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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Juan Vives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Juan_Vives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Johann_Pestalozzi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johann_Pestalozzi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Johann Pestalozzi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johann_Pestalozzi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Johann_Herbart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johann_Herbart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Johann Herbart</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johann_Herbart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1890–1920" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1890–1920"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>1890–1920</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1890–1920-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-William_James_(1842–1910)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_James_(1842–1910)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>William James (1842–1910)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_James_(1842–1910)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alfred_Binet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alfred_Binet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Alfred Binet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alfred_Binet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edward_Thorndike" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edward_Thorndike"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Edward Thorndike</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edward_Thorndike-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Dewey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Dewey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.4</span> <span>John Dewey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Dewey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jean_Piaget" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jean_Piaget"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.5</span> <span>Jean Piaget</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jean_Piaget-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1920–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1920–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>1920–present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1920–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jerome_Bruner" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jerome_Bruner"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Jerome Bruner</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jerome_Bruner-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benjamin_Bloom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benjamin_Bloom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Benjamin Bloom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benjamin_Bloom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nathaniel_Gage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nathaniel_Gage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.3</span> <span>Nathaniel Gage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nathaniel_Gage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Perspectives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Perspectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Perspectives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Behavioral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavioral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Behavioral</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behavioral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Cognitive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cognitive_view_of_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_view_of_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Cognitive view of intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_view_of_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developmental" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Developmental</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Constructivist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jean_Piaget's_Cognitive_Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jean_Piaget's_Cognitive_Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jean_Piaget's_Cognitive_Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditioning_and_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditioning_and_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Conditioning and learning</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conditioning_and_learning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conditioning and learning subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conditioning_and_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Motivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Motivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Teaching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teaching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Teaching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teaching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counseling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counseling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Counseling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counseling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Training" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Training"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Training</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Training-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Employment_outlook" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Employment_outlook"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Employment outlook</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Employment_outlook-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Methods of research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A" title="علم النفس التربوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النفس التربوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="শিক্ষা মনোবিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="শিক্ষা মনোবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedaqoji_psixologiya" title="Pedaqoji psixologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Pedaqoji psixologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="শিক্ষা মনোবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শিক্ষা মনোবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Образователна психология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Образователна психология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedago%C5%A1ka_psihologija" title="Pedagoška psihologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pedagoška psihologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%C4%83%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Педагогикăри психологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Педагогикăри психологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogick%C3%A1_psychologie" title="Pedagogická psychologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pedagogická psychologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A6dagogisk_psykologi" title="Pædagogisk psykologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pædagogisk psykologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A4dagogische_Psychologie" title="Pädagogische Psychologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pädagogische Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolog%C3%ADa_educativa" title="Psicología educativa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Psicología educativa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="روان‌شناسی تربیتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روان‌شناسی تربیتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie_de_l%27%C3%A9ducation" title="Psychologie de l'éducation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Psychologie de l'éducation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADceola%C3%ADocht_oideachais" title="Síceolaíocht oideachais – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Síceolaíocht oideachais" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolox%C3%ADa_educativa" title="Psicoloxía educativa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Psicoloxía educativa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%90%EC%9C%A1%EC%8B%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="교육심리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="교육심리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մանկավարժական հոգեբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մանկավարժական հոգեբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="शैक्षिक मनोविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शैक्षिक मनोविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi_pendidikan" title="Psikologi pendidikan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Psikologi pendidikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1mss%C3%A1lfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Námssálfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Námssálfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_dell%27educazione" title="Psicologia dell'educazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Psicologia dell'educazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פסיכולוגיה חינוכית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פסיכולוגיה חינוכית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Педагогикалық психология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Педагогикалық психология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der%C3%BBnnasiya_perwerdey%C3%AA" title="Derûnnasiya perwerdeyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Derûnnasiya perwerdeyê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Педагогикалык психология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Педагогикалык психология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedag%C3%B3giai_pszichol%C3%B3gia" title="Pedagógiai pszichológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pedagógiai pszichológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Образовна психологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Образовна психологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi_pendidikan" title="Psikologi pendidikan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Psikologi pendidikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BB_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Боловсролын сэтгэл зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Боловсролын сэтгэл зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="ပညာရေးစိတ်ပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပညာရေးစိတ်ပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="教育心理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="教育心理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogisk_psykologi" title="Pedagogisk psykologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pedagogisk psykologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogik_psixologiya" title="Pedagogik psixologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Pedagogik psixologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸਿੱਖਿਆ ਮਨੋਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਿੱਖਿਆ ਮਨੋਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ښوونيزه ارواپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښوونيزه ارواپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologia_wychowawcza" title="Psychologia wychowawcza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Psychologia wychowawcza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_educacional" title="Psicologia educacional – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Psicologia educacional" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologia_educa%C8%9Biei" title="Psihologia educației – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Psihologia educației" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Педагогическая психология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Педагогическая психология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="शैक्षिकमनोविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="शैक्षिकमनोविज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologjia_pedagogjike" title="Psikologjia pedagogjike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Psikologjia pedagogjike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="අධ්‍යාපන මනෝ විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අධ්‍යාපන මනෝ විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Educational psychology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogick%C3%A1_psychol%C3%B3gia" title="Pedagogická psychológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pedagogická psychológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedago%C5%A1ka_psihologija" title="Pedagoška psihologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pedagoška psihologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="دەروونناسیی پەروەردەیی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەروونناسیی پەروەردەیی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasvatuspsykologia" title="Kasvatuspsykologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasvatuspsykologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogisk_psykologi" title="Pedagogisk psykologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pedagogisk psykologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikolohiyang_pang-edukasyon" title="Sikolohiyang pang-edukasyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sikolohiyang pang-edukasyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கல்வி உளவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கல்வி உளவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C4%9Fitim_psikolojisi" title="Eğitim psikolojisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eğitim psikolojisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Педагогічна психологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Педагогічна психологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/100px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/150px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/200px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li>Educational</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a 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mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/16px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/24px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/32px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> </span><a 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title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbddff;"> Curricular domains</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_education" title="Visual arts education">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_education" title="Business education">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">Early childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education_research" title="Engineering education research">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy education">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts_education" title="Performing arts education">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Social science education">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbddff;"> Methods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_method" title="Case method">Case method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factorial_experiment" title="Factorial experiment">Factorial experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_group" title="Focus group">Focus group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">Reform</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Educational_research" title="Template:Educational research"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Educational_research" title="Template talk:Educational research"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Educational_research" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Educational research"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Educational psychology</b> is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> concerned with the scientific study of human <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>. The study of learning processes, from both <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral psychology">behavioral</a> perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> development, <a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">affect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a>, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional design, <a href="/wiki/Classroom_management" title="Classroom management">classroom management</a>, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.<sup id="cite_ref-Snowman_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snowman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>. It is also informed by <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including <a href="/wiki/Instructional_design" title="Instructional design">instructional design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">educational technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curriculum_development" title="Curriculum development">curriculum development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organizational_learning" title="Organizational learning">organizational learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">special education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classroom_management" title="Classroom management">classroom management</a>, and student motivation. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Learning_sciences" title="Learning sciences">learning sciences</a>. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.<sup id="cite_ref-lucas_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lucas-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The field of educational psychology involves the study of <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, conceptual processes, and individual differences (via cognitive psychology) in conceptualizing new strategies for learning processes in humans. Educational psychology has been built upon theories of <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant conditioning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">functionalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(psychology)" title="Structuralism (psychology)">structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(psychological_school)" title="Constructivism (psychological school)">constructivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">humanistic psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_(psychology)" title="Information processing (psychology)">information processing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Snowman_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snowman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Educational psychology has seen rapid growth and development as a profession in the last twenty years.<sup id="cite_ref-Farrell_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School psychology</a> began with the concept of intelligence testing leading to provisions for special education students, who could not follow the regular classroom curriculum in the early part of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Farrell_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another main focus of school psychology was to help close the gap for children of colour, as the fight against racial inequality and segregation was still very prominent, during the early to mid-1900s. However, "school psychology" itself has built a fairly new profession based upon the practices and theories of several psychologists among many different fields. Educational psychologists are working side by side with psychiatrists, social workers, teachers, speech and language therapists, and counselors in an attempt to understand the questions being raised when combining behavioral, cognitive, and social psychology in the classroom setting.<sup id="cite_ref-Farrell_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a field of study, educational psychology is fairly new and was not considered a specific practice until the 20th century. Reflections on everyday teaching and learning allowed some individuals throughout history to elaborate on developmental differences in cognition, the nature of instruction, and the transfer of knowledge and learning. These topics are important to education and, as a result, they are important in understanding human cognition, learning, and social perception.<sup id="cite_ref-Berliner_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berliner-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the ideas and issues pertaining to educational psychology date back to the time of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">Philosophers</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">sophists</a> discussed the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, training of the body and the cultivation of psycho-motor skills, the formation of good character, the possibilities and limits of moral <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>. Some other educational topics they spoke about were the effects of music, poetry, and the other arts on the development of the individual, role of the teacher, and the relations between teacher and student.<sup id="cite_ref-Berliner_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berliner-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plato saw knowledge acquisition as an innate ability, which evolves through experience and understanding of the world. This conception of human cognition has evolved into a continuing argument of <a href="/wiki/Nature_vs._nurture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature vs. nurture">nature vs. nurture</a> in understanding conditioning and learning today. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, on the other hand, ascribed to the idea of knowledge by association or <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schema</a>. His four <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_association" title="Laws of association">laws of association</a> included succession, contiguity, similarity, and contrast. His studies examined recall and facilitated learning processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lott_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lott-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Modern_era">Early Modern era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> is considered one of the most influential philosophers in post-renaissance Europe, a time period that began around the mid-1600s. Locke is considered the "Father of English Psychology". One of Locke's most important works was written in 1690, named <i>An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</i>. In this essay, he introduced the term "tabula rasa" meaning "blank slate." Locke explained that learning was attained through experience only and that we are all born without knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He followed by contrasting Plato's theory of innate learning processes. Locke believed the mind was formed by experiences, not innate ideas. Locke introduced this idea as "empiricism", or the understanding that knowledge is only built on knowledge and experience.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1600s, John Locke advanced the hypothesis that people learn primarily from external forces. He believed that the mind was like a blank tablet (tabula rasa), and that successions of simple impressions give rise to complex ideas through association and reflection. Locke is credited with establishing "<a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>" as a criterion for testing the validity of knowledge, thus providing a conceptual framework for later development of experimental methodology in the natural and social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 18th century the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> espoused a set of theories which would become highly influential in the field of education, particularly through his <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical novel">philosophical novel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile, or On Education</a></i>. Despite stating that the book should not be used as a practical guide to nurturing children, the pedagogical approach outlined in it was lauded by <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> contemporaries including <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>. Rousseau advocated a <a href="/wiki/Child-centered_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Child-centered learning">child-centered</a> approach to education, and that the age of the child should be accounted for in choosing what and how to teach them. In particular he insisted on the primacy of <a href="/wiki/Experiential_education" title="Experiential education">experiential education</a>, in order to develop the child's ability to reason autonomously. Rousseau's philosophy influenced educational reformers including <a href="/wiki/Johann_Bernhard_Basedow" title="Johann Bernhard Basedow">Johann Bernhard Basedow</a>, whose practice in his model school the <a href="/wiki/Philanthropinum" title="Philanthropinum">Philanthropinum</a> drew upon his ideas, as well as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi" title="Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi">Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi</a>. More generally Rousseau's thinking had significant direct and indirect influence on the development of pedagogy in Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands. In addition, Jean Piaget's stage-based approach to child development has been observed to have parallels to Rousseau's theories.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_1890">Before 1890</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Before 1890"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Juan_Vives">Juan Vives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Juan Vives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Juan_Vives" class="mw-redirect" title="Juan Vives">Juan Vives</a> (1493–1540) proposed induction as the method of study and believed in the direct <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and investigation of the study of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>. His studies focused on humanistic <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>, which opposed scholasticism and was influenced by a variety of sources including <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was one of the first prominent thinkers to emphasize that the location of a school is important to <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vives_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vives-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggested that a school should be located away from disturbing noises; the air quality should be good and there should be plenty of food for the students and teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-vives_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vives-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vives emphasized the importance of understanding individual differences of the students and suggested practice as an important tool for learning.<sup id="cite_ref-vives_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vives-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vives introduced his educational ideas in his writing, "De anima et vita" in 1538. In this publication, Vives explores <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosophy</a> as a setting for his educational ideals; with this, he explains that the different parts of the soul (similar to that of Aristotle's ideas) are each responsible for different operations, which function distinctively. The first book covers the different "souls": "The Vegetative Soul"; this is the soul of <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a>, growth, and reproduction, "The Sensitive Soul", which involves the five external senses; "The Cogitative soul", which includes internal senses and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> facilities. The second book involves functions of the rational soul: mind, will, and memory. Lastly, the third book explains the analysis of emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-Casini_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casini-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Johann_Pestalozzi">Johann Pestalozzi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Johann Pestalozzi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Pestalozzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Pestalozzi">Johann Pestalozzi</a> (1746–1827), a Swiss educational reformer, emphasized the child rather than the content of the school.<sup id="cite_ref-glover_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glover-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pestalozzi fostered an educational reform backed by the idea that early education was crucial for children, and could be manageable for mothers. Eventually, this experience with early education would lead to a "wholesome person characterized by morality."<sup id="cite_ref-Horlacher_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horlacher-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pestalozzi has been acknowledged for opening institutions for education, writing books for mother's teaching home education, and elementary books for students, mostly focusing on the kindergarten level. In his later years, he published teaching manuals and methods of teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-Horlacher_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horlacher-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the time of <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a>, Pestalozzi's ideals introduced "educationalization". This created the bridge between social issues and education by introducing the idea of social issues to be solved through education. Horlacher describes the most prominent example of this during The Enlightenment to be "improving agricultural production methods."<sup id="cite_ref-Horlacher_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horlacher-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Johann_Herbart">Johann Herbart</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Johann Herbart"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered the father of educational <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed that <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> was influenced by interest in the subject and the teacher.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He thought that teachers should consider the students' existing mental sets—what they already know—when presenting new information or material.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herbart came up with what are now known as the formal steps. The 5 steps that teachers should use are: </p> <ol><li>Review material that has already been learned by the student<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Present the new material.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1890–1920"><span id="1890.E2.80.931920"></span>1890–1920</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1890–1920"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There were three major figures in educational psychology in this period: William James, G. Stanley Hall, and John Dewey. These three men distinguished themselves in general psychology and educational psychology, which overlapped significantly at the end of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Berliner_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berliner-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="William_James_(1842–1910)"><span id="William_James_.281842.E2.80.931910.29"></span>William James (1842–1910)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: William James (1842–1910)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_James,_philosopher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/William_James%2C_philosopher.jpg/170px-William_James%2C_philosopher.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/William_James%2C_philosopher.jpg/255px-William_James%2C_philosopher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/William_James%2C_philosopher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>William James</figcaption></figure> <p>The period of 1890–1920 is considered the golden era of educational psychology when aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems. From 1840 to 1920 37 million people immigrated to the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools. The increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists the opportunity to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a> influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. The pioneering American psychologist <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> commented that: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality".<sup id="cite_ref-james_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-james-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>James is the father of psychology in America, but he also made contributions to educational psychology. In his famous series of lectures <i>Talks to Teachers on Psychology</i>, published in 1899, James <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_education" title="Definitions of education">defines education</a> as "the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior".<sup id="cite_ref-james_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-james-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He states that teachers should "train the pupil to behavior"<sup id="cite_ref-james_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-james-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so that he fits into the social and physical world. Teachers should also realize the importance of habit and instinct. They should present information that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to things the student already knows about.<sup id="cite_ref-james_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-james-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association of ideas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alfred_Binet">Alfred Binet</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Alfred Binet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Binet" title="Alfred Binet">Alfred Binet</a> published <i>Mental Fatigue</i> in 1898, in which he attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments, experiments done in the lab and experiments done in the classroom. In 1904 he was appointed the Minister of Public Education.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental disabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binet strongly supported special education programs because he believed that "abnormality" could be cured.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to distinguish between "normal children" and those with developmental disabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binet believed that it was important to study individual differences between age groups and children of the same age.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account individual students' strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole when teaching and creating a good learning environment.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust the curriculum to the students.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binet also emphasized that practice of material was important. In 1916 <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Terman" title="Lewis Terman">Lewis Terman</a> revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used tests of intelligence. Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as the Termites, Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Edward_Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Edward Thorndike"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a> (1874–1949) supported the scientific movement in education. He based teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thorndike developed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_conditioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental conditioning">instrumental conditioning</a> or the law of effect. The law of effect states that associations are strengthened when it is followed by something pleasing and associations are weakened when followed by something not pleasing. He also found that <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> is done a little at a time or in increments, learning is an automatic process and its principles apply to all mammals. Thorndike's research with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodworth" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Woodworth">Robert Woodworth</a> on the theory of transfer found that learning one subject will only influence your ability to learn another subject if the subjects are similar.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This discovery led to less emphasis on learning the <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a> because they found that studying the classics does not contribute to overall general intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> tasks were due to how many stimulus-response patterns a person had rather than general intellectual ability.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He contributed word dictionaries that were <a href="/wiki/Scientifically" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientifically">scientifically</a> based to determine the words and definitions used.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dictionaries were the first to take into consideration the users' maturity level.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also integrated pictures and easier pronunciation guide into each of the definitions.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thorndike contributed <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> books based on <a href="/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)" title="Learning theory (education)">learning theory</a>. He made all the problems more realistic and relevant to what was being studied, not just to improve the general <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He developed tests that were standardized to measure performance in school-related subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His biggest contribution to testing was the CAVD intelligence test which used a multidimensional approach to intelligence and was the first to use a ratio scale.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His later work was on programmed instruction, mastery learning, and computer-based learning: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.<sup id="cite_ref-thorndike_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thorndike-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Dewey">John Dewey</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: John Dewey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> (1859–1952) had a major influence on the development of <a href="/wiki/Progressive_education" title="Progressive education">progressive education</a> in the United States. He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He pushed for the creation of practical classes that could be applied outside of a school setting.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also thought that education should be student-oriented, not subject-oriented. For Dewey, education was a social experience that helped bring together generations of people. He stated that students learn by doing. He believed in an active mind that was able to be educated through observation, problem-solving, and enquiry. In his 1910 book <i>How We Think</i>, he emphasizes that material should be provided in a way that is stimulating and interesting to the student since it encourages original thought and problem-solving.<sup id="cite_ref-Dewey_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewey-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also stated that material should be relative to the student's own experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Dewey_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewey-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The material furnished by way of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the students own experience"<sup id="cite_ref-Dewey_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewey-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jean_Piaget">Jean Piaget</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Jean Piaget"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a> (1896–1980) was one of the most powerful researchers in of developmental psychology during the 20th century. He developed the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">theory of cognitive development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory stated that intelligence developed in four different stages. The stages are the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, the preoperational state from 2 to 7 years old, the concrete operational stage from 7 to 10 years old, and the formal operational stage from 12 years old and up.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also believed that learning was constrained to the child's cognitive development. Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was the first to believe that cognitive development was important and something that should be paid attention to in education.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the research on Piagetian theory was carried out by American educational psychologists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1920–present"><span id="1920.E2.80.93present"></span>1920–present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1920–present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of people receiving a high school and college education increased dramatically from 1920 to 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because very few jobs were available to teens coming out of eighth grade, there was an increase in high school attendance in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The progressive movement in the United States took off at this time and led to the idea of <a href="/wiki/Progressive_education" title="Progressive education">progressive education</a>. John Flanagan, an educational psychologist, developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hergenhahn_15-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hergenhahn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 1960s to present day, educational psychology has switched from a behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive-based perspective because of the influence and development of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jerome_Bruner">Jerome Bruner</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Jerome Bruner"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a> is notable for integrating <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Piaget</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> approaches into educational <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He advocated for <a href="/wiki/Discovery_learning" title="Discovery learning">discovery learning</a> where teachers create a <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a> environment that allows the student to question, <a href="/wiki/Explore" class="mw-redirect" title="Explore">explore</a> and experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Process_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="The Process of Education">The Process of Education</a></i> Bruner stated that the structure of the material and the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> abilities of the person are important in <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He emphasized the importance of the subject matter. He also believed that how the subject was structured was important for the student's understanding of the subject and that it was the goal of the teacher to structure the subject in a way that was easy for the student to understand.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1960s, Bruner went to <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> to teach math and science to school children, which influenced his view as schooling as a <a href="/wiki/Cultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural">cultural</a> institution. Bruner was also influential in the development of MACOS, <a href="/wiki/Man:_A_Course_of_Study" title="Man: A Course of Study">Man: a Course of Study</a>, which was an educational program that combined <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program explored <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a>. He also helped with the development of the head start program. He was interested in the influence of culture on education and looked at the impact of poverty on educational development.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Benjamin_Bloom">Benjamin Bloom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Benjamin Bloom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Bloom" title="Benjamin Bloom">Benjamin Bloom</a> (1903–1999) spent over 50 years at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, where he worked in the department of education.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed that all students can learn. He developed the <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_educational_objectives" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy of educational objectives">taxonomy of educational objectives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The objectives were divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain deals with how we think.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is divided into categories that are on a continuum from easiest to more complex.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The categories are knowledge or recall, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The affective domain deals with emotions and has 5 categories.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The categories are receiving phenomenon, responding to that phenomenon, valuing, organization, and internalizing values.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The psychomotor domain deals with the development of motor skills, movement, and coordination and has 7 categories that also go from simplest to most complex.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 7 categories of the psychomotor domain are perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The taxonomy provided broad educational objectives that could be used to help expand the curriculum to match the ideas in the taxonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The taxonomy is considered to have a greater influence internationally than in the United States. Internationally, the taxonomy is used in every aspect of education from the training of the teachers to the development of testing material.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals and promoting an active student. He thought that teachers should provide feedback to the students on their strengths and weaknesses.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bloom also did research on college students and their problem-solving processes. He found that they differ in understanding the basis of the problem and the ideas in the problem. He also found that students differ in process of problem-solving in their approach and attitude toward the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nathaniel_Gage">Nathaniel Gage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Nathaniel Gage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gage" title="Nathaniel Gage">Nathaniel Gage</a> (1917–2008) is an important figure in educational psychology as his research focused on improving teaching and understanding the processes involved in teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He edited the book <i>Handbook of Research on Teaching</i> (1963), which helped develop early research in teaching and educational psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gage founded the Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching, which contributed research on teaching as well as influencing the education of important educational psychologists.<sup id="cite_ref-zimmerman2_10-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zimmerman2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perspectives">Perspectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavioral">Behavioral</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Behavioral"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a>, a research-based science utilizing behavioral principles of <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant conditioning</a>, is effective in a range of educational settings.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberto_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberto-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items.<sup id="cite_ref-mcgoey_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcgoey-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-theodore_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theodore-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of <a href="/wiki/Self-determination_theory" title="Self-determination theory">self-determination theory</a>, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_motivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic motivation">intrinsic motivation</a>. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-lepper_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lepper-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation.<sup id="cite_ref-cameron_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cameron-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including <a href="/wiki/Pivotal_response_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pivotal response therapy">pivotal response therapy</a> which is used to treat <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum disorder">autism spectrum disorders</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive">Cognitive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cognitive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as <a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">traits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Beliefs">beliefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memories" class="mw-redirect" title="Memories">memories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is <a href="/wiki/Perceive" class="mw-redirect" title="Perceive">perceived</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_(psychology)" title="Information processing (psychology)">processed</a>, stored, <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">retrieved</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forgot" class="mw-redirect" title="Forgot">forgotten</a>. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by <a href="/wiki/Allan_Paivio" title="Allan Paivio">Allan Paivio</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dual_coding_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual coding theory">dual coding theory</a>. Educational psychologists have used <a href="/wiki/Dual-coding_theory" title="Dual-coding theory">dual coding theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">cognitive load</a> theory to explain how people learn from <a href="/wiki/Multimedia" title="Multimedia">multimedia</a> presentations.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayer_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayer-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KrugDavisGlover1990.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/KrugDavisGlover1990.png/220px-KrugDavisGlover1990.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/KrugDavisGlover1990.png/330px-KrugDavisGlover1990.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/KrugDavisGlover1990.png/440px-KrugDavisGlover1990.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and Glover<sup id="cite_ref-krug_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krug-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spaced_learning" title="Spaced learning">spaced learning</a> effect, a <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dempster_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dempster-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).<sup id="cite_ref-krug_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krug-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to the education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonics</a> for immediate and delayed retention of information.<sup id="cite_ref-carney_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carney-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a>, according to prominent cognitive psychologists, is fundamental to <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>. It resides as an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schema</a> retrieved from <a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a>. A problem students run into while reading is called "activation." This is when the student's representations of the text are present during <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a>. This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the reader's representations of the working memory, they experience something called "deactivation." When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of the material and is able to retain information. If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread to get a "gist" of the text to spark their <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.<sup id="cite_ref-kalyuga_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalyuga-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of <a href="/wiki/Analogical" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogical">analogical</a> thinking to problem-solving. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cognitive_view_of_intelligence">Cognitive view of intelligence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cognitive view of intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figural_Relationships.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Figural_Relationships.svg/220px-Figural_Relationships.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Figural_Relationships.svg/330px-Figural_Relationships.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Figural_Relationships.svg/440px-Figural_Relationships.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="268" data-file-height="185" /></a><figcaption>An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test</figcaption></figure> <p>Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities, and challenges that result from predisposition, learning, and development. These manifest as individual differences in <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_(trait)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence (trait)">intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_style" title="Cognitive style">cognitive style</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a>, and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD), <a href="/wiki/Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">learning disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">dyslexia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Speech_disorder" title="Speech disorder">speech disorder</a>. Less common disabilities include <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hearing_impairment" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearing impairment">hearing impairment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_palsy" title="Cerebral palsy">cerebral palsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blindness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-woolfolk_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woolfolk-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although theories of <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> have been discussed by philosophers since <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence testing">intelligence testing</a> is an invention of educational psychology and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether it can be characterized by a single <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor</a> known as <a href="/wiki/General_intelligence_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="General intelligence factor">general intelligence</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-spearman1904_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spearman1904-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> multiple factors (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Howard_Gardner" title="Howard Gardner">Gardner's</a> <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">theory of multiple intelligences</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the <a href="/wiki/Stanford-Binet_IQ_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford-Binet IQ test">Stanford-Binet IQ test</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children" title="Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children">WISC</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as <a href="/wiki/Gifted" class="mw-redirect" title="Gifted">gifted</a> are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as <a href="/wiki/Phonological_awareness" title="Phonological awareness">phonological awareness</a>. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality <a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">traits</a> are also important, with people higher in <a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">conscientiousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hope" title="Hope">hope</a> attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental">Developmental</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Developmental"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Piagetian_theories_of_cognitive_development" title="Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development">Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a>, and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills that are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is the reason why <a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">Piaget's theory of cognitive development</a> was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same direction, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Piagetian_theories_of_cognitive_development" title="Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development">neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development</a> suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a> capacities that characterize successive age levels.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Demetriou,_A._2010_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demetriou,_A._2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Second, the psychology of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">cognitive development</a> involves understanding how <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to develop. <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> also capitalizes on <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> change, because the construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mental</a> actions vis-à-vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Demetriou,_A._2010_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demetriou,_A._2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.<sup id="cite_ref-Demetriou,_A._2010_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demetriou,_A._2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constructivist">Constructivist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Constructivist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">Constructivism</a></div> <p>Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior "knowing" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with <a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">Piaget's theory of cognitive development</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism_(learning_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social constructivism (learning theory)">social constructivism</a>. The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It regards learning as a process of enculturation. People learn by exposure to the culture of practitioners. They observe and practice the behavior of practitioners and 'pick up relevant jargon, imitate behavior, and gradually start to act in accordance with the norms of the practice'.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So, a student learns to become a mathematician through exposure to mathematician using tools to solve mathematical problems. So in order to master a particular domain of knowledge it is not enough for students to learn the concepts of the domain. They should be exposed to the use of the concepts in authentic activities by the practitioners of the domain.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A dominant influence on the social constructivist paradigm is <a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Lev Vygotsky</a>'s work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. "<a href="/wiki/Zone_of_Proximal_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Zone of Proximal Development">Zone of Proximal Development</a>" (ZPD) is a term Vygotsky used to characterize an individual's mental development. He believed that tasks individuals can do on their own do not give a complete understanding of their mental development. He originally defined the ZPD as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.”<sup id="cite_ref-:1_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He cited a famous example to make his case. Two children in school who originally can solve problems at an eight-year-old developmental level (that is, typical for children who were age 8) might be at different developmental levels. If each child received assistance from an adult, one was able to perform at a nine-year-old level and one was able to perform at a twelve-year-old level. He said “This difference between twelve and eight, or between nine and eight, is what we call <i>the zone of proximal development.</i>”<sup id="cite_ref-:1_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He further said that the ZPD “defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state.”<sup id="cite_ref-:1_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The zone is bracketed by the learner's current ability and the ability they can achieve with the aid of an instructor of some capacity. </p><p>Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a better way to explain the relation between children's learning and cognitive development. Prior to the ZPD, the relation between learning and development could be boiled down to the following three major positions: 1) Development always precedes learning (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">constructivism</a>): children first need to meet a particular maturation level before learning can occur; 2) Learning and development cannot be separated, but instead occur simultaneously (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>): essentially, learning is development; and 3) learning and development are separate, but interactive processes (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">gestaltism</a>): one process always prepares the other process, and vice versa. Vygotsky rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning should always precede development in the ZPD. According to Vygotsky, through the assistance of a more knowledgeable other, a child can learn skills or aspects of a skill that go beyond the child's actual developmental or maturational level. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently (also referred to as the child's developmental level). The upper limit is the level of potential skill that the child can reach with the assistance of a more capable instructor. In this sense, the ZPD provides a prospective view of cognitive development, as opposed to a retrospective view that characterizes development in terms of a child's independent capabilities. The advancement through and attainment of the upper limit of the ZPD is limited by the instructional and scaffolding-related capabilities of the more knowledgeable other (MKO). The MKO is typically assumed to be an older, more experienced teacher or parent, but often can be a learner's peer or someone their junior. The MKO need not even be a person, it can be a machine or book, or other source of visual and/or audio input.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a> and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of <a href="/wiki/Instructional_scaffolding" title="Instructional scaffolding">instructional scaffolding</a>, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.<sup id="cite_ref-educational_psychology_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-educational_psychology-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jean_Piaget's_Cognitive_Development"><span id="Jean_Piaget.27s_Cognitive_Development"></span>Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a> was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with a <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schema</a> operating at birth that he called "reflexes". Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development. The four stages are sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.<sup id="cite_ref-Huitt_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huitt-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conditioning_and_learning">Conditioning and learning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Conditioning and learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kugleramme.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Kugleramme.jpg/220px-Kugleramme.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Kugleramme.jpg/330px-Kugleramme.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Kugleramme.jpg/440px-Kugleramme.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1675" data-file-height="1793" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> provides concrete experiences for learning abstract concepts.</figcaption></figure> <p>To understand the characteristics of learners in <a href="/wiki/Child" title="Child">childhood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adolescence" title="Adolescence">adolescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adulthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Adulthood">adulthood</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Old_age" title="Old age">old age</a>, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (<a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge. </p><p>For example, educational psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Jean Piaget's theory of development</a>, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.<sup id="cite_ref-woolfolk_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woolfolk-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Piaget proposed a developmental theory of <a href="/wiki/Moral_reasoning" title="Moral reasoning">moral reasoning</a> in which children progress from a naïve understanding of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohlberg's stages of moral development">stage theory of moral development</a>. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as <a href="/wiki/Modeling_(psychology)" title="Modeling (psychology)">modeling</a> (as described by the <a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory_of_morality" title="Social cognitive theory of morality">social cognitive theory of morality</a>) are required to explain <a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">bullying</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a>'s model of <a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">child development</a> interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development<sup id="cite_ref-uwe.ac.uk_RR645_1.5_Findings_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uwe.ac.uk_RR645_1.5_Findings-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in developmental stages similar to those later described by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Piaget</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of <a href="/wiki/Epistemological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological">epistemological</a> beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity.<sup id="cite_ref-cano_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cano-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivation">Motivation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Motivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">Motivation</a> is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Motivation can have several impacting effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter:<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Provide direction towards goals.</li> <li>Enhance cognitive processing abilities and performance.</li> <li>Direct behavior toward specific goals.</li> <li>Lead to increased effort and energy.</li> <li>Increase initiation of and persistence in activities.</li></ul> <p>Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Volition_(psychology)" title="Volition (psychology)">volition</a> or <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a> that students bring to a task, their level of interest and <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_motivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic motivation">intrinsic motivation</a>, the personally held <a href="/wiki/Goal_setting" title="Goal setting">goals</a> that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. As intrinsic motivation deals with activities that act as their own rewards, extrinsic motivation deals with motivations that are brought on by consequences or punishments. A form of <a href="/wiki/Attribution_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Attribution theory">attribution theory</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Weiner" title="Bernard Weiner">Bernard Weiner</a><sup id="cite_ref-weiner_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiner-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of <a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">shame</a> and <a href="/wiki/Embarrassment" title="Embarrassment">embarrassment</a> and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">guilt</a> and consequently increase effort and show improved performance.<sup id="cite_ref-weiner_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiner-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Self-determination_theory" title="Self-determination theory">self-determination theory</a> (SDT) was developed by psychologists <a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Deci" title="Edward L. Deci">Edward Deci</a> and Richard Ryan. SDT focuses on the importance of <a href="/wiki/Motivation#Incentive_theories:_intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation" title="Motivation">intrinsic and extrinsic motivation</a> in driving human behavior and posits inherent growth and development tendencies. It emphasizes the degree to which an individual's behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. When applied to the realm of education, the self-determination theory is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a value of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Motivational theories also explain how <a href="/wiki/Goal_theory" title="Goal theory">learners' goals</a> affect the way they engage with academic tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-elliot_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elliot-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who have <i>mastery goals</i> strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have <i>performance approach goals</i> strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have <i>performance avoidance</i> goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_motivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic motivation">intrinsic motivation</a>. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">concentration</a> while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing, and <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_(mood)#Test_and_performance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety (mood)">test anxiety</a>. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.<sup id="cite_ref-elliot_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elliot-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Locus_of_control" title="Locus of control">Locus of control</a> is a salient factor in the successful academic performance of students. During the 1970s and '80s, <a href="/wiki/Cassandra_B._Whyte" title="Cassandra B. Whyte">Cassandra B. Whyte</a> did significant educational research studying locus of control as related to the academic achievement of students pursuing higher education coursework. Much of her educational research and publications focused upon the theories of <a href="/wiki/Julian_B._Rotter" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian B. Rotter">Julian B. Rotter</a> in regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic performance.<sup id="cite_ref-Whyte80_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whyte80-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level. Therefore, it is important to provide education and counseling in this regard.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BloomsCognitiveDomain.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/BloomsCognitiveDomain.svg/220px-BloomsCognitiveDomain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/BloomsCognitiveDomain.svg/330px-BloomsCognitiveDomain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/BloomsCognitiveDomain.svg/440px-BloomsCognitiveDomain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>Bloom's <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_educational_objectives" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy of educational objectives">taxonomy of educational objectives</a>: categories in the cognitive domain<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Instructional_design" title="Instructional design">Instructional design</a>, the systematic design of materials, activities, and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_educational_objectives" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy of educational objectives">taxonomy of educational objectives</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Bloom" title="Benjamin Bloom">Benjamin Bloom</a> and colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bloom also researched <a href="/wiki/Mastery_learning" title="Mastery learning">mastery learning</a>, an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally achieved in classroom instruction. <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Gagn%C3%A9" title="Robert M. Gagné">Gagné</a>, another psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of <a href="/wiki/Task_analysis" title="Task analysis">task analysis</a> in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives<sup id="cite_ref-gronlund_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gronlund-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> connected by prerequisite relationships. The following list of technological resources incorporate computer-aided instruction and intelligence for educational psychologists and their students: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_tutoring_system" title="Intelligent tutoring system">Intelligent tutoring system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tutor" title="Cognitive tutor">Cognitive tutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_learning" title="Cooperative learning">Cooperative learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_learning" title="Collaborative learning">Collaborative learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem-based_learning" title="Problem-based learning">Problem-based learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-supported_collaborative_learning" title="Computer-supported collaborative learning">Computer-supported collaborative learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_alignment" title="Constructive alignment">Constructive alignment</a></li></ul> <p>Technology is essential to the field of educational psychology, not only for the psychologist themselves as far as testing, organization, and resources, but also for students. Educational psychologists who reside in the K-12 setting focus most of their time on special education students. It has been found that students with disabilities learning through technology such as iPad applications and videos are more engaged and motivated to learn in the classroom setting. Liu et al. explain that learning-based technology allows for students to be more focused, and learning is more efficient with learning technologies. The authors explain that learning technology also allows for students with social-emotional disabilities to participate in distance learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Teaching">Teaching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Teaching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png/220px-FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png/330px-FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png/440px-FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption>A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low-income families.<sup id="cite_ref-finn_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-finn-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Research on <a href="/wiki/Classroom_management" title="Classroom management">classroom management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a> is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.<sup id="cite_ref-emmer_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmer-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management. A developing <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Contemporary_Educational_Psychology" class="extiw" title="b:Contemporary Educational Psychology">Wikibook about educational psychology</a> gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">Special education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education_in_the_United_States" title="Secondary education in the United States">Secondary Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">Lesson plan</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counseling">Counseling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Counseling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Training">Training</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Training"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to become an educational psychologist, students can complete an undergraduate degree of their choice. They then must go to graduate school to study education psychology, counseling psychology, or school counseling. Most students today are also receiving their <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctoral</a> degrees in order to hold the "psychologist" title. Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning and education. Educational psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational materials, classroom programs and online courses. Educational psychologists who work in K–12 school settings (closely related are <a href="/wiki/School_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychologist">school psychologists</a> in the US and Canada) are trained at the <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's</a> and doctoral levels. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention. However, school psychologists are generally more individual-oriented towards students.<sup id="cite_ref-Love_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Love-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many high schools and colleges are increasingly offering educational psychology courses, with some colleges offering it as a general education requirement. Similarly, colleges offer students opportunities to obtain a Ph.D. in educational psychology. </p><p>Within the UK, students must hold a degree that is accredited by the British Psychological Society (either undergraduate or at the master's level) before applying for a three-year doctoral course that involves further education, placement, and a research thesis. </p><p>In recent years, many university training programs in the US have included curriculum that focuses on issues of race, gender, disability, trauma, and poverty, and how those issues affect learning and academic outcomes. A growing number of universities offer specialized certificates that allow professionals to work and study in these fields (i.e. autism specialists, trauma specialists). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Employment_outlook">Employment outlook</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Employment outlook"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anticipated to grow by 18–26%, employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations in 2014. One in four psychologists is employed in educational settings. In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Median" title="Median">median</a> salary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is US$58,360 as of May 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-OOH_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OOH-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent decades, the participation of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology has risen dramatically.<sup id="cite_ref-evans_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_research">Methods of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Methods of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As opposed to some other fields of <a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">educational research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative methods">quantitative methods</a> are the predominant mode of inquiry in educational psychology, but qualitative and mixed-methods studies are also common.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Educational psychology, as much as any other field of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> relies on a balance of <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observational</a>, correlational, and experimental study designs. Given the complexities of modeling <a href="/wiki/Restricted_randomization" title="Restricted randomization">dependent data</a> and psychological variables in school settings, educational psychologists have been at the forefront of the development of several common statistical tools, including <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">psychometric methods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regression_discontinuity" class="mw-redirect" title="Regression discontinuity">regression discontinuity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">latent variable modeling</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span 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id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Snowman-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Snowman_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snowman_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Snowman, Jack (1997). Educational Psychology: What Do We Teach, What Should We Teach?. "Educational Psychology", 9, 151-169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lucas-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lucas_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas, J.L.; Blazek, M.A. & Riley, A.B. (2005). The lack of representation of educational psychology and school psychology in introductory psychology textbooks. <i>Educational Psychology</i>, 25, 347–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farrell-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farrell_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farrell_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farrell_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Farrell, P. (2010). School psychology: Learning lessons from history and moving forward. School Psychology International, 31(6), 581-598.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berliner-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berliner_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berliner_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berliner_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBerliner1993" class="citation book cs1">Berliner, David C. (1993). "The 100-year journey of educational psychology: From interest, to disdain, to respect for practice". In Fagan, T. K.; VandenBos, G. R. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wou.edu/~girodm/611/Berliner_100years.pdf"><i>Exploring applied psychology: Origins and critical analyses</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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(2012). Challenging the Status Quo Meaning of Educational Quality: Introducing Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory©. <i>Educational Journal of Living Theories</i>. 4, 1-29. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ejolts.net/node/191">http://ejolts.net/node/191</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Educational_psychology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output 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<i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Educational_psychology" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Educational psychology">Educational psychology</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.html">Division 15 of the American Psychological Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bps.org.uk/education/education_home.cfm">Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190124101023/http://www.bps.org.uk/education/education_home.cfm">Archived</a> 2019-01-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110930133718/http://www.instructionaldesign.org/">Explorations in Learning & Instructional Design: Theory Into Practice Database</a> (archived 30 September 2011)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/index.htm">Classics in the History of Psychology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/science/standards.html">The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7HVfxq4l-8">The Psychology of Educational Quality-Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory</a> (video on <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic <br />psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Psi-stylized.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="stylized letter psi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/50px-Psi-stylized.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/75px-Psi-stylized.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/100px-Psi-stylized.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="123" data-file-height="124" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied <br />psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dyslexia_and_related_specific_developmental_disorders" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dyslexia_and_specific_developmental_disorders" title="Template:Dyslexia and specific developmental disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dyslexia_and_specific_developmental_disorders" title="Template talk:Dyslexia and specific developmental disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dyslexia_and_specific_developmental_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dyslexia and specific developmental disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dyslexia_and_related_specific_developmental_disorders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Specific_developmental_disorder" title="Specific developmental disorder">specific developmental disorders</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment" title="Speech and language impairment">Speech, language</a>, and <br /><a href="/wiki/Communication_disorder" title="Communication disorder">communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_language_disorder" title="Expressive language disorder">Expressive language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantile_speech" title="Infantile speech">Infantile speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landau%E2%80%93Kleffner_syndrome" title="Landau–Kleffner syndrome">Landau–Kleffner syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_disorder" title="Language disorder">Language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisp" title="Lisp">Lisp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_receptive-expressive_language_disorder" title="Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder">Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_language_impairment" title="Specific language impairment">Specific language impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment" title="Speech and language impairment">Speech and language impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_disorder" title="Speech disorder">Speech disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_error" title="Speech error">Speech error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_sound_disorder" title="Speech sound disorder">Speech sound disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuttering" title="Stuttering">Stuttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">Learning disability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyscalculia" title="Dyscalculia">Dyscalculia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgraphia" title="Dysgraphia">Dysgraphia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorder_of_written_expression" title="Disorder of written expression">Disorder of written expression</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder" title="Developmental coordination disorder">Developmental coordination disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_verbal_dyspraxia" title="Developmental verbal dyspraxia">Developmental verbal dyspraxia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory processing disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyslexia research">Dyslexia research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_Ally" title="Learning Ally">Learning Ally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_problems_in_childhood_cancer" title="Learning problems in childhood cancer">Learning problems in childhood cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_dyslexia" title="Management of dyslexia">Management of dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multisensory_integration" title="Multisensory integration">Multisensory integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology" title="Clinical neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_to_read" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning to read">Reading acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">Spelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artistic_depictions_of_dyslexia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of artistic depictions of dyslexia">Dyslexia in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_with_dyslexia" title="List of people with dyslexia">People with dyslexia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Education" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Education" title="Template:Education"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Education" title="Template talk:Education"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Education" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Education"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Education" title="Category:Education">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_education_terms" title="Glossary of education terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_education_articles" title="Index of education articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_education" title="Outline of education">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By perspective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_aims_and_objectives" title="Educational aims and objectives">Aims and objectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_anthropology" title="Educational anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">Assessment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_evaluation" title="Educational evaluation">Evaluation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Course_evaluation" title="Course evaluation">Course evaluation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standards-based_assessment" title="Standards-based assessment">Standards-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Standardized test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_quality_assessment" title="Teacher quality assessment">Teacher quality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_sciences" title="Education sciences">Education sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusion_(education)" title="Inclusion (education)">Inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_leadership" title="Educational leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_policy" title="Education policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_in_education" title="Politics in education">Politics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_education" title="Right to education">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_theory" title="Instructional theory">Instructional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_design" title="Instructional design">Instructional design</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_education_by_subject" title="List of education by subject">By subject</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_education" title="Agricultural education">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Art education">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_education" title="Bilingual education">Bilingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_education" title="Business education">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_education" title="Death education">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_education" title="Design education">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_education" title="Economics education">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_education" title="Music education">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_education" title="Peace education">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts_education" title="Performing arts education">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_education" title="Philosophy education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_education" title="Physical education">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_education" title="Teacher education">Teacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_education" title="Alternative education">Alternative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adult_education" title="Adult education">Adult education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">Autodidacticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">Education reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifted_education" title="Gifted education">Gifted education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">Special education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_skills" title="21st century skills">21st century skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy" title="Bloom's taxonomy">Bloom's taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">Cognitive load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_arrangement" title="Class arrangement">Class arrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">Curriculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_studies" title="Curriculum studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_theory" title="Curriculum theory">Theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)" title="Learning theory (education)">Learning theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">Lesson plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogical_pattern" title="Pedagogical pattern">Pedagogical pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_look" title="Teacher look">Teacher look</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_retention" title="Teacher retention">Teacher retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blended_learning" title="Blended learning">Blended learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstration_(teaching)" title="Demonstration (teaching)">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogic_learning" title="Dialogic learning">Dialogic learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiential_learning" title="Experiential learning">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_feedback" title="Corrective feedback">Feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_learning" title="Passive learning">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_instruction" title="Peer instruction">Peer instruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalized learning">Personalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenon-based_learning" title="Phenomenon-based learning">Phenomenon-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem-based_learning" title="Problem-based learning">Problem-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project-based_learning" title="Project-based learning">Project-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student-centered_learning" title="Student-centered learning">Student-centered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">Socratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_philosophy" title="Teaching philosophy">Teaching philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wikimedia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Education" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Education">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/education" class="extiw" title="wikt:education">Definitions</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Education" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Education">Images</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="v:Education">Learning resources</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Portal:Education" class="extiw" title="n:Portal:Education">News</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="q:Education">Quotes</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="s:Education">Texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Stages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Educational_stage" title="Educational stage">Stages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">Early childhood education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary education</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Preschool" title="Preschool">Preschool</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">Kindergarten</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_school" title="Primary school">Primary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Infant<br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Junior<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">Secondary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_school" title="Middle school">Middle school</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">High school<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:40%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">Higher education</a><br /> </td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Further_education" title="Further education">Further</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">Continuing</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_education" title="Undergraduate education">Undergraduate</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a><br /> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Education_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education in Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Algeria" title="Education in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Angola" title="Education in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Benin" title="Education in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Botswana" title="Education in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Education in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burundi" title="Education in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cameroon" title="Education in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cape_Verde" title="Education in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Education in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chad" title="Education in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Comoros" title="Education in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Djibouti" title="Education in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Education in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eritrea" title="Education in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eswatini" title="Education in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ethiopia" title="Education in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gabon" title="Education in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Gambia" title="Education in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ghana" title="Education in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea" title="Education in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Education in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Education in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kenya" title="Education in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lesotho" title="Education in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liberia" title="Education in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Libya" title="Education in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malawi" title="Education in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mali" title="Education in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritania" title="Education in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritius" title="Education in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Morocco" title="Education in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mozambique" title="Education in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Namibia" title="Education in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niger" title="Education in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nigeria" title="Education in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Rwanda" title="Education in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Senegal" title="Education in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Seychelles" title="Education in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Education in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Africa" title="Education in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Sudan" title="Education in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sudan" title="Education in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tanzania" title="Education in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Togo" title="Education in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tunisia" title="Education in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uganda" title="Education in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zambia" title="Education in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zimbabwe" title="Education in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somaliland" title="Education in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Asia" title="Education in Asia">Education in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bahrain" title="Education in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bangladesh" title="Education in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bhutan" title="Education in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brunei" title="Education in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cambodia" title="Education in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Israel" title="Education in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Japan" title="Education in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jordan" title="Education in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Korea" title="Education in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Korea" title="Education in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kuwait" title="Education in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Education in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Laos" title="Education in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lebanon" title="Education in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Maldives" title="Education in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mongolia" title="Education in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Myanmar" title="Education in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nepal" title="Education in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Oman" title="Education in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Pakistan" title="Education in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Philippines" title="Education in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Qatar" title="Education in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Education in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Singapore" title="Education in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Education in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tajikistan" title="Education in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Thailand" title="Education in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkmenistan" title="Education in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Education in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uzbekistan" title="Education in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vietnam" title="Education in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Yemen" title="Education in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Education in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hong_Kong" title="Education in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Macau" title="Education in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Europe">Education in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Albania" title="Education in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Austria" title="Education in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belarus" title="Education in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belgium" title="Education in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bulgaria" title="Education in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Croatia" title="Education in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Education in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Denmark" title="Education in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Estonia" title="Education in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Finland" title="Education in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greece" title="Education in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hungary" title="Education in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iceland" title="Education in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Education in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Latvia" title="Education in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liechtenstein" title="Education in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lithuania" title="Education in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Luxembourg" title="Education in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malta" title="Education in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Moldova" title="Education in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montenegro" title="Education in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Macedonia" title="Education in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Norway" title="Education in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Poland" title="Education in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Portugal" title="Education in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_San_Marino" title="Education in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Serbia" title="Education in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovakia" title="Education in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovenia" title="Education in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Spain" title="Education in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sweden" title="Education in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Switzerland" title="Education in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kosovo" title="Education in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_%C3%85land" title="Education in Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Education in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gibraltar" title="Education in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guernsey" title="Education in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Education in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jersey" title="Education in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Education in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Bahamas" title="Education in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Barbados" title="Education in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belize" title="Education in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Costa_Rica" title="Education in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cuba" title="Education in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Dominica" title="Education in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Education in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_El_Salvador" title="Education in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Grenada" title="Education in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guatemala" title="Education in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Haiti" title="Education in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Honduras" title="Education in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jamaica" title="Education in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mexico" title="Education in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nicaragua" title="Education in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Panama" title="Education in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Education in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Education in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Education in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Education in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Anguilla" title="Education in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Aruba" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bermuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Education in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Education in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greenland" title="Education in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guadeloupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montserrat" title="Education in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Education in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Australia" title="Education in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Education in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Fiji" title="Education in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kiribati" title="Education in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nauru" title="Education in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_New_Zealand" title="Education in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Education in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Solomon Islands (page does not exist)">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tonga" title="Education in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Education in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niue" title="Education in Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_New_Caledonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in New Caledonia (page does not exist)">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Education in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tokelau" title="Education in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in South America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Argentina" title="Education in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bolivia" title="Education in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brazil" title="Education in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chile" title="Education in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Colombia" title="Education in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ecuador" title="Education in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guyana" title="Education in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Paraguay" title="Education in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Peru" title="Education in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Suriname" title="Education in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uruguay" title="Education in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Venezuela" title="Education in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Education in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/16px-School.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/24px-School.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/32px-School.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Schools" title="Portal:Schools">Schools portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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