Euler–Maclaurin formula

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id="toc-Proofs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proofs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Proofs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proofs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proofs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proofs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Derivation_by_mathematical_induction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivation_by_mathematical_induction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Derivation by mathematical induction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivation_by_mathematical_induction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item 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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%B1-%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86" title="صيغة أويلر-ماكلورين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صيغة أويلر-ماكلورين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3rmula_d%27Euler-Maclaurin" title="Fórmula d'Euler-Maclaurin – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fórmula d'Euler-Maclaurin" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%C5%AFv%E2%80%93Maclaurin%C5%AFv_vzorec" title="Eulerův–Maclaurinův vzorec – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Eulerův–Maclaurinův vzorec" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler-Maclaurin-Formel" title="Euler-Maclaurin-Formel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Euler-Maclaurin-Formel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3rmula_de_Euler-Maclaurin" title="Fórmula de Euler-Maclaurin – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fórmula de Euler-Maclaurin" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formule_d%27Euler-Maclaurin" title="Formule d'Euler-Maclaurin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Formule d'Euler-Maclaurin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%9D%BC%EB%9F%AC-%EB%A7%A4%ED%81%B4%EB%A1%9C%EB%A6%B0_%EA%B3%B5%EC%8B%9D" title="오일러-매클로린 공식 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오일러-매클로린 공식" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_di_Eulero-Maclaurin" title="Formula di Eulero-Maclaurin – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Formula di Eulero-Maclaurin" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%97%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A8-%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9F" title="נוסחת אוילר-מקלורן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נוסחת אוילר-מקלורן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin-k%C3%A9plet" title="Euler–Maclaurin-képlet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Euler–Maclaurin-képlet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formule_van_Euler-Maclaurin" title="Formule van Euler-Maclaurin – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Formule van Euler-Maclaurin" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%81%AE%E5%92%8C%E5%85%AC%E5%BC%8F" title="オイラーの和公式 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オイラーの和公式" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%9A-%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93" title="រូបមន្តអយល័រ-ម៉ាក្លូរីន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រូបមន្តអយល័រ-ម៉ាក្លូរីន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wz%C3%B3r_Eulera-Maclaurina" title="Wzór Eulera-Maclaurina – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wzór Eulera-Maclaurina" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3rmula_Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin" title="Fórmula Euler–Maclaurin – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fórmula Euler–Maclaurin" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%AD%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%E2%80%94_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Формула Эйлера — Маклорена – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Формула Эйлера — Маклорена" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler-Maclaurinova_formula" title="Euler-Maclaurinova formula – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Euler-Maclaurinova formula" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler-Maclaurins_formel" title="Euler-Maclaurins formel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Euler-Maclaurins formel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="ஆய்லர்-மெக்லாரின் வாய்பாடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆய்லர்-மெக்லாரின் வாய்பாடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%E2%80%94_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Формула Ейлера — Маклорена – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Формула Ейлера — Маклорена" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4ng_th%E1%BB%A9c_Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin" title="Công thức Euler–Maclaurin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Công thức Euler–Maclaurin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E6%8B%89-%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E5%8A%B3%E6%9E%97%E6%B1%82%E5%92%8C%E5%85%AC%E5%BC%8F" title="欧拉-麦克劳林求和公式 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="欧拉-麦克劳林求和公式" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q282023#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler-Maclaurin_summation_formula&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler-Maclaurin summation formula">Euler-Maclaurin summation formula</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Summation formula</div> <p> In <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, the <b>Euler–Maclaurin formula</b> is a formula for the difference between an <a href="/wiki/Integral" title="Integral">integral</a> and a closely related <a href="/wiki/Summation" title="Summation">sum</a>. It can be used to approximate integrals by finite sums, or conversely to evaluate finite sums and <a href="/wiki/Series_(mathematics)" title="Series (mathematics)">infinite series</a> using integrals and the machinery of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>. For example, many asymptotic expansions are derived from the formula, and <a href="/wiki/Faulhaber%27s_formula" title="Faulhaber's formula">Faulhaber's formula</a> for the sum of powers is an immediate consequence. </p><p>The formula was discovered independently by <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colin_Maclaurin" title="Colin Maclaurin">Colin Maclaurin</a> around 1735. Euler needed it to compute slowly converging infinite series while Maclaurin used it to calculate integrals. It was later generalized to <a href="/wiki/Darboux%27s_formula" title="Darboux's formula">Darboux's formula</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_formula">The formula</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: The formula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">m</span> and <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">n</span> are <a href="/wiki/Natural_number" title="Natural number">natural numbers</a> and <span class="texhtml"><i>f</i>(<i>x</i>)</span> is a <a href="/wiki/Real_number" title="Real number">real</a> or <a href="/wiki/Complex_number" title="Complex number">complex</a> valued <a href="/wiki/Continuous_function" title="Continuous function">continuous function</a> for <a href="/wiki/Real_number" title="Real number">real numbers</a> <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">x</span> in the <a href="/wiki/Interval_(mathematics)" title="Interval (mathematics)">interval</a> <span class="texhtml">[<i>m</i>,<i>n</i>]</span>, then the integral <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e141c457f8f6be4e46dd83587301e84a9f6a65a9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:15.69ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx}"></span> can be approximated by the sum (or vice versa) <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S=f(m+1)+\cdots +f(n-1)+f(n)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S=f(m+1)+\cdots +f(n-1)+f(n)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b7db1946c1f11385530a2feb9ce86a018b9abcf7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:37.941ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S=f(m+1)+\cdots +f(n-1)+f(n)}"></span> (see <a href="/wiki/Riemann_sum#Right_rule" title="Riemann sum">rectangle method</a>). The Euler–Maclaurin formula provides expressions for the difference between the sum and the integral in terms of the higher <a href="/wiki/Derivative" title="Derivative">derivatives</a> <span class="texhtml"><i>f</i><span style="padding-left:0.12em;"><sup>(<i>k</i>)</sup></span>(<i>x</i>)</span> evaluated at the endpoints of the interval, that is to say <span class="texhtml"><i>x</i> = <i>m</i></span> and <span class="texhtml"><i>x</i> = <i>n</i></span>. </p><p>Explicitly, for <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">p</span> a positive <a href="/wiki/Integer" title="Integer">integer</a> and a function <span class="texhtml"><i>f</i>(<i>x</i>)</span> that is <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">p</span> times <a href="/wiki/Continuously_differentiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuously differentiable">continuously differentiable</a> on the interval <span class="texhtml">[<i>m</i>,<i>n</i>]</span>, we have <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S-I=\sum _{k=1}^{p}{{\frac {B_{k}}{k!}}\left(f^{(k-1)}(n)-f^{(k-1)}(m)\right)}+R_{p},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>I</mi> <mo>=</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S-I=\sum _{k=1}^{p}{{\frac {B_{k}}{k!}}\left(f^{(k-1)}(n)-f^{(k-1)}(m)\right)}+R_{p},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/788d5c25d959855050bb04131a4930dd3636ac8b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:46.986ex; height:7.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S-I=\sum _{k=1}^{p}{{\frac {B_{k}}{k!}}\left(f^{(k-1)}(n)-f^{(k-1)}(m)\right)}+R_{p},}"></span> where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">B<sub>k</sub></span> is the <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">k</span>th <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernoulli numbers">Bernoulli number</a> (with <span class="texhtml"><i>B</i><sub>1</sub> = <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span></span>) and <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">R<sub>p</sub></span> is an <a href="/wiki/Numerical_integration" title="Numerical integration">error term</a> which depends on <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">n</span>, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">m</span>, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">p</span>, and <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">f</span> and is usually small for suitable values of <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">p</span>. </p><p>The formula is often written with the subscript taking only even values, since the odd Bernoulli numbers are zero except for <span class="texhtml"><i>B</i><sub>1</sub></span>. In this case we have<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DLMF_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DLMF-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=m}^{n}f(i)=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)+f(m)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {p}{2}}\right\rfloor }{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(n)-f^{(2k-1)}(m)\right)+R_{p},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>⌊</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>p</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>⌋</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i=m}^{n}f(i)=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)+f(m)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {p}{2}}\right\rfloor }{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(n)-f^{(2k-1)}(m)\right)+R_{p},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/388c8680f5ad57c2d91f380e7b2e4d01b31b9854" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:83.116ex; height:8.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=m}^{n}f(i)=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)+f(m)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {p}{2}}\right\rfloor }{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(n)-f^{(2k-1)}(m)\right)+R_{p},}"></span> or alternatively <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=m+1}^{n}f(i)=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(m)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {p}{2}}\right\rfloor }{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(n)-f^{(2k-1)}(m)\right)+R_{p}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>⌊</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>p</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>⌋</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i=m+1}^{n}f(i)=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(m)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {p}{2}}\right\rfloor }{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(n)-f^{(2k-1)}(m)\right)+R_{p}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/642d81624a38b08075ea5cebef7ff15083d12640" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:85.151ex; height:9.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=m+1}^{n}f(i)=\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(m)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {p}{2}}\right\rfloor }{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(n)-f^{(2k-1)}(m)\right)+R_{p}.}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_remainder_term">The remainder term</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The remainder term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli_polynomials" title="Bernoulli polynomials">Bernoulli polynomials</a></div> <p>The remainder term arises because the integral is usually not exactly equal to the sum. The formula may be derived by applying repeated <a href="/wiki/Integration_by_parts" title="Integration by parts">integration by parts</a> to successive intervals <span class="texhtml">[<i>r</i>, <i>r</i> + 1]</span> for <span class="texhtml"><i>r</i> = <i>m</i>, <i>m</i> + 1, …, <i>n</i> − 1</span>. The boundary terms in these integrations lead to the main terms of the formula, and the leftover integrals form the remainder term. </p><p>The remainder term has an exact expression in terms of the periodized Bernoulli functions <span class="texhtml"><i>P<sub>k</sub></i>(<i>x</i>)</span>. The Bernoulli polynomials may be defined recursively by <span class="texhtml"><i>B</i><sub>0</sub>(<i>x</i>) = 1</span> and, for <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i> ≥ 1</span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B_{k}'(x)&=kB_{k-1}(x),\\\int _{0}^{1}B_{k}(x)\,dx&=0.\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msubsup> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>k</mi> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B_{k}'(x)&=kB_{k-1}(x),\\\int _{0}^{1}B_{k}(x)\,dx&=0.\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb22027f90cf4a4608216924ea20bb730d66e30a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.171ex; width:26.63ex; height:9.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B_{k}'(x)&=kB_{k-1}(x),\\\int _{0}^{1}B_{k}(x)\,dx&=0.\end{aligned}}}"></span> The periodized Bernoulli functions are defined as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P_{k}(x)=B_{k}{\bigl (}x-\lfloor x\rfloor {\bigr )},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⌊</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⌋</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{k}(x)=B_{k}{\bigl (}x-\lfloor x\rfloor {\bigr )},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b37080cac8021e83cda4a41c6a2440738f0896b4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:22.012ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P_{k}(x)=B_{k}{\bigl (}x-\lfloor x\rfloor {\bigr )},}"></span> where <span class="texhtml">⌊<i>x</i>⌋</span> denotes the largest integer less than or equal to <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">x</span>, so that <span class="texhtml"><i>x</i> − ⌊<i>x</i>⌋</span> always lies in the interval <span class="texhtml">[0,1)</span>. </p><p>With this notation, the remainder term <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">R<sub>p</sub></span> equals <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{p}=(-1)^{p+1}\int _{m}^{n}f^{(p)}(x){\frac {P_{p}(x)}{p!}}\,dx.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{p}=(-1)^{p+1}\int _{m}^{n}f^{(p)}(x){\frac {P_{p}(x)}{p!}}\,dx.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3a3a4abf7604b581a495cf4543605e399b6f3d83" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:35.222ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{p}=(-1)^{p+1}\int _{m}^{n}f^{(p)}(x){\frac {P_{p}(x)}{p!}}\,dx.}"></span> </p><p>When <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i> > 0</span>, it can be shown that for <span class="texhtml">0 ≤ <i>x</i> ≤ 1</span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bigl |}B_{k}(x){\bigr |}\leq {\frac {2\cdot k!}{(2\pi )^{k}}}\zeta (k),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>≤</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ζ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bigl |}B_{k}(x){\bigr |}\leq {\frac {2\cdot k!}{(2\pi )^{k}}}\zeta (k),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c1de162f8a61d1bbc9252c87002fae7ce7e1fa13" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:21.375ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bigl |}B_{k}(x){\bigr |}\leq {\frac {2\cdot k!}{(2\pi )^{k}}}\zeta (k),}"></span> where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ζ</span> denotes the <a href="/wiki/Riemann_zeta_function" title="Riemann zeta function">Riemann zeta function</a>; one approach to prove this inequality is to obtain the Fourier series for the polynomials <span class="texhtml"><i>B<sub>k</sub></i>(<i>x</i>)</span>. The bound is achieved for even <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">k</span> when <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">x</span> is zero. The term <span class="texhtml"><i>ζ</i>(<i>k</i>)</span> may be omitted for odd <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">k</span> but the proof in this case is more complex (see Lehmer).<sup id="cite_ref-Lehmer_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehmer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using this inequality, the size of the remainder term can be estimated as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|R_{p}\right|\leq {\frac {2\zeta (p)}{(2\pi )^{p}}}\int _{m}^{n}\left|f^{(p)}(x)\right|\,dx.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> <mo>≤</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>ζ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|R_{p}\right|\leq {\frac {2\zeta (p)}{(2\pi )^{p}}}\int _{m}^{n}\left|f^{(p)}(x)\right|\,dx.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4e7c28ae6b984396f863cc5236de81067f0f794" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:29.929ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|R_{p}\right|\leq {\frac {2\zeta (p)}{(2\pi )^{p}}}\int _{m}^{n}\left|f^{(p)}(x)\right|\,dx.}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low-order_cases">Low-order cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Low-order cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Bernoulli numbers from <span class="texhtml"><i>B</i><sub>1</sub></span> to <span class="texhtml"><i>B</i><sub>7</sub></span> are <span class="texhtml"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">6</span></span>⁠</span>, 0, −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">30</span></span>⁠</span>, 0, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">42</span></span>⁠</span>, 0</span>. Therefore, the low-order cases of the Euler–Maclaurin formula are: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sum _{i=m}^{n}f(i)-\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+\int _{m}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f''(x){\frac {P_{2}(x)}{2!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f'''(x){\frac {P_{3}(x)}{3!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f^{(4)}(x){\frac {P_{4}(x)}{4!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f^{(5)}(x){\frac {P_{5}(x)}{5!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+{\frac {1}{42}}{\frac {f^{(5)}(n)-f^{(5)}(m)}{6!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f^{(6)}(x){\frac {P_{6}(x)}{6!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+{\frac {1}{42}}{\frac {f^{(5)}(n)-f^{(5)}(m)}{6!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f^{(7)}(x){\frac {P_{7}(x)}{7!}}\,dx.\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>6</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>″</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>6</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>6</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>30</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>6</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>30</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>5</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>6</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>30</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>42</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>6</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>6</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>6</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>6</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>30</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>42</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>6</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>7</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>7</mn> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sum _{i=m}^{n}f(i)-\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+\int _{m}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f''(x){\frac {P_{2}(x)}{2!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f'''(x){\frac {P_{3}(x)}{3!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f^{(4)}(x){\frac {P_{4}(x)}{4!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f^{(5)}(x){\frac {P_{5}(x)}{5!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+{\frac {1}{42}}{\frac {f^{(5)}(n)-f^{(5)}(m)}{6!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f^{(6)}(x){\frac {P_{6}(x)}{6!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+{\frac {1}{42}}{\frac {f^{(5)}(n)-f^{(5)}(m)}{6!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f^{(7)}(x){\frac {P_{7}(x)}{7!}}\,dx.\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fa9cf7cfa73b9579d25f3f72919e9df1b281f2f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -22.338ex; width:129.006ex; height:45.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sum _{i=m}^{n}f(i)-\int _{m}^{n}f(x)\,dx&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+\int _{m}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f''(x){\frac {P_{2}(x)}{2!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f'''(x){\frac {P_{3}(x)}{3!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f^{(4)}(x){\frac {P_{4}(x)}{4!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f^{(5)}(x){\frac {P_{5}(x)}{5!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+{\frac {1}{42}}{\frac {f^{(5)}(n)-f^{(5)}(m)}{6!}}-\int _{m}^{n}f^{(6)}(x){\frac {P_{6}(x)}{6!}}\,dx\\&={\frac {f(m)+f(n)}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\frac {f'(n)-f'(m)}{2!}}-{\frac {1}{30}}{\frac {f'''(n)-f'''(m)}{4!}}+{\frac {1}{42}}{\frac {f^{(5)}(n)-f^{(5)}(m)}{6!}}+\int _{m}^{n}f^{(7)}(x){\frac {P_{7}(x)}{7!}}\,dx.\end{aligned}}}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Basel_problem">The Basel problem</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Basel problem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Basel_problem" title="Basel problem">Basel problem</a> is to determine the sum <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {1}{4}}+{\frac {1}{9}}+{\frac {1}{16}}+{\frac {1}{25}}+\cdots =\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>9</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>16</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>25</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>=</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {1}{4}}+{\frac {1}{9}}+{\frac {1}{16}}+{\frac {1}{25}}+\cdots =\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/09c78a1f2fb594dfe67841b595213d4f69c07394" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:39.179ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {1}{4}}+{\frac {1}{9}}+{\frac {1}{16}}+{\frac {1}{25}}+\cdots =\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}.}"></span> </p><p>Euler computed this sum to 20 decimal places with only a few terms of the Euler–Maclaurin formula in 1735. This probably convinced him that the sum equals <span class="texhtml"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><i>π</i><sup>2</sup></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">6</span></span>⁠</span></span>, which he proved in the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sums_involving_a_polynomial">Sums involving a polynomial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sums involving a polynomial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Faulhaber%27s_formula" title="Faulhaber's formula">Faulhaber's formula</a></div> <p>If <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">f</span> is a <a href="/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomial</a> and <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">p</span> is big enough, then the remainder term vanishes. For instance, if <span class="texhtml"><i>f</i>(<i>x</i>) = <i>x</i><sup>3</sup></span>, we can choose <span class="texhtml"><i>p</i> = 2</span> to obtain, after simplification, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{n}i^{3}=\left({\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}\right)^{2}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msup> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{n}i^{3}=\left({\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}\right)^{2}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ddc533816b8375ff84a88a8f550b23c66a2b2b37" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:23.257ex; height:7.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{n}i^{3}=\left({\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}\right)^{2}.}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approximation_of_integrals">Approximation of integrals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Approximation of integrals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The formula provides a means of approximating a finite integral. Let <span class="texhtml"><i>a</i> < <i>b</i></span> be the endpoints of the interval of integration. Fix <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">N</span>, the number of points to use in the approximation, and denote the corresponding step size by <span class="texhtml"><i>h</i> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><i>b</i> − <i>a</i></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den"><i>N</i> − 1</span></span>⁠</span></span>. Set <span class="texhtml"><i>x<sub>i</sub></i> = <i>a</i> + (<i>i</i> − 1)<i>h</i></span>, so that <span class="texhtml"><i>x</i><sub>1</sub> = <i>a</i></span> and <span class="texhtml"><i>x<sub>N</sub></i> = <i>b</i></span>. Then:<sup id="cite_ref-Devries_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devries-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I&=\int _{a}^{b}f(x)\,dx\\&\sim h\left({\frac {f(x_{1})}{2}}+f(x_{2})+\cdots +f(x_{N-1})+{\frac {f(x_{N})}{2}}\right)+{\frac {h^{2}}{12}}{\bigl [}f'(x_{1})-f'(x_{N}){\bigr ]}-{\frac {h^{4}}{720}}{\bigl [}f'''(x_{1})-f'''(x_{N}){\bigr ]}+\cdots \end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>I</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mn>12</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">[</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mn>720</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">[</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>‴</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I&=\int _{a}^{b}f(x)\,dx\\&\sim h\left({\frac {f(x_{1})}{2}}+f(x_{2})+\cdots +f(x_{N-1})+{\frac {f(x_{N})}{2}}\right)+{\frac {h^{2}}{12}}{\bigl [}f'(x_{1})-f'(x_{N}){\bigr ]}-{\frac {h^{4}}{720}}{\bigl [}f'''(x_{1})-f'''(x_{N}){\bigr ]}+\cdots \end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/31ab63e78c5bf0d85e4d0d7391883d5457025978" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.838ex; width:107.423ex; height:12.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I&=\int _{a}^{b}f(x)\,dx\\&\sim h\left({\frac {f(x_{1})}{2}}+f(x_{2})+\cdots +f(x_{N-1})+{\frac {f(x_{N})}{2}}\right)+{\frac {h^{2}}{12}}{\bigl [}f'(x_{1})-f'(x_{N}){\bigr ]}-{\frac {h^{4}}{720}}{\bigl [}f'''(x_{1})-f'''(x_{N}){\bigr ]}+\cdots \end{aligned}}}"></span> </p><p>This may be viewed as an extension of the <a href="/wiki/Trapezoid_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Trapezoid rule">trapezoid rule</a> by the inclusion of correction terms. Note that this asymptotic expansion is usually not convergent; there is some <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">p</span>, depending upon <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">f</span> and <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">h</span>, such that the terms past order <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">p</span> increase rapidly. Thus, the remainder term generally demands close attention.<sup id="cite_ref-Devries_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devries-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Euler–Maclaurin formula is also used for detailed <a href="/wiki/Error_analysis_(mathematics)" title="Error analysis (mathematics)">error analysis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Numerical_quadrature" class="mw-redirect" title="Numerical quadrature">numerical quadrature</a>. It explains the superior performance of the <a href="/wiki/Trapezoidal_rule" title="Trapezoidal rule">trapezoidal rule</a> on smooth <a href="/wiki/Periodic_function" title="Periodic function">periodic functions</a> and is used in certain <a href="/wiki/Series_acceleration" title="Series acceleration">extrapolation methods</a>. <a href="/wiki/Clenshaw%E2%80%93Curtis_quadrature" title="Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature">Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature</a> is essentially a change of variables to cast an arbitrary integral in terms of integrals of periodic functions where the Euler–Maclaurin approach is very accurate (in that particular case the Euler–Maclaurin formula takes the form of a <a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">discrete cosine transform</a>). This technique is known as a periodizing transformation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asymptotic_expansion_of_sums">Asymptotic expansion of sums</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Asymptotic expansion of sums"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the context of computing <a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_expansion" title="Asymptotic expansion">asymptotic expansions</a> of sums and <a href="/wiki/Series_(mathematics)" title="Series (mathematics)">series</a>, usually the most useful form of the Euler–Maclaurin formula is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{n=a}^{b}f(n)\sim \int _{a}^{b}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(b)+f(a)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }\,{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(b)-f^{(2k-1)}(a)\right),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>∼</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{n=a}^{b}f(n)\sim \int _{a}^{b}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(b)+f(a)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }\,{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(b)-f^{(2k-1)}(a)\right),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e00170176b00beb378e5db75457b89dafedb6b6c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:76.123ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{n=a}^{b}f(n)\sim \int _{a}^{b}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(b)+f(a)}{2}}+\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }\,{\frac {B_{2k}}{(2k)!}}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(b)-f^{(2k-1)}(a)\right),}"></span> </p><p>where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">a</span> and <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">b</span> are integers.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often the expansion remains valid even after taking the limits <span class="texhtml"><i>a</i> → −∞</span> or <span class="texhtml"><i>b</i> → +∞</span> or both. In many cases the integral on the right-hand side can be evaluated in <a href="/wiki/Differential_Galois_theory" title="Differential Galois theory">closed form</a> in terms of <a href="/wiki/Elementary_function" title="Elementary function">elementary functions</a> even though the sum on the left-hand side cannot. Then all the terms in the asymptotic series can be expressed in terms of elementary functions. For example, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(z+k)^{2}}}\sim \underbrace {\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(z+k)^{2}}}\,dk} _{={\dfrac {1}{z}}}+{\frac {1}{2z^{2}}}+\sum _{t=1}^{\infty }{\frac {B_{2t}}{z^{2t+1}}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>k</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <munder> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OP MJX-fixedlimits"> <munder> <mrow> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>k</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mo>⏟</mo> </munder> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>z</mi> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mrow> </munder> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>t</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(z+k)^{2}}}\sim \underbrace {\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(z+k)^{2}}}\,dk} _{={\dfrac {1}{z}}}+{\frac {1}{2z^{2}}}+\sum _{t=1}^{\infty }{\frac {B_{2t}}{z^{2t+1}}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87b845609c05db976e7757306be5733895b01f5f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -9.671ex; width:51.948ex; height:13.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(z+k)^{2}}}\sim \underbrace {\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(z+k)^{2}}}\,dk} _{={\dfrac {1}{z}}}+{\frac {1}{2z^{2}}}+\sum _{t=1}^{\infty }{\frac {B_{2t}}{z^{2t+1}}}.}"></span> </p><p>Here the left-hand side is equal to <span class="texhtml"><i>ψ</i><sup>(1)</sup>(<i>z</i>)</span>, namely the first-order <a href="/wiki/Polygamma_function#Series_representation" title="Polygamma function">polygamma function</a> defined by </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}(z)={\frac {d^{2}}{dz^{2}}}\log \Gamma (z);}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>ψ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <msup> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Γ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>;</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}(z)={\frac {d^{2}}{dz^{2}}}\log \Gamma (z);}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0132933e1f6cdbf57414bdae964a6f3d45935a8b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:22.782ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}(z)={\frac {d^{2}}{dz^{2}}}\log \Gamma (z);}"></span></dd></dl> <p>the <a href="/wiki/Gamma_function" title="Gamma function">gamma function</a> <span class="texhtml">Γ(<i>z</i>)</span> is equal to <span class="texhtml">(<i>z</i> − 1)!</span> when <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">z</span> is a <a href="/wiki/Positive_integer" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive integer">positive integer</a>. This results in an asymptotic expansion for <span class="texhtml"><i>ψ</i><sup>(1)</sup>(<i>z</i>)</span>. That expansion, in turn, serves as the starting point for one of the derivations of precise error estimates for <a href="/wiki/Stirling%27s_approximation" title="Stirling's approximation">Stirling's approximation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Factorial" title="Factorial">factorial</a> function. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples">Examples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">s</span> is an integer greater than 1 we have: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{s}}}\approx {\frac {1}{s-1}}+{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{(s-1)n^{s-1}}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{s}}}+\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{(2i)!}}\left[{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!}}-{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!n^{s+2i-1}}}\right].}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>≈</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <munder> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </munder> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{s}}}\approx {\frac {1}{s-1}}+{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{(s-1)n^{s-1}}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{s}}}+\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{(2i)!}}\left[{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!}}-{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!n^{s+2i-1}}}\right].}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a74bba0fefc07c90b9eb752cb72358f54b1ad3b2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:90.273ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{s}}}\approx {\frac {1}{s-1}}+{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{(s-1)n^{s-1}}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{s}}}+\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{(2i)!}}\left[{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!}}-{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!n^{s+2i-1}}}\right].}"></span> </p><p>Collecting the constants into a value of the <a href="/wiki/Riemann_zeta_function" title="Riemann zeta function">Riemann zeta function</a>, we can write an asymptotic expansion: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{s}}}\sim \zeta (s)-{\frac {1}{(s-1)n^{s-1}}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{s}}}-\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{(2i)!}}{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!n^{s+2i-1}}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mi>ζ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <munder> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </munder> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{s}}}\sim \zeta (s)-{\frac {1}{(s-1)n^{s-1}}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{s}}}-\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{(2i)!}}{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!n^{s+2i-1}}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e6362f0fa78fdc9e21d1684d1519a7d45ffb1e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:64.239ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{s}}}\sim \zeta (s)-{\frac {1}{(s-1)n^{s-1}}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{s}}}-\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{(2i)!}}{\frac {(s+2i-2)!}{(s-1)!n^{s+2i-1}}}.}"></span> </p><p>For <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">s</span> equal to 2 this simplifies to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{2}}}\sim \zeta (2)-{\frac {1}{n}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{2}}}-\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{n^{2i+1}}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mi>ζ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <munder> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </munder> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>i</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{2}}}\sim \zeta (2)-{\frac {1}{n}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{2}}}-\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{n^{2i+1}}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e0a623c4c937b60ef91d4c5be379f83fb16b411f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:39.551ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{2}}}\sim \zeta (2)-{\frac {1}{n}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{2}}}-\sum _{i=1}{\frac {B_{2i}}{n^{2i+1}}},}"></span> or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{2}}}\sim {\frac {\pi ^{2}}{6}}-{\frac {1}{n}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{6n^{3}}}+{\frac {1}{30n^{5}}}-{\frac {1}{42n^{7}}}+\cdots .}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mn>6</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>6</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>30</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>42</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{2}}}\sim {\frac {\pi ^{2}}{6}}-{\frac {1}{n}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{6n^{3}}}+{\frac {1}{30n^{5}}}-{\frac {1}{42n^{7}}}+\cdots .}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a62d5881839230a36758a79a7814c2ab073ce917" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:56.312ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k^{2}}}\sim {\frac {\pi ^{2}}{6}}-{\frac {1}{n}}+{\frac {1}{2n^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{6n^{3}}}+{\frac {1}{30n^{5}}}-{\frac {1}{42n^{7}}}+\cdots .}"></span> </p><p>When <span class="texhtml"><i>s</i> = 1</span>, the corresponding technique gives an asymptotic expansion for the <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_number" title="Harmonic number">harmonic numbers</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k}}\sim \gamma +\log n+{\frac {1}{2n}}-\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }{\frac {B_{2k}}{2kn^{2k}}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>k</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k}}\sim \gamma +\log n+{\frac {1}{2n}}-\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }{\frac {B_{2k}}{2kn^{2k}}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59f4f3c2214ee71ea68cc6fcee066cd8a5f1fdb7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:37.722ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k}}\sim \gamma +\log n+{\frac {1}{2n}}-\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }{\frac {B_{2k}}{2kn^{2k}}},}"></span> where <span class="texhtml"><i>γ</i> ≈ 0.5772...</span> is the <a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Mascheroni_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler–Mascheroni constant">Euler–Mascheroni constant</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proofs">Proofs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Proofs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derivation_by_mathematical_induction">Derivation by mathematical induction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Derivation by mathematical induction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>We outline the argument given in Apostol.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli_polynomials" title="Bernoulli polynomials">Bernoulli polynomials</a> <span class="texhtml"><i>B<sub>n</sub></i>(<i>x</i>)</span> and the periodic Bernoulli functions <span class="texhtml"><i>P<sub>n</sub></i>(<i>x</i>)</span> for <span class="texhtml"><i>n</i> = 0, 1, 2, ...</span> were introduced above. </p><p>The first several Bernoulli polynomials are <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B_{0}(x)&=1,\\B_{1}(x)&=x-{\tfrac {1}{2}},\\B_{2}(x)&=x^{2}-x+{\tfrac {1}{6}},\\B_{3}(x)&=x^{3}-{\tfrac {3}{2}}x^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}x,\\B_{4}(x)&=x^{4}-2x^{3}+x^{2}-{\tfrac {1}{30}},\\&\,\,\,\vdots \end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>6</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>3</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>30</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>⋮</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B_{0}(x)&=1,\\B_{1}(x)&=x-{\tfrac {1}{2}},\\B_{2}(x)&=x^{2}-x+{\tfrac {1}{6}},\\B_{3}(x)&=x^{3}-{\tfrac {3}{2}}x^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}x,\\B_{4}(x)&=x^{4}-2x^{3}+x^{2}-{\tfrac {1}{30}},\\&\,\,\,\vdots \end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5ca05e4b1275d64ec89221f42744a7f51f4dbaf7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -10.671ex; width:29.77ex; height:22.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B_{0}(x)&=1,\\B_{1}(x)&=x-{\tfrac {1}{2}},\\B_{2}(x)&=x^{2}-x+{\tfrac {1}{6}},\\B_{3}(x)&=x^{3}-{\tfrac {3}{2}}x^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}x,\\B_{4}(x)&=x^{4}-2x^{3}+x^{2}-{\tfrac {1}{30}},\\&\,\,\,\vdots \end{aligned}}}"></span> </p><p>The values <span class="texhtml"><i>B<sub>n</sub></i>(1)</span> are the <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernoulli numbers">Bernoulli numbers</a> <span class="texhtml"><i>B</i><sub><i>n</i></sub></span>. Notice that for <span class="texhtml"><i>n</i> ≠ 1</span> we have <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{n}=B_{n}(1)=B_{n}(0),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{n}=B_{n}(1)=B_{n}(0),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b402da94f5cd457f2fe0e4b4c6f4160fbe6855db" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.735ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{n}=B_{n}(1)=B_{n}(0),}"></span> and for <span class="texhtml"><i>n</i> = 1</span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{1}=B_{1}(1)=-B_{1}(0).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{1}=B_{1}(1)=-B_{1}(0).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3939e511b8a0ef69165c43a94d4e2d12920f3556" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:23.05ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{1}=B_{1}(1)=-B_{1}(0).}"></span> </p><p>The functions <span class="texhtml"><i>P</i><sub><i>n</i></sub></span> agree with the Bernoulli polynomials on the interval <span class="texhtml">[0, 1]</span> and are <a href="/wiki/Periodic_function" title="Periodic function">periodic</a> with period 1. Furthermore, except when <span class="texhtml"><i>n</i> = 1</span>, they are also continuous. Thus, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P_{n}(0)=P_{n}(1)=B_{n}\quad {\text{for }}n\neq 1.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>for </mtext> </mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>≠</mo> <mn>1.</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{n}(0)=P_{n}(1)=B_{n}\quad {\text{for }}n\neq 1.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2b98b5393fc988cce10624cfaf14e16012335c6e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:32.536ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P_{n}(0)=P_{n}(1)=B_{n}\quad {\text{for }}n\neq 1.}"></span> </p><p>Let <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i></span> be an integer, and consider the integral <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int _{k}^{k+1}f(x)\,dx=\int _{k}^{k+1}u\,dv,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>u</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{k}^{k+1}f(x)\,dx=\int _{k}^{k+1}u\,dv,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/56aecc740352023241f0b0d480018de101202616" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:27.237ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \int _{k}^{k+1}f(x)\,dx=\int _{k}^{k+1}u\,dv,}"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u&=f(x),\\du&=f'(x)\,dx,\\dv&=P_{0}(x)\,dx&{\text{since }}P_{0}(x)&=1,\\v&=P_{1}(x).\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>u</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>d</mi> <mi>u</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>d</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>since </mtext> </mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>v</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u&=f(x),\\du&=f'(x)\,dx,\\dv&=P_{0}(x)\,dx&{\text{since }}P_{0}(x)&=1,\\v&=P_{1}(x).\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b64bf5a8cfc40de93c7b5700f6b1ddcd8327ca3d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.358ex; margin-bottom: -0.314ex; width:35.859ex; height:12.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u&=f(x),\\du&=f'(x)\,dx,\\dv&=P_{0}(x)\,dx&{\text{since }}P_{0}(x)&=1,\\v&=P_{1}(x).\end{aligned}}}"></span> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Integration_by_parts" title="Integration by parts">Integrating by parts</a>, we get <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int _{k}^{k+1}f(x)\,dx&={\bigl [}uv{\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}v\,du\\&={\bigl [}f(x)P_{1}(x){\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx\\&=B_{1}(1)f(k+1)-B_{1}(0)f(k)-\int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">[</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>u</mi> <mi>v</mi> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>v</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>u</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">[</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int _{k}^{k+1}f(x)\,dx&={\bigl [}uv{\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}v\,du\\&={\bigl [}f(x)P_{1}(x){\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx\\&=B_{1}(1)f(k+1)-B_{1}(0)f(k)-\int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8025cd6b9b630485eda98e72fce7c31a2e6245ff" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -9.005ex; width:67.552ex; height:19.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int _{k}^{k+1}f(x)\,dx&={\bigl [}uv{\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}v\,du\\&={\bigl [}f(x)P_{1}(x){\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx\\&=B_{1}(1)f(k+1)-B_{1}(0)f(k)-\int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}"></span> </p><p>Using <span class="texhtml"><i>B</i><sub>1</sub>(0) = −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span></span>, <span class="texhtml"><i>B</i><sub>1</sub>(1) = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span></span>, and summing the above from <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i> = 0</span> to <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i> = <i>n</i> − 1</span>, we get <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx&=\int _{0}^{1}f(x)\,dx+\cdots +\int _{n-1}^{n}f(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {f(0)}{2}}+f(1)+\dotsb +f(n-1)+{\frac {f(n)}{2}}-\int _{0}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx&=\int _{0}^{1}f(x)\,dx+\cdots +\int _{n-1}^{n}f(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {f(0)}{2}}+f(1)+\dotsb +f(n-1)+{\frac {f(n)}{2}}-\int _{0}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c0f9ca983c42876b550ba2aaa09d59b0f946659" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.838ex; width:73.815ex; height:12.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx&=\int _{0}^{1}f(x)\,dx+\cdots +\int _{n-1}^{n}f(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {f(0)}{2}}+f(1)+\dotsb +f(n-1)+{\frac {f(n)}{2}}-\int _{0}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}"></span> </p><p>Adding <span class="texhtml"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><i>f</i>(<i>n</i>) − <i>f</i>(0)</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span></span> to both sides and rearranging, we have <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}f(k)=\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(0)}{2}}+\int _{0}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}f(k)=\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(0)}{2}}+\int _{0}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/36bb74b6353b22407eb87f59542670e38ee2e059" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:59.129ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}f(k)=\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(0)}{2}}+\int _{0}^{n}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx.}"></span> </p><p>This is the <span class="texhtml"><i>p</i> = 1</span> case of the summation formula. To continue the induction, we apply integration by parts to the error term: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx=\int _{k}^{k+1}u\,dv,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>u</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx=\int _{k}^{k+1}u\,dv,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a2d15a3985e9eb61a2d4757f6e3a5d217c431fad" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:33.649ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \int _{k}^{k+1}f'(x)P_{1}(x)\,dx=\int _{k}^{k+1}u\,dv,}"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u&=f'(x),\\du&=f''(x)\,dx,\\dv&=P_{1}(x)\,dx,\\v&={\tfrac {1}{2}}P_{2}(x).\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>u</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>d</mi> <mi>u</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>″</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>d</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>v</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u&=f'(x),\\du&=f''(x)\,dx,\\dv&=P_{1}(x)\,dx,\\v&={\tfrac {1}{2}}P_{2}(x).\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b245e0b207663918bd7044b77669fd729327e2c1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -6.005ex; width:15.66ex; height:13.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u&=f'(x),\\du&=f''(x)\,dx,\\dv&=P_{1}(x)\,dx,\\v&={\tfrac {1}{2}}P_{2}(x).\end{aligned}}}"></span> </p><p>The result of integrating by parts is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\bigl [}uv{\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}v\,du&=\left[{\frac {f'(x)P_{2}(x)}{2}}\right]_{k}^{k+1}-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{k}^{k+1}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {B_{2}}{2}}(f'(k+1)-f'(k))-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{k}^{k+1}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">[</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>u</mi> <mi>v</mi> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>v</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>u</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>″</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>″</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\bigl [}uv{\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}v\,du&=\left[{\frac {f'(x)P_{2}(x)}{2}}\right]_{k}^{k+1}-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{k}^{k+1}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {B_{2}}{2}}(f'(k+1)-f'(k))-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{k}^{k+1}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7e5e2b4c4601927898b969a856ce5f38cfe2c85b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -6.171ex; width:72.864ex; height:13.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\bigl [}uv{\bigr ]}_{k}^{k+1}-\int _{k}^{k+1}v\,du&=\left[{\frac {f'(x)P_{2}(x)}{2}}\right]_{k}^{k+1}-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{k}^{k+1}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx\\&={\frac {B_{2}}{2}}(f'(k+1)-f'(k))-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{k}^{k+1}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx.\end{aligned}}}"></span> </p><p>Summing from <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i> = 0</span> to <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i> = <i>n</i> − 1</span> and substituting this for the lower order error term results in the <span class="texhtml"><i>p</i> = 2</span> case of the formula, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}f(k)=\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(0)}{2}}+{\frac {B_{2}}{2}}{\bigl (}f'(n)-f'(0){\bigr )}-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{0}^{n}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mo>″</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}f(k)=\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(0)}{2}}+{\frac {B_{2}}{2}}{\bigl (}f'(n)-f'(0){\bigr )}-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{0}^{n}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/24afad3e56494d02be21eaa027086ebbf03dceb4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:83.618ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{n}f(k)=\int _{0}^{n}f(x)\,dx+{\frac {f(n)-f(0)}{2}}+{\frac {B_{2}}{2}}{\bigl (}f'(n)-f'(0){\bigr )}-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{0}^{n}f''(x)P_{2}(x)\,dx.}"></span> </p><p>This process can be iterated. In this way we get a proof of the Euler–Maclaurin summation formula which can be formalized by <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_induction" title="Mathematical induction">mathematical induction</a>, in which the induction step relies on integration by parts and on identities for periodic Bernoulli functions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ces%C3%A0ro_summation" title="Cesàro summation">Cesàro summation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler_summation" title="Euler summation">Euler summation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Kronrod_quadrature_formula" title="Gauss–Kronrod quadrature formula">Gauss–Kronrod quadrature formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darboux%27s_formula" title="Darboux's formula">Darboux's formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Boole_summation" title="Euler–Boole summation">Euler–Boole summation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFApostol1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom_M._Apostol" title="Tom M. Apostol">Apostol, T. M.</a> (1 May 1999). "An Elementary View of Euler's Summation Formula". <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Mathematical_Monthly" title="The American Mathematical Monthly">The American Mathematical Monthly</a></i>. <b>106</b> (5). Mathematical Association of America: 409–418. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2589145">10.2307/2589145</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9890">0002-9890</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2589145">2589145</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Mathematical+Monthly&rft.atitle=An+Elementary+View+of+Euler%27s+Summation+Formula&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=409-418&rft.date=1999-05-01&rft.issn=0002-9890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2589145%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2589145&rft.aulast=Apostol&rft.aufirst=T.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DLMF-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DLMF_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlmf.nist.gov/2.10">"Digital Library of Mathematical Functions: Sums and Sequences"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Digital+Library+of+Mathematical+Functions%3A+Sums+and+Sequences&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdlmf.nist.gov%2F2.10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lehmer-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lehmer_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmer1940" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/D._H._Lehmer" title="D. H. Lehmer">Lehmer, D. H.</a> (1940). "On the maxima and minima of Bernoulli polynomials". <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Mathematical_Monthly" title="The American Mathematical Monthly">The American Mathematical Monthly</a></i>. <b>47</b> (8): 533–538. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2303833">10.2307/2303833</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2303833">2303833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Mathematical+Monthly&rft.atitle=On+the+maxima+and+minima+of+Bernoulli+polynomials&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=533-538&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2303833&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2303833%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lehmer&rft.aufirst=D.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPengelley2007" class="citation book cs1">Pengelley, David J. (2007). "Dances between continuous and discrete: Euler's summation formula". <i>Euler at 300</i>. MAA Spectrum. Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America. pp. 169–189. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1912.03527">1912.03527</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/MR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="MR (identifier)">MR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2349549">2349549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dances+between+continuous+and+discrete%3A+Euler%27s+summation+formula&rft.btitle=Euler+at+300&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.series=MAA+Spectrum&rft.pages=169-189&rft.pub=Mathematical+Association+of+America&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1912.03527&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathscinet.ams.org%2Fmathscinet-getitem%3Fmr%3D2349549%23id-name%3DMR&rft.aulast=Pengelley&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Devries-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Devries_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Devries_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevriesHasbrun2011" class="citation book cs1">Devries, Paul L.; Hasbrun, Javier E. (2011). <i>A first course in computational physics</i> (2nd ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers. p. 156.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+first+course+in+computational+physics.&rft.pages=156&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Devries&rft.aufirst=Paul+L.&rft.au=Hasbrun%2C+Javier+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbramowitzStegun1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Milton_Abramowitz" title="Milton Abramowitz">Abramowitz, Milton</a>; <a href="/wiki/Irene_Stegun" title="Irene Stegun">Stegun, Irene A.</a>, eds. (1972). <i><a href="/wiki/Abramowitz_and_Stegun" title="Abramowitz and Stegun">Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables</a></i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. pp. 16, 806, 886. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-61272-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-61272-0"><bdi>978-0-486-61272-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Mathematical+Functions+with+Formulas%2C+Graphs%2C+and+Mathematical+Tables&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=16%2C+806%2C+886&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-486-61272-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGouldSquire1963" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, H. W.; Squire, William (1963). "Maclaurin's second formula and its generalization". <i>Amer. Math. Monthly</i>. <b>70</b> (1): 44–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2312783">10.2307/2312783</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2312783">2312783</a>. <a href="/wiki/MR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="MR (identifier)">MR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0146551">0146551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Amer.+Math.+Monthly&rft.atitle=Maclaurin%27s+second+formula+and+its+generalization&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=44-52&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathscinet.ams.org%2Fmathscinet-getitem%3Fmr%3D0146551%23id-name%3DMR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2312783%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2312783&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=H.+W.&rft.au=Squire%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGourdonSebah2002" class="citation web cs1">Gourdon, Xavier; Sebah, Pascal (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://numbers.computation.free.fr/Constants/Miscellaneous/bernoulli.html">"Introduction on Bernoulli's numbers"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+on+Bernoulli%27s+numbers&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Gourdon&rft.aufirst=Xavier&rft.au=Sebah%2C+Pascal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnumbers.computation.free.fr%2FConstants%2FMiscellaneous%2Fbernoulli.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartensen2005" class="citation journal cs1">Martensen, Erich (2005). "On the generalized Euler-Maclaurin formula". <i>Z. Angew. Math. Mech</i>. <b>85</b> (12): 858–863. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ZaMM...85..858M">2005ZaMM...85..858M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fzamm.200410217">10.1002/zamm.200410217</a>. <a href="/wiki/MR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="MR (identifier)">MR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2184846">2184846</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123419717">123419717</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Z.+Angew.+Math.+Mech.&rft.atitle=On+the+generalized+Euler-Maclaurin+formula&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=858-863&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fzamm.200410217&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathscinet.ams.org%2Fmathscinet-getitem%3Fmr%3D2184846%23id-name%3DMR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123419717%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005ZaMM...85..858M&rft.aulast=Martensen&rft.aufirst=Erich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontgomeryVaughan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Montgomery_(mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Montgomery (mathematician)">Montgomery, Hugh L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_Vaughan_(mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Charles Vaughan (mathematician)">Vaughan, Robert C.</a> (2007). <i>Multiplicative number theory I. Classical theory</i>. Cambridge tracts in advanced mathematics. Vol. 97. pp. 495–519. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84903-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84903-6"><bdi>978-0-521-84903-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multiplicative+number+theory+I.+Classical+theory&rft.series=Cambridge+tracts+in+advanced+mathematics&rft.pages=495-519&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84903-6&rft.aulast=Montgomery&rft.aufirst=Hugh+L.&rft.au=Vaughan%2C+Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="citation mathworld" id="Reference-Mathworld-Euler–Maclaurin_Integration_Formulas"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisstein" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein" title="Eric W. Weisstein">Weisstein, Eric W.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Euler-MaclaurinIntegrationFormulas.html">"Euler–Maclaurin Integration Formulas"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MathWorld" title="MathWorld">MathWorld</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MathWorld&rft.atitle=Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+Integration+Formulas&rft.au=Weisstein%2C+Eric+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathworld.wolfram.com%2FEuler-MaclaurinIntegrationFormulas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuler%E2%80%93Maclaurin+formula" class="Z3988"></span></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_four-square_identity" title="Euler's four-square identity">Euler's four-square identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_identity" title="Euler's identity">Euler's identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_pump_and_turbine_equation" title="Euler's pump and turbine equation">Euler's pump and turbine equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_rotation_theorem" title="Euler's rotation theorem">Euler's rotation theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_sum_of_powers_conjecture" title="Euler's sum of powers conjecture">Euler's sum of powers conjecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_theorem" title="Euler's theorem">Euler's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler_equations_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Euler equations (fluid dynamics)">Euler equations (fluid dynamics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler_function" title="Euler function">Euler function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler_method" title="Euler method">Euler method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler_numbers" title="Euler numbers">Euler numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler_number_(physics)" title="Euler number (physics)">Euler number (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_theory" title="Euler–Bernoulli beam theory">Euler–Bernoulli beam theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Leonhard_Euler" class="mw-redirect" title="List of things named after Leonhard Euler">Namesakes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limit_(mathematics)" title="Limit (mathematics)">Limits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indeterminate_form" title="Indeterminate form">Indeterminate form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limit_of_a_function" title="Limit of a function">Limit of a function</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-sided_limit" title="One-sided limit">One-sided limit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limit_of_a_sequence" title="Limit of a sequence">Limit of a sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_approximation" title="Order of approximation">Order of approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/(%CE%B5,_%CE%B4)-definition_of_limit" class="mw-redirect" title="(ε, δ)-definition of limit">(ε, δ)-definition of limit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Differential_calculus" title="Differential calculus">Differential calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derivative" title="Derivative">Derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_derivative" title="Second derivative">Second derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_derivative" title="Partial derivative">Partial derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_(mathematics)" title="Differential (mathematics)">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_operator" title="Differential operator">Differential operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_value_theorem" title="Mean value theorem">Mean value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notation_for_differentiation" title="Notation for differentiation">Notation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_notation" title="Leibniz's notation">Leibniz's notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_notation_for_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's notation for differentiation">Newton's notation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differentiation_rules" title="Differentiation rules">Rules of differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linearity_of_differentiation" title="Linearity of differentiation">linearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_rule" title="Power rule">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sum_rule_in_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sum rule in differentiation">Sum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_rule" title="Chain rule">Chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27H%C3%B4pital%27s_rule" title="L'Hôpital's rule">L'Hôpital's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_rule" title="Product rule">Product</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Leibniz_rule" title="General Leibniz rule">General Leibniz's rule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quotient_rule" title="Quotient rule">Quotient</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other techniques <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit differentiation">Implicit differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_functions_and_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse functions and differentiation">Inverse functions and differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_derivative" title="Logarithmic derivative">Logarithmic derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Related_rates" title="Related rates">Related rates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stationary_point" title="Stationary point">Stationary points</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_derivative_test" class="mw-redirect" title="First derivative test">First derivative test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_derivative_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Second derivative test">Second derivative test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_value_theorem" title="Extreme value theorem">Extreme value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_and_minimum" title="Maximum and minimum">Maximum and minimum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Further applications <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method" title="Newton's method">Newton's method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor%27s_theorem" title="Taylor's theorem">Taylor's theorem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">Differential equation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation" title="Ordinary differential equation">Ordinary differential equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">Partial differential equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_differential_equation" title="Stochastic differential equation">Stochastic differential equation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integral_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral calculus">Integral calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiderivative" title="Antiderivative">Antiderivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arc_length" title="Arc length">Arc length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riemann_integral" title="Riemann integral">Riemann integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral#Properties" title="Integral">Basic properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_of_integration" title="Constant of integration">Constant of integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus" title="Fundamental theorem of calculus">Fundamental theorem of calculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_integral_rule" title="Leibniz integral rule">Differentiating under the integral sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integration_by_parts" title="Integration by parts">Integration by parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integration_by_substitution" title="Integration by substitution">Integration by substitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trigonometric_substitution" title="Trigonometric substitution">trigonometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler_substitution" title="Euler substitution">Euler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangent_half-angle_substitution" title="Tangent half-angle substitution">Tangent half-angle substitution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_fractions_in_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial fractions in integration">Partial fractions in integration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quadratic_integral" title="Quadratic integral">Quadratic integral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapezoidal_rule" title="Trapezoidal rule">Trapezoidal rule</a></li> <li>Volumes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disc_integration" title="Disc integration">Washer method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_integration" title="Shell integration">Shell method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_equation" title="Integral equation">Integral equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integro-differential_equation" title="Integro-differential equation">Integro-differential equation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vector_calculus" title="Vector calculus">Vector calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Derivatives <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curl_(mathematics)" title="Curl (mathematics)">Curl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directional_derivative" title="Directional derivative">Directional derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergence" title="Divergence">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradient" title="Gradient">Gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laplace_operator" title="Laplace operator">Laplacian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Basic theorems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Theorem_of_Line_Integrals" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals">Line integrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_theorem" title="Green's theorem">Green's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes%27_theorem" title="Stokes' theorem">Stokes'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergence_theorem" title="Divergence theorem">Gauss'</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multivariable_calculus" title="Multivariable calculus">Multivariable calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divergence_theorem" title="Divergence theorem">Divergence theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_calculus" title="Geometric calculus">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_matrix" title="Hessian matrix">Hessian matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobian_matrix_and_determinant" title="Jacobian matrix and determinant">Jacobian matrix and determinant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagrange_multiplier" title="Lagrange multiplier">Lagrange multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_integral" title="Line integral">Line integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_calculus" title="Matrix calculus">Matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_integral" title="Multiple integral">Multiple integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_derivative" title="Partial derivative">Partial derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_integral" title="Surface integral">Surface integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_integral" title="Volume integral">Volume integral</a></li> <li>Advanced topics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Differential_form" title="Differential form">Differential forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exterior_derivative" title="Exterior derivative">Exterior derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_Stokes%27_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Generalized Stokes' theorem">Generalized Stokes' theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensor_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensor calculus">Tensor calculus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sequences and series</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetico-geometric_sequence" title="Arithmetico-geometric sequence">Arithmetico-geometric sequence</a></li> <li>Types of series <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_series" title="Alternating series">Alternating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binomial_series" title="Binomial series">Binomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourier_series" title="Fourier series">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_series" title="Geometric series">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(mathematics)" title="Harmonic series (mathematics)">Harmonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinite_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinite series">Infinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_series" title="Power series">Power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maclaurin_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Maclaurin series">Maclaurin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_series" title="Taylor series">Taylor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescoping_series" title="Telescoping series">Telescoping</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tests of convergence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abel%27s_test" title="Abel's test">Abel's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_series_test" title="Alternating series test">Alternating series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchy_condensation_test" title="Cauchy condensation test">Cauchy condensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_comparison_test" title="Direct comparison test">Direct comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirichlet%27s_test" title="Dirichlet's test">Dirichlet's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_test_for_convergence" title="Integral test for convergence">Integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limit_comparison_test" title="Limit comparison test">Limit comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_test" title="Ratio test">Ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_test" title="Root test">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Term test">Term</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special functions<br />and numbers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernoulli_number" title="Bernoulli number">Bernoulli numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_(mathematical_constant)" title="E (mathematical constant)">e (mathematical constant)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_function" title="Exponential function">Exponential function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_logarithm" title="Natural logarithm">Natural logarithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stirling%27s_approximation" title="Stirling's approximation">Stirling's approximation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">History of calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adequality" title="Adequality">Adequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brook_Taylor" title="Brook Taylor">Brook Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Maclaurin" title="Colin Maclaurin">Colin Maclaurin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generality_of_algebra" title="Generality of algebra">Generality of algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitesimal" title="Infinitesimal">Infinitesimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitesimal_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinitesimal calculus">Infinitesimal calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluxion" title="Fluxion">Fluxion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Continuity" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Continuity">Law of Continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Method_of_Fluxions" title="Method of Fluxions">Method of Fluxions</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Method_of_Mechanical_Theorems" title="The Method of Mechanical Theorems">The Method of Mechanical Theorems</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Integrals" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_integrals" title="Lists of integrals">Integrals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_rational_functions" title="List of integrals of rational functions">rational functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_irrational_functions" title="List of integrals of irrational functions">irrational functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_exponential_functions" title="List of integrals of exponential functions">exponential functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_logarithmic_functions" title="List of integrals of logarithmic functions">logarithmic functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_hyperbolic_functions" title="List of integrals of hyperbolic functions">hyperbolic functions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_inverse_hyperbolic_functions" title="List of integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions">inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_trigonometric_functions" title="List of integrals of trigonometric functions">trigonometric functions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_inverse_trigonometric_functions" title="List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions">inverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_of_the_secant_function" title="Integral of the secant function">Secant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_of_secant_cubed" title="Integral of secant cubed">Secant cubed</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_limits" title="List of limits">List of limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differentiation_rules" title="Differentiation rules">List of derivatives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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Bee">Integration Bee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_that_22/7_exceeds_%CF%80" title="Proof that 22/7 exceeds π">Proof that 22/7 exceeds π</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regiomontanus%27_angle_maximization_problem" title="Regiomontanus' angle maximization problem">Regiomontanus' angle maximization problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinmetz_solid" title="Steinmetz solid">Steinmetz solid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euler–Maclaurin_formula&oldid=1251381090">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euler–Maclaurin_formula&oldid=1251381090</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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Euler–Maclaurin formula - Wikipedia