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class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anticognitivist_cognitive_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anticognitivist_cognitive_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Anticognitivist cognitive science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anticognitivist_cognitive_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminist_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminist_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Feminist philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminist_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecophenomenology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecophenomenology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ecophenomenology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecophenomenology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3_%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="موريس ميرلو بونتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="موريس ميرلو بونتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE-%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Морис Мерло-Понти – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Морис Мерло-Понти" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%89%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%82_%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BB%CF%8E-%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%8D" title="Μωρίς Μερλώ-Ποντύ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μωρίς Μερλώ-Ποντύ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88-%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="موریس مرلو-پونتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="موریس مرلو-پونتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%A8%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4_%EB%A9%94%EB%A5%BC%EB%A1%9C%ED%90%81%ED%8B%B0" title="모리스 메를로퐁티 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="모리스 메를로퐁티" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A1_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%95-%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99" title="מוריס מרלו-פונטי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוריס מרלו-פונטי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius_Merleau-Ponty" title="Mauritius Merleau-Ponty – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mauritius Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3_%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%89" title="موريس ميرلو بونتى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="موريس ميرلو بونتى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AB%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%EF%BC%9D%E3%83%9D%E3%83%B3%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3" title="モーリス・メルロー＝ポンティ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="モーリス・メルロー＝ポンティ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE-%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8,_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Мерло-Понти, Морис – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мерло-Понти, Морис" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">French phenomenological philosopher (1908–1961)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Maurice+Merleau-Ponty%22">"Maurice Merleau-Ponty"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Maurice+Merleau-Ponty%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Maurice+Merleau-Ponty%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Maurice+Merleau-Ponty%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Maurice+Merleau-Ponty%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Maurice+Merleau-Ponty%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurice_Merleau-Ponty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty.jpg/220px-Maurice_Merleau-Ponty.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty.jpg/330px-Maurice_Merleau-Ponty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty.jpg/440px-Maurice_Merleau-Ponty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="463" data-file-height="652" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1908-03-14</span>)</span>14 March 1908<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Rochefort-sur-Mer" class="mw-redirect" title="Rochefort-sur-Mer">Rochefort-sur-Mer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charente-Maritime" title="Charente-Maritime">Charente-Inférieure</a>, France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">3 May 1961<span style="display:none">(1961-05-03)</span> (aged 53)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure" class="mw-redirect" title="École Normale Supérieure">École Normale Supérieure</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">anthropology</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">consciousness</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">embodiment</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt theory</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">meaning</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">politics</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">spatiality</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Embodied cognition, <a href="/wiki/Invagination_(philosophy)" title="Invagination (philosophy)">invagination</a>, the flesh of the world, speaking vs. spoken language</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty</b><sup id="cite_ref-SEP_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɜːr/: 'ur' in 'fur'">ɜːr</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[moʁis<span class="wrap"> </span>mɛʁlo<span class="wrap"> </span>pɔ̃ti]</a></span>; 14 March 1908 – 3 May 1961) was a French <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>. The constitution of meaning in human experience was his main interest and he wrote on <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>. He was the lead editor of <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Temps_modernes" title="Les Temps modernes">Les Temps modernes</a></i>, the leftist magazine he established with <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> in 1945. </p><p>At the core of Merleau-Ponty's philosophy is a sustained argument for the foundational role that <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> plays in the human <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">experience of the world</a>. Merleau-Ponty understands perception to be an ongoing dialogue between one's lived body and the world which it perceives, in which perceivers passively and actively strive to express the perceived world in concert with others. He was the only major phenomenologist of the first half of the twentieth century to engage extensively with the sciences. It is through this engagement that his writings became influential in the project of naturalizing phenomenology, in which phenomenologists use the results of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>. </p><p>Merleau-Ponty emphasized the body as the primary site of knowing the world, a corrective to the long philosophical tradition of placing <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> as the source of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, and maintained that the perceiving body and its perceived world could not be disentangled from each other. The articulation of the primacy of embodiment (<i>corporéité</i>) led him away from phenomenology towards what he was to call "indirect ontology" or the <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> of "the flesh of the world" (<i>la chair du monde</i>), seen in his final and incomplete work, <i>The Visible and Invisible</i>, and his last published essay, "Eye and Mind". </p><p>Merleau-Ponty engaged with <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> throughout his career. His 1947 book, <i>Humanism and Terror</i>, has been widely understood as defense of the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Soviet farce trials</a>. Slavoj Zizek opines<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that it avoids the definitive endorsement of a view on the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, but instead engages with the <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Marxist theory of history</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of liberalism">critique of liberalism</a>, in order to reveal an unresolved antinomy in modern politics, between <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terror_(politics)" title="Terror (politics)">terror</a>: if human values can only be achieved through violent force, and if liberal ideas hide <a href="/wiki/Illiberal" class="mw-redirect" title="Illiberal">illiberal</a> realities, how is just political action to be decided?<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Merleau-Ponty maintained an engaged though critical relationship to the Marxist left until the end of his life, particularly during his time as the political editor of the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Temps_modernes" title="Les Temps modernes">Les Temps modernes</a></i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Merleau-Ponty%27s_grave.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Merleau-Ponty%27s_grave.jpeg/220px-Merleau-Ponty%27s_grave.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Merleau-Ponty%27s_grave.jpeg/330px-Merleau-Ponty%27s_grave.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Merleau-Ponty%27s_grave.jpeg/440px-Merleau-Ponty%27s_grave.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2056" /></a><figcaption>Merleau-Ponty's grave at <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8re_Lachaise_Cemetery" title="Père Lachaise Cemetery">Père Lachaise Cemetery</a> in Paris, where he is buried with his mother Louise, his wife Suzanne, and his daughter Marianne</figcaption></figure> <p>Maurice Merleau-Ponty was born in 1908 in <a href="/wiki/Rochefort-sur-Mer" class="mw-redirect" title="Rochefort-sur-Mer">Rochefort-sur-Mer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charente-Maritime" title="Charente-Maritime">Charente-Inférieure</a> (now Charente-Maritime), <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. His father died in 1913 when Merleau-Ponty was five years old.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After secondary schooling at the <a href="/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Louis-le-Grand" title="Lycée Louis-le-Grand">Lycée Louis-le-Grand</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, Merleau-Ponty became a student at the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure" class="mw-redirect" title="École Normale Supérieure">École Normale Supérieure</a>, where he studied alongside <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Simone Weil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hyppolite" title="Jean Hyppolite">Jean Hyppolite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Wahl" title="Jean Wahl">Jean Wahl</a>. As Beauvoir recounts in her autobiography, she developed a close friendship with Merleau-Ponty and became smitten with him, but ultimately found him too well-adjusted to bourgeois life and values for her taste. He attended <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>'s "Paris Lectures" in February 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1929, Merleau-Ponty received his DES degree (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dipl%C3%B4me_d%27%C3%A9tudes_sup%C3%A9rieures&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diplôme d'études supérieures (page does not exist)">diplôme d'études supérieures</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/dipl%C3%B4me_d%27%C3%A9tudes_sup%C3%A9rieures" class="extiw" title="fr:diplôme d'études supérieures">fr</a>]</span></i>, roughly equivalent to a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">M.A.</a> thesis) from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, on the basis of the (now-lost) thesis <i>La Notion de multiple intelligible chez Plotin</i> ("Plotinus's Notion of the Intelligible Many"), directed by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Br%C3%A9hier" title="Émile Bréhier">Émile Bréhier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He passed the <a href="/wiki/Agr%C3%A9gation" title="Agrégation">agrégation</a> in philosophy in 1930. </p><p>Merleau-Ponty was raised as a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholic</a>. He was friends with the Christian existentialist author and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a> and wrote articles for the Christian leftist journal <i><a href="/wiki/Esprit_(magazine)" title="Esprit (magazine)">Esprit</a></i>, but <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Christianity" title="Apostasy in Christianity">he left the Catholic Church</a> in 1937 because he felt his <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> politics were not compatible with the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">social and political doctrine</a> of the Catholic Church.<sup id="cite_ref-Matthews_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthews-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An article published in the French newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i> in October 2014 makes the case of recent discoveries about Merleau-Ponty's likely authorship of the novel <i>Nord. Récit de l'arctique</i> (Grasset, 1928). Convergent sources from close friends (Beauvoir, Elisabeth "Zaza" Lacoin) seem to leave little doubt that <b>Jacques Heller</b> was a pseudonym of the 20-year-old Merleau-Ponty.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Merleau-Ponty taught first at the Lycée de Beauvais (1931–33) and then got a fellowship to do research from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Caisse_nationale_de_la_recherche_scientifique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caisse nationale de la recherche scientifique (page does not exist)">Caisse nationale de la recherche scientifique</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caisse_nationale_de_la_recherche_scientifique" class="extiw" title="fr:Caisse nationale de la recherche scientifique">fr</a>]</span>. From 1934 to 1935 he taught at the Lycée de <a href="/wiki/Chartres" title="Chartres">Chartres</a>. He then in 1935 became a tutor at the École Normale Supérieure, where he tutored a young <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c_Th%E1%BA%A3o" class="mw-redirect" title="Trần Đức Thảo">Trần Đức Thảo</a> and was awarded his doctorate on the basis of two important books: <i>La structure du comportement</i> (1942) and <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Perception" title="Phenomenology of Perception">Phénoménologie de la Perception</a></i> (1945). During this time, he attended <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Kojeve" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Kojeve">Alexandre Kojeve</a>'s influential seminars on Hegel and <a href="/wiki/Aron_Gurwitsch" title="Aron Gurwitsch">Aron Gurwitsch</a>'s lectures on Gestalt psychology. </p><p>In the spring of 1939, he was the first foreign visitor to the newly established <a href="/wiki/Husserl_Archives" class="mw-redirect" title="Husserl Archives">Husserl Archives</a>, where he consulted Husserl's unpublished manuscripts and met <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Fink" title="Eugen Fink">Eugen Fink</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herman_Van_Breda" title="Herman Van Breda">Herman Van Breda</a>. In the summer of 1939, as <a href="/wiki/French_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)" title="French declaration of war on Germany (1939)">France declared war on Nazi Germany</a>, he served on the frontlines in the <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French Army</a>, where he was wounded in battle in June 1940. Upon returning to Paris in the fall of 1940, he married Suzanne Jolibois, a <a href="/wiki/Lacanian_psychoanalysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacanian psychoanalysis">Lacanian psychoanalyst</a>, and founded an <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">underground resistance group</a> with Jean-Paul Sartre called "Under the Boot". He participated in an armed demonstration against the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi forces</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">liberation of Paris</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Whiteside-2014_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whiteside-2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After teaching at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Lyon" title="University of Lyon">University of Lyon</a> from 1945 to 1948, Merleau-Ponty lectured on child psychology and education at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a> from 1949 to 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was awarded the Chair of Philosophy at the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a> from 1952 until his death in 1961, making him the youngest person to have been elected to a chair. </p><p>Besides his teaching, Merleau-Ponty was also political editor for the leftist journal <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Temps_modernes" title="Les Temps modernes">Les Temps modernes</a></i> from its founding in October 1945 until December 1952. In his youth, he had read <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s writings<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Sartre even claimed that Merleau-Ponty converted him to <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> E. K. Kuby states that while Merleau-Ponty was not a member of the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a> and did not identify as a Communist, he laid out an argument justifying the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Soviet farce trials</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">political violence</a> for progressive ends in general in the work <i>Humanism and Terror</i> in 1947. Kuby states that, about three years after that, however, he renounced his earlier support for political violence, rejected Marxism, and advocated a <a href="/wiki/Liberal_left" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal left">liberal left</a> position in <i>Adventures of the Dialectic</i> (1955).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His friendship with Sartre and work with <i>Les Temps modernes</i> ended because of that, since Sartre still had a more favourable attitude towards Soviet communism. Merleau-Ponty was subsequently active in the French non-communist left and in particular in the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Democratic_Forces_(France)" title="Union of the Democratic Forces (France)">Union of the Democratic Forces</a>. </p><p>Merleau-Ponty died suddenly of a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> in 1961 at age 53, apparently while preparing for a class on <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, leaving an unfinished manuscript which was posthumously published in 1964, along with a selection of Merleau-Ponty's working notes, by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Lefort" title="Claude Lefort">Claude Lefort</a> as <i>The Visible and the Invisible</i>. He is buried in <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8re_Lachaise_Cemetery" title="Père Lachaise Cemetery">Père Lachaise Cemetery</a> in Paris with his mother Louise, his wife Suzanne and their daughter Marianne. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thought">Thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Special:EditPage/Maurice Merleau-Ponty">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consciousness">Consciousness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consciousness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Perception" title="Phenomenology of Perception">Phenomenology of Perception</a></i> (first published in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> in 1945), Merleau-Ponty develops the concept of the body-subject (<i>le corps propre</i>) as an alternative to the <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Cartesian</a> "<a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cogito ergo sum">cogito</a>". This distinction is especially important in that Merleau-Ponty perceives the essences of the world <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentially</a>. <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a>, the world, and the human body as a <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perceiving</a> thing are intricately intertwined and mutually "engaged". The <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenal</a> thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences, but a correlate of the human body and its sensory-motor functions. Taking up and "communing with" (Merleau-Ponty's phrase) the sensible qualities it encounters, the body as incarnated <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a> intentionally elaborates things within an ever-present world frame, through use of its pre-conscious, pre-predicative understanding of the world's makeup. The elaboration, however, is "inexhaustible" (the hallmark of any perception according to Merleau-Ponty). Things are that upon which the body has a "grip" (<i>prise</i>), while the grip itself is a function of human connaturality with the world's things. The world and the sense of self are emergent <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> in an ongoing "becoming". </p><p>The essential partiality of the view of things, their being given only in a certain <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(cognitive)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective (cognitive)">perspective</a> and at a certain moment in time does not diminish their reality, but on the contrary establishes it, as there is no other way for things to be copresent in the world and with other things than through such "<i>Abschattungen</i>" (sketches, faint outlines, adumbrations). The thing transcends perception, but is manifest precisely by presenting itself to a range of possible views. The object of perception is immanently tied to its background—to the nexus of meaningful relations among objects within the world. Because the object is inextricably within the world of meaningful relations, each object reflects the other (much in the style of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz's</a> <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">monads</a>). Through involvement in the world – <a href="/wiki/Being-in-the-world" class="mw-redirect" title="Being-in-the-world">being-in-the-world</a> – the perceiver tacitly experiences all the perspectives upon that object coming from all the surrounding things of its environment, as well as the potential perspectives that that object has upon the beings around it. </p><p>Each object is a "mirror of all others". The perception of the object through all perspectives is not that of a propositional, or clearly delineated, perception; rather, it is an ambiguous perception founded upon the body's primordial involvement and understanding of the world and of the meanings that constitute the landscape's perceptual <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gestalt" class="extiw" title="wikt:gestalt">Gestalt</a></i>. Only after an integration within the environment so as to perceive objects as such can attention be turned toward particular objects within the landscape so as to define them more clearly. This attention, however, does not operate by clarifying what is already seen, but by constructing a new <i>Gestalt</i> oriented toward a particular object. Because the bodily involvement with things is always provisional and indeterminate, meaningful things are encountered in a unified though ever open-ended world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_primacy_of_perception">The primacy of perception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The primacy of perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the time of writing <i>Structure of Behavior</i> and <i>Phenomenology of Perception</i>, Merleau-Ponty wanted to show, in opposition to the idea that drove the tradition beginning with <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, that perception was not the causal product of atomic <a href="/wiki/Sensation_and_perception_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensation and perception psychology">sensations</a>. This atomist-causal conception was being perpetuated in certain psychological currents of the time, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Behaviourism" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviourism">behaviourism</a>. According to Merleau-Ponty, perception has an active dimension, in that it is a primordial openness to the <a href="/wiki/Lifeworld" title="Lifeworld">lifeworld</a> (the "<i>Lebenswelt</i>"). </p><p>This primordial openness is at the heart of his thesis of the primacy of perception. The slogan of Husserl's phenomenology is "all consciousness is consciousness of something", which implies a distinction between "acts of thought" (the <a href="/wiki/Noesis_(phenomenology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Noesis (phenomenology)">noesis</a>) and "intentional objects of thought" (the <a href="/wiki/Noema" title="Noema">noema</a>). Thus, the correlation between noesis and noema becomes the first step in the constitution of analyses of consciousness. However, in studying the posthumous manuscripts of Husserl, who remained one of his major influences, Merleau-Ponty remarked that, in their evolution, Husserl's work brings to light phenomena which are not assimilable to noesis–noema correlation. This is particularly the case when one attends to the phenomena of the body (which is at once body-subject and body-object), <a href="/wiki/Perception_of_duration" class="mw-redirect" title="Perception of duration">subjective time</a> (the consciousness of time is neither an act of consciousness nor an object of thought) and the other (the first considerations of the other in Husserl led to <a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">solipsism</a>). </p><p>The distinction between "acts of thought" (noesis) and "<a href="/wiki/Object_of_the_mind" title="Object of the mind">intentional objects</a> of thought" (noema) does not seem, therefore, to constitute an irreducible ground. It appears rather at a higher level of analysis. Thus, Merleau-Ponty does not postulate that "all consciousness is consciousness of something", which supposes at the outset a noetic-noematic ground. Instead, he develops the thesis according to which "all consciousness is perceptual consciousness". In doing so, he establishes a significant turn in the development of phenomenology, indicating that its conceptualisations should be re-examined in the light of the primacy of perception, in weighing up the philosophical consequences of this thesis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corporeity">Corporeity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Corporeity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/200px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/300px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/400px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the 17th-century French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, one of the leading exponents of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> in the history of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Taking the study of <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> as his point of departure, Merleau-Ponty was led to recognize that one's own <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a> (<i>le corps propre</i>) is not only a thing, a potential object of study for science, but is also a permanent condition of <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>, a constituent of the perceptual openness to the world. He therefore underlines the fact that there is an inherence of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and of the body of which the analysis of perception should take account. The primacy of perception signifies a primacy of experience, so to speak, insofar as perception becomes an active and constitutive dimension. </p><p>Merleau-Ponty demonstrates a corporeity of consciousness as much as an intentionality of the body, and so stands in contrast with the dualist <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> of mind and body in Descartes, a philosopher to whom Merleau-Ponty continually returned, despite the important differences that separate them. In the <i>Phenomenology of Perception</i> Merleau-Ponty wrote: "Insofar as I have hands, feet, a body, I sustain around me intentions which are not dependent on my decisions and which affect my surroundings in a way that I do not choose" (1962, p. 440). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spatiality">Spatiality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Spatiality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The question concerning corporeity connects also with Merleau-Ponty's reflections on <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> (<i>l'espace</i>) and the primacy of the dimension of depth (<i>la profondeur</i>) as implied in the notion of <i>being in the world</i> (<i>être au monde</i>; to echo <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>'s <i>In-der-Welt-sein</i>) and of one's own body (<i>le corps propre</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reflections on spatiality in phenomenology are also central to the advanced philosophical deliberations in <a href="/wiki/Architectural_theory" title="Architectural theory">architectural theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The highlighting of the fact that corporeity intrinsically has a dimension of expressivity which proves to be fundamental to the constitution of the <a href="/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego" class="mw-redirect" title="Id, ego and super-ego">ego</a> is one of the conclusions of <i>The Structure of Behavior</i> that is constantly reiterated in Merleau-Ponty's later works. Following this theme of expressivity, he goes on to examine how an incarnate subject is in a position to undertake actions that transcend the organic level of the body, such as in intellectual operations and the products of one's cultural life. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/180px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/270px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/360px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of the Swiss linguist <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, considered to be the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a></figcaption></figure> <p>He carefully considers <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, then, as the core of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, by examining in particular the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense—enriching his perspective not only by an analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account pathologies of language, painting, cinema, literature, poetry, and music. </p><p>This work deals mainly with language, beginning with the reflection on artistic expression in <i>The Structure of Behavior</i>—which contains a passage on <a href="/wiki/El_Greco" title="El Greco">El Greco</a> (p. 203ff) that prefigures the remarks that he develops in "Cézanne's Doubt" (1945) and follows the discussion in <i>Phenomenology of Perception</i>. The work, undertaken while serving as the Chair of Child Psychology and Pedagogy at the University of the Sorbonne, is not a departure from his philosophical and phenomenological works, but rather an important continuation in the development of his thought. </p><p>As the course outlines of his Sorbonne lectures indicate,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> during this period he continues a dialogue between phenomenology and the diverse work carried out in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, all in order to return to the study of the <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">acquisition of language</a> in children, as well as to broadly take advantage of the contribution of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a> to <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, and to work on the notion of structure through a discussion of work in psychology, linguistics and <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Merleau-Ponty distinguishes between primary and secondary modes of expression. This distinction appears in <i>Phenomenology of Perception</i> (p. 207, 2nd note [Fr. ed.]) and is sometimes repeated in terms of spoken and speaking language (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">le langage parlé et le langage parlant</i></span>) (<i>The Prose of the World</i>, p. 10). Spoken language (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">le langage parlé</i></span>), or secondary expression, returns to the speaker's linguistic baggage and cultural heritage, as well as the brute mass of relationships between <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">signs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(semiotics)" title="Meaning (semiotics)">significations</a>. Speaking language (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">le langage parlant</i></span>), or primary expression, such as it is, is language in the production of a sense, language at the advent of a thought, at the moment where it makes itself an advent of sense. </p><p>It is speaking language, that is to say, primary expression, that interests Merleau-Ponty and which keeps his attention through his treatment of the nature of production and the reception of expressions, a subject which also overlaps with an analysis of action, of intentionality, of perception, as well as the links between freedom and external conditions. </p><p>The notion of <a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">style</a> occupies an important place in "Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence". In spite of certain similarities with <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux" title="André Malraux">André Malraux</a>, Merleau-Ponty distinguishes himself from Malraux in respect to three conceptions of style, the last of which is employed in Malraux's <i>The Voices of Silence</i>. Merleau-Ponty remarks that in this work "style" is sometimes used by Malraux in a highly subjective sense, understood as a projection of the artist's individuality. Sometimes it is used, on the contrary, in a very <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> sense (in Merleau-Ponty's opinion, a <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystical</a> sense), in which style is connected with a conception of an "über-artist" expressing "the Spirit of Painting". Finally, it sometimes is reduced to simply designating a categorization of an artistic school or movement. (However, this account of Malraux's notion of style—a key element in his thinking—is open to serious question.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>For Merleau-Ponty, it is these uses of the notion of style that lead Malraux to postulate a cleavage between the objectivity of Italian Renaissance painting and the subjectivity of painting in his own time, a conclusion that Merleau-Ponty disputes. According to Merleau-Ponty, it is important to consider the heart of this problematic, by recognizing that style is first of all a demand owed to the primacy of perception, which also implies taking into consideration the dimensions of <a href="/wiki/Historicity_(philosophy)" title="Historicity (philosophy)">historicity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a>. (However, Merleau-Ponty's reading of Malraux has been questioned in a recent major study of Malraux's theory of art which argues that Merleau-Ponty seriously misunderstood Malraux.)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Merleau-Ponty, style is born of the interaction between two or more fields of being. Rather than being exclusive to individual human consciousness, consciousness is born of the pre-conscious style of the world, of Nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his essay <i>Cézanne's Doubt</i>, in which he identifies <a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Paul Cézanne</a>'s impressionistic theory of painting as analogous to his own concept of radical reflection, the attempt to return to, and reflect on, prereflective consciousness, Merleau-Ponty identifies science as the opposite of art. In Merleau-Ponty's account, whereas art is an attempt to capture an individual's perception, science is anti-individualistic. In the preface to his <i>Phenomenology of Perception</i>, Merleau-Ponty presents a phenomenological objection to <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>: that it can reveal nothing about human subjectivity. All that a scientific text can explain is the particular individual experience of that scientist, which cannot be transcended. For Merleau-Ponty, science neglects the depth and profundity of the phenomena that it endeavors to explain. </p><p>Merleau-Ponty understood science to be an <i>ex post facto</i> abstraction. Causal and physiological accounts of perception, for example, explain perception in terms that are arrived at only after abstracting from the phenomenon itself. Merleau-Ponty chastised science for taking itself to be the area in which a complete account of nature may be given. The subjective depth of phenomena cannot be given in science as it is. This characterizes Merleau-Ponty's attempt to ground science in phenomenological objectivity and, in essence, to institute a "return to the phenomena". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anticognitivist_cognitive_science">Anticognitivist cognitive science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Anticognitivist cognitive science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Merleau-Ponty's critical position with respect to science was stated in his Preface to the <i>Phenomenology</i>: he described scientific points of view as "always both naive and at the same time dishonest". Despite, or perhaps because of, this view, his work influenced and anticipated the strands of modern psychology known as <a href="/wiki/Post-cognitivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-cognitivism">post-cognitivism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Dreyfus" title="Hubert Dreyfus">Hubert Dreyfus</a> has been instrumental in emphasising the relevance of Merleau-Ponty's work to current post-cognitive research, and its criticism of the traditional view of cognitive science. </p><p>Dreyfus's seminal critique of cognitivism (or the computational account of the mind), <i>What Computers Can't Do</i>, consciously replays Merleau-Ponty's critique of intellectualist psychology to argue for the irreducibility of corporeal know-how to discrete, syntactic processes. Through the influence of Dreyfus's critique and neurophysiological alternative, Merleau-Ponty became associated with neurophysiological, connectionist accounts of cognition. </p><p>With the publication in 1991 of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Embodied_Mind&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Embodied Mind (page does not exist)">The Embodied Mind</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evan_Thompson" title="Evan Thompson">Evan Thompson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Rosch" title="Eleanor Rosch">Eleanor Rosch</a>, this association was extended, if only partially, to another strand of "anti-cognitivist" or post-representationalist cognitive science: embodied or <a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">enactive</a> cognitive science, and later in the decade, to <a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">neurophenomenology</a>. In addition, Merleau-Ponty's work has also influenced researchers trying to integrate neuroscience with the principles of <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was through this relationship with Merleau-Ponty's work that cognitive science's affair with phenomenology was born, which is represented by a growing number of works, including </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ron_McClamrock" title="Ron McClamrock">Ron McClamrock</a>, <i>Existential Cognition: Computational Minds in the World</i> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a>, <i>Being There</i> (1997)</li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Petitot_(philosophe)" class="extiw" title="fr:Jean Petitot (philosophe)">Jean Petitot</a> et al. (eds.), <i>Naturalizing Phenomenology</i> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a>, <i>Action in Perception</i> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaun_Gallagher" title="Shaun Gallagher">Shaun Gallagher</a>, <i>How the Body Shapes the Mind</i> (2005)</li> <li>Franck Grammont, Dorothée Legrand, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Livet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Livet (page does not exist)">Pierre Livet</a> (eds.), <i>Naturalizing Intention in Action</i> (2010)</li> <li>The journal <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phenomenology_and_the_Cognitive_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences (page does not exist)">Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminist_philosophy">Feminist philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Feminist philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Merleau-Ponty has also been picked up by Australian and Nordic philosophers inspired by the French feminist tradition, including <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Diprose" title="Rosalyn Diprose">Rosalyn Diprose</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sara_Hein%C3%A4maa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sara Heinämaa (page does not exist)">Sara Heinämaa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Hein%C3%A4maa" class="extiw" title="fi:Sara Heinämaa">fi</a>]</span>. </p><p>Heinämaa has argued for a rereading of Merleau-Ponty's influence on Simone de Beauvoir. (She has also challenged Dreyfus's reading of Merleau-Ponty as behaviorist<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, and as neglecting the importance of the phenomenological reduction to Merleau-Ponty's thought.) </p><p>Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body has also been taken up by <a href="/wiki/Iris_Young" class="mw-redirect" title="Iris Young">Iris Young</a> in her essay "<a href="/wiki/Throwing_Like_a_Girl:_A_Phenomenology_of_Feminine_Body_Comportment_Motility_and_Spatiality" class="mw-redirect" title="Throwing Like a Girl: A Phenomenology of Feminine Body Comportment Motility and Spatiality">Throwing Like a Girl</a>," and its follow-up, "'Throwing Like a Girl': Twenty Years Later". Young analyzes the particular modalities of feminine bodily comportment as they differ from that of men. Young observes that while a man who throws a ball puts his whole body into the motion, a woman throwing a ball generally restricts her own movements as she makes them, and that, generally, in sports, women move in a more tentative, reactive way. Merleau-Ponty argues that people experience the world in terms of the "I can" – that is, oriented towards certain projects based on capacity and habituality. Young's thesis is that in women, this intentionality is inhibited and ambivalent, rather than confident, experienced as an "I cannot". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecophenomenology">Ecophenomenology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ecophenomenology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Ecophenomenology</b> can be described as the pursuit of the relationalities of worldly engagement, both human and those of other creatures (Brown & Toadvine 2003). </p><p>This engagement is situated in a kind of middle ground of relationality, a space that is neither purely objective, because it is reciprocally constituted by a diversity of lived experiences motivating the movements of countless organisms, nor purely subjective, because it is nonetheless a field of material relationships between bodies. It is governed exclusively neither by causality, nor by intentionality. In this space of in-betweenness, phenomenology can overcome its inaugural opposition to naturalism.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_Abram" title="David Abram">David Abram</a> explains Merleau-Ponty's concept of "flesh" (<i>chair</i>) as "the mysterious tissue or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver and the perceived as interdependent aspects of its spontaneous activity", and he identifies this elemental matrix with the interdependent web of earthly life.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept unites subject and object dialectically as determinations within a more primordial reality, which Merleau-Ponty calls "the flesh" and which Abram refers to variously as "the animate earth", "the breathing biosphere" or "the more-than-human natural world". Yet this is not nature or the biosphere conceived as a complex set of objects and objective processes, but rather "the biosphere as it is experienced and <i>lived from within</i> by the intelligent body — by the attentive human animal who is entirely a part of the world that he or she experiences. Merleau-Ponty's ecophenemonology with its emphasis on holistic dialog within the larger-than-human world also has implications for the ontogenesis and phylogenesis of language; indeed he states that "language is the very voice of the trees, the waves and the forest".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Merleau-Ponty himself refers to "that primordial being which is not yet the subject-being nor the object-being and which in every respect baffles reflection. From this primordial being to us, there is no derivation, nor any break..."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the many working notes found on his desk at the time of his death, and published with the half-complete manuscript of <i>The Visible and the Invisible</i>, several make it evident that Merleau-Ponty himself recognized a deep affinity between his notion of a primordial "flesh" and a radically transformed understanding of "nature". Hence, in November 1960 he writes: "Do a psychoanalysis of Nature: it is the flesh, the mother."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And in the last published working note, written in March 1961, he writes: "Nature as the other side of humanity (as flesh, nowise as 'matter')."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resonates with the conception of space, place, dwelling, and embodiment (in the flesh and physical, vs. virtual and cybernetic), especially as they are addressed against the background of the unfolding of the essence of modern technology. Such analytics figure in a Heideggerian take on "econtology" as an extension of Heidegger's consideration of the question of being (<i>Seinsfrage</i>) by way of the fourfold (<i>Das Geviert</i>) of earth-sky-mortals-divinities (<i>Erde und Himmel, Sterblichen und Göttlichen</i>). In this strand of "ecophenomenology", ecology is co-entangled with ontology, whereby the worldly existential analytics are grounded in earthiness, and environmentalism is orientated by ontological thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table gives a selection of Merleau-Ponty's works in French and English translation. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Year </th> <th>Original French </th> <th>English Translation </th></tr> <tr> <td>1942 </td> <td><i>La Structure du comportement</i> (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1942) </td> <td><i>The Structure of Behavior</i> trans. by Alden Fisher (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963; London: Methuen, 1965) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1945 </td> <td><i>Phénoménologie de la perception</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1945) </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Perception" title="Phenomenology of Perception">Phenomenology of Perception</a></i> trans. by Colin Smith (New York: Humanities Press, and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962); trans. revised by Forrest Williams (1981; reprinted, 2002); new trans. by Donald A. Landes (New York: Routledge, 2012) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1947 </td> <td><i>Humanisme et terreur, essai sur le problème communiste</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1947) </td> <td><i>Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem</i> trans. by John O'Neill (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1948 </td> <td><i>Sens et non-sens</i> (Paris: Nagel, 1948, 1966) </td> <td><i>Sense and Non-Sense</i> trans. by Hubert Dreyfus and Patricia Allen Dreyfus (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1949–50 </td> <td><i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Conscience et l'acquisition du langage</i></span></i> (Paris: <i>Bulletin de psychologie</i>, 236, vol. XVIII, 3–6, Nov. 1964) </td> <td><i>Consciousness and the Acquisition of Language</i> trans. by <a href="/wiki/Hugh_J._Silverman" title="Hugh J. Silverman">Hugh J. Silverman</a> (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1949–52 </td> <td><i>Merleau-Ponty à la Sorbonne: résumé de cours, 1949-1952</i> (Grenoble: Cynara, 1988) </td> <td><i>Child Psychology and Pedagogy: The Sorbonne Lectures 1949-1952</i> trans. by Talia Welsh (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2010) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1951 </td> <td><i>Les Relations avec autrui chez l'enfant</i> (Paris: Centre de Documentation Universitaire, 1951, 1975) </td> <td><i>The Child's Relations with Others</i> trans. by William Cobb in <i>The Primacy of Perception</i> ed. by <a href="/wiki/James_M._Edie" title="James M. Edie">James M. Edie</a> (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 96-155 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1953 </td> <td><i>Éloge de la Philosophie, Lecon inaugurale faite au Collége de France, Le jeudi 15 janvier 1953</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1953) </td> <td><i>In Praise of Philosophy</i> trans. by John Wild and James M. Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1963) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1955 </td> <td><i>Les aventures de la dialectique</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1955) </td> <td><i>Adventures of the Dialectic</i> trans. by Joseph Bien (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973; London: Heinemann, 1974) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1958 </td> <td><i>Les Sciences de l'homme et la phénoménologie</i> (Paris: Centre de Documentation Universitaire, 1958, 1975) </td> <td><i>Phenomenology and the Sciences of Man</i> trans. by John Wild in <i>The Primacy of Perception</i> ed. by James Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 43–95 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1960 </td> <td><i>Éloge de la Philosophie et autres essais</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1960) </td> <td><i>In Praise of Philosophy and Other Essays</i> trans. by John Wild, James M. Edie and John O'Neill (Northwestern University Press, 1988) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1960 </td> <td><i>Signes</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1960) </td> <td><i>Signs</i> trans. by Richard McCleary (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1961 </td> <td><i>L'Œil et l'esprit</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1961) </td> <td><i>Eye and Mind</i> trans. by Carleton Dallery in <i>The Primacy of Perception</i> ed. by James Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 159–190; revised translation by Michael Smith in <i>The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader</i> (1993), 121-149 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1964 </td> <td><i>Le Visible et l'invisible, suivi de notes de travail</i> Edited by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Lefort" title="Claude Lefort">Claude Lefort</a> (Paris: Gallimard, 1964) </td> <td><i>The Visible and the Invisible, Followed by Working Notes</i> trans. by <a href="/wiki/Alphonso_Lingis" title="Alphonso Lingis">Alphonso Lingis</a> (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1968 </td> <td><i>Résumés de cours, Collège de France 1952-1960</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1968) </td> <td><i>Themes from the Lectures at the Collège de France, 1952-1960</i> trans. by John O'Neill (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1969 </td> <td><i>La Prose du monde</i> (Paris: Gallimard, 1969) </td> <td><i>The Prose of the World</i> trans. by John O'Neill (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973; London: Heinemann, 1974) </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtuality_(philosophy)" title="Virtuality (philosophy)">Virtuality (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopoiesis" title="Autopoiesis">Autopoiesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umwelt" title="Umwelt">Umwelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">Habit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_schema" title="Body schema">Body schema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affordance" title="Affordance">Affordance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invagination_(philosophy)" title="Invagination (philosophy)">Invagination (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">At the time, the ENS was part of the University of Paris according to the decree of 10 November 1903.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SEP_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFToadvine2019" class="citation cs2">Toadvine, Ted (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/merleau-ponty/">"Maurice Merleau-Ponty"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-07-16</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maurice+Merleau-Ponty&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2019&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Toadvine&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2019%2Fentries%2Fmerleau-ponty%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Slavoj Zizek, <i>The Sublime Object of Ideology</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maurice Merleau-Ponty, <i>Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Baldwin in Introduction to Merleau-Ponty's The World of Perception (New York: Routledge, 2008): 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ted Toadvine, Lester Embree (eds.), <i>Merleau-Ponty's Reading of Husserl</i>, Springer Science & Business Media, 2013, p. 229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald A. Landes, <i>The Merleau-Ponty Dictionary</i>, A&C Black, 2013, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matthews-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Matthews_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2002" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, Eric (2002). <i>The Philosophy of Merleau-Ponty</i>. Chesham: Accumen. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Merleau-Ponty&rft.place=Chesham&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Accumen&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emmanuel Alloa, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9041201/Un_roman_de_jeunesse_de_Merleau-Ponty_Nord_r%C3%A9cit_de_lArctique_1928_">"<i>Merleau-Ponty, tout un roman</i>"</a>, <i>Le Monde</i>, 23.10.2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whiteside-2014-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whiteside-2014_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteside2014" class="citation book cs1">Whiteside, Kerry H. (14 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yQYABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34"><i>Merleau-Ponty and the Foundation of Existential Politics</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5973-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5973-3"><bdi>978-1-4008-5973-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1091433580">1091433580</a>. <q>During the liberation of Paris he joined an armed street patrol.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merleau-Ponty+and+the+Foundation+of+Existential+Politics&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014-07-14&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1091433580&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-5973-3&rft.aulast=Whiteside&rft.aufirst=Kerry+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyQYABAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Child Psychology and Pedagogy: The Sorbonne Lectures 1949-1952. Translated by Talia Welsh. Evanston: <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University_Press" title="Northwestern University Press">Northwestern University Press</a>, 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Jay, (1986), <i>Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lukács to Habermas</i>, pages 361–385.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Jay, (1986), <i>Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lukács to Habermas</i>, page 361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emma Kathryn Kuby, <i>Between Humanism And Terror: The Problem Of Political Violence In Postwar France, 1944-1962</i>, Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, 2011, pp. 243–244: "Merleau-Ponty provisionally defended Soviet "terror" in the name of humanism, writing that so long as the USSR's violence was authentically revolutionary in its aims, it was justified by the fact that it was helping to produce a socialist world in which all violence would be eliminated. ... Yet about three years after it was published, Merleau-Ponty, too, decided that he no longer believed political violence could be justified by the purported humanist aims of the revolution".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For recent investigations of this question refer to the following: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "A Phenomenological Account of the 'Ontological Problem of Space'," <i>Existentia Meletai-Sophias</i>, Vol. XII, Issue 3–4 (2002), pp. 345–364; see also the related analysis of space <i>qua</i> depth in: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "La perception de la profondeur: Alhazen, Berkeley et Merleau-Ponty," <i>Oriens-Occidens: sciences, mathématiques et philosophie de l'antiquité à l'âge classique (Cahiers du Centre d'Histoire des Sciences et des Philosophies Arabes et Médiévales, CNRS)</i>, Vol. 5 (2004), pp. 171–184. Check also the connections of this question with Heidegger's accounts of the phenomenon of "dwelling" in: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, 'Being at Home Among Things: Heidegger's Reflections on Dwelling', Environment, Space, Place 3 (2011), pp. 47–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For discussions in this area of research in architectural phenomenology, refer to the following recent studies: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, 'On Dwelling: Heideggerian Allusions to Architectural <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(architecture)" title="Phenomenology (architecture)">Phenomenology</a>', <i>Studia UBB. Philosophia</i>, Vol. 60, No. 1 (2015): 5-3; <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, 'Phenomenology of Place and Space in our Epoch: Thinking along Heideggerian Pathways', in <i>The Phenomenology of Real and Virtual Places</i>, ed. E. Champion (London : Routledge, 2018), pp. 123-143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brill.com/products/book/art-and-human-adventure">Derek Allan, <i>Art and the Human Adventure, André Malraux's Theory of Art</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170307015502/http://www.brill.com/products/book/art-and-human-adventure">Archived</a> 2017-03-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Rodopi, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Derek Allan, <i>Art and the Human Adventure: André Malraux's Theory of Art</i>, Rodopi, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkadaWalter_Freeman1990" class="citation journal cs1">Skada, Christine; Walter Freeman (March 1990). "Chaos and the New Science of the Brain". <i>Concepts in Neuroscience</i>. <b>1</b>: 275–285.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Concepts+in+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Chaos+and+the+New+Science+of+the+Brain&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=275-285&rft.date=1990-03&rft.aulast=Skada&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft.au=Walter+Freeman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Brown_and_Ted_Toadvine,_(Eds)2003" class="citation book cs1">Charles Brown and Ted Toadvine, (Eds) (2003). <i>Eco-Phenomenology: Back to the Earth Itself</i>. Albany: SUNY Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eco-Phenomenology%3A+Back+to+the+Earth+Itself&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Charles+Brown+and+Ted+Toadvine%2C+%28Eds%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbram1996" class="citation book cs1">Abram, D. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0"><i>The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than Human World</i></a></span>. Pantheon Books, New York. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0/page/66">66</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780679438199" title="Special:BookSources/9780679438199"><bdi>9780679438199</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spell+of+the+Sensuous%3A+Perception+and+Language+in+a+More-than+Human+World&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books%2C+New+York&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780679438199&rft.aulast=Abram&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspellofsensuousp00abra_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbram1996" class="citation book cs1">Abram, D. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0"><i>The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World</i></a></span>. Pantheon Books, New York. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0/page/65">65</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780679438199" title="Special:BookSources/9780679438199"><bdi>9780679438199</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spell+of+the+Sensuous%3A+Perception+and+Language+in+a+More-than-Human+World&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books%2C+New+York&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780679438199&rft.aulast=Abram&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspellofsensuousp00abra_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Concept of Nature, I, Themes from the Lectures at the Collège de France 1952-1960</i>. Northwestern University Press. 1970. pp. 65–66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Nature%2C+I%2C+Themes+from+the+Lectures+at+the+Coll%C3%A8ge+de+France+1952-1960&rft.pages=65-66&rft.pub=Northwestern+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Visible and the Invisible</i>. Northwestern University Press. 1968. p. 267.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visible+and+the+Invisible&rft.pages=267&rft.pub=Northwestern+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Visible and the Invisible</i>. Northwestern University Press. 1968. p. 274.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visible+and+the+Invisible&rft.pages=274&rft.pub=Northwestern+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaurice+Merleau-Ponty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the research of <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a> in this regard in his philosophical investigation of the notion of χώρα (<a href="/wiki/Kh%C3%B4ra" title="Khôra">Khôra</a>) as it figured in the <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> dialogue of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>. See for example: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "<b>Qui-êtes vous Khôra?</b>: Receiving <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i>," <i>Existentia Meletai-Sophias</i>, Vol. XI, Issue 3-4 (2001), pp. 473–490; <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "<i>ON KAI KHORA</i>: Situating <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a> between the <i><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i>," <i>Studia Phaenomenologica</i>, Vol. IV, Issue 1-2 (2004), pp. 73–98 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.zetabooks.com/studia-phaenomenologica-volume-4-issue-1-2-2004-issues-on-brentano-husserl-and-heidegger.html">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181228223117/http://www.zetabooks.com/studia-phaenomenologica-volume-4-issue-1-2-2004-issues-on-brentano-husserl-and-heidegger.html">Archived</a> 2018-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "<i>Ontopoiēsis</i> and the Interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i>Khôra</i>," <i>Analecta Husserliana: The Yearbook of Phenomenological Research</i>, Vol. LXXXIII (2004), pp. 25–45. Refer also to the more specific analysis of related Heideggerian leitmotifs in: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "Being at Home Among Things: <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>'s Reflections on Dwelling", <i>Environment, Space, Place</i> Vol. 3 (2011), pp. 47–71; <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "On Dwelling: Heideggerian Allusions to Architectural <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(architecture)" title="Phenomenology (architecture)">Phenomenology</a>", <i>Studia UBB. Philosophia</i>, Vol. 60, No. 1 (2015): 5-30; <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "Phenomenology of Place and Space in our Epoch: Thinking along Heideggerian Pathways", in <i>The Phenomenology of Real and Virtual Places</i>, ed. E. Champion (London : Routledge, 2018), pp. 123–143.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abram, D. (1988). "Merleau-Ponty and the Voice of the Earth" <i>Environmental Ethics</i> 10, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 101–20.</li> <li>Abram, D. (1996). <i>The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World</i>, New York: Pantheon Books.</li> <li>Alloa, E. (2017) <i>Resistance of the Sensible World. An Introduction to Merleau-Ponty</i>, New York: Fordham University Press.</li> <li>Alloa, E., F. Chouraqui & R. Kaushik, (2019) (eds.) <i>Merleau-Ponty and Contemporary Philosophy</i>, Albany: SUNY Press.</li> <li>Barbaras, R. (2004) <i>The Being of the Phenomenon. Merleau-Ponty's Ontology</i> Bloomington: Indiana University Press.</li> <li>Carbone, M. (2004) <i>The Thinking of the Sensible. Merleau-Ponty's A-Philosophy</i>, Evanston: Northwestern University Press.</li> <li>Clark, A. (1997) <i>Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</li> <li>Dillon, M. C. (1997) <i>Merleau-Ponty's Ontology</i>. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.</li> <li>Gallagher, S. (2003) <i>How the Body Shapes the Mind</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Guilherme, Alexandre and Morgan, W. John, 'Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)-dialogue as being present to the other'. Chapter 6 in <i>Philosophy, Dialogue, and Education: Nine modern European philosophers</i>, Routledge, London and New York, pp. 89–108, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-83149-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-83149-0">978-1-138-83149-0</a>.</li> <li>Johnson, G., Smith, M. B. (eds.) (1993) <i>The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader: Philosophy and Painting</i>, Chicago: Northwestern UP 1993.</li> <li>Landes, D. (2013) <i>Merleau-Ponty and the Paradoxes of Expression</i>, New York-London: Bloomsbury.</li> <li>Lawlor, L., Evans, F. (eds.) (2000) <i>Chiasms: Merleau-Ponty's Notion of Flesh</i>, Albany: SUNY Press.</li> <li>Petitot, J., Varela, F., Pachoud, B. and Roy, J-M. (eds.) (1999) <i>Naturalizing Phenomenology: Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive Science</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press.</li> <li>Toadvine, T. (2009) <i>Merleau-Ponty's Philosophy of Nature</i>. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xavier_Tilliette" title="Xavier Tilliette">Tilliette, X.</a> (1970) <i>Maurice Merleau-Ponty ou la mesure de l'homme</i>, Seghers, 1970.</li> <li>Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. and Rosch, E. (1991) <i>The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience</i>. Cambridge: MIT Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Maurice Merleau-Ponty</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=31991436">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=31991436&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/actualites/celebrations2005/images/109.jpg">Maurice Merleau-Ponty at 18</a> from the French Government website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://think.hyperjeff.net/Merleau-Ponty/english.html">English Translations of Merleau-Ponty's Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/m/merleau.htm">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a> by Jack Reynolds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/merleau-ponty/">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a> by Ted Toadvine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.uri.edu/impc/">The Merleau-Ponty Circle</a> — Association of scholars interested in the works of Merleau-Ponty</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mythosandlogos.com/MerleauPonty.html">Maurice Merleau-Ponty page</a> at <i>Mythos & Logos</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://filosofia.dipafilo.unimi.it/~chiasmi/">Chiasmi International</a> — Studies Concerning the Thought of Maurice Merleau-Ponty in English, French and Italian</li> <li>O'Loughlin, Marjorie, 1995, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050802084715/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/95_docs/o'loughlin.html">Intelligent Bodies and Ecological Subjectivities: Merleau-Ponty's Corrective to Postmodernism's "Subjects" of Education.</a>"</li> <li>Popen, Shari, 1995, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901151543/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/95_docs/popen.html">Merleau-Ponty Confronts Postmodernism: A Reply to O'Loughlin.</a>"</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070315053427/http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/Merleau-Ponty--Reckoning-with-the-Possibility-of-an--Other--/283">Merleau-Ponty: Reckoning with the Possibility of an 'Other.'</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~smith132/French_Philosophy/French_Philosophy.html">The Journal of French Philosophy</a> — the online home of the Bulletin de la Société Américaine de Philosophie de Langue Française</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/maurice-merleau-ponty/">Online Merleau-Ponty Bibliography</a> at PhilPapers.org</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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G. 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A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fun" title="Fun">Fun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 390 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 335 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 100)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 500)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1757)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1891)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1933)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1946)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1977)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Continental_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Continental_philosophy" title="Template:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Continental_philosophy" title="Template talk:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Continental_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Continental_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Bataille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Blanchot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Castoriadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Cioran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Cixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Kojève</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9" title="Alexandre Koyré">Koyré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Serres" title="Michel Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Freudo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-philosophy" title="Non-philosophy">Non-philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">Speculative realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always_already" title="Always already">Always already</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian" title="Apollonian and Dionysian">Apollonian and Dionysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_oppositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary oppositions">Binary oppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">Critique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanent_critique" title="Immanent critique">Immanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of God">Death of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diff%C3%A9rance" title="Différance">Différance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence precedes essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">Existential crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facticity" title="Facticity">Facticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy_(philosophy)" title="Genealogy (philosophy)">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a 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title="Ontopoetics">Ontopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_(deconstruction)" title="Trace (deconstruction)">Trace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaluation_of_values" title="Transvaluation of values">Transvaluation of values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence#Philosophical_perspectives" title="Violence">Violence § Philosophical perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">Will to power</a></li> <li><a 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class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Continental_philosophy" title="Category:Continental philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_continental_philosophy_articles" title="Index of continental philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_mind" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes">Mental process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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