The Effect of Tongkat Ali Supplementation on Body Composition in Exercise-Trained Males and Females

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} div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1732286508"> <meta name="title" content="The Effect of Tongkat Ali Supplementation on Body Composition in Exercise-Trained Males and Females"> <meta name="description" content="Background: It has been suggested that supplementation with Tongkat Ali may affect testosterone concentrations; moreover, whether this influences body composition is unclear. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine if four weeks of Tongkat Ali (400 mg daily dose) supplementation affected body composition and salivary free testosterone concentrations. Methods: Thirty-three exercise-trained males (n = 19) and females (n = 14) volunteered for this investigation (mean ± standard deviation: age 33.1 ± 13.0 years; height 171.1 ± 11.3 cm; body mass 77.4 ± 16.8 kg; average total years of training 13.9 ± 13.2; average hours of resistance training/week 4.2 ± 2.5; average hours of aerobic exercise/week 3.4 ± 2.8; average hours of other exercise/week 1.1 ± 2.0). Research participants were pre- and post-tested for body composition (InBody 270), Profile of Mood States (POMS), handgrip strength, and sleep (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index [PSQI]). In a subset of the research participants, saliva samples were collected and analyzed for cortisol and free testosterone. The research participants consumed 400 mg of Tongkat Ali or a placebo (rice flour) daily for four weeks. Results: There were no between-group differences (p > 0.05) for body composition (delta score, mean ± SD: lean body mass kg-treatment −0.5 ± 1.9, placebo −0.4 ± 0.7; fat mass kg-treatment −0.5 ± 1.6, placebo 0.3 ± 1.0, % fat treatment −0.1 ± 1.4, placebo 0.5 ± 1.1). Moreover, there were no differences between groups for any additional assessments (e.g., handgrip strength, mood, sleep, and salivary free testosterone and cortisol). Conclusions: Four weeks of supplementation with Tongkat Ali in exercise-trained males and females does not affect body composition, mood, sleep, vigilant attention, handgrip strength, cortisol, and free testosterone." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/applsci-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" > <meta name="dc.title" content="The Effect of Tongkat Ali Supplementation on Body Composition in Exercise-Trained Males and Females"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Jose Antonio"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Cassandra Evans"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Flavia Pereira"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Hena Thakkar"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Viraaj Miriyala"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Robert Rocanelli"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Cesar Castillo"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Alyana Andal"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Jose Rojas"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Juan Carlos Santana"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Lia Jiannine"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Jaime Tartar"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Jason Curtis"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Article"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Applied Sciences 2024, Vol. 14, Page 4372"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-05-22"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/app14114372"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="Background: It has been suggested that supplementation with Tongkat Ali may affect testosterone concentrations; moreover, whether this influences body composition is unclear. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine if four weeks of Tongkat Ali (400 mg daily dose) supplementation affected body composition and salivary free testosterone concentrations. Methods: Thirty-three exercise-trained males (n = 19) and females (n = 14) volunteered for this investigation (mean ± standard deviation: age 33.1 ± 13.0 years; height 171.1 ± 11.3 cm; body mass 77.4 ± 16.8 kg; average total years of training 13.9 ± 13.2; average hours of resistance training/week 4.2 ± 2.5; average hours of aerobic exercise/week 3.4 ± 2.8; average hours of other exercise/week 1.1 ± 2.0). Research participants were pre- and post-tested for body composition (InBody 270), Profile of Mood States (POMS), handgrip strength, and sleep (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index [PSQI]). In a subset of the research participants, saliva samples were collected and analyzed for cortisol and free testosterone. The research participants consumed 400 mg of Tongkat Ali or a placebo (rice flour) daily for four weeks. Results: There were no between-group differences (p > 0.05) for body composition (delta score, mean ± SD: lean body mass kg-treatment −0.5 ± 1.9, placebo −0.4 ± 0.7; fat mass kg-treatment −0.5 ± 1.6, placebo 0.3 ± 1.0, % fat treatment −0.1 ± 1.4, placebo 0.5 ± 1.1). Moreover, there were no differences between groups for any additional assessments (e.g., handgrip strength, mood, sleep, and salivary free testosterone and cortisol). Conclusions: Four weeks of supplementation with Tongkat Ali in exercise-trained males and females does not affect body composition, mood, sleep, vigilant attention, handgrip strength, cortisol, and free testosterone." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="testosterone" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="exercise" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="training" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="skeletal muscle" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="ergogenic aid" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="2076-3417"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Applied Sciences"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-05-22"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="14"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="11"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Article" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="4372" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="2076-3417"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Applied Sciences"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="The Effect of Tongkat Ali Supplementation on Body Composition in Exercise-Trained Males and Females"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024/1"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/05/22"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="14"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="11"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="4372"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Antonio, Jose"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Evans, Cassandra"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Pereira, Flavia"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Thakkar, Hena"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Miriyala, Viraaj"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Rocanelli, Robert"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Castillo, Cesar"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Andal, Alyana"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Rojas, Jose"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Santana, Juan Carlos"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Jiannine, Lia"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Tartar, Jaime"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Curtis, Jason"> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.3390/app14114372"> <meta name="citation_id" content="mdpi-app14114372"> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/pdf?version=1716369871"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/pdf" title="PDF Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/pdf?version=1716369871"> <meta name="fulltext_pdf" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/pdf?version=1716369871"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" title="HTML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/htm"> <meta name="fulltext_html" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/xml" title="XML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/xml"> <meta name="fulltext_xml" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/xml"> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/xml"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@MDPIOpenAccess" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/applsci-logo-social.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="131189377574"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="MDPI"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372" /> <meta property="og:title" content="The Effect of Tongkat Ali Supplementation on Body Composition in Exercise-Trained Males and Females" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Background: It has been suggested that supplementation with Tongkat Ali may affect testosterone concentrations; moreover, whether this influences body composition is unclear. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine if four weeks of Tongkat Ali (400 mg daily dose) supplementation affected body composition and salivary free testosterone concentrations. Methods: Thirty-three exercise-trained males (n = 19) and females (n = 14) volunteered for this investigation (mean ± standard deviation: age 33.1 ± 13.0 years; height 171.1 ± 11.3 cm; body mass 77.4 ± 16.8 kg; average total years of training 13.9 ± 13.2; average hours of resistance training/week 4.2 ± 2.5; average hours of aerobic exercise/week 3.4 ± 2.8; average hours of other exercise/week 1.1 ± 2.0). Research participants were pre- and post-tested for body composition (InBody 270), Profile of Mood States (POMS), handgrip strength, and sleep (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index [PSQI]). In a subset of the research participants, saliva samples were collected and analyzed for cortisol and free testosterone. The research participants consumed 400 mg of Tongkat Ali or a placebo (rice flour) daily for four weeks. Results: There were no between-group differences (p > 0.05) for body composition (delta score, mean ± SD: lean body mass kg-treatment −0.5 ± 1.9, placebo −0.4 ± 0.7; fat mass kg-treatment −0.5 ± 1.6, placebo 0.3 ± 1.0, % fat treatment −0.1 ± 1.4, placebo 0.5 ± 1.1). Moreover, there were no differences between groups for any additional assessments (e.g., handgrip strength, mood, sleep, and salivary free testosterone and cortisol). Conclusions: Four weeks of supplementation with Tongkat Ali in exercise-trained males and females does not affect body composition, mood, sleep, vigilant attention, handgrip strength, cortisol, and free testosterone." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g001-550.jpg?1716370042" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="MDPI Publishing - Latest articles" href="https://www.mdpi.com/rss"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="PxTlsg7z2S00aHroktQd57fxygEjMiNHydKn3txhvwY"> <meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="mcoq8dtq6sb2hf7z29j8w515jjoof7" /> <script id="Cookiebot" data-cfasync="false" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="51491ddd-fe7a-4425-ab39-69c78c55829f" type="text/javascript" async></script>  <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); 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Ali Supplementation on Body Composition in Exercise-Trained Males and Females </h1> <div class="art-authors hypothesis_container"> by <span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop12692764' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Jose Antonio</div><div id="profile-card-drop12692764" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/profiles/994633/thumb/Jose_Antonio.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Jose Antonio</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/994633?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Jose%20Antonio" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Jose%20Antonio&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jose%20Antonio" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div><div class="profile-card__biography"><div class="js-profile-card__biography-item js-default-open"> Jose Antonio earned his B.S. in biology in 1984 from the American University in Washington DC, in in [...] </div><div class="js-profile-card__biography-item js-default-closed" style="display: none;"> Jose Antonio earned his B.S. in biology in 1984 from the American University in Washington DC, his M.S. in exercise physiology in 1987 from Kent State University in Kent Ohio, and his PhD in skeletal muscle physiology in 1993 at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas Texas. Dr. Antonio’s work has resulted in over 100 publications with an h-index of 56, an i10-index of 108, and 17,317 citations. Dr. Antonio’s research focuses on sports nutrition and supplements. He is a professor in the Department of Health and Human Performance at Nova Southeastern University in Davie Florida USA. </div><div><a href="#" class='js-profile-card__biography-item js-default-open'>Read more</a><a href="#" class='js-profile-card__biography-item js-default-closed' style="display: none;">Read less</a></div></div></div><sup> 1,*</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="12692764" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#103f737e743d7377793f7c3f757d71797c3d60627f64757364797f7e332020202526712129207624242072202421752025202420232025227120242025217320722424207620752176"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8930-1058" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1732286508" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; 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height:6px;"></span> <div></div> <div style="margin: 5px 0 15px 0;" class="hypothesis_container"> <div class="art-affiliations"> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>1</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Exercise and Sport Science, Nova Southeastern University, Davie, FL 33328, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>2</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Exercise and Sport Science, Keiser University, West Palm Beach, FL 33309, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>3</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Institute of Human Performance, Boca Raton, FL 33432, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>4</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Nova Southeastern University, Davie, FL 33328, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>5</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Kinesiology Department, Concordia University, St. Paul, MN 55104, USA</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>Appl. Sci.</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>14</em>(11), 4372; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114372">https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114372</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 28 April 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 19 May 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 21 May 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 22 May 2024</span> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/applsci/special_issues/868G873SYJ ">Supplements for Health and Sports Performance</a>)<br/> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-1399246" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-1399246" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-1399246" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/2076-3417/14/11/4372/pdf?version=1716369871" data-name="The Effect of Tongkat Ali Supplementation on Body Composition in Exercise-Trained Males and Females" data-journal="applsci">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2076-3417/14/11/4372/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2076-3417/14/11/4372/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/2076-3417/14/11/4372/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <div class="js-browse-figures" style="display: inline-block;"> <a href="#" class="button button--color-inversed margin-bottom-10 openpopupgallery UI_BrowseArticleFigures" data-target='article-popup' data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/browse" >Browse Figures</a> </div> <div id="article-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g001.png?1716370041" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>This figure represents the delta score regarding lean body mass in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g002.png?1716370042" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>This figure represents the delta score regarding fat mass in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g003.png?1716370042" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>This figure represents the delta score regarding percent body fat in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g004.png?1716370043" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>This figure represents the delta score regarding free testosterone in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.</p> "> </a> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/2076-3417/14/11/4372/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">Background: It has been suggested that supplementation with Tongkat Ali may affect testosterone concentrations; moreover, whether this influences body composition is unclear. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine if four weeks of Tongkat Ali (400 mg daily dose) supplementation affected body composition and salivary free testosterone concentrations. Methods: Thirty-three exercise-trained males (n = 19) and females (n = 14) volunteered for this investigation (mean ± standard deviation: age 33.1 ± 13.0 years; height 171.1 ± 11.3 cm; body mass 77.4 ± 16.8 kg; average total years of training 13.9 ± 13.2; average hours of resistance training/week 4.2 ± 2.5; average hours of aerobic exercise/week 3.4 ± 2.8; average hours of other exercise/week 1.1 ± 2.0). Research participants were pre- and post-tested for body composition (InBody 270), Profile of Mood States (POMS), handgrip strength, and sleep (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index [PSQI]). In a subset of the research participants, saliva samples were collected and analyzed for cortisol and free testosterone. The research participants consumed 400 mg of Tongkat Ali or a placebo (rice flour) daily for four weeks. Results: There were no between-group differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> > 0.05) for body composition (delta score, mean ± SD: lean body mass kg-treatment −0.5 ± 1.9, placebo −0.4 ± 0.7; fat mass kg-treatment −0.5 ± 1.6, placebo 0.3 ± 1.0, % fat treatment −0.1 ± 1.4, placebo 0.5 ± 1.1). Moreover, there were no differences between groups for any additional assessments (e.g., handgrip strength, mood, sleep, and salivary free testosterone and cortisol). Conclusions: Four weeks of supplementation with Tongkat Ali in exercise-trained males and females does not affect body composition, mood, sleep, vigilant attention, handgrip strength, cortisol, and free testosterone.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=testosterone">testosterone</a>; <a href="/search?q=exercise">exercise</a>; <a href="/search?q=training">training</a>; <a href="/search?q=skeletal+muscle">skeletal muscle</a>; <a href="/search?q=ergogenic+aid">ergogenic aid</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-applsci-14-04372' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>Eurycoma longifolia Jack, commonly known as “Tongkat Ali”, is an herbal medicinal plant from Southeast Asia [<a href="#B1-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. Traditionally, various parts of the plant have been purportedly utilized for their therapeutic properties, including antimalarial, aphrodisiac, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, and anti-pyretic effects despite the dearth of scientific evidence [<a href="#B1-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. Tongkat Ali has been purported to assist with erectile dysfunction [<a href="#B2-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">2</a>], increase testosterone concentration [<a href="#B3-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">3</a>], and improve mood [<a href="#B4-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">4</a>]. To assess the effects of Tongkat Ali in aging males, scientists conducted a 6-month randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial involving 45 men (mean age: 47.38 ± 5.03 years) [<a href="#B5-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Both exercise training and Tongkat Ali supplementation showed improvements in erectile function, with the most significant enhancements observed in men undergoing concurrent training combined with Eurycoma longifolia supplementation [<a href="#B5-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. In one of the few investigations that involved exercise training, Chen et al. examined the combined effects of a resistance training program and Eurycoma longifolia Jack on isokinetic muscular strength and power, anaerobic power, and urinary testosterone-to-epitestosterone (T/E) ratio in young males [<a href="#B6-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. These investigators took 40 young males who were weight-matched and randomized to one of four groups: control (C), Eurycoma longifolia Jack (ELJ), resistance training (RT), and Eurycoma longifolia Jack plus resistance training (ELJ and RT). Participants in the ELJ and ELJ and RT groups consumed 200 mg of Eurycoma longifolia Jack daily, while those in the C and RT groups took placebo capsules daily for eight weeks. The resistance training program, consisting of 10 different exercises, was conducted thrice weekly for eight weeks. The resistance training program included ten stations featuring various exercises using elastic bands or dumbbells [<a href="#B6-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. The exercises were heel raises with dumbbells, lateral raises with elastic bands, leg curls with elastic bands, bicep curls with dumbbells, leg abductions with elastic bands, front raises with dumbbells, knee extensions with elastic bands, arm extensions with dumbbells, half squats with elastic bands, and standing chest flies with dumbbells. Each exercise with dumbbells involved 10 repetitions, while those with elastic bands involved 15 repetitions. The dumbbells weighed between three and 12 kg, and the elastic bands were color-coded according to their elasticity. Participants rested for 1 min between stations and had a 3 min rest before starting a new set. They completed three sets of this circuit, and the program was conducted three times a week for eight weeks. It should be noted that these individuals were initially untrained. Isokinetic muscular strength and power, anaerobic power, and urinary T/E ratio were measured before and after the intervention [<a href="#B6-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. After eight weeks of intervention, significant increases in the isokinetic average power of knee flexion at 300°/s were observed in the resistance training and combined ELJ and RT groups. In contrast, the control and ELJ-supplemented groups showed no changes in isokinetic muscular strength and average power from pre- to post-intervention. These findings indicate that resistance training enhanced lower limb power in participants. On the other hand, ELJ alone does not affect the training response.</div><div class='html-p'>Moreover, there have been no studies that have examined an exercise-trained population. More importantly, body composition has not been assessed. Indeed, if free testosterone (i.e., the biologically active form) is chronically elevated after the consumption of Tongkat Ali, one would expect a change in body composition. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine if one month of Tongkat Ali supplementation affected indices of body composition, mood, sleep, physical performance, and salivary cortisol and testosterone concentration in exercise-trained males and females. The primary endpoints of this investigation were body composition and free testosterone concentrations.</div></section><section id='sec2-applsci-14-04372' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Materials and Methods</h2><section id='sec2dot1-applsci-14-04372' type='subjects'><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.1. Participants</h4><div class='html-p'>Thirty-four individuals who regularly exercised (n = 34, 19 male, 15 female) volunteered for this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Individuals were considered “trained” if they had consistently exercised at least three times a week, incorporating activities such as aerobic or resistance training, over the past year. One female participant dropped out of the study without a reason, resulting in 33 subjects completing the investigation. All procedures involving human subjects were approved by the university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB# 2023_106 Concordia University), following the principles outlined in the Helsinki Declaration. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before their involvement. Participants’ exercise history was evaluated through a questionnaire. Moreover, they were instructed not to change their exercise or dietary habits during the study.</div></section><section id='sec2dot2-applsci-14-04372' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.2. Body Composition</h4><div class='html-p'>Utilizing the InBody 270 (InBody, Cerritos, CA, USA), a bioelectrical impedance assessment device capable of measuring multiple frequencies, body composition metrics, including body mass, fat mass, lean body mass, body fat percentage, and total body water, were evaluated [<a href="#B7-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">7</a>,<a href="#B8-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B9-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. Participants were asked to fast three hours prior to the assessment. Standing on the device’s platform with bare feet on the electrodes, participants held handles equipped with additional electrodes on their thumb and fingers, maintaining straight arms and horizontally abducted at approximately 30 degrees. This assessment lasted approximately one minute.</div></section><section id='sec2dot3-applsci-14-04372' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.3. Profile of Mood States</h4><div class='html-p'>The Profile of Mood States (POMS) is a validated 65-word psychological test consisting of six mood scales designed for clinical evaluation. The Profile of Mood States (POMS) test is a psychological rating scale used to assess transient, distinct mood states. It measures six different dimensions of mood, which are:</div><div class='html-p'><ul class='html-simple'><li><div class='html-p'>Tension: feelings of tension, nervousness, and apprehension.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Depression: feelings of sadness, discouragement, and low morale.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Anger: feelings of anger, irritability, and hostility.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Vigor: feelings of energy, enthusiasm, and alertness.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Fatigue: feelings of tiredness, weariness, and low energy.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Confusion: feelings of confusion, uncertainty, and lack of clarity.</div></li></ul></div><div class='html-p'>Participants responded to words such as “angry”, “tense”, and “lively” by selecting from a dropdown menu indicating their corresponding mood level, ranging from “not at all” to “extremely”. This tool assessed total mood disturbance, along with specific mood dimensions, including anger, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor. The POMS test is widely used in both clinical and research settings to monitor mood changes in response to various interventions, treatments, or environmental factors [<a href="#B10-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">11</a>]. It is valuable in understanding how different conditions affect emotional well-being and can be used to track changes in mood over time.</div></section><section id='sec2dot4-applsci-14-04372' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.4. Psychomotor Vigilance (PVT) Test</h4><div class='html-p'>The Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) is a widely used behavioral measure of sustained attention and reaction time. It assesses an individual’s ability to maintain focus and respond quickly to visual stimuli over a period of time. Here are the key aspects of the PVT:</div><div class='html-p'><ul class='html-simple'><li><div class='html-p'>Stimulus presentation: participants are asked to fixate on a screen where a visual stimulus (i.e., a number) appears at random intervals.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Response: as soon as the stimulus appears, participants must tap the iPad or computer as quickly as possible.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Duration: the test lasts five minutes.</div></li></ul></div><div class='html-p'>The following data were accrued from the PVT.</div><ul class='html-simple'><li><div class='html-p'>Reaction time (RT): The primary measure is the time it takes for a participant to respond (i.e., by tapping the iPad or computer) to the stimulus. This is usually recorded in milliseconds.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>False starts: Responses that occur before the stimulus are presented. That is, the subject taps the iPad or computer before a stimulus appears.</div></li></ul><div class='html-p'>We used the Vigilance Buddy software (version 1.56) that is available on Apple devices. Detailed instructions were provided to ensure the correct execution of the test. This assessment has been used previously in our lab [<a href="#B12-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">12</a>].</div></section><section id='sec2dot5-applsci-14-04372' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.5. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI)</h4><div class='html-p'>The PSQI consists of 19 items that generate seven components or subscales, each providing a score ranging from 0 to 3 [<a href="#B13-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) is a self-report questionnaire designed to measure sleep quality and disturbances over a one-month time period. It is widely used in both clinical and research settings to assess sleep patterns and identify potential sleep disorders. Here are the key components and features of the PSQI:</div><div class='html-p'><ul class='html-simple'><li><div class='html-p'>Subjective sleep quality: an individual’s overall perception of their sleep quality.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Sleep latency: the amount of time it takes to fall asleep.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Sleep duration: the total amount of sleep obtained per night.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Sleep efficiency: the ratio of total sleep time to time spent in bed.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Sleep disturbances: factors that interrupt sleep, such as waking up in the middle of the night, bathroom trips, and other disruptions.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Use of sleep medication: the frequency of medication use to aid sleep.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>Daytime dysfunction: the impact of poor sleep on daily functioning, including difficulty staying awake during the day and maintaining enthusiasm for daily activities.</div></li></ul></div><div class='html-p'>The sum of these scores yields a global score ranging from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicating poorer sleep quality. The research participants completed the questionnaire based on their experiences over the past month, with responses indicating the frequency or severity of sleep-related issues. We noted the global score in our investigation.</div></section><section id='sec2dot6-applsci-14-04372' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.6. Salivary Cortisol and Free Testosterone</h4><div class='html-p'>In a subset of research participants, saliva samples were provided. Subjects provided saliva samples for cortisol and free testosterone quantification and DNA extraction via passive drool through a straw into a 1.5 mL micro-centrifuge tube immediately before and 5 min following the exercise tests. Saliva samples were run in duplicate and quantified via a human melatonin enzyme immunoassay (EIA) kit according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Salimetrics LLC, Carlsbad, CA, USA). The samples were immediately read in a BioTek ELx800 plate reader (BioTek Instruments, Inc., Winooski, VT, USA). All samples were within the detection ranges indicated in the immunoassay kit, and the variation in sample readings was within the expected limits. Cortisol and free testosterone concentrations were determined at baseline and post-exercise.</div></section><section id='sec2dot7-applsci-14-04372' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.7. Statistics</h4><div class='html-p'>Statistical analyses were conducted using GraphPad (Prism 10.2.3) statistical software. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Paired t-tests were used to compare the baseline vs. post-test scores for both groups. In addition, an unpaired t-test was used to compare the delta scores between groups. <span class='html-italic'>p</span> < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.</div></section></section><section id='sec3-applsci-14-04372' type='results'><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Results</h2><div class='html-p'>Nineteen male and fifteen female participants volunteered for this study. One female subject dropped out without a reason. The characteristics of the research participants are shown in <a href="#applsci-14-04372-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>. There were no differences in baseline characteristics between groups except for the total number of years of training.</div><div class='html-p'>Tongkat Ali supplementation did not affect body composition (<a href="#applsci-14-04372-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a> and <a href="#applsci-14-04372-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>, <a href="#applsci-14-04372-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a> and <a href="#applsci-14-04372-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>), sleep, mood, or handgrip strength (<a href="#applsci-14-04372-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a>), nor did it affect free testosterone or cortisol (<a href="#applsci-14-04372-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a> and <a href="#applsci-14-04372-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>).</div></section><section id='sec4-applsci-14-04372' type='discussion'><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Discussion</h2><div class='html-p'>The primary clinical endpoint of our investigation was body composition. Our investigation found that Tongkat Ali supplementation did not affect body composition (i.e., body mass, lean body mass, fat mass, percent body fat, and total body water) in exercise-trained males and females. This is the first investigation in trained males and females to show how Tongkat Ali supplementation affects body composition. The theoretical increase in lean body mass has been previously speculated due to the ostensible effect of Tongkat Ali supplementation on testosterone concentrations [<a href="#B3-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">3</a>,<a href="#B14-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. Nevertheless, our investigation showed that Tongkat Ali supplementation did not affect free testosterone or cortisol. Notably, virtually all studies on Tongkat Ali have been conducted on either clinical populations or untrained individuals. Interestingly, body composition is often neglected in these investigations. Zakaria et al. examined the short-term impact of Eurycoma longifolia Jack (ELJ) supplementation on muscle damage caused by eccentric exercise [<a href="#B15-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. Eighteen well-trained rugby players (19–25 years) were randomized into one of two groups, ELJ and placebo (PLA). Each participant consumed four 100 mg capsules of the ELJ or placebo daily for seven days before performing a leg press eccentric exercise. Measurements taken included peak force, peak power, and jump height in countermovement jump (CMJ), drop jump reactive strength index (RSI), muscle soreness (using a 100 mm visual analogue scale), plasma creatine kinase (CK) activity, and salivary hormones at 24 h before and 0.5, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after the exercise. These investigators found that the number of eccentric contractions performed was similar between the ELJ and PLA groups. Salivary testosterone and cortisol levels did not change significantly after supplementation in either group. In addition, there were no between-group differences in any of the other assessments. Thus, one week of ELJ (i.e., Tongkat Ali) supplementation did not affect hormones (i.e., testosterone and cortisol), performance, or skeletal muscle damage markers in the athletes [<a href="#B15-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">15</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Leitao et al. conducted a six-month treatment for androgen deficiency in aging males (ADAM) [<a href="#B5-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. These investigators aimed to determine the effects of concurrent exercise training and Eurycoma longifolia supplementation on erectile function and testosterone levels in men with ADAM, as well as the relationship between erectile function and total testosterone levels. Twenty-two participants received a 200 mg supplement of Eurycoma longifolia, and twenty-three participated in concurrent training sessions three times a week for 60 min at progressive intensity. Both interventions improved erectile function, with the most significant improvements observed in the concurrent training + Eurycoma longifolia group. Thus, a 200 mg supplement of Eurycoma longifolia combined with concurrent training for 6 months significantly enhanced erectile function and increased total testosterone levels in men with ADAM [<a href="#B5-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Tambi et al. studied the effects of one month of 200 mg daily Tongkat Ali supplementation in hypogonadal males and demonstrated a significant increase in total testosterone [<a href="#B14-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. In brief, 76 out of 320 patients with late-onset hypogonadism (LOH) were administered 200 mg of a standardized water-soluble extract of Tongkat Ali for one month. The Aging Males’ Symptoms (AMS) rating scale and serum testosterone concentration were measured. Results indicated that treatment with Tongkat Ali extracts significantly improved both the AMS score and serum testosterone levels. Prior to treatment, only 10.5% of patients had no complaints according to the AMS scale, and 35.5% had normal testosterone levels. After treatment, 71.7% of patients had no complaints, and 90.8% had normal testosterone levels. Therefore, Tongkat Ali extract seems to be effective as a supplement for alleviating symptoms of LOH and managing hypogonadism [<a href="#B14-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">14</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Henkel et al. examined 13 physically active male and 12 physically active female seniors (57–72 years) who consumed 400 mg of Tongkat Ali extract daily for five weeks [<a href="#B3-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. Standard hematological parameters were measured, and the levels of total and free testosterone, dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), cortisol, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) were analyzed. Additional biochemical parameters such as blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatine kinase (CK) were assessed to evaluate kidney function and muscle damage, respectively. Muscle strength was measured using a simple handgrip test. After the treatment, it was observed that hemoglobin, testosterone, DHEA concentrations, the total testosterone/cortisol ratio, and muscle force were significantly lower in female seniors compared to male seniors. In male seniors, hematocrit and erythrocyte counts increased slightly and were significantly higher than those in female seniors. The treatment led to significant increases in total and free testosterone concentrations and muscle strength in both men and women. The increase in free testosterone in women was attributed to a significant decrease in SHBG concentrations. Thus, in older adults, it was ostensible that Tongkat Ali supplementation may indeed elevate total and free testosterone as well as muscle strength [<a href="#B3-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. The authors posited that the increase in free testosterone in women might be due to the significant decline in sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations [<a href="#B3-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. Additionally, Talbott and colleagues investigated stress hormones and mood states in 63 participants (n = 32 males, n = 31 females) initially identified as being under moderate stress. Although not mentioned in that study, these subjects were likely sedentary. These individuals consumed 200 mg of Tongkat Ali or placebo daily for four weeks. The findings revealed a significantly improved stress hormone profile, indicated by reduced cortisol (−16%) and elevated testosterone levels (+37%) [<a href="#B4-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>On the contrary, other studies have revealed no effect of Tongkat Ali on testosterone. Chinnappan et al. found no significant between-group differences in the free testosterone levels for two different doses of Tongkat Ali (100 and 200 mg daily for 12 weeks) compared to placebo [<a href="#B16-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. In an investigation by Chan et al., 32 young males (24 years; 1.74 m; 73.7 kg) received 600 mg/day of Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali) or a placebo for two weeks [<a href="#B17-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">17</a>,<a href="#B18-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">18</a>]. On day 14, total testosterone was significantly greater in the treatment versus placebo group; however, free testosterone, the biologically active form of testosterone, was not significantly different between groups. Interestingly, this group also assessed the effects of Tongkat Ali after eight weeks of supplementation [<a href="#B18-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">18</a>]. They found no differences between the Tongkat Ali and placebo groups regarding total and free testosterone. Ismail et al. examined the effects of 300 mg daily for 12 weeks of Tongkat Ali supplementation in a cohort of sedentary men (aged 30–55 years) [<a href="#B19-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">19</a>]. They found no effect on body composition, nor did they find changes in total and free testosterone. Two investigations by the same laboratory group [<a href="#B6-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">6</a>,<a href="#B20-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">20</a>] provided further evidence that long-term supplementation with Tongkat Ali may not have any physiologically relevant effects. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study, 13 healthy male recreational athletes were recruited [<a href="#B20-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">20</a>]. During the first supplementation phase, they were instructed to take either 400 mg of Tongkat Ali or a placebo daily for six weeks. After a three-week washout, they were asked to take the other supplement for six weeks. They found no effect on the testosterone–epitestosterone ratio. Chen et al. [<a href="#B6-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">6</a>] took 40 young males who were weight-matched and randomized into four groups: control (C), Tongkat Ali (TA), resistance training (RT), and Tongkat Ali combined with resistance training (TA-RT). Participants in the TA and TA-RT groups ingested 200 mg of TA daily, while those in the C and RT groups took placebo capsules daily for eight weeks. The resistance training program, comprising ten different exercises, was carried out three times a week for eight weeks. These investigators found that resistance training, with or without TA supplementation, enhanced the isokinetic power of the lower limb. In addition, the daily consumption of 200 mg of Tongkat Ali over eight weeks did not influence the urinary T/E ratio [<a href="#B6-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">6</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>It seems apparent that if Tongkat Ali induces a meaningful physiologic effect, it would likely be in older hypogonadal males. Male hypogonadism is a clinical condition marked by reduced serum testosterone levels in men [<a href="#B21-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">21</a>]. Leisegang et al. conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) following PRISMA guidelines [<a href="#B21-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">21</a>]. Relevant studies were sourced from PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane, Ovid/Embase, and Google Scholar databases. After screening the literature, nine studies were included in the systematic review, with five randomized controlled trials included in the meta-analysis. They reported a significant increase in total testosterone levels following E. longifolia treatment in both healthy volunteers and men with hypogonadism. The random-effects model indicated a significant increase in total testosterone levels in men receiving E. longifolia supplementation, confirmed in the hypogonadism subgroup. This particular systematic review and meta-analysis suggest that E. longifolia supplementation may enhance testosterone production.</div><div class='html-p'>Whether Tongkat Ali has a physiologically meaningful effect on free testosterone in young, exercise-trained men or women, is doubtful. The current investigation is the first to use well-trained subjects (i.e., over nine years of training experience; exercise training 8–10 h per week). In this cohort of exercise-trained males and females, four weeks of supplementing with 400 mg of Tongkat Ali had no meaningful effect on body composition and salivary free testosterone and cortisol. Furthermore, our investigation showed that Tongkat Ali supplementation did not affect mood (i.e., total mood disturbance score), sleep (i.e., Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), or handgrip strength. Regarding strength, there have been few investigations in this regard. Chen et al. found that in young males, resistance training combined with 200 mg/day for eight weeks of Tongkat Ali supplementation improved peak power output [<a href="#B6-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">6</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>In Chen et al.’s study, forty young males were weight-matched and divided into four groups: control (C), Eurycoma longifolia Jack (ELJ), resistance training (RT), and Eurycoma longifolia Jack plus resistance training (ELJ and RT). Participants in the ELJ and ELJ and RT groups took 200 mg of Eurycoma longifolia Jack daily, while those in the C and RT groups took placebo capsules daily for 8 weeks. Resistance training alone increased relative anaerobic power, while the combination of Eurycoma longifolia Jack and resistance training improved peak power output. Moreover, consuming 200 mg per day of ELJ for 8 weeks did not affect the urinary T/E ratio. Other work showed that eight weeks of Tongkat Ali supplementation (600 mg/day) did not affect isokinetic strength or anaerobic power [<a href="#B18-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">18</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Work from Talbott and colleagues showed that Tongkat Ali supplementation for four weeks improved feelings of tension, anger, and confusion [<a href="#B4-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">4</a>]. Moreover, Tongkat Ali boosts alertness when mice are active yet promotes sleep during their resting phases, suggesting its potential as a revitalizing remedy [<a href="#B22-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">22</a>]. However, no human data exist to support an effect on sleep. Regarding physical performance, it is evident that strength training offsets the decline in muscle strength associated with aging in middle-aged women. Yet, Tongkat Ali supplementation does not increase muscle strength gains following a strength training regimen [<a href="#B23-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">23</a>]. Conversely, supplementing with Tongkat Ali may enhance muscle strength in physically active elderly men and women [<a href="#B3-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. Due to the scarcity of data, it is not possible to draw any conclusions regarding the influence of Tongkat Ali in exercise-trained men and women, particularly as it applies to mood, sleep, and physical performance.</div><div class='html-p'>Currently, only a few studies have examined the impact of Tongkat Ali as well as other purported testosterone boosters (TB) on serum testosterone levels [<a href="#B24-applsci-14-04372" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. Though several of these are randomized controlled trials (RCTs), they are often not conducted on athletes or an exercise-trained population. Additionally, there are limited data on the safety profile of these supplements. Therefore, more high-quality studies, such as RCTs, are needed to evaluate the effects of Tongkat Ali on serum testosterone levels in healthy adults.</div></section><section id='sec5-applsci-14-04372' type='conclusions'><h2 data-nested='1'> 5. Conclusions</h2><div class='html-p'>The strength of our investigation is the fact that our research participants were healthy, exercise-trained men and women. One of our limitations was the treatment duration of four weeks. Future research should examine young, healthy, exercise-trained men and women as separate cohorts. Furthermore, it would be interesting to see if body composition is affected when a novel exercise training program is combined with Tongkat Ali. Nonetheless, based on our limited cohort, four weeks of supplementing with 400 mg of Tongkat Ali in young exercise-trained men and women did not affect body composition, cortisol, free testosterone, sleep, mood, or strength.</div></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>J.A. was involved in all aspects of this investigation. J.C. contributed to methodology, writing, and data collection. C.E., F.P., H.T., V.M., R.R., C.C., A.A., J.R., J.C.S., L.J. and J.T. were involved in data collection. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2>Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>This investigation was partly funded by an in-kind donation from Nutrition Formulators, Miramar, Florida.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Institutional Review Board Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>All procedures involving human subjects were approved by the university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB# 2023_106 Concordia University), following the principles outlined in the Helsinki Declaration.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Informed Consent Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before their involvement.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Data Availability Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author (privacy and ethical restrictions).</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>Author Jose Antonio is the CEO and co-founder of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN), a 501c3 non-profit that receives grant support from companies that manufacture, market, and sell dietary supplements. 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The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f001"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 1.</b> This figure represents the delta score regarding lean body mass in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g001.png" data-original="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g001.png" alt="Applsci 14 04372 g001" data-lsrc="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g001.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="applsci-14-04372-f002"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f002"> <img data-large="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g002.png" data-original="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g002.png" alt="Applsci 14 04372 g002" data-lsrc="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g002-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 2.</b> This figure represents the delta score regarding fat mass in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f002"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 2.</b> This figure represents the delta score regarding fat mass in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g002.png" data-original="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g002.png" alt="Applsci 14 04372 g002" data-lsrc="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g002.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="applsci-14-04372-f003"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f003"> <img data-large="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g003.png" data-original="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g003.png" alt="Applsci 14 04372 g003" data-lsrc="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g003-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 3.</b> This figure represents the delta score regarding percent body fat in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f003"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 3.</b> This figure represents the delta score regarding percent body fat in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g003.png" data-original="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g003.png" alt="Applsci 14 04372 g003" data-lsrc="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g003.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="applsci-14-04372-f004"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f004"> <img data-large="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g004.png" data-original="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g004.png" alt="Applsci 14 04372 g004" data-lsrc="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g004-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 4.</b> This figure represents the delta score regarding free testosterone in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_applsci-14-04372-f004"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 4.</b> This figure represents the delta score regarding free testosterone in the treatment vs. placebo groups. The circles represent individual data points. The data are presented as the mean and SD.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g004.png" data-original="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g004.png" alt="Applsci 14 04372 g004" data-lsrc="/applsci/applsci-14-04372/article_deploy/html/images/applsci-14-04372-g004.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="applsci-14-04372-t001"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href='#table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t001'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 1.</b> Characteristics of the research participants. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t001"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 1.</b> Characteristics of the research participants.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Tongkat Ali</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Placebo</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>p</span>-Value </th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Age, years</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >37 ± 14</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >30 ± 12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.1127</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Height, cm</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >174 ± 8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >170 ± 14</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.3844</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Total number of years of training</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >19 ± 15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9 ± 9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.0177 *</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Average hours of aerobic exercise/week</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4 ± 3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3 ± 3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.5244</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Average hours of resistance training/week</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4 ± 3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4 ± 3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6440</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Other exercise hours/week</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1 ± 2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1 ± 2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.4224</td></tr></tbody> </table> <div class='html-table_foot html-p'><div class='html-p' style='text-indent:0em;'><span class='html-fn-content'>The data are expressed as the mean ± SD. There were no significant differences between the groups except for the total number of years of training *. Tongkat Ali n = 16 (11 males and 5 females); placebo n = 17 (8 males, 9 females). Legend: cm—centimeters.</span></div><div style='clear:both;'></div></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="applsci-14-04372-t002"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href='#table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t002'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 2.</b> Body composition. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t002"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 2.</b> Body composition.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </th><th colspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Tongkat Ali</th><th colspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Placebo</th><th rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>p</span>-Value Delta</th></tr><tr ><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Pre</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Post</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Delta</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Pre</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Post</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Delta</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >BM, kg</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >79.9 ± 13.1</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >78.9 ± 13.4</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−1.0 ± 2.3</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >75.7 ± 19.6</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >75.6 ± 19.2</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−0.1 ± 1.2</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >0.1585</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >LBM, kg</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >63.9 ± 12.0</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >63.4 ± 12.5</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−0.5 ± 1.9</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >60.6 ± 15.5</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >60.2 ± 15.5 *</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−0.4 ± 0.7</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >0.8218</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Fat mass, kg</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >16.1 ± 5.2</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >15.5 ± 5.4</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−0.5 ± 1.6</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >15.1 ± 8.8</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >15.3 ± 8.6</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >0.3 ± 1.0</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >0.0956</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >% Body fat</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >19.9 ± 5.6</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >19.8 ± 6.3</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−0.1 ± 1.4</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >19.7 ± 7.6</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >20.2 ± 7.7 *</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >0.5 ± 1.1</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >0.2014</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >TBW, L</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >46.5 ± 9.0</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >46.4 ± 9.2</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >−0.1 ± 1.1</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >43.0 ± 12.3</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >42.5 ± 11.0</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >−0.5 ± 3.3</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.6969</td></tr></tbody> </table> <div class='html-table_foot html-p'><div class='html-p' style='text-indent:0em;'><span class='html-fn-content'>The data are expressed as the mean ± SD. There were no differences in pre vs. post in the Tongkat Ali group (body mass <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.0921, LBM <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.3042, fat mass <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.1083, % fat <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.4882, TBW <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.4823). There was a significant difference in pre vs. post in the placebo group for * LBM (<span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.0171) and * % body fat (<span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.0333); however, there were no significant differences pre vs. post for fat mass (<span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.1333) and total body water (<span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.4643). There were no statistically significant differences in the delta score between groups for any of the assessments. Legend: BM—body mass, kg—kilograms, L—liters, LBM—lean body mass, TBW—total body water.</span></div><div style='clear:both;'></div></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="applsci-14-04372-t003"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href='#table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t003'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 3.</b> Mood, sleep, handgrip strength. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t003"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 3.</b> Mood, sleep, handgrip strength.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </th><th colspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Tongkat Ali</th><th colspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Placebo</th><th rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>p</span>-Value Delta</th></tr><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Pre</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Post</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Delta</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Pre</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Post</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Delta</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >TMDS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >29 ± 39</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >11 ± 23</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−18 ± 37</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >16 ± 23</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >6 ± 19</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−10 ± 24</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >0.4744</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >PSQI</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >6.1 ± 2.1</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >5.5 ± 2.2</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−0.6 ± 1.8</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >6.2 ± 2.5</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >5.5 ± 2.2</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−0.6 ± 1.7</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >0.8886</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Peak HG, kg</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >48 ± 9</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >48 ± 11</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >−1 ± 7</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >45 ± 15</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >45 ± 14</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >1 ± 2</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.5554</td></tr></tbody> </table> <div class='html-table_foot html-p'><div class='html-p' style='text-indent:0em;'><span class='html-fn-content'>The data are expressed as the mean ± SD. There were no differences in pre vs. post in the Tongkat Ali group (TMDS <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.2182, PSQI <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.2424, HG <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.3952) or the placebo group (TMDS <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.1057, PSQI <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.0877), HG <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.1427). There were no significant differences between groups for the delta score. Legend: HG—handgrip, PSQI—Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, TMDS—total mood disturbance score.</span></div><div style='clear:both;'></div></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="applsci-14-04372-t004"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href='#table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t004'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4372/display" href="#table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 4.</b> Free testosterone and cortisol. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_applsci-14-04372-t004"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 4.</b> Free testosterone and cortisol.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' > </th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Tongkat Ali</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' > </th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' > </th></tr><tr ><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' > </th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Pre</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Post</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Delta</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Free testosterone, pg/mL</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >247 ± 126</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >305 ± 180</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >58 ± 205</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Cortisol, mcg/dL</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.206 ± 0.094</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.253 ± 0.167</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.047 ± 0.210</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' > </td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Placebo</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' > </td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' > </td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' > </td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Pre</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Post</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Delta</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Free testosterone, pg/mL</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >283 ± 262</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >251 ± 172</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >−32 ± 309</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Cortisol, mcg/dL</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.183 ± 0.033</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.225 ± 0.147</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.042 ± 0.162</td></tr></tbody> </table> <div class='html-table_foot html-p'><div class='html-p' style='text-indent:0em;'><span class='html-fn-content'>The data are expressed as the mean ± SD. There were no significant differences in pre vs. post in the Tongkat Ali group (testosterone <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.1470, cortisol <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.1801) or the placebo group (testosterone <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.3973, cortisol <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.2439). There were no significant differences between groups for the delta score (testosterone <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.4266, cortisol <span class='html-italic'>p</span> = 0.8692). Legend: Test—dL—deciliter; mcg—microgram; mL—milliliter; pg—picogram. Note: n = 15 (12 males, 3 females) for the Tongkat Ali group and n = 7 (3 males, 4 females) for the placebo group.</span></div><div style='clear:both;'></div></div> </div> </section><section class='html-fn_group'><table><tr id=''><td></td><td><div class='html-p'><b>Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note:</b> The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.</div></td></tr></table></section> <section id="html-copyright"><br>© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 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value="digital">Digital</option> <option value="disabilities">Disabilities</option> <option value="diseases">Diseases</option> <option value="diversity">Diversity</option> <option value="dna">DNA</option> <option value="drones">Drones</option> <option value="ddc">Drugs and Drug Candidates</option> <option value="dynamics">Dynamics</option> <option value="earth">Earth</option> <option value="ecologies">Ecologies</option> <option value="econometrics">Econometrics</option> <option value="economies">Economies</option> <option value="education">Education Sciences</option> <option value="electricity">Electricity</option> <option value="electrochem">Electrochem</option> <option value="electronicmat">Electronic Materials</option> <option value="electronics">Electronics</option> <option value="ecm">Emergency Care and Medicine</option> <option value="encyclopedia">Encyclopedia</option> <option value="endocrines">Endocrines</option> <option value="energies">Energies</option> <option 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<option value="geosciences">Geosciences</option> <option value="geotechnics">Geotechnics</option> <option value="geriatrics">Geriatrics</option> <option value="glacies">Glacies</option> <option value="gucdd">Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease</option> <option value="grasses">Grasses</option> <option value="hardware">Hardware</option> <option value="healthcare">Healthcare</option> <option value="hearts">Hearts</option> <option value="hemato">Hemato</option> <option value="hematolrep">Hematology Reports</option> <option value="heritage">Heritage</option> <option value="histories">Histories</option> <option value="horticulturae">Horticulturae</option> <option value="hospitals">Hospitals</option> <option value="humanities">Humanities</option> <option value="humans">Humans</option> <option value="hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</option> <option value="hydrogen">Hydrogen</option> <option value="hydrology">Hydrology</option> <option value="hygiene">Hygiene</option> <option 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value="ijtpp">International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power</option> <option value="ime">International Medical Education</option> <option value="inventions">Inventions</option> <option value="IoT">IoT</option> <option value="ijgi">ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information</option> <option value="J">J</option> <option value="jal">Journal of Ageing and Longevity</option> <option value="jcdd">Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease</option> <option value="jcto">Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology</option> <option value="jcm">Journal of Clinical Medicine</option> <option value="jcs">Journal of Composites Science</option> <option value="jcp">Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy</option> <option value="jdad">Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease</option> <option value="jdb">Journal of Developmental Biology</option> <option value="jeta">Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses</option> <option value="jfb">Journal of Functional 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The Effect of Tongkat Ali Supplementation on Body Composition in Exercise-Trained Males and Females