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Clarke's Mysterious World</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arthur_C._Clarke's_Mysterious_World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vitrified fort</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9" title="Mur vitrifié – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mur vitrifié" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%A6%AC%EC%9A%94%EC%83%88" title="유리요새 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유리요새" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetrificazione_dei_forti" title="Vetrificazione dei forti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vetrificazione dei forti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8_%D0%B9%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Витрификаци йина форташ – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Витрификаци йина форташ" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Витрифицированные форты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Витрифицированные форты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was long thought that these structures were unique to Scotland, but they have since been identified in several other parts of western and northern Europe. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitrified_fort.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Vitrified_fort.jpg/220px-Vitrified_fort.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Vitrified_fort.jpg/330px-Vitrified_fort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Vitrified_fort.jpg/440px-Vitrified_fort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1574" data-file-height="2220" /></a><figcaption>Vitrified fort, England, 1829</figcaption></figure> <p>Vitrified forts are generally situated on hills offering strong defensive positions. Their form seems to have been determined by the contour of the flat summits which they enclose. The walls vary in size, a few being upwards of 12 feet (3.7 m) high, and are so broad that they present the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">embankments</a>. Weak parts of the defence are strengthened by double or triple walls, and occasionally vast lines of <a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">ramparts</a>, composed of large blocks of unhewn and unvitrified stones, envelop the vitrified centre at some distance from it.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The walls themselves are termed vitrified ramparts.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vitrification_process">Vitrification process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitrified_fort&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Vitrification process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>No <a href="/wiki/Lime_(mineral)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lime (mineral)">lime</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a> has been found in any of these structures, all of them presenting the peculiarity of being more or less consolidated by the fusion of the rocks of which they are built. This fusion, which has been caused by the application of intense heat, is not equally complete in the various forts, or even in the walls of the same fort. In some cases the stones are only partially melted and <a href="/wiki/Calcined" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcined">calcined</a>; in others their adjoining edges are fused so that they are firmly cemented together; in many instances pieces of rock are enveloped in a glassy enamel-like coating which binds them into a uniform whole; and at times, though rarely, the entire length of the wall presents one solid mass of vitreous substance.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is not clear why or how the walls were subjected to vitrification. Some <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarians</a> have argued that it was done to strengthen the wall, but the heating actually weakens the structure. Battle damage is also unlikely to be the cause, as the walls are thought to have been subjected to carefully maintained fires to ensure they were hot enough for vitrification to take place.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expert consensus explains vitrified forts as the product of deliberate destruction either following the capture of the site by an enemy force or by the occupants at the end of its active life as an act of ritual closure.<sup id="cite_ref-Ralston_143_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ralston_143-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process has no chronological significance and is found during both Iron Age and early medieval forts in Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-Ralston_143_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ralston_143-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_forts">List of forts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitrified_fort&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: List of forts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Williams_(geologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Williams (geologist) (page does not exist)">John Williams</a>, one of the earliest of British <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologists</a>, and author of <i>The Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom</i>, first described these singular ruins in 1777, over 70 examples have been discovered in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most remarkable are: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_Ste-Suzanne.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_Ste-Suzanne.JPG/310px-Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_Ste-Suzanne.JPG" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_Ste-Suzanne.JPG/465px-Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_Ste-Suzanne.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_Ste-Suzanne.JPG/620px-Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_Ste-Suzanne.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Part of the vitrified wall at <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Suzanne,_Mayenne" title="Sainte-Suzanne, Mayenne">Sainte-Suzanne</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mayenne" title="Mayenne">Mayenne</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_2.JPG/310px-Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="310" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_2.JPG/465px-Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_2.JPG/620px-Mur_vitrifi%C3%A9_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Fragment of vitrified wall at <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Suzanne,_Mayenne" title="Sainte-Suzanne, Mayenne">Sainte-Suzanne</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mayenne" title="Mayenne">Mayenne</a>)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Dun Mac Sniachan (or <a href="/wiki/Dun_(fortification)" title="Dun (fortification)">Dun</a> Mac Uisneachan), Argyll, the largest in area<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> at 245<span class="nowrap"> </span>m by 50<span class="nowrap"> </span>m</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benderloch" title="Benderloch">Benderloch</a>, north of <a href="/wiki/Oban" title="Oban">Oban</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Survey_National_Grid" title="Ordnance Survey National Grid">grid reference</a> <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=56.488010_N_5.409265_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NM 902 381</a></span></li> <li>Craig Phadraig, or Phadrick, near <a href="/wiki/Inverness" title="Inverness">Inverness</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=57.476572_N_4.269665_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NH 640 452</a></span></li> <li>Ord Hill, North Kessock, near <a href="/wiki/Inverness" title="Inverness">Inverness</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=57.512292_N_4.231813_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NH 664 491</a></span></li> <li>Dun Deardail (or Dundbhairdghall) in <a href="/wiki/Glen_Nevis" title="Glen Nevis">Glen Nevis</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=56.784603_N_5.067663_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NN 127 701</a></span></li> <li>Knock Farril (or Knockfarrel), near <a href="/wiki/Strathpeffer" title="Strathpeffer">Strathpeffer</a>, <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=57.591666_N_4.502737_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NH 505 585</a></span></li> <li>Dun Creich, in <a href="/wiki/Sutherland" title="Sutherland">Sutherland</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=57.862836_N_4.275395_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NH 651 882</a></span></li> <li>Finavon (or Finhaven), near <a href="/wiki/Aberlemno" title="Aberlemno">Aberlemno</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=56.689520_N_2.806459_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NO 507 556</a></span></li> <li>Barryhill, in <a href="/wiki/Perthshire" title="Perthshire">Perthshire</a></li> <li>Laws, near <a href="/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=56.503392_N_2.830121_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NO 490 349</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunagoil" title="Dunagoil">Dunagoil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burnt_Islands" title="Burnt Islands">Burnt Islands</a>, in <a href="/wiki/County_of_Bute" title="County of Bute">Buteshire</a></li> <li>Mote of Mark, (Rockcliffe) near <a href="/wiki/Rockcliffe,_Dumfries_and_Galloway" title="Rockcliffe, Dumfries and Galloway">Rockcliffe</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=54.867389_N_3.801218_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NX 845 540</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusty%27s_Hill" title="Trusty's Hill">Trusty's Hill</a>, Anwoth, near <a href="/wiki/Gatehouse_of_Fleet" title="Gatehouse of Fleet">Gatehouse of Fleet</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=54.878771_N_4.200792_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NX 589 560</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tap_o%27_Noth" title="Tap o' Noth">Tap o' Noth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aberdeenshire" title="Aberdeenshire">Aberdeenshire</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=57.351259_N_2.859141_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NJ 484 293</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunnideer_Castle" title="Dunnideer Castle">Dunnideer Castle</a>, Aberdeenshire</li> <li>Cowdenknowes, in <a href="/wiki/Berwickshire" title="Berwickshire">Berwickshire</a>; <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vitrified_fort&params=55.624797_N_2.660583_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NT 585 370</a></span></li></ul> <p>For a long time it was supposed that these forts were peculiar to Scotland; but they are found also in the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_hillforts_on_the_Isle_of_Man" title="List of hillforts on the Isle of Man">Cronk Sumark</a>); <a href="/wiki/County_Londonderry" title="County Londonderry">County Londonderry</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_Cavan" title="County Cavan">County Cavan</a>, Ireland; in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Lusatia" title="Upper Lusatia">Upper Lusatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a>; in the provinces on the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>, especially in the neighbourhood of the <a href="/wiki/Nahe_(Rhine)" title="Nahe (Rhine)">Nahe</a>; in the <a href="/wiki/Uecker" title="Uecker">Ucker Lake</a>; in Brandenburg, where the walls are formed of burnt and smelted <a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">bricks</a>; in Hungary; in several places in France, such as Châteauvieux (near <a href="/wiki/Pionnat" title="Pionnat">Pionnat</a>), Péran, <a href="/wiki/La_Courbe" title="La Courbe">La Courbe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Suzanne,_Mayenne" title="Sainte-Suzanne, Mayenne">Sainte-Suzanne</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Puy_de_Gaudy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puy de Gaudy (page does not exist)">Puy de Gaudy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thauron" title="Thauron">Thauron</a>; also rarely in the north of England. <a href="/wiki/Castle_Hill,_Huddersfield" title="Castle Hill, Huddersfield">Castle Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almondbury" title="Almondbury">Almondbury</a> in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Broborg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Broborg (page does not exist)">Broborg</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broborg" class="extiw" title="sv:Broborg">sv</a>]</span> is a vitrified hill-fort in <a href="/wiki/Uppland" title="Uppland">Uppland</a>, Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appearance_in_media">Appearance in media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitrified_fort&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Appearance in media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arthur_C._Clarke's_Mysterious_World"><span id="Arthur_C._Clarke.27s_Mysterious_World"></span><i>Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitrified_fort&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 16 September 1980 episode of <i><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke%27s_Mysterious_World" title="Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World">Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World</a></i> features a segment in which the archaeologist Ian Ralston examines the mystery of the vitrified fort Tap o' Noth and tries to recreate how it might be accomplished by piling stones and setting a massive bonfire, repeating the work of <a href="/wiki/V._Gordon_Childe" title="V. Gordon Childe">V. Gordon Childe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Thorneycroft" title="Wallace Thorneycroft">Wallace Thorneycroft</a> in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experiment produced a few partially vitrified stones, but it was asserted that no answers were gleaned as to how large-scale forts could have been crafted with the approach tried in the programme.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitrified_fort&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brigantesnation.com/VitrifiedForts/VitrifieedForts.htm">"Vitrification of Hill Forts"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vitrification+of+Hill+Forts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brigantesnation.com%2FVitrifiedForts%2FVitrifieedForts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitrified+fort" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Munro_(archaeologist)" title="Robert Munro (archaeologist)">Munro, Robert</a> (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Vitrified_Forts" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vitrified Forts">Vitrified Forts</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 149–150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vitrified+Forts&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=149-150&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Munro&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitrified+fort" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darvill, Timothy (2008). <i>Oxford Concise Dictionary of Archaeology</i>, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, p. 376. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953404-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953404-3">978-0-19-953404-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeology.about.com/od/vterms/g/vitrified_forts.htm">Vitrification temperatures</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benderloch.org.uk/forum/viewtopic.php?f=7&t=1139">More information and the vitrification debate</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ralston_143-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ralston_143_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ralston_143_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ralston, Ian (2007). <i>Celtic Fortifications</i>, pp. 143–163. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0752425009" title="Special:BookSources/978-0752425009">978-0752425009</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/263436865">263436865</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSjöblomHjärthner-HoldarPearceWeaver2022" class="citation journal cs1">Sjöblom, Rolf; Hjärthner-Holdar, Eva; Pearce, Carolyn I.; Weaver, Jamie L.; Ogenhall, Erik; McCloy, John S.; Marcial, José; Vicenzi, Edward P.; Schweiger, Michael J.; Kruger, Albert A. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jasrep.2022.103459">"Assessment of the reason for the vitrification of a wall at a hillfort. The example of Broborg in Sweden"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports</i>. <b>43</b>. Elsevier BV: 103459. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022JArSR..43j3459S">2022JArSR..43j3459S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jasrep.2022.103459">10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103459</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2352-409X">2352-409X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science%3A+Reports&rft.atitle=Assessment+of+the+reason+for+the+vitrification+of+a+wall+at+a+hillfort.+The+example+of+Broborg+in+Sweden&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=103459&rft.date=2022&rft.issn=2352-409X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jasrep.2022.103459&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022JArSR..43j3459S&rft.aulast=Sj%C3%B6blom&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rft.au=Hj%C3%A4rthner-Holdar%2C+Eva&rft.au=Pearce%2C+Carolyn+I.&rft.au=Weaver%2C+Jamie+L.&rft.au=Ogenhall%2C+Erik&rft.au=McCloy%2C+John+S.&rft.au=Marcial%2C+Jos%C3%A9&rft.au=Vicenzi%2C+Edward+P.&rft.au=Schweiger%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Kruger%2C+Albert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jasrep.2022.103459&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitrified+fort" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Clarke, A. C</a>, Welfare, S and Fairley, J. <i><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke%27s_Mysterious_World" title="Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World">Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World</a></i>. Collins, 1980, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World</i> (<a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="Yorkshire Television">Yorkshire Television</a> 1980; episode 3: "Ancient Wisdom" (Network DVD 7952792). Segment runs from 10:58 to 17:150</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitrified_fort&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunning2012" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(author)" title="Brian Dunning (author)">Dunning, Brian</a> (2 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4326">"Skeptoid #326: The Mystery of the Vitrified Forts"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(author)#Skeptoid_podcasts" title="Brian Dunning (author)">Skeptoid</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Skeptoid&rft.atitle=Skeptoid+%23326%3A+The+Mystery+of+the+Vitrified+Forts&rft.date=2012-09-02&rft.aulast=Dunning&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fskeptoid.com%2Fepisodes%2F4326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitrified+fort" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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culture">Castros</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_city_wall" title="Chinese city wall">Chengqiang</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_gate" title="City gate">City gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crannog" title="Crannog">Crannog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditch_(fortification)" title="Ditch (fortification)">Ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">Defensive wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dun_(fortification)" title="Dun (fortification)">Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faussebraye" title="Faussebraye">Faussebraye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatehouse" title="Gatehouse">Gatehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gord_(archaeology)" title="Gord (archaeology)">Gord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landwehr_(border)" title="Landwehr (border)">Landwehr</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuraghe" title="Nuraghe">Nuraghe</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">Oppidum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">Palisade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pincer_gate" title="Pincer gate">Pincer gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">Rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a> (Rath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Schwedenschanze" title="Schwedenschanze">Schwedenschanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockade" title="Stockade">Stockade</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sudis_(stake)" title="Sudis (stake)">Sudis</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Trou_de_loup" title="Trou de loup">Trou de loup</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">Vallum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagon_fort" title="Wagon fort">Wagon fort</a> (<span title="Afrikaans-language text"><i lang="af">Laager</i></span>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vitrified fort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_work" title="Advanced work">Advanced work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcazaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcazaba">Alcazaba</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amba_(landform)" title="Amba (landform)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrowslit" title="Arrowslit">Arrowslit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbican" title="Barbican">Barbican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartizan" title="Bartizan">Bartizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_tower" title="Battery tower">Battery tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlement" title="Battlement">Battlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawn" title="Bawn">Bawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bent_entrance" title="Bent entrance">Bent entrance</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">Bergfried</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">Berm</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boom_(navigational_barrier)" title="Boom (navigational barrier)">Boom</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Bret%C3%A8che" title="Bretèche">Bretèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_tower" title="Bridge tower">Bridge tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">Burh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butter-churn_tower" title="Butter-churn tower">Butter-churn tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caer" title="Caer">Caer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">Caltrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_gate" title="Chamber gate">Chamber gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartaque" title="Chartaque">Chartaque</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chashi" title="Chashi">Chashi</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemin_de_ronde" title="Chemin de ronde">Chemin de ronde</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemise_(wall)" title="Chemise (wall)">Chemise</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cheval_de_frise" title="Cheval de frise">Cheval de frise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">Citadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corner_tower" title="Corner tower">Corner tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)" title="Curtain wall (fortification)">Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawbridge" title="Drawbridge">Drawbridge</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Enceinte" title="Enceinte">Enceinte</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Embrasure" title="Embrasure">Embrasure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flanking_tower" title="Flanking tower">Flanking tower</a></li> <li>Fortified buildings (<a href="/wiki/Fortified_church" title="Fortified church">church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortified_house" title="Fortified house">house</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_tulou" title="Fujian tulou">Fujian tulou</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_tower" title="Gate tower">Gate tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">Glacis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_tower" title="Guard tower">Guard tower</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gulyay-gorod" title="Gulyay-gorod">Gulyay-gorod</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gusuku" title="Gusuku">Gusuku</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_tower" title="Half tower">Half tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoarding_(castle)" title="Hoarding (castle)">Hoarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_bailey" title="Inner bailey">Inner bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep" title="Keep">Keep</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_(fortification)" title="Kremlin (fortification)">Kremlin</a></i></span> <small>(<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Detinets" title="Detinets">Detinets</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar" title="Ksar">Ksar</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">Machicolation</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Merlon" title="Merlon">Merlon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">Moat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_hole" title="Murder hole">Murder hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_ditch" title="Neck ditch">Neck ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_bailey" title="Outer bailey">Outer bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outwork" title="Outwork">Outwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_tower" title="Peel tower">Peel tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">Portcullis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postern" title="Postern">Postern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_tower" title="Powder tower">Powder tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduit" title="Reduit">Reduit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricetto" title="Ricetto">Ricetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundel_(fortification)" title="Roundel (fortification)">Roundel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">Shell keep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_wall_(castle)" title="Shield wall (castle)">Shield wall</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_castle" title="Japanese castle">Shiro</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_house" title="Tower house">Tower house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turret_(architecture)" title="Turret (architecture)">Turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Viking ring fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_tower" title="Fortified tower">Wall tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_(castle)" title="Bailey (castle)">Bailey (or ward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">Watchtower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_tower" title="Witch tower">Witch tower</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Yagura_(tower)" title="Yagura (tower)">Yagura</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yett" title="Yett">Yett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwinger" title="Zwinger">Zwinger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Abwurfdach" class="mw-redirect" title="Abwurfdach">Abwurfdach</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barricade" title="Barricade">Barricade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastwork_(fortification)" title="Breastwork (fortification)">Breastwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Caponier" title="Caponier">Caponier</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalier_(fortification)" title="Cavalier (fortification)">Cavalier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterguard" title="Counterguard">Counterguard</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Couvreface" title="Couvreface">Couvreface</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Coupure" title="Coupure">Coupure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covertway" title="Covertway">Covertway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crownwork" title="Crownwork">Crownwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_Forts" title="Device Forts">Device Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrenchment_(fortification)" title="Entrenchment (fortification)">Entrenchment</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Fl%C3%A8che_(fortification)" title="Flèche (fortification)">Flèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorge_(fortification)" title="Gorge (fortification)">Gorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_magazine" title="Gunpowder magazine">Gunpowder magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornwork" title="Hornwork">Hornwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Kotta mara</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Lunette_(fortification)" title="Lunette (fortification)">Lunette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine_(artillery)" title="Magazine (artillery)">Magazine</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Orillon" title="Orillon">Orillon</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ostrog_(fortress)" title="Ostrog (fortress)">Ostrog</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palanka_(fortification)" title="Palanka (fortification)">Palanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place-of-arms" title="Place-of-arms">Place-of-arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Presidio" title="Presidio">Presidio</a></i></span> (Spanish America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punji_stick" title="Punji stick">Punji sticks</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ravelin" title="Ravelin">Ravelin</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Redan" title="Redan">Redan</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redoubt" title="Redoubt">Redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrenchment_(military)" title="Retrenchment (military)">Retrenchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_port" title="Sally port">Sally port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandbag" title="Sandbag">Sandbag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterscarp" title="Counterscarp">Scarp and Counterscarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sconce_(fortification)" title="Sconce (fortification)">Sconce</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Schanze" title="Schanze">Schanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea fort">Sea fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Station_(frontier_defensive_structure)" title="Station (frontier defensive structure)">Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">Star fort</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Tenaille" title="Tenaille">Tenaille</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">Barbed wire</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">Barbette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_outpost" title="Border outpost">Border outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_artillery" title="Coastal artillery">Coastal artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">Disappearing gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_control_tower" title="Fire control tower">Fire control tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">Gun turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martello_tower" title="Martello tower">Martello tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sangar_(fortification)" title="Sangar (fortification)">Sangar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire_obstacle" title="Wire obstacle">Wire obstacles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_scaffolding" title="Admiralty scaffolding">Admiralty scaffolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_trench" title="Anti-tank trench">Anti-tank trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbed tape">Barbed tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cointet-element" title="Cointet-element">Belgian gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_wall" title="Blast wall">Blast wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Border security">Border security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_shelter" title="Bomb shelter">Bomb shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoy_anti-tank_obstacle" title="Buoy anti-tank obstacle">Buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremer_wall" title="Bremer wall">Bremer wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concertina_wire" title="Concertina wire">Concertina wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Defensive fighting position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_anti-invasion_preparations_of_the_Second_World_War#Lines_and_islands" title="British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War">British "hedgehog" road block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_hedgehog" title="Czech hedgehog">Czech hedgehog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_teeth_(fortification)" title="Dragon's teeth (fortification)">Dragon's teeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">Entry control point (ECP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_fence" title="Electric fence">Electric fence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_support_base" title="Fire support base">Fire support base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">Flak tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardened_aircraft_shelter" title="Hardened aircraft shelter">Hardened aircraft shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesco_bastion" title="Hesco bastion">Hesco bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabal_(earthworks)" title="Kabal (earthworks)">Kabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_line_of_resistance" title="Main line of resistance">Main line of resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillbox_(military)" title="Pillbox (military)">Pillbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revetment_(aircraft)" title="Revetment (aircraft)">Revetment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentry_gun" title="Sentry gun">Sentry gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pen" title="Submarine pen">Submarine pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_storage_area" title="Weapon storage area">Weapon storage area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_Storage_and_Security_System" title="Weapons Storage and Security System">Weapons Storage and Security System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_castle" title="Cave castle">Cave castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_castle" title="Hill castle">Hill castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillside_castle" title="Hillside castle">Hillside castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilltop_castle" title="Hilltop castle">Hilltop castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_castle" title="Island castle">Island castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_castle" title="Lowland castle">Lowland castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_castle" title="Marsh castle">Marsh castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Moated castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_castle" title="Ridge castle">Ridge castle</a></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Rocca_(fortification)" title="Rocca (fortification)">Rocca</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_castle" title="Rock castle">Rock castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_castle" title="Spur castle">Spur castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Water castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Floating water castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By role</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_barrier" title="Border barrier">Border barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fence" title="Fence">Fence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdschloss" title="Jagdschloss">Hunting lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_castle" title="Imperial castle">Imperial castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Kaiserpfalz" title="Kaiserpfalz">Kaiserpfalz</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Lustschloss" title="Lustschloss">Lustschloss</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstacle" title="Obstacle">Obstacle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Ordensburg" title="Ordensburg">Ordensburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_castle" title="Urban castle">Urban castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastion_fort" title="Bastion fort">Bastion fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-plan_castle" title="Z-plan castle">Z-plan castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bastion_forts" title="List of bastion forts">Bastion forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles" title="List of castles">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_with_defensive_walls" title="List of cities with defensive walls">Cities with defensive walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_line" title="Defense line">Defense line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified estate">Fortified estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fortifications" title="List of fortifications">Fortifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forts" title="List of forts">Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Military installations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_walls" title="List of walls">Walls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related word</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle_town" title="Castle town">Castle town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">Château</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festung" title="Festung">Festung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_gateway" title="Fortified gateway">Fortified gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper" title="Gatekeeper">Gatekeeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_redoubt" title="National redoubt">National redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palas" title="Palas">Palas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picket_(military)" title="Picket (military)">Picket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schloss" title="Schloss">Schloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedette_(sentry)" title="Vedette (sentry)">Vedette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">Continuity of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_urbanism" title="Military urbanism">Military urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">Siege engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_siege_engines" title="List of siege engines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_guerrilla_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nobold">See also</span>: <b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fortification" title="Category:Fortification">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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