National parks of Greece</a></div> <p>In Greece there are some parks called "ethniki drimoi" (εθνικοί δρυμοί, national forests) that are under protection of the Greek government. Such parks include <a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Olympus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Parnassus" title="Mount Parnassus">Parnassos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parnitha" title="Parnitha">Parnitha</a> National Parks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Self-contradictory plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Accuracy dispute"><img alt="Exclamation mark with arrows pointing at each other" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Ambox_contradict.svg/38px-Ambox_contradict.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Ambox_contradict.svg/57px-Ambox_contradict.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Ambox_contradict.svg/76px-Ambox_contradict.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>appears to contradict itself</b> <b>on the number of areas</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please see the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Wilderness" title="Talk:Wilderness">talk page</a> for more information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There are seven Wilderness Areas in New Zealand as defined by the <a href="/wiki/National_Parks_Act_1980_(New_Zealand)" title="National Parks Act 1980 (New Zealand)">National Parks Act 1980</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_Act_1987" title="Conservation Act 1987">Conservation Act 1987</a> that fall well within the IUCN definition. Wilderness areas cannot have any human intervention and can only have indigenous species re-introduced into the area if it is compatible with conservation management strategies. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> wilderness areas are remote blocks of land that have high natural character.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Conservation_Act_1987" title="Conservation Act 1987">Conservation Act 1987</a> prevents any access by vehicles and livestock, the construction of tracks and buildings, and all indigenous natural resources are protected.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are generally over 400 km<sup>2</sup> in size.<sup id="cite_ref-lmolloy_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lmolloy-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three Wilderness Areas are currently recognised, all on the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Region" title="West Coast Region">West Coast</a>: Adams Wilderness Area, Hooker/Landsborough Wilderness Area and Paparoa Wilderness Area.<sup id="cite_ref-NZ_Gazetteer_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NZ_Gazetteer-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Wilderness_Preservation_System" title="National Wilderness Preservation System">National Wilderness Preservation System</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image-Great_Swamp_National_Wildlife_Refuge_New_Jersey03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Image-Great_Swamp_National_Wildlife_Refuge_New_Jersey03.jpg/250px-Image-Great_Swamp_National_Wildlife_Refuge_New_Jersey03.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Image-Great_Swamp_National_Wildlife_Refuge_New_Jersey03.jpg/375px-Image-Great_Swamp_National_Wildlife_Refuge_New_Jersey03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Image-Great_Swamp_National_Wildlife_Refuge_New_Jersey03.jpg/500px-Image-Great_Swamp_National_Wildlife_Refuge_New_Jersey03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The Great Swamp of New Jersey, donated for federal protection by concerned residents, was designated as the first wilderness refuge in the United States in 1960</figcaption></figure> <p>In the United States, a Wilderness Area is an area of federal land set aside by an <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">act of Congress</a>. It is typically at least 5,000 acres (about 8 mi<sup>2</sup> or 20 km<sup>2</sup>) in size.<sup id="cite_ref-Pulaski_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pulaski-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human activities in wilderness areas are restricted to scientific study and non-mechanized recreation; horses are permitted but mechanized vehicles and equipment, such as cars and bicycles, are not. </p><p>The United States was one of the first countries to officially designate land as "wilderness" through the <a href="/wiki/Wilderness_Act" title="Wilderness Act">Wilderness Act</a> of 1964. The Wilderness Act is an important part of wilderness designation because it created the legal definition of wilderness and established the National Wilderness Preservation System. The Wilderness Act defines wilderness as "an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilderness designation helps preserve the natural state of the land and protects flora and fauna by prohibiting development and providing for non-mechanized recreation only. </p><p>The first administratively protected wilderness area in the United States was the Gila National Forest. In 1922, <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a>, then a ranking member of the U.S. Forest Service, proposed a new management strategy for the Gila National Forest. His proposal was adopted in 1924, and 750,000 acres of the Gila National Forest became the <a href="/wiki/Gila_Wilderness" title="Gila Wilderness">Gila Wilderness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Great_Swamp_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge">The Great Swamp in New Jersey</a> was the first formally designated wilderness refuge in the United States. It was declared a wildlife refuge on 3 November 1960. In 1966 it was declared a <a href="/wiki/National_Natural_Landmark" title="National Natural Landmark">National Natural Landmark</a> and, in 1968, it was given wilderness status. Properties in the swamp had been acquired by a small group of residents of the area, who donated the assembled properties to the federal government as a park for perpetual protection. Today the refuge amounts to 7,600 acres (31 km<sup>2</sup>) that are within thirty miles of <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Latir_Peak_Wilderness.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Latir_Peak_Wilderness.jpg/250px-Latir_Peak_Wilderness.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Latir_Peak_Wilderness.jpg/375px-Latir_Peak_Wilderness.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Latir_Peak_Wilderness.jpg/500px-Latir_Peak_Wilderness.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Latir_Peak_Wilderness" title="Latir Peak Wilderness">Latir Peak Wilderness</a>, in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While wilderness designations were originally granted by an Act of Congress for Federal land that retained a "primeval character", meaning that it had not suffered from human habitation or development, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wilderness_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Wilderness Act">Eastern Wilderness Act</a> of 1975 extended the protection of the NWPS to areas in the eastern states that were not initially considered for inclusion in the Wilderness Act. This act allowed lands that did not meet the constraints of size, roadlessness, or human impact to be designated as wilderness areas under the belief that they could be returned to a "primeval" state through preservation.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Approximately 107,500,000 acres (435,000 km<sup>2</sup>) are designated as wilderness in the United States. This accounts for 4.82% of the country's total land area; however, 54% of that amount is found in Alaska (recreation and development in Alaskan wilderness is often less restrictive), while only 2.58% of the lower continental United States is designated as wilderness. As of 2023 there are <a href="/wiki/List_of_wilderness_areas_of_the_United_States" title="List of wilderness areas of the United States">806 designated wilderness areas</a> in the United States ranging in size from Florida's <a href="/wiki/Pelican_Island_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge">Pelican Island</a> at 5 acres (20,000 m<sup>2</sup>) to Alaska's Wrangell-Saint Elias at 9,078,675 acres (36,740.09 km<sup>2</sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Australia">Western Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Western Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Western Australia,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a wilderness area is an area that has a wilderness quality rating of 12 or greater and meets a minimum size threshold of 80 km<sup>2</sup> in temperate areas or 200 km<sup>2</sup> in arid and tropical areas. A wilderness area is gazetted under section 62(1)(a) of the Conservation and Land Management Act 1984 by the Minister on any land that is vested in the Conservation Commission of Western Australia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_movement">International movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: International movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monument_Valley_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Monument_Valley_2.jpg/250px-Monument_Valley_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Monument_Valley_2.jpg/375px-Monument_Valley_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Monument_Valley_2.jpg/500px-Monument_Valley_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1022" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monument_Valley" title="Monument Valley">Monument Valley</a> in <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At the forefront of the international wilderness movement has been The <a href="/wiki/WILD_Foundation" title="WILD Foundation">WILD Foundation</a>, its founder <a href="/wiki/Ian_Player" title="Ian Player">Ian Player</a> and its network of sister and partner organizations around the globe. The pioneer World Wilderness Congress in 1977 introduced the wilderness concept as an issue of international importance, and began the process of defining the term in biological and social contexts. Today, this work is continued by many international groups who still look to the World Wilderness Congress as the international venue for wilderness and to The WILD Foundation network for wilderness tools and action. The WILD Foundation also publishes the standard references for wilderness professionals and others involved in the issues: <i>Wilderness Management: Stewardship and Protection of Resources and Values</i>, the <i>International Journal of Wilderness</i>, <i>A Handbook on International Wilderness Law and Policy</i> and <i>Protecting Wild Nature on Native Lands</i> are the backbone of information and management tools for international wilderness issues. </p><p>The Wilderness Specialist Group within the <a href="/wiki/World_Commission_on_Protected_Areas" title="World Commission on Protected Areas">World Commission on Protected Areas</a> (WTF/WCPA) of the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) plays a critical role in defining legal and management guidelines for wilderness at the international level and is also a clearing-house for information on wilderness issues.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IUCN Protected Areas Classification System defines wilderness as "A large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition (<a href="/wiki/Strict_nature_reserve" title="Strict nature reserve">Category 1b</a>)." The WILD Foundation founded the WTF/WCPA in 2002 and remains co-chair. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extent">Extent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Extent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Togiak_Wilderness.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Togiak_Wilderness.jpg/250px-Togiak_Wilderness.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Togiak_Wilderness.jpg/375px-Togiak_Wilderness.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Togiak_Wilderness.jpg/500px-Togiak_Wilderness.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ahklun_Mountains" title="Ahklun Mountains">Ahklun Mountains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Togiak_Wilderness" class="mw-redirect" title="Togiak Wilderness">Togiak Wilderness</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Togiak_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Togiak National Wildlife Refuge">Togiak National Wildlife Refuge</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> state of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The most recent efforts to map wilderness<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> show that less than one quarter (~23%) of the world's wilderness area now remains, and that there have been catastrophic declines in wilderness<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> extent over the last two decades. Over 3 million square kilometers (10 percent) of wilderness was converted to human land-uses. The Amazon and Congo rain forests suffered the most loss. Human pressure is extending into almost every corner of the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss of wilderness could have serious implications for biodiversity conservation. </p><p>According to a previous study, <i>Wilderness: Earth's Last Wild Places,</i> carried out by <a href="/wiki/Conservation_International" title="Conservation International">Conservation International</a>, 46% of the world's land mass is wilderness. For purposes of this report, "wilderness" was defined as an area that "has 70% or more of its original vegetation intact, covers at least 10,000 square kilometers (3,900 sq mi) and must have fewer than five people per square kilometer."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, an <a href="/wiki/IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a>/<a href="/wiki/UNEP" class="mw-redirect" title="UNEP">UNEP</a> report published in 2003, found that only 10.9% of the world's land mass is currently a Category 1 <a href="/wiki/Protected_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected Area">Protected Area</a>, that is, either a <i><a href="/wiki/Strict_nature_reserve" title="Strict nature reserve">strict nature reserve</a></i> (5.5%) or <i>protected wilderness</i> (5.4%).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such areas remain relatively untouched by humans. Of course, there are large tracts of lands in national parks and other protected areas that would also qualify as wilderness. However, many protected areas have some degree of human modification or activity, so a definitive estimate of true wilderness is difficult. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Conservation_Society" title="Wildlife Conservation Society">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> generated a <i>human footprint</i> using a number of indicators, the absence of which indicate wildness: human population density, human access via roads and rivers, human infrastructure for agriculture and settlements and the presence of industrial power (lights visible from space). The society estimates that 26% of the Earth's land mass falls into the category of "Last of the wild." The wildest regions of the world include the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a>, the Australia <a href="/wiki/Outback" title="Outback">Outback</a> and deserts such as the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gobi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gobi">Gobi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, from the 1970s, numerous <a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">geoglyphs</a> have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, leading to claims about <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian</a> civilizations.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BBC's <i><a href="/wiki/Unnatural_Histories_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Unnatural Histories (TV series)">Unnatural Histories</a></i> claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as <a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">forest gardening</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">terra preta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The percentage of land area designated wilderness does not necessarily reflect a measure of its <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. Of the last natural wilderness areas, the taiga—which is mostly wilderness—represents 11% of the total land mass in the Northern Hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Tropical rainforest</a> represent a further 7% of the world's land base.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of the Earth's remaining wilderness underscore the rate at which these lands are being developed, with dramatic declines in biodiversity as a consequence. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critique">Critique</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cedar_Mtn_Wilderness.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Cedar_Mtn_Wilderness.jpg/250px-Cedar_Mtn_Wilderness.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Cedar_Mtn_Wilderness.jpg/375px-Cedar_Mtn_Wilderness.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Cedar_Mtn_Wilderness.jpg/500px-Cedar_Mtn_Wilderness.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1467" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cedar_Mountain_Wilderness" title="Cedar Mountain Wilderness">Cedar Mountain Wilderness</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The American concept of wilderness has been criticized by some nature writers. For example, <a href="/wiki/William_Cronon" title="William Cronon">William Cronon</a> writes that what he calls a wilderness ethic or cult may "teach us to be dismissive or even contemptuous of such humble places and experiences", and that "wilderness tends to privilege some parts of nature at the expense of others", using as an example "the mighty canyon more inspiring than the humble marsh."<sup id="cite_ref-Cronon_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronon-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is most clearly visible with the fact that nearly all U.S. National Parks preserve spectacular canyons and mountains, and it was not until the 1940s that a swamp became a national park—<a href="/wiki/The_Everglades" class="mw-redirect" title="The Everglades">the Everglades</a>. In the mid-20th century national parks started to protect <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, not simply attractive scenery. </p><p>Cronon also believes the passion to save wilderness "poses a serious threat to responsible <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a>" and writes that it allows people to "give ourselves permission to evade responsibility for the lives we actually lead<span class="nowrap"> </span>... to the extent that we live in an urban-industrial civilization but at the same time pretend to ourselves that our real home is in the wilderness".<sup id="cite_ref-Cronon_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronon-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Pollan" title="Michael Pollan">Michael Pollan</a> has argued that the wilderness ethic leads people to dismiss areas whose wildness is less than absolute. In his book <i>Second Nature</i>, Pollan writes that "once a landscape is no longer 'virgin' it is typically written off as fallen, lost to nature, irredeemable."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another challenge to the conventional notion of wilderness comes from Robert Winkler in his book, <i>Going Wild: Adventures with Birds in the Suburban Wilderness</i>. "On walks in the unpeopled parts of the suburbs," Winkler writes, "I’ve witnessed the same wild creatures, struggles for survival, and natural beauty that we associate with true wilderness."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attempts have been made, as in the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Scenic_Rivers" title="Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers">Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers</a> Act, to distinguish "wild" from various levels of human influence: in the Act, "wild rivers" are "not impounded", "usually not accessible except by trail", and their watersheds and shorelines are "essentially primitive".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another source of criticism is that the criteria for wilderness designation is vague and open to interpretation. For example, the Wilderness Act states that wilderness must be roadless. The definition given for roadless is "the absences of roads which have been improved and maintained by mechanical means to insure relatively regular and continuous use".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there have been added sub-definitions that have, in essence, made this standard unclear and open to interpretation, and some are drawn to narrowly exclude existing roads. </p><p>Coming from a different direction, some criticism from the <a href="/wiki/Deep_Ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep Ecology">Deep Ecology</a> movement argues against conflating "wilderness" with "wilderness reservations", viewing the latter term as an oxymoron that, by allowing the law as a human construct to define nature, unavoidably voids the very freedom and independence of human control that defines wilderness.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> True wilderness requires the ability of life to undergo <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a> with as little interference from humanity as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">Anthropologist</a> and scholar on wilderness Layla Abdel-Rahim argues that it is necessary to understand the principles that govern the economies of mutual aid and diversification in wilderness from a non-anthropocentric perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others have criticized the American concept of wilderness as rooted in <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>, ignoring Native American perspectives on the natural environment and excluding people of color from narratives about human interactions with the environment. Many early conservationists, such as <a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a>, were also heavily involved in the <a href="/wiki/Eugenics_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugenics movement">eugenics movement</a>. Grant, who worked alongside President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> to create the <a href="/wiki/Bronx_Zoo" title="Bronx Zoo">Bronx Zoo</a>, also wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race">The Passing of the Great Race</a></i>, a book on eugenics that was later praised by Adolf Hitler. Grant is also known to have featured <a href="/wiki/Ota_Benga" title="Ota Benga">Ota Benga</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mbuti" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbuti">Mbuti</a> man from Central Africa, in the Bronx Zoo monkey house exhibit.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Muir" title="John Muir">John Muir</a>, another important figure in the early conservation movement, referred to African-Americans as "making a great deal of noise and doing little work", and compared Native Americans to unclean animals who did not belong in the wilderness.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental history professor Miles A. Powell of Nanyang Technological University has argued that much of the early conservation movement was deeply tied to and inspired by a desire to preserve the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_race" title="Nordic race">Nordic race</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prakash Kashwan, a political science professor at the University of Connecticut who specializes in environmental policies and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a>, argues that the racist ideas of many early conservationists created a narrative of wilderness that has led to "fortress conservation" policies that have driven Native Americans off of their land. Kashwan has proposed conservation practices that would allow Indigenous people to continue using the land as a more just and more effective alternative to fortress conservation.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea that the natural world is primarily made up of remote wilderness areas has also been criticized as classist, with environmental sociologist <a href="/wiki/Dorceta_Taylor" title="Dorceta Taylor">Dorceta Taylor</a> arguing that this leads to experiencing wilderness becoming a privilege, as working-class people are often unable to afford transportation to wilderness areas. She further argues that, due to poverty and lack of access to transportation caused by <a href="/wiki/Systemic_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic racism">systemic racism</a>, this perception is also rooted in racism.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human–nature_dichotomy"><span id="Human.E2.80.93nature_dichotomy"></span>Human–nature dichotomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Human–nature dichotomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another critique of wilderness is that it perpetuates the human-nature dichotomy. The idea that nature and humans are separate entities can be traced back to European colonial views. To European settlers, land was an inherited right and was to be used to profit.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While native groups saw their relationship with the land in a more holistic view, they were eventually subjected to European property systems.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonists from Europe saw the American landscape as wild, savage, dark, [etc.] and thus needed to be tamed in order for it to be safe and habitable. Once cleared and settled, these areas were depicted as "Eden itself".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet the native peoples of those lands saw "wilderness" as that when the connection between humans and nature is broken.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For native communities, human intervention was a part of their ecological practices. </p><p>There is a historical belief that wilderness must not only be tamed to be protected but that humans also need to be outside of it.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to clear certain areas for conservation, such as national parks, involved the removal of native communities from their land.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors have come to describe this type of conservation as conservation-far, where humans and nature are kept separate. The other end of the conservation spectrum then, would be conservation-near, which would mimic native ecological practices of humans integrated into the care of nature.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most scientists and conservationists agree that no place on earth is completely untouched by humanity, either due to past occupation by <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people">indigenous people</a>, or through global processes such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>. Activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas, such as <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">fire</a> suppression and the interruption of <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">animal migration</a>, also affect the interior of wildernesses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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title="List of conservationists">List of conservationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Marshall_(wilderness_activist)" title="Bob Marshall (wilderness activist)">Bob Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Outdoor_Leadership_School" title="National Outdoor Leadership School">National Outdoor Leadership School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Wilderness_Preservation_System" title="National Wilderness Preservation System">National Wilderness Preservation System</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Wildlife_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="National Wildlife Magazine">National Wildlife Magazine</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_use_of_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American use of fire">Native American use of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_landscape" title="Natural landscape">Natural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">Old-growth forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outdoor_education" title="Outdoor education">Outdoor education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaforestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Permaforestry">Permaforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">Planetary habitability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">Protected area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildcrafting" title="Wildcrafting">Wildcrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness_Act" title="Wilderness Act">Wilderness Act</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness_therapy" title="Wilderness therapy">Wilderness therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUCN_Protected_Area_Management_Categories#Categories" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN Protected Area Management Categories">Wilderness Area (Protected Area Management Category)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">Terra nullius</a> – International law term for unclaimed land</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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M.; Shanahan, Danielle F.; Di Marco, Moreno; Allan, James; Laurance, William F.; Sanderson, Eric W.; Mackey, Brendan; Venter, Oscar (7 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2016.08.049">"Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>26</b> (21): 2929–2934. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016CBio...26.2929W">2016CBio...26.2929W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2016.08.049">10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0960-9822">0960-9822</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27618267">27618267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Catastrophic+Declines+in+Wilderness+Areas+Undermine+Global+Environment+Targets&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=2929-2934&rft.date=2016-11-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2016.08.049&rft.issn=0960-9822&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27618267&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016CBio...26.2929W&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=James+E.+M.&rft.au=Shanahan%2C+Danielle+F.&rft.au=Di+Marco%2C+Moreno&rft.au=Allan%2C+James&rft.au=Laurance%2C+William+F.&rft.au=Sanderson%2C+Eric+W.&rft.au=Mackey%2C+Brendan&rft.au=Venter%2C+Oscar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2016.08.049&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenterSandersonMagrachAllan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Venter, Oscar; Sanderson, Eric W.; Magrach, Ainhoa; Allan, James R.; Beher, Jutta; Jones, Kendall R.; Possingham, Hugh P.; Laurance, William F.; Wood, Peter; Fekete, Balázs M.; Levy, Marc A. 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Island Press. pp. 16 &17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon_Romero2012" class="citation news cs1">Simon Romero (14 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/15/world/americas/land-carvings-attest-to-amazons-lost-world.html?_r=1">"Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Once+Hidden+by+Forest%2C+Carvings+in+Land+Attest+to+Amazon%27s+Lost+World&rft.date=2012-01-14&rft.au=Simon+Romero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F01%2F15%2Fworld%2Famericas%2Fland-carvings-attest-to-amazons-lost-world.html%3F_r%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartti_PärssinenDenise_SchaanAlceu_Ranzi2009" class="citation journal cs1">Martti Pärssinen; Denise Schaan & Alceu Ranzi (2009). 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Boston: Shambhala. pp. 345, 339–355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57062-049-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57062-049-2"><bdi>978-1-57062-049-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deep+Ecology+for+the+21st+Century&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=345%2C+339-355&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-57062-049-2&rft.au=Thomas+Birch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Sessions1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Introduction:_Wilderness,_the_Wild,_and_Conservation_Biology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Introduction: Wilderness, the Wild, and Conservation Biology (page does not exist)">George Sessions</a> (1995). <i>Deep Ecology for the 21st Century</i>. Boston: Shambhala. pp. 323, 323–330. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57062-049-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57062-049-2"><bdi>978-1-57062-049-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deep+Ecology+for+the+21st+Century&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=323%2C+323-330&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-57062-049-2&rft.au=George+Sessions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLayla_AbdelRahim2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Layla_AbdelRahim" title="Layla AbdelRahim">Layla AbdelRahim</a> (2015). <i>Children's Literature, Domestication, and Social Foundation: Narratives of Civilization and Wilderness</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66110-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66110-2"><bdi>978-0-415-66110-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Children%27s+Literature%2C+Domestication%2C+and+Social+Foundation%3A+Narratives+of+Civilization+and+Wilderness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-415-66110-2&rft.au=Layla+AbdelRahim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Spiro2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Johnathan_Spiro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johnathan Spiro (page does not exist)">Jonathan Spiro</a> (2009). <i>Defending the Master Race : Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant</i>. Burlington: University Press of New England. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-584-65715-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-584-65715-6"><bdi>978-1-584-65715-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defending+the+Master+Race+%3A+Conservation%2C+Eugenics%2C+and+the+Legacy+of+Madison+Grant&rft.place=Burlington&rft.pub=University+Press+of+New+England&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-584-65715-6&rft.au=Jonathan+Spiro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historycooperative.org/journal/shades-of-darkness-race-and-environmental-history/">"Shades of Darkness: Race and Environmental History"</a>. 11 April 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shades+of+Darkness%3A+Race+and+Environmental+History&rft.date=2005-04-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorycooperative.org%2Fjournal%2Fshades-of-darkness-race-and-environmental-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles_A._Powell2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miles_A._Powell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Miles A. Powell (page does not exist)">Miles A. Powell</a> (2016). <i>Vanishing America : Species Extinction, Racial Peril, and the Origins of Conservation</i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97156-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97156-1"><bdi>978-0-674-97156-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vanishing+America+%3A+Species+Extinction%2C+Racial+Peril%2C+and+the+Origins+of+Conservation&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-674-97156-1&rft.au=Miles+A.+Powell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/american-environmentalisms-racist-roots-have-shaped-global-thinking-about-conservation-143783">"American environmentalism's racist roots have shaped global thinking about conservation"</a>. 2 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+environmentalism%27s+racist+roots+have+shaped+global+thinking+about+conservation&rft.date=2020-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Famerican-environmentalisms-racist-roots-have-shaped-global-thinking-about-conservation-143783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorceta_E._Taylor2016" class="citation book cs1">Dorceta E. Taylor (2016). <i>The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection</i>. Durham: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7397-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7397-1"><bdi>978-0-8223-7397-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+American+Conservation+Movement%3A+Power%2C+Privilege%2C+and+Environmental+Protection&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-7397-1&rft.au=Dorceta+E.+Taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpelloRosow2004" class="citation book cs1">Opello, Walter C.; Rosow, Stephen J. (2004). <i>The nation-state and global order : a historical introduction to contemporary politics</i>. Lynne Rienner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58826-289-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-58826-289-8"><bdi>1-58826-289-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/760384471">760384471</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nation-state+and+global+order+%3A+a+historical+introduction+to+contemporary+politics&rft.pub=Lynne+Rienner&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F760384471&rft.isbn=1-58826-289-8&rft.aulast=Opello&rft.aufirst=Walter+C.&rft.au=Rosow%2C+Stephen+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPark2016" class="citation journal cs1">Park, K-Sue (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/lsi.12222">"Money, Mortgages, and the Conquest of America"</a>. <i>Law & Social Inquiry</i>. <b>41</b> (4): 1006–1035. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Flsi.12222">10.1111/lsi.12222</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0897-6546">0897-6546</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157705999">157705999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+%26+Social+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Money%2C+Mortgages%2C+and+the+Conquest+of+America&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1006-1035&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157705999%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0897-6546&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Flsi.12222&rft.aulast=Park&rft.aufirst=K-Sue&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2Flsi.12222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam.1996" class="citation book cs1">William., Cronon (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/36306399"><i>Uncommon ground : rethinking the human place in nature</i></a>. W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-31511-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-31511-8"><bdi>0-393-31511-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36306399">36306399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uncommon+ground+%3A+rethinking+the+human+place+in+nature&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36306399&rft.isbn=0-393-31511-8&rft.aulast=William.&rft.aufirst=Cronon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F36306399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2005" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, M. Kat (14 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1525/9780520933101"><i>Tending the Wild</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520933101">10.1525/9780520933101</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93310-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93310-1"><bdi>978-0-520-93310-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tending+the+Wild&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2005-06-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520933101&rft.isbn=978-0-520-93310-1&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=M.+Kat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1525%2F9780520933101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaus2020" class="citation book cs1">Claus, C. Anne (3 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.5749/j.ctv1bkc3t6"><i>Drawing the Sea Near</i></a>. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5749%2Fj.ctv1bkc3t6">10.5749/j.ctv1bkc3t6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4529-5946-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4529-5946-7"><bdi>978-1-4529-5946-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:230646912">230646912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drawing+the+Sea+Near&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2020-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A230646912%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5749%2Fj.ctv1bkc3t6&rft.isbn=978-1-4529-5946-7&rft.aulast=Claus&rft.aufirst=C.+Anne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.5749%2Fj.ctv1bkc3t6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg/250px-Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg/375px-Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg/500px-Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_spiny_thickets" class="mw-redirect" title="Madagascar spiny thickets">spiny forest</a> at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ifaty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ifaty (page does not exist)">Ifaty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> features various <a href="/wiki/Adansonia" title="Adansonia">Adansonia</a> (baobab) species, <a href="/wiki/Alluaudia_procera" title="Alluaudia procera">Alluaudia procera</a> (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Bryson" title="Bill Bryson">Bryson, B</a>. (1998). <i>A Walk in the Woods</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7679-0251-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7679-0251-3">0-7679-0251-3</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46541">Casson, S. et al. (Ed.s).</a> (2016). Wilderness Protected Areas: Management Guidelines for IUCN Category 1b (wilderness) Protected Areas <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8317-1817-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-8317-1817-0">978-2-8317-1817-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Gutkind" title="Lee Gutkind">Gutkind, L (Ed)</a>. (2002). <i>On Nature: Great Writers on the Great Outdoors</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58542-173-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-58542-173-1">1-58542-173-1</a></li> <li>Kammer, Sean. "Coming to terms with wilderness: The Wilderness Act and the problem of wildlife restoration." <i>Environmental Law</i> (2013): 83-124. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43267665">online</a></li> <li>Kirchhoff, Thomas/ Vicenzotti, Vera 2014: A historical and systematic survey of European perceptions of wilderness. Environmental Values 23 (4): 443–464.</li> <li>Nash, Roderick Frazier [1967] 2014: Wilderness and the American Mind. Fifth Edition. New Haven & London, Yale University Press / Yale Nota Bene.</li> <li>Oelschlaeger, Max 1991: The Idea of Wilderness. From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology. New Haven & London, Yale University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Documentaries">Documentaries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Documentaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>2022: <i>Wild Forests</i> by <a href="/wiki/David_Cebulla" title="David Cebulla">David Cebulla</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Wilderness" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Wilderness">Wilderness</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/about/protected-areas-categories/category-ia-strict-nature-reserve">IUCN Category 1a: Strict Nature Reserve</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/about/protected-areas-categories/category-ib-wilderness-area">IUCN Category 1b: Wilderness Areas</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilderness.org">The Wilderness Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilderness.net">Wilderness Information Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wildsurvive.com">Wilderness Articles, Survival Techniques, Edible Plants</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201023073937/http://www.wildsurvive.com/">Archived</a> 23 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://leopold.wilderness.net/">Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wildernesstaskforce.org/">Wilderness Task Force/World Commission on Protect Areas</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515074103/http://www.wildernesstaskforce.org/">Archived</a> 15 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leaveitwild.org/">Campaign for America's Wilderness</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wild.org">The WILD Foundation</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/am-wild">"American Wilderness Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=American+Wilderness+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fam-wild&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilderness" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definitions">Definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilderness&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120316021404/http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS">Detailed maps of United States wilderness designations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100102041437/http://wilderdom.com/wilderness/WildernessDefinition.html">What is Wilderness?</a> – Definition and discussion of wilderness as a human construction</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190125031606/http://www.erraticimpact.com6/~ecologic/html/nash.htm">Wilderness and the American Mind</a> – by <a href="/wiki/Roderick_Nash" title="Roderick Nash">Roderick Nash</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utne.com/1996-05-01/GettingBacktotheWrongNature.aspx">The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature</a> by William Cronon.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nature" title="Category:Nature">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict <span style="font-size:85%;">(perpetuation)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_resources" title="Category:Natural resources">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Protected_areas_of_New_Zealand" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Protected_areas_of_New_Zealand" title="Template:Protected areas of New Zealand"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Protected_areas_of_New_Zealand" title="Template talk:Protected areas of New Zealand"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Protected_areas_of_New_Zealand" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Protected areas of New Zealand"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Protected_areas_of_New_Zealand" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_New_Zealand" title="Protected areas of New Zealand">Protected areas of New Zealand</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservation_parks_of_New_Zealand" title="Conservation parks of New Zealand">Conservation parks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahuriri_Conservation_Park" title="Ahuriri Conservation Park">Ahuriri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aorangi_Forest_Park" title="Aorangi Forest Park">Aorangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aotea_Conservation_Park" title="Aotea Conservation Park">Aotea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catlins_Conservation_Park" title="Catlins Conservation Park">Catlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Forest_Park" title="Coromandel Forest Park">Coromandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craigieburn_Forest_Park" title="Craigieburn Forest Park">Craigieburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyre_Mountains/Taka_Ra_Haka_Conservation_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyre Mountains/Taka Ra Haka Conservation Park">Eyre Mountains/Taka Ra Haka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakatere_Conservation_Park" title="Hakatere Conservation Park">Hakatere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C4%81wea_Conservation_Park" title="Hāwea Conservation Park">Hāwea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanmer_Conservation_Park" title="Hanmer Conservation Park">Hanmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaimai_Mamaku_Conservation_Park" title="Kaimai Mamaku Conservation Park">Kaimai Mamaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaimanawa_Forest_Park" title="Kaimanawa Forest Park">Kaimanawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaweka_Forest_Park" title="Kaweka Forest Park">Kaweka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka_Whata_Tu_O_Rakihouia_Conservation_Park" title="Ka Whata Tu O Rakihouia Conservation Park">Ka Whata Tu O Rakihouia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korowai_/_Torlesse_Tussocklands_Park" title="Korowai / Torlesse Tussocklands Park">Korowai / Torlesse Tussocklands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Sumner_Forest_Park" title="Lake Sumner Forest Park">Lake Sumner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mavora_Lakes" title="Mavora Lakes">Mavora Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Richmond_Forest_Park" title="Mount Richmond Forest Park">Mount Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northland_Conservation_Park" title="Northland Conservation Park">Northland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-west_Nelson_Forest_Park" title="North-west Nelson Forest Park">North-west Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oteake_Conservation_Park" title="Oteake Conservation Park">Oteake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirongia_Forest_Park" title="Pirongia Forest Park">Pirongia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pureora_Forest_Park" title="Pureora Forest Park">Pureora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remutaka_Forest_Park" title="Remutaka Forest Park">Remutaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruahine_Forest_Park" title="Ruahine Forest Park">Ruahine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raukumara_Conservation_Park" title="Raukumara Conservation Park">Raukumara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruataniwha_Conservation_Park" title="Ruataniwha Conservation Park">Ruataniwha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tararua_Forest_Park" title="Tararua Forest Park">Tararua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Kahui_Kaupeka_Conservation_Park" title="Te Kahui Kaupeka Conservation Park">Te Kahui Kaupeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Papanui_Conservation_Park" title="Te Papanui Conservation Park">Te Papanui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Forest_Park" title="Victoria Forest Park">Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whakarewarewa_Conservation_Park" title="Whakarewarewa Conservation Park">Whakarewarewa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirinaki_Te_Pua-a-T%C4%81ne_Conservation_Park" title="Whirinaki Te Pua-a-Tāne Conservation Park">Whirinaki Te Pua-a-Tāne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_island" title="Ecological island">Ecological islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brook_Waim%C4%81rama_Sanctuary" title="Brook Waimārama Sanctuary">Brook Waimārama Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushy_Park_(New_Zealand)" title="Bushy Park (New Zealand)">Bushy Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_Mountain_Maungatautari" title="Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari">Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orokonui_Ecosanctuary" title="Orokonui Ecosanctuary">Orokonui Ecosanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawharanui_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Tawharanui Peninsula">Tawharanui Open Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia_(wildlife_sanctuary)" title="Zealandia (wildlife sanctuary)">Zealandia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_purpose_reserve" title="Government purpose reserve">Government purpose reserves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81uatahanui_Wildlife_Reserve" title="Pāuatahanui Wildlife Reserve">Pāuatahanui Wildlife Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pukaha_/_Mount_Bruce_National_Wildlife_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre">Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historic_reserves_of_New_Zealand" title="Historic reserves of New Zealand">Historic reserves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C4%81p%C5%ABp%C5%AB_/_J_M_Barker_Historic_Reserve" title="Hāpūpū / J M Barker Historic Reserve">Hāpūpū / J M Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Head_(New_Zealand)" title="North Head (New Zealand)">Maungauika / North Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhi_Kai_Iti_/_Cook_Landing_Site" title="Puhi Kai Iti / Cook Landing Site">Puhi Kai Iti / Cook Landing Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stony_Batter" title="Stony Batter">Stony Batter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Nick%27s_Head" title="Young Nick's Head">Te Kuri a Paoa/Young Nick's Head</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_reserves_of_New_Zealand" title="Marine reserves of New Zealand">Marine reserves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akaroa_Marine_Reserve" title="Akaroa Marine Reserve">Akaroa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auckland_Islands_Marine_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Auckland Islands Marine Reserve">Auckland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Rodney-Okakari_Point_Marine_Reserve" title="Cape Rodney-Okakari Point Marine Reserve">Cape Rodney-Okakari Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hautai_Marine_Reserve" title="Hautai Marine Reserve">Hautai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawea_(Clio_Rocks)_Marine_Reserve" title="Hawea (Clio Rocks) Marine Reserve">Hawea (Clio Rocks)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikurangi_Marine_Reserve" title="Hikurangi Marine Reserve">Hikurangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horoirangi_Marine_Reserve" title="Horoirangi Marine Reserve">Horoirangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahukura_(Gold_Arm)_Marine_Reserve" title="Kahukura (Gold Arm) Marine Reserve">Kahukura (Gold Arm)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahurangi_Marine_Reserve" title="Kahurangi Marine Reserve">Kahurangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapiti_Marine_Reserve" title="Kapiti Marine Reserve">Kapiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Islands_Marine_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve">Kermadec Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutu_Parera_(Gaer_Arm)_Marine_Reserve" title="Kutu Parera (Gaer Arm) Marine Reserve">Kutu Parera (Gaer Arm)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Bay-Okura_Marine_Reserve" title="Long Bay-Okura Marine Reserve">Long Bay-Okura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Island-Kokomohua_Marine_Reserve" title="Long Island-Kokomohua Marine Reserve">Long Island-Kokomohua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moana_Uta_(Wet_Jacket_Arm)_Marine_Reserve" title="Moana Uta (Wet Jacket Arm) Marine Reserve">Moana Uta (Wet Jacket Arm)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motu_Manawa_(Pollen_Island)_Marine_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Motu Manawa (Pollen Island) Marine Reserve">Motu Manawa-Pollen Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moutere_Hauriri_/_Bounty_Islands_Marine_Reserve" title="Moutere Hauriri / Bounty Islands Marine Reserve">Moutere Hauriri / Bounty Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moutere_Ihupuku_/_Campbell_Island_Marine_Reserve" title="Moutere Ihupuku / Campbell Island Marine Reserve">Moutere Ihupuku / Campbell Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moutere_Mahue_/_Antipodes_Island_Marine_Reserve" title="Moutere Mahue / Antipodes Island Marine Reserve">Moutere Mahue / Antipodes Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parininihi_Marine_Reserve" title="Parininihi Marine Reserve">Parininihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piopiotahi_(Milford_Sound)_Marine_Reserve" title="Piopiotahi (Milford Sound) Marine Reserve">Piopiotahi (Milford Sound)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pohatu_Marine_Reserve" title="Pohatu Marine Reserve">Pohatu / Flea Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_Knights_Islands_Marine_Reserve" title="Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserve">Poor Knights Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punakaiki_Marine_Reserve" title="Punakaiki Marine Reserve">Punakaiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipari_Roa_(Elizabeth_Island)_Marine_Reserve" title="Taipari Roa (Elizabeth Island) Marine Reserve">Taipari Roa (Elizabeth Island)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapuae_Marine_Reserve" title="Tapuae Marine Reserve">Tapuae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taputeranga_Marine_Reserve" title="Taputeranga Marine Reserve">Taputeranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taumoana_(Five_Finger_Peninsula)_Marine_Reserve" title="Taumoana (Five Finger Peninsula) Marine Reserve">Taumoana (Five Finger Peninsula)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauparik%C4%81k%C4%81_Marine_Reserve" title="Tauparikākā Marine Reserve">Tauparikākā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81wharanui_Marine_Reserve" title="Tāwharanui Marine Reserve">Tāwharanui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Angiangi_Marine_Reserve" title="Te Angiangi Marine Reserve">Te Angiangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Awaatu_Channel_(The_Gut)_Marine_Reserve" title="Te Awaatu Channel (The Gut) Marine Reserve">Te Awaatu Channel (The Gut)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Hapua_(Sutherland_Sound)_Marine_Reserve" title="Te Hapua (Sutherland Sound) Marine Reserve">Te Hapua (Sutherland Sound)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Matuku_Marine_Reserve" title="Te Matuku Marine Reserve">Te Matuku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Paepae_o_Aotea_(Volkner_Rocks)_Marine_Reserve" title="Te Paepae o Aotea (Volkner Rocks) Marine Reserve">Te Paepae o Aotea (Volkner Rocks)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Tapuwae_o_Hua_(Long_Sound)_Marine_Reserve" title="Te Tapuwae o Hua (Long Sound) Marine Reserve">Te Tapuwae o Hua (Long Sound)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Tapuwae_o_Rongokako_Marine_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve">Te Tapuwae o Rongokako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_Island_Marine_Reserve" title="Tonga Island Marine Reserve">Tonga Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuhua_(Mayor_Island)_Marine_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuhua (Mayor Island) Marine Reserve">Tuhua (Mayor Island)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulva_Island-Te_Wharawhara_Marine_Reserve" title="Ulva Island-Te Wharawhara Marine Reserve">Ulva Island-Te Wharawhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waiau_Glacier_Coast_Marine_Reserve" title="Waiau Glacier Coast Marine Reserve">Waiau Glacier Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westhaven_(Te_Tai_Tapu)_Marine_Reserve" title="Westhaven (Te Tai Tapu) Marine Reserve">Westhaven (Te Tai Tapu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Whanganui-A-Hei_(Cathedral_Cove)_Marine_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Te Whanganui-A-Hei (Cathedral Cove) Marine Reserve">Whanganui-A-Hei (Cathedral Cove)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whangarei_Harbour_Marine_Reserve" title="Whangarei Harbour Marine Reserve">Whangarei Harbour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_New_Zealand" title="National parks of New Zealand">National parks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman_National_Park" title="Abel Tasman National Park">Abel Tasman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aoraki_/_Mount_Cook_National_Park" title="Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park">Aoraki / Mount Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur%27s_Pass_National_Park" title="Arthur's Pass National Park">Arthur's Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egmont_National_Park" title="Egmont National Park">Egmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiordland_National_Park" title="Fiordland National Park">Fiordland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahurangi_National_Park" title="Kahurangi National Park">Kahurangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Aspiring_National_Park" title="Mount Aspiring National Park">Mount Aspiring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Lakes_National_Park" title="Nelson Lakes National Park">Nelson Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paparoa_National_Park" title="Paparoa National Park">Paparoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakiura_National_Park" title="Rakiura National Park">Rakiura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongariro_National_Park" title="Tongariro National Park">Tongariro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westland_Tai_Poutini_National_Park" title="Westland Tai Poutini National Park">Westland Tai Poutini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whanganui_National_Park" title="Whanganui National Park">Whanganui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Te_Urewera_National_Park" title="Te Urewera National Park">Te Urewera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_reserves_of_New_Zealand" title="National reserves of New Zealand">National reserves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C4%81p%C5%ABp%C5%AB_/_J_M_Barker_Historic_Reserve" title="Hāpūpū / J M Barker Historic Reserve">Hāpūpū / J M Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Pass_National_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Pass National Reserve">Lewis Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhi_Kai_Iti_/_Cook_Landing_Site" title="Puhi Kai Iti / Cook Landing Site">Puhi Kai Iti / Cook Landing Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Subantarctic_Islands" title="New Zealand Subantarctic Islands">Subantarctic Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Nick%27s_Head" title="Young Nick's Head">Te Kuri a Paoa/Young Nick's Head</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Recreation_reserve" title="Recreation reserve">Recreation reserves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastion_Point" title="Bastion Point">Bastion Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otago_Central_Rail_Trail" title="Otago Central Rail Trail">Otago Central Rail Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seacliff_Lunatic_Asylum" title="Seacliff Lunatic Asylum">Truby King Recreation Reserve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regional_parks_of_New_Zealand" title="Regional parks of New Zealand">Regional parks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akatarawa_Forest" title="Akatarawa Forest">Akatarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambury_Regional_Park" title="Ambury Regional Park">Ambury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashley_Rakahuri_Regional_Park" title="Ashley Rakahuri Regional Park">Ashley Rakahuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tiu_Creek_Regional_Park" title="Ātiu Creek Regional Park">Ātiu Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auckland_Botanic_Gardens" title="Auckland Botanic Gardens">Auckland Botanic Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80whitu_Regional_Park" title="Āwhitu Regional Park">Āwhitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Hill_Farm_Forest_Park" title="Battle Hill Farm Forest Park">Battle Hill Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belmont_Regional_Park" title="Belmont Regional Park">Belmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duder_Regional_Park" title="Duder Regional Park">Duder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Harbour_Regional_Park" title="East Harbour Regional Park">East Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrymead_Regional_Park" title="Ferrymead Regional Park">Ferrymead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenfern_Sanctuary_Regional_Park" title="Glenfern Sanctuary Regional Park">Glenfern Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunua_Ranges" title="Hunua Ranges">Hunua Ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaitoke_Regional_Park" title="Kaitoke Regional Park">Kaitoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Tekapo_Regional_Park" title="Lake Tekapo Regional Park">Lake Tekapo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Bay_Regional_Park" title="Long Bay Regional Park">Long Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahurangi_Regional_Park" title="Mahurangi Regional Park">Mahurangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motukorea" title="Motukorea">Motukorea Browns Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriwai_Regional_Park" title="Muriwai Regional Park">Muriwai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutukaroa_/_Hamlins_Hill_Regional_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutukaroa / Hamlins Hill Regional Park">Mutukaroa / Hamlins Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cmana_Regional_Park" title="Ōmana Regional Park">Ōmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onekawa_Te_Mawhai_Regional_Park" title="Onekawa Te Mawhai Regional Park">Onekawa Te Mawhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orere_Point_Regional_Park" title="Orere Point Regional Park">Orere Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81kiri_Regional_Park" title="Pākiri Regional Park">Pākiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakuratahi_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Pakuratahi Forest">Pakuratahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papamoa_Hills_Regional_Park" title="Papamoa Hills Regional Park">Papamoa Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Park,_Kapiti_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Elizabeth Park, Kapiti Coast">Queen Elizabeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandrett_Regional_Park" title="Scandrett Regional Park">Scandrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespear_Regional_Park" title="Shakespear Regional Park">Shakespear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81papakanga_Regional_Park" title="Tāpapakanga Regional Park">Tāpapakanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81wharanui_Regional_Park" title="Tāwharanui Regional Park">Tāwharanui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhitokino_Regional_Park" title="Tawhitokino Regional Park">Tawhitokino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_%C4%80rai_Regional_Park" title="Te Ārai Regional Park">Te Ārai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Muri_Regional_Park" title="Te Muri Regional Park">Te Muri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Rau_P%C5%ABriri_Regional_Park" title="Te Rau Pūriri Regional Park">Te Rau Pūriri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waharau_Regional_Park" title="Waharau Regional Park">Waharau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waimakariri_River_Regional_Park" title="Waimakariri River Regional Park">Waimakariri River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wainuiomata_Regional_Park" title="Wainuiomata Regional Park">Wainuiomata Regional Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wait%C4%81kere_Ranges" title="Waitākere Ranges">Waitākere Ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waitawa_Regional_Park" title="Waitawa Regional Park">Waitawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenderholm_Regional_Park" title="Wenderholm Regional Park">Wenderholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whakanewha_Regional_Park" title="Whakanewha Regional Park">Whakanewha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whakat%C4%ABwai_Regional_Park" title="Whakatīwai Regional Park">Whakatīwai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scenic_reserves_of_New_Zealand" title="Scenic reserves of New Zealand">Scenic reserves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Eaves_Scenic_Reserve" title="Alice Eaves Scenic Reserve">Alice Eaves Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Park_Scenic_Reserve" title="Bruce Park Scenic Reserve">Bruce Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldie_Bush_Scenic_Reserve" title="Goldie Bush Scenic Reserve">Goldie Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_Forest_Park_Scenic_Reserve" title="Peel Forest Park Scenic Reserve">Peel Forest Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waro_Limestone_Scenic_Reserve" title="Waro Limestone Scenic Reserve">Waro Limestone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wetlands_of_New_Zealand" title="Wetlands of New Zealand">Wetlands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awarua_Wetland" title="Awarua Wetland">Awarua Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_Spit" title="Farewell Spit">Farewell Spit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Thames" title="Firth of Thames">Firth of Thames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kopuatai_Peat_Dome" title="Kopuatai Peat Dome">Kopuatai Peat Dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manawat%C5%AB_River" title="Manawatū River">Manawatū Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81uatahanui_Wildlife_Reserve" title="Pāuatahanui Wildlife Reserve">Pāuatahanui Wildlife Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wairarapa_Moana_Wetlands" title="Wairarapa Moana Wetlands">Wairarapa Moana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whangamarino_Wetland" title="Whangamarino Wetland">Whangamarino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fensham_Reserve" title="Fensham Reserve">Fensham Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutt_Water_Collection_Area" title="Hutt Water Collection Area">Hutt Water Collection Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Pegasus_Bay" title="Northern Pegasus Bay">Northern Pegasus Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wainuiomata_Water_Collection_Area" title="Wainuiomata Water Collection Area">Wainuiomata Water Collection Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitireia_Park" title="Whitireia Park">Whitireia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amenity_area" title="Amenity area">Amenity area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_area" title="Ecological area">Ecological area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_area" title="Sanctuary area">Sanctuary area</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wilderness area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management_area" title="Wildlife management area">Wildlife management area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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