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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Harrison administration" redirects here. For the administration of the 9th United States president, see <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison#Presidency_(1841)" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison § Presidency (1841)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="padding-bottom:2px; padding-top:2px;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:0; padding-bottom:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison"><img alt="Benjamin Harrison" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2588" data-file-height="3282" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="padding-top:2px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">Presidency of Benjamin Harrison March 4, 1889 – March 4, 1893</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Cabinet</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Administration">See list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Election</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">Seat</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="line-height:normal; padding-top:1px;"><div style="width:100%"><div style="float: left; text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;" class="noprint">← <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (1st)</div><div style="float: right; text-align:right;padding-left:0.5em;" class="noprint"><a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (2nd) →</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:0 0 8px;" /> <div class="center"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:6px 0 2px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PresidentHayesInvitationCOA.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/PresidentHayesInvitationCOA.png/100px-PresidentHayesInvitationCOA.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/PresidentHayesInvitationCOA.png/150px-PresidentHayesInvitationCOA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/PresidentHayesInvitationCOA.png/200px-PresidentHayesInvitationCOA.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="670" /></a></div> <div style="line-height:normal; min-height:1px; padding-bottom:2px;">Presidential coat of arms (1877–1913)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Harrison,_head-and-shoulders_portrait,_facing_right_LCCN96521670_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head-and-shoulders_portrait%2C_facing_right_LCCN96521670_%28cropped%29.jpg/75px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head-and-shoulders_portrait%2C_facing_right_LCCN96521670_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head-and-shoulders_portrait%2C_facing_right_LCCN96521670_%28cropped%29.jpg/113px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head-and-shoulders_portrait%2C_facing_right_LCCN96521670_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head-and-shoulders_portrait%2C_facing_right_LCCN96521670_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head-and-shoulders_portrait%2C_facing_right_LCCN96521670_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="839" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison#Family_and_education" title="Benjamin Harrison">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_family_of_Virginia" title="Harrison family of Virginia">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison#Historical_reputation_and_memorials" title="Benjamin Harrison">Public image</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Bust of Benjamin Harrison">Bust</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Senator from <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison#U.S._Senator_from_Indiana" title="Benjamin Harrison">Senate career</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">23rd President of the United States</div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison">Inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897#Harrison_administration,_1889–1893" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Administration">Cabinet appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Benjamin_Harrison" title="List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison">Judicial appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1889)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1889)">Treaty of Berlin (1889)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_International_Conference_of_American_States" title="First International Conference of American States">First International Conference of American States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act_of_1890" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890">Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act" title="Sherman Silver Purchase Act">Sherman Silver Purchase Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Reserve_Act_of_1891" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest Reserve Act of 1891">Forest Reserve Act (1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Copyright_Act_of_1891" title="International Copyright Act of 1891">International Copyright Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans Lynchings">New Orleans Lynchings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_crisis" title="Baltimore crisis">Baltimore crisis</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Presidential campaigns</div> <ul><li>1888 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1888_Republican_National_Convention" title="1888 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>1892 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1892_Republican_National_Convention" title="1892 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Post-presidency</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_Presidential_Site" title="Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site">Presidential Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison#Post-presidency_and_death_(1893–1901)" title="Benjamin Harrison">Death</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison's signature"><img alt="Benjamin Harrison's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Benjamin_Harrison_Signature-2.svg/150px-Benjamin_Harrison_Signature-2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Benjamin_Harrison_Signature-2.svg/225px-Benjamin_Harrison_Signature-2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Benjamin_Harrison_Signature-2.svg/300px-Benjamin_Harrison_Signature-2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="54" /></a></div> <img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_personal_coats_of_arms_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of personal coats of arms of presidents of the United States"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Coat_of_Arms_of_William_Henry_Harrison_and_Benjamin_Harrison.svg/40px-Coat_of_Arms_of_William_Henry_Harrison_and_Benjamin_Harrison.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Coat_of_Arms_of_William_Henry_Harrison_and_Benjamin_Harrison.svg/60px-Coat_of_Arms_of_William_Henry_Harrison_and_Benjamin_Harrison.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Coat_of_Arms_of_William_Henry_Harrison_and_Benjamin_Harrison.svg/80px-Coat_of_Arms_of_William_Henry_Harrison_and_Benjamin_Harrison.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="462" /></a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Benjamin_Harrison_series" title="Template:Benjamin Harrison series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Benjamin_Harrison_series" title="Template talk:Benjamin Harrison series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Benjamin_Harrison_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Benjamin Harrison series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a>'s term as the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president of the United States</a> lasted from March 4, 1889, until March 4, 1893. Harrison, a <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Republican_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Republican Party">Republican</a>, took office as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">23rd United States president</a> after defeating <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Democratic_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Democratic Party">Democratic</a> incumbent President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888 election</a>. Four years later he was defeated for re-election by Cleveland in the <a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892 presidential election</a>. Harrison and the Republican-controlled <a href="/wiki/51st_United_States_Congress" title="51st United States Congress">51st United States Congress</a> (derided by Democrats as the "Billion Dollar Congress") enacted the most ambitious domestic agenda of the late-nineteenth century. Hallmarks of his administration include the <a href="/wiki/McKinley_Tariff" title="McKinley Tariff">McKinley Tariff</a>, which imposed historic protective trade rates, and the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a>, which empowered the federal government to investigate and prosecute <a href="/wiki/Trust_(business)" title="Trust (business)">trusts</a>. Due in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs, federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term. Harrison facilitated the creation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Forest">National Forests</a> through an amendment to the <a href="/wiki/General_Revision_Act" title="General Revision Act">General Revision Act</a> (1891), and substantially strengthened and modernized the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a>. He proposed, in vain, federal education funding as well as <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">voting rights</a> enforcement for African Americans in the South. Harrison's presidency saw the addition of six new states, more than any other president. In foreign affairs, Harrison vigorously promoted American exports, sought tariff reciprocity in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, and worked to increase U.S. influence across the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Rim" title="Pacific Rim">Pacific</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Election_of_1888">Election of 1888</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Election of 1888">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harrison-Morton_1888.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Harrison-Morton_1888.jpg/220px-Harrison-Morton_1888.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Harrison-Morton_1888.jpg/330px-Harrison-Morton_1888.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Harrison-Morton_1888.jpg/440px-Harrison-Morton_1888.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Harrison–Morton campaign poster</figcaption></figure> The initial favorite for the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> nomination in the <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888 presidential election</a> was <a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">James G. Blaine</a>, the party's nominee in the <a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884 presidential election</a>. After Blaine wrote several letters denying any interest in the nomination, his supporters divided among other candidates, with <a href="/wiki/John_Sherman_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Sherman (politician)">John Sherman</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> as the leader among them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200547-1">[1]</a> Others, including <a href="/wiki/Chauncey_Depew" title="Chauncey Depew">Chauncey Depew</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alger" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell Alger">Russell Alger</a> of <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Q._Gresham" title="Walter Q. Gresham">Walter Q. Gresham</a>, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Seventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit">federal appellate judge</a>, also sought the delegates' support at the <a href="/wiki/1888_Republican_National_Convention" title="1888 Republican National Convention">1888 Republican National Convention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200547-1">[1]</a> Blaine did not publicly endorse any of the candidates as a successor; however, on March 1, 1888, he privately wrote that "the one man remaining who in my judgment can make the best one is <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter8-2">[2]</a> Harrison represented <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> from 1881 to 1887, but lost his 1886 bid for re-election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200545–46-3">[3]</a> In February 1888, Harrison announced his candidacy for the Republican presidential nomination, declaring himself a "living and rejuvenated Republican."<a href="#cite_note-BH-CE-4">[4]</a> He placed fifth on the first ballot at the 1888 Republican convention, with Sherman in the lead; the next few ballots showed little change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200550-5">[5]</a> The Blaine supporters shifted their support among different candidates, and when they shifted to Harrison, they found a candidate who could attract the votes of many other delegations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200551–52-6">[6]</a> Harrison was nominated as the party's presidential candidate on the eighth ballot, by a count of 544 to 108 votes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallace271-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Levi_P._Morton" title="Levi P. Morton">Levi P. Morton</a> of New York was chosen as his running mate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter9-8">[8]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1888.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/ElectoralCollege1888.svg/220px-ElectoralCollege1888.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/ElectoralCollege1888.svg/330px-ElectoralCollege1888.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/ElectoralCollege1888.svg/440px-ElectoralCollege1888.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>1888 electoral vote results</figcaption></figure> Harrison's opponent in the general election was incumbent President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a>. Harrison reprised the traditional <a href="/wiki/Front_porch_campaign" title="Front porch campaign">front-porch campaign</a>, which had been abandoned by Blaine in 1884. He received visiting delegations to <a href="/wiki/Indianapolis" title="Indianapolis">Indianapolis</a> and made more than ninety pronouncements from his home town; Cleveland made only one public campaign appearance.<a href="#cite_note-BH-CE-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter11-9">[9]</a> The Republicans campaigned in favor of <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">protective tariffs</a>, turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North. The election focused on the <a href="/wiki/Swing_state" title="Swing state">swing states</a> of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Harrison's home state of Indiana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter10-10">[10]</a> Harrison and Cleveland split these four states, with Harrison winning in New York and Indiana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200543Socolofsky_&_Spetter13-11">[11]</a> Voter turnout was 79.3%, reflecting a large interest in the campaign; nearly eleven million votes were cast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200557-12">[12]</a> Although he received approximately 90,000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland, Harrison won the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral College (United States)">electoral vote</a> 233 to 168.<a href="#cite_note-EV_1888-13">[13]</a> This was the third U.S. presidential election <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_which_the_winner_lost_the_popular_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="United States presidential elections in which the winner lost the popular vote">in which the winner lost the popular vote</a>. Although Harrison had made no political bargains, his supporters had given many pledges upon his behalf. When Boss <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Quay" title="Matthew Quay">Matthew Quay</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to <a href="/wiki/Divine_Providence" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Providence">Providence</a>, Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know "how close a number of men were compelled to approach...the penitentiary to make him president."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200555,_60-14">[14]</a> In the concurrent congressional elections, the Republicans increased their membership in the House of Representatives by nineteen seats, winning control of the chamber.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter14-15">[15]</a> The party also retained control of the Senate, giving one party unified <a href="/wiki/Party_divisions_of_United_States_Congresses" title="Party divisions of United States Congresses">control</a> of Congress and the presidency for the first time since the <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1874">1874 elections</a>. The Republican sweep allowed Harrison to pursue an ambitious legislative agenda in the resulting <a href="/wiki/51st_United_States_Congress" title="51st United States Congress">51st Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2002252-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inauguration">Inauguration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Inauguration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison">Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harrison-inauguration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Harrison-inauguration.jpg/220px-Harrison-inauguration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Harrison-inauguration.jpg/330px-Harrison-inauguration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Harrison-inauguration.jpg/440px-Harrison-inauguration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4173" data-file-height="3450" /></a><figcaption>Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison, March 4, 1889. Cleveland held Harrison's umbrella</figcaption></figure> Harrison was sworn into office on March 4, 1889, by <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Melville Fuller</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter1–2-17">[17]</a> At 5' 6" tall, he was only slightly taller than <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, the shortest president, but much heavier; he was also the fourth (and last) president to sport a full beard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter1-18">[18]</a> Harrison's inauguration ceremony took place during a rainstorm in <a href="/wiki/Washington_D.C." class="mw-redirect" title="Washington D.C.">Washington D.C.</a> Outgoing President Grover Cleveland attended the ceremony and held an umbrella over Harrison's head as he took the oath of office. Harrison's speech was brief – half as long as that of his grandfather, <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a>, whose speech holds the record for the longest inaugural address of a U.S. president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter1–2-17">[17]</a> In his speech, Benjamin Harrison credited the nation's growth to the influences of education and religion, urged the cotton states and mining territories to attain the industrial proportions of the eastern states, and promised a protective tariff. Concerning commerce, he said, "If our great corporations would more scrupulously observe their legal obligations and duties, they would have less call to complain of the limitations of their rights or of interference with their operations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter3-19">[19]</a> He called for the regulation of <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">safety laws</a> for railroad employees, aid to education, and funding for <a href="/wiki/Internal_improvements" title="Internal improvements">internal improvements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2002252-16">[16]</a> Harrison also urged early statehood for the <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">territories</a> and advocated pensions for veterans, a statement that was met with enthusiastic applause. In foreign affairs, Harrison reaffirmed the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> as a mainstay of foreign policy, while urging modernization of the Navy. He also gave his commitment to international peace through noninterference in the affairs of foreign governments.<a href="#cite_note-Benjamin_Harrison_Inauguration-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administration">Administration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Administration">edit</a>]</div> <table class="infobox" style="width:auto;text-align:left;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:1em; margin-right:0; float:right; clear:right;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="3" style="line-height:1.5em;font-size:110%;background:#DCDCDC;text-align:center">The Harrison cabinet</th></tr><tr><th>Office</th><th>Name</th><th>Term</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#000"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a></th><td>1889–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Levi_P._Morton" title="Levi P. Morton">Levi P. Morton</a></th><td>1889–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">James G. Blaine</a></th><td>1889–1892</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_W._Foster" title="John W. Foster">John W. Foster</a></th><td>1892–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_Windom" title="William Windom">William Windom</a></th><td>1889–1891</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Foster_(Ohio_politician)" title="Charles Foster (Ohio politician)">Charles Foster</a></th><td>1891–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Redfield_Proctor" title="Redfield Proctor">Redfield Proctor</a></th><td>1889–1891</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Elkins" title="Stephen B. Elkins">Stephen B. Elkins</a></th><td>1891–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_H._H._Miller" title="William H. H. Miller">William H. H. Miller</a></th><td>1889–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Wanamaker" title="John Wanamaker">John Wanamaker</a></th><td>1889–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_F._Tracy" title="Benjamin F. Tracy">Benjamin F. Tracy</a></th><td>1889–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Willock_Noble" title="John Willock Noble">John Willock Noble</a></th><td>1889–1893</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_M._Rusk" title="Jeremiah M. Rusk">Jeremiah M. Rusk</a></th><td>1889–1893</td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BHarrison_cabinet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/BHarrison_cabinet.jpg/220px-BHarrison_cabinet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/BHarrison_cabinet.jpg/330px-BHarrison_cabinet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/BHarrison_cabinet.jpg/440px-BHarrison_cabinet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption>Harrison's cabinet in 1889. Front (left to right): Harrison, <a href="/wiki/William_Windom" title="William Windom">William Windom</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wanamaker" title="John Wanamaker">John Wanamaker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Redfield_Proctor" title="Redfield Proctor">Redfield Proctor</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">James G. Blaine</a>; Back (left to right): <a href="/wiki/William_H._H._Miller" title="William H. H. Miller">William H. H. Miller</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Willock_Noble" title="John Willock Noble">John W. Noble</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_M._Rusk" title="Jeremiah M. Rusk">Jeremiah M. Rusk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_F._Tracy" title="Benjamin F. Tracy">Benjamin F. Tracy</a>.</figcaption></figure> Harrison's cabinet choices alienated pivotal Republican operatives from New York to Pennsylvania to Iowa and prematurely compromised his political power and future.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter22–30-21">[21]</a> Senator <a href="/wiki/Shelby_Cullom" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelby Cullom">Shelby Cullom</a>'s described Harrison's steadfast aversion to the use of federal positions for patronage, stating, "I suppose Harrison treated me as well as he did any other Senator; but whenever he did anything for me, it was done so ungraciously that the concession tended to anger rather than please."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter33-22">[22]</a> Harrison began the process of forming a cabinet by choosing to delay the nomination of James G. Blaine as Secretary of State. Harrison felt that Blaine had, as President <a href="/wiki/James_Garfield" class="mw-redirect" title="James Garfield">James Garfield</a>'s Secretary of State-designate, held too much power in choosing the personnel of the Garfield administration, and he sought to avoid a similar scenario.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter20–22-23">[23]</a> Despite this early snub, Blaine and Harrison found common ground on most major policy issues. Blaine played a major role in Harrison's administration,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter88-24">[24]</a> though Harrison made most of the major policy decisions in foreign affairs.<a href="#cite_note-online-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Socolofsky_&_Spetter,_p._111-27">[27]</a> Blaine served in the cabinet until 1892, when he resigned due to poor health. He was replaced by <a href="/wiki/John_W._Foster" title="John W. Foster">John W. Foster</a>, an experienced diplomat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter88-24">[24]</a> For the important position of Secretary of the Treasury, Harrison rejected <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._Platt" title="Thomas C. Platt">Thomas C. Platt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warner_Miller" title="Warner Miller">Warner Miller</a>, two powerful New York Republicans who fought for control of their state party. He instead selected <a href="/wiki/William_Windom" title="William Windom">William Windom</a>, a native Midwesterner who lived in New York and who had served in the same position under Garfield.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter23–24-28">[28]</a> New York Republicans were also represented in the cabinet by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_F._Tracy" title="Benjamin F. Tracy">Benjamin F. Tracy</a>, who was appointed Secretary of the Navy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter27–28-29">[29]</a> Former Governor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Foster_(Ohio_politician)" title="Charles Foster (Ohio politician)">Charles Foster</a> of Ohio succeeded Windom upon the latter's death in 1891.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter88-24">[24]</a> Postmaster General <a href="/wiki/John_Wanamaker" title="John Wanamaker">John Wanamaker</a> represented Pennsylvania Republicans, many of whom were disappointed that their state party did not receive a more prominent cabinet seat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter24–25-30">[30]</a> For the position of Secretary of the Agriculture, which had been established in the waning days of Cleveland's term, Harrison appointed Wisconsin Governor <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_M._Rusk" title="Jeremiah M. Rusk">Jeremiah M. Rusk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter26–27-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Willock_Noble" title="John Willock Noble">John Noble</a>, a railroad attorney with a reputation for incorruptibility, became the head of the scandal-plagued Department of the Interior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter27-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Redfield_Proctor" title="Redfield Proctor">Redfield Proctor</a>, a native of Vermont who had played a key role in Harrison's nomination, was rewarded with the position of Secretary of War. Proctor resigned in 1891 to take a Senate seat, at which point he was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Elkins" title="Stephen B. Elkins">Stephen B. Elkins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter27-32">[32]</a> Harrison's close friend and former law partner, <a href="/wiki/William_H._H._Miller" title="William H. H. Miller">William H. H. Miller</a>, became Attorney General.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter27–28-29">[29]</a> Harrison's normal schedule provided for two full cabinet meetings per week, as well as separate weekly one-on-one meetings with each cabinet member.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter85-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judicial_appointments">Judicial appointments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Judicial appointments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Benjamin_Harrison" title="List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison">List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DavidBrewer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/DavidBrewer.jpg/170px-DavidBrewer.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/DavidBrewer.jpg/255px-DavidBrewer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/DavidBrewer.jpg/340px-DavidBrewer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Harrison appointed four Supreme Court justices, including <a href="/wiki/David_Josiah_Brewer" class="mw-redirect" title="David Josiah Brewer">David Josiah Brewer</a>.</figcaption></figure> Harrison appointed four justices to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>. The first was <a href="/wiki/David_Josiah_Brewer" class="mw-redirect" title="David Josiah Brewer">David Josiah Brewer</a>, a judge on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit">Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit</a>. Brewer, the nephew of Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Johnson_Field" title="Stephen Johnson Field">Field</a>, had previously been considered for a cabinet position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter188–190-34">[34]</a> Shortly after Brewer's nomination, Justice <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Matthews_(judge)" title="Stanley Matthews (judge)">Matthews</a> died, creating another vacancy. Harrison had considered <a href="/wiki/Henry_Billings_Brown" title="Henry Billings Brown">Henry Billings Brown</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a> judge and <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">admiralty law</a> expert, for the first vacancy and now nominated him for the second.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter188–190-34">[34]</a> For the third vacancy, which arose in 1892, Harrison nominated <a href="/wiki/George_Shiras_Jr." title="George Shiras Jr.">George Shiras</a>. Shiras's appointment was somewhat controversial because his age—sixty—was older than usual for a newly appointed Justice, but he won Senate approval.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter188–190-34">[34]</a> Finally, at the end of his term, Harrison nominated <a href="/wiki/Howell_Edmunds_Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Howell Edmunds Jackson">Howell Edmunds Jackson</a> to replace Justice <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Quintus_Cincinnatus_Lamar_(II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar (II)">Lamar</a>, who died in January 1893. Harrison knew the incoming Senate would be controlled by Democrats, so he selected Jackson, a respected Tennessee Democrat with whom he was friendly, to ensure his nominee would not be rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter188–190-34">[34]</a> Jackson's nomination was indeed successful, but he died after only two years on the Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter188–190-34">[34]</a> The other Justices appointed by Harrison served past 1900, with Brewer the last to leave the Court, doing so upon his death in 1910. Harrison signed the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1891" title="Judiciary Act of 1891">Judiciary Act of 1891</a>, which abolished the <a href="/wiki/United_States_circuit_court" title="United States circuit court">United States circuit courts</a> and created the <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="United States courts of appeal">United States courts of appeal</a>. The act ended the practice of Supreme Court Justices "<a href="/wiki/Riding_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Riding circuit">riding circuit</a>." The end of that custom combined with the creation of permanent intermediate <a href="/wiki/Appellate_court" title="Appellate court">appellate courts</a> significantly reduced the workload faced by the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter189–190-35">[35]</a> Harrison <a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Benjamin_Harrison" title="List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison">appointed</a> ten judges to the courts of appeal, two judges to the circuit courts, and 26 judges to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">district courts</a>. Because Harrison was in office when Congress eliminated the circuit courts in favor of the courts of appeals, he and Grover Cleveland were the only two presidents to have appointed judges to both bodies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="States_admitted_to_the_Union">States admitted to the Union</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: States admitted to the Union">edit</a>]</div> More states were admitted during Harrison's presidency than any other. When Harrison took office, no new states had been <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">admitted to the Union</a> in more than a decade, owing to Congressional Democrats' reluctance to admit states that they believed would send Republican members. Seeking to bolster the party's majorities in the Senate, Republicans pushed bills admitting new states through the <a href="/wiki/Lame_duck_(politics)" title="Lame duck (politics)">lame duck</a> session of the <a href="/wiki/50th_United_States_Congress" title="50th United States Congress">50th Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite626–627-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> all became states in November 1889.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter44–45-37">[37]</a> The following July, <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> were also admitted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter44–45-37">[37]</a> These states collectively sent twelve Republican senators to the 51st Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite627-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antitrust_law">Antitrust law</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Antitrust law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_antitrust_law" title="History of United States antitrust law">History of United States antitrust law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John-Sherman-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/John-Sherman-2.jpg/170px-John-Sherman-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/John-Sherman-2.jpg/255px-John-Sherman-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/John-Sherman-2.jpg/340px-John-Sherman-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2986" data-file-height="3595" /></a><figcaption>Senator <a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">John Sherman</a> worked closely with Harrison, writing bills regulating <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">monopolies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act" title="Sherman Silver Purchase Act">monetary policy</a>.</figcaption></figure> Members of both parties were concerned with the growth and power of <a href="/wiki/Trust_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (19th century)">trusts</a>, which were business arrangements in which several competing companies combined to form one jointly-managed operation. Since the founding of <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a> in 1879, trusts created <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopolies</a> in several areas of production, including steel, sugar, whiskey, and tobacco. The Harrison administration worked with congressional leaders to propose and pass the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a>, one of the first major acts of the <a href="/wiki/51st_United_States_Congress" title="51st United States Congress">51st United States Congress</a>. The act specified that every "combination in the form of trust...in restraint of trade or commerce...is hereby declared to be illegal."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpetter2016300–302-39">[39]</a> Along with the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a>, the Sherman Act represented one of the first major federal steps taken by the federal government to regulate the economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpetter2016300–302-39">[39]</a> Harrison approved of the law and its intent, but his administration was not particularly vigorous in enforcing it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter54Calhoun_200594-40">[40]</a> The Department of Justice was generally too understaffed to pursue complex <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">antitrust</a> cases, and enforcement was further hampered by the vague language of the act and narrow interpretation of judges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter54–55-41">[41]</a> Despite these hindrances, the government successfully concluded one case during Harrison's time in office (against a Tennessee coal company), and initiated several other cases against trusts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter54Calhoun_200594-40">[40]</a> The relatively limited enforcement powers and the Supreme Court's narrow interpretation of the law would eventually inspire passage of the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpetter301–302-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tariff">Tariff</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tariff">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">Tariffs</a> accounted for 60 percent of federal revenue in 1889, and were a major source of political debate in the <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite631–632-43">[43]</a> Along with a stable currency, high tariffs were the central aspect of Harrison's economic policy, since he believed that they protected domestic manufacturing jobs against cheap, imported goods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_1993661-44">[44]</a> The high tariff rates had created a surplus of money in the Treasury, which led many Democrats, as well as the growing <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(United_States)" title="People's Party (United States)">Populist</a> movement, to call for lowering them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter49-45">[45]</a> Most Republicans, however, preferred to spend the budget surplus on <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">internal improvements</a> and eliminate some internal taxes. They saw their victory in the 1888 election as a mandate to raise tariff rates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter46–49-46">[46]</a> Harrison took an active role in the tariff debate, hosting dinner parties in which he would cajole members of Congress for their support of a new tariff bill.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2002252-16">[16]</a> Representative <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/Nelson_W._Aldrich" title="Nelson W. Aldrich">Nelson W. Aldrich</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/McKinley_Tariff" title="McKinley Tariff">McKinley Tariff</a>, which would raise the tariff and make some rates intentionally prohibitive so as to discourage imports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005100–104Socolofsky_&_Spetter51–52-47">[47]</a> At Secretary of State James Blaine's urging, Harrison attempted to make the tariff by adding <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(international_relations)" title="Reciprocity (international relations)">reciprocity</a> provisions, which would allow the president to reduce rates when other countries reduced their own tariffs on American exports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter51-48">[48]</a> The reciprocity features of the bill delegated an unusually high amount of power to the president for the time, as the president was granted the power to unilaterally modify tariff rates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter51-48">[48]</a> The tariff was removed from imported raw <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, and sugar growers in the United States were given a two cent per pound subsidy on their production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005100–104Socolofsky_&_Spetter51–52-47">[47]</a> Congress passed the bill after Republican leaders won the votes of Western senators through passage of the Sherman Antitrust Act and other concessions, and Harrison signed the McKinley Tariff into law in October 1890.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite632–633-49">[49]</a> The Harrison administration negotiated more than a dozen reciprocity agreements with European and Latin American nations in an attempt to expand U.S. trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter51–52-50">[50]</a> Even with the reductions and reciprocity, the McKinley Tariff enacted the highest average rate in American history, and the spending associated with it contributed to the reputation of the "<a href="/wiki/51st_United_States_Congress" title="51st United States Congress">Billion-Dollar Congress</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter51-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Currency">Currency</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Currency">edit</a>]</div> One of the most volatile questions of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by <a href="/wiki/Bimetallism" title="Bimetallism">gold and silver</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold alone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200594–95-51">[51]</a> Owing to worldwide <a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">deflation</a> in the late 19th century, a strict gold standard had resulted in reduction of incomes without the equivalent reduction in debts, pushing debtors and the poor to call for silver coinage as an inflationary measure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200594–95Socolofsky_&_Spetter55–59-52">[52]</a> Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation's gold supply.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200594–95Socolofsky_&_Spetter55–59-52">[52]</a> The issue cut across party lines, with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200594–95Socolofsky_&_Spetter55–59-52">[52]</a> The silver coinage issue had not been much discussed in the 1888 campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter53-53">[53]</a> Harrison attempted to steer a middle course between the two positions, advocating a free coinage of silver, but at its own value, not at a fixed ratio to gold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter58Calhoun_200596-54">[54]</a> Congress did not adopt Harrison's proposal, but in July 1890, Senator Sherman won passage of the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act" title="Sherman Silver Purchase Act">Sherman Silver Purchase Act</a>. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act increased the amount of silver the government was required to purchase on a recurrent monthly basis to 4.5 million ounces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter58–59Calhoun_200596-55">[55]</a> Believing that the bill would end the controversy over silver, Harrison signed the bill into law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter59-56">[56]</a> The effect of the bill, however, was the increased depletion of the nation's gold supply, a problem that would persist until after Harrison left office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter60-57">[57]</a> The bill and the silver debate also split the Republican Party, leading to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Silver_Republican_Party" title="Silver Republican Party">Silver Republicans</a>, an influential bloc of Western Congressmen who backed the free coinage of silver.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter57–60-58">[58]</a> Many of these Silver Republicans would later join the Democratic Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter57–60-58">[58]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_service_reform_and_pensions">Civil service reform and pensions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Civil service reform and pensions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harrison_Football_Political_Cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Harrison_Football_Political_Cartoon.jpg/250px-Harrison_Football_Political_Cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Harrison_Football_Political_Cartoon.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="222" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Political_football" title="Political football">Political football</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil service</a> reform was a prominent issue following Harrison's election. Harrison had campaigned as a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Merit_system" title="Merit system">merit system</a>, as opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">spoils system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter32-59">[59]</a> Although the passage of the 1883 <a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Act</a> had decreased the role of patronage in assigning government positions, Harrison spent much of his first months in office deciding on political appointments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter32–36-60">[60]</a> Congress was severely divided on civil service reform and Harrison was reluctant to address the issue for fear of alienating either side. The issue became a <a href="/wiki/Political_football" title="Political football">political football</a> of the time and was immortalized in a cartoon captioned "What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore_&_Hale83,_86-61">[61]</a> Harrison appointed <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Smith_Thompson" title="Hugh Smith Thompson">Hugh Smith Thompson</a>, both reformers, to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission" title="United States Civil Service Commission">Civil Service Commission</a>, but otherwise did little to further the reform cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter39–41-62">[62]</a> Harrison largely ignored Roosevelt, who frequently called for an expansion of the merit system and complained about the administration of Postmaster General Wanamaker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter39–41-62">[62]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Billion_dollar_Congress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Billion_dollar_Congress.jpg/220px-Billion_dollar_Congress.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Billion_dollar_Congress.jpg/330px-Billion_dollar_Congress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Billion_dollar_Congress.jpg/440px-Billion_dollar_Congress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="685" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> and the Congress are portrayed as a "Billion-Dollar Congress," wasting the surplus in this cartoon from <a href="/wiki/Puck_(magazine)" title="Puck (magazine)">Puck</a>.</figcaption></figure> Harrison's solution to the growing surplus in the federal treasury was to increase pensions for Civil War veterans, the great majority of whom were Republicans. He presided over the enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_Disability_Pension_Act" title="Dependent and Disability Pension Act">Dependent and Disability Pension Act</a>, a cause he had championed while in Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter36–37Calhoun_200572–73-63">[63]</a> In addition to providing pensions to disabled <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> veterans (regardless of the cause of their disability), the act depleted some of the troublesome federal budget surplus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter36–37Calhoun_200572–73-63">[63]</a> Pension expenditures reached $135 million under Harrison, the largest expenditure of its kind to that point in American history, partly contributed to by <a href="/wiki/Pension_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Pension Bureau">Pension Bureau</a> commissioner <a href="/wiki/James_R._Tanner" title="James R. Tanner">James R. Tanner</a>'s expansive interpretation of the pension laws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter36–37Calhoun_200572–73-63">[63]</a> An investigation into the Pension Bureau by Secretary of the Interior Noble found evidence of lavish and illegal handouts under Tanner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams193-64">[64]</a> Harrison, who privately believed that appointing Tanner had been a mistake due to his apparent loose management style and tongue, asked Tanner to resign and replaced him with <a href="/wiki/Green_Berry_Raum" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Berry Raum">Green B. Raum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter34–36-65">[65]</a> Raum was also accused of accepting loan payments in return for expediting pension cases, but Harrison, having accepted a dissenting Congressional Republican investigation report that exonerated Raum, kept him in office for the rest of his administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams193–194-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_rights">Civil rights</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Civil rights">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Benjamin_Harrison_on_ship.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/President_Benjamin_Harrison_on_ship.jpg/220px-President_Benjamin_Harrison_on_ship.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/President_Benjamin_Harrison_on_ship.jpg/330px-President_Benjamin_Harrison_on_ship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/President_Benjamin_Harrison_on_ship.jpg/440px-President_Benjamin_Harrison_on_ship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="842" /></a><figcaption>Harrison with Secretary Blaine and Representative <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>, 1889</figcaption></figure> In violation of the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment</a>, many Southern states denied African-Americans the right to vote.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter60–61-67">[67]</a> Convinced that the <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">"lily-white policy"</a> of attempting to attract white Southerners to the Republican Party had failed, and believing that the disenfranchisement of African-American voters was immoral, Harrison endorsed the <a href="/wiki/Lodge_Bill" title="Lodge Bill">Federal Elections Bill</a>. The bill, written by Representative <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/George_Frisbie_Hoar" class="mw-redirect" title="George Frisbie Hoar">George Frisbie Hoar</a>, would have provided federal oversight over elections for the U.S. House of Representatives. Southern opponents of the bill labeled it the "Force Bill," claiming that it would allow the U.S. Army to enforce voting rights, although the law did not contain such a provision. The bill passed the House in July 1890 on a largely party-line vote, but a vote on the bill was delayed in the Senate after Republican leaders chose to focus on the tariff and other priorities. In January 1891, the Senate voted 35–34 to table consideration of the Federal Elections Bill in favor of an unrelated bill backed by the Silver Republicans, and the bill never passed. While many Republicans had supported the Federal Elections Bill, it faced opposition from city-machine party bosses who feared oversight in their own wards; other Republicans were willing to sacrifice the bill to focus on other priorities. The bill represented the last significant federal attempt to protect African-American civil rights until the 1930s, and its failure allowed Southern states to pass <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>, resulting in the near-complete disenfranchisement of Southern blacks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter61–65-68">[68]</a> Following the failure to pass the bill, Harrison continued to speak in favor of African American civil rights in addresses to Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter65-69">[69]</a> Attorney General Miller conducted prosecutions for violation of voting rights in the South, but white juries often refused to convict or indict violators.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200589–90-70">[70]</a> He argued that if the states have authority over civil rights, then "we have a right to ask whether they are at work upon it."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson32–33-71">[71]</a> Harrison also supported a bill proposed by Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Blair" title="Henry W. Blair">Henry W. Blair</a>, which would have granted federal funding to schools regardless of the students' races.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter65–67-72">[72]</a> Though similar bills had garnered strong Republican support during the 1880s, Blair's bill was defeated in the Senate in 1890 after several Republicans voted against it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter67–69-73">[73]</a> Harrison also endorsed an unsuccessful constitutional amendment to overturn the Supreme Court's holding in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a>, which had declared much of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a> unconstitutional, but no action was taken on such an amendment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200589–90Smith170-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1890_midterm_elections">1890 midterm elections</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1890 midterm elections">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1890_United_States_elections" title="1890 United States elections">1890 United States elections</a></div> By the end of the 51st Congress, Harrison and the Republican-controlled allies had passed one of the most ambitious peacetime domestic legislative programs in U.S. history,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2002253-75">[75]</a> but the results of the 1890 elections brought the pace of legislation to a sudden halt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter75-76">[76]</a> Republicans lost almost 100 seats in the House of Representatives, and Democrat <a href="/wiki/Charles_Frederick_Crisp" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Frederick Crisp">Charles Frederick Crisp</a> replaced <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brackett_Reed" title="Thomas Brackett Reed">Thomas Brackett Reed</a> as <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker of the House</a>. However, Republicans defended their Senate majority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005107–109-77">[77]</a> The 1890 elections also saw the rise of the Populist Party, a <a href="/wiki/Third_party_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Third party (United States)">third party</a> consisting of farmers in the South and Midwest. The Populists emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_Alliance" title="Farmers' Alliance">Farmers' Alliance</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_Labor" title="Knights of Labor">Knights of Labor</a>, and other agrarian reform movements. The party favored bimetallism, the restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Greenback_(1860s_money)" title="Greenback (1860s money)">Greenback</a>, the nationalization of telegraphs and railroads, tax reform, the abolition of national banks, and other policies. The party's newfound popularity was driven in part by opposition to the McKinley Tariff, which many regarded as benefiting industrialists at the expense of other groups. Many Populists in the Midwest left the Republican Party, while in the South, Populist-aligned candidates generally remained part of the Democratic Party. The split of the Republican vote allowed for the rise of Democrats in the Midwest, including future presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> of Nebraska.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite649–654-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_forests">National forests</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: National forests">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Conservation in the United States">Conservation in the United States</a></div> In March 1891 Congress enacted and Harrison signed the <a href="/wiki/Land_Revision_Act_of_1891" class="mw-redirect" title="Land Revision Act of 1891">Land Revision Act of 1891</a>. This legislation resulted from a bipartisan desire to initiate <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">reclamation</a> of surplus lands that had been, up to that point, granted from the public domain, for potential settlement or use by railroad syndicates. As the law's drafting was finalized, Section 24 was added at the behest of Harrison by his Secretary of the Interior John Noble, which read as follows: <blockquote>That the President of the United States may, from time to time, set apart and reserve, in any State or Territory having public land bearing forests, in any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not, as public reservations, and the President shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter71-79">[79]</a></blockquote> Within a month of the enactment of this law Harrison authorized the first forest reserve, to be located on public domain adjacent to Yellowstone Park, in Wyoming. Other areas were so designated by Harrison, bringing the first forest reservations total to 22 million acres in his term.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter72-80">[80]</a> Harrison was also the first to give a prehistoric Indian Ruin, Casa Grande in Arizona, federal protection.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native_American_policy">Native American policy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Native American policy">edit</a>]</div> During Harrison's administration, the <a href="/wiki/Lakota_Sioux" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakota Sioux">Lakota Sioux</a>, previously confined to reservations in South Dakota, grew restive under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Wovoka" title="Wovoka">Wovoka</a>, a medicine man, who encouraged them to participate in a spiritual movement called the <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter106-82">[82]</a> Many in Washington did not understand the predominantly religious nature of the Ghost Dance, and thought it was a militant movement being used to rally Native Americans against the government. In reality, however, there were only about 4,200 ghost dancers, most of whom were women, children, and the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-:0-83">[83]</a> In November 1890, Harrison himself ordered troops to Pine Ridge in order to prevent "any outbreak that may put in peril the lives and homes of the settlers of the adjacent states". The arrival of troops increased tensions on both sides, and the natives felt threatened.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-83">[83]</a> On December 29, 1890, troops from the <a href="/wiki/7th_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="7th Cavalry Regiment (United States)">Seventh Cavalry</a> clashed with the Sioux at <a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Massacre" title="Wounded Knee Massacre">Wounded Knee</a>. The result was a massacre of at least 146 Sioux, including many women and children;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore_&_Hale121–122Socolofsky_&_Spetter106–107-85">[85]</a> the dead Sioux were buried in a mass grave.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore_&_Hale121-86">[86]</a> In reaction Harrison directed Major General <a href="/wiki/Nelson_A._Miles" title="Nelson A. Miles">Nelson A. Miles</a> to investigate and ordered 3500 federal troops to South Dakota; the uprising was brought to an end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter106-82">[82]</a> Afterwards, Harrison would honor the 7th Cavalry, and 20 soldiers received medals for their role in the massacre.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Wounded Knee is considered the last major American Indian battle in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore_&_Hale121–122-88">[88]</a> Harrison's general policy on American Indians was to encourage assimilation into white society and, despite the massacre, he believed the policy to have been generally successful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter92-89">[89]</a> This policy, known as the <a href="/wiki/Allotment_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotment Era">allotment system</a> and embodied in the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Severalty_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawes Severalty Act">Dawes Act</a>, was favored by liberal reformers at the time, but eventually proved detrimental to American Indians as they sold most of their land at low prices to white speculators.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005112–114Stuart452–454-90">[90]</a> Soon after taking office, Harrison signed an appropriations bill that opened parts of <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> to white settlement. The territory had been established earlier in the 19th century for the resettlement of the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>," and portions of the territory known as the <a href="/wiki/Unassigned_Lands" title="Unassigned Lands">Unassigned Lands</a> had not yet been granted to any tribe. In the <a href="/wiki/Land_Rush_of_1889" title="Land Rush of 1889">Land Rush of 1889</a>, 50,000 settlers moved into the Unassigned Lands to establish land claims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite637–639-91">[91]</a> In the 1890 <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Organic_Act" title="Oklahoma Organic Act">Oklahoma Organic Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory" title="Oklahoma Territory">Oklahoma Territory</a> was created out of the western half of Indian Territory. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Federal_immigration_control_and_Ellis_Island">Federal immigration control and Ellis Island</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Federal immigration control and Ellis Island">edit</a>]</div> In 1890, President Harrison approved the assumption of federal control over immigration, ending the previous policy of leaving it to the states to regulate. Further, in 1891, he signed into law the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1891" title="Immigration Act of 1891">Immigration Act</a> of March 3, creating a federal immigration agency in the Treasury Department, establishing regulations on the type of aliens to be admitted and those for whom admission was to be barred, and funding the construction of the first federal immigration station on <a href="/wiki/Ellis_Island" title="Ellis Island">Ellis Island</a>, in New York harbor, the nation's busiest port for arriving immigrants. Funding also provided for smaller immigration facilities at other port cities, including Boston, Philadelphia and Baltimore. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_and_military_modernization">Technology and military modernization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Technology and military modernization">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Texas2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/USS_Texas2.jpg/250px-USS_Texas2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/USS_Texas2.jpg/375px-USS_Texas2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/USS_Texas2.jpg/500px-USS_Texas2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7147" data-file-height="5290" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/USS_Texas_(1892)" title="USS Texas (1892)">USS Texas</a>, America's first battleship, built in 1892</figcaption></figure> During Harrison's time in office, the United States was continuing to experience advances in science and technology, and Harrison was the earliest president whose voice is known to be preserved. That <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/95\/Benjamin_Harrison_speech.ogg\/Benjamin_Harrison_speech.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"thirty-six-second recording"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Benjamin Harrison speech.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/Benjamin_Harrison_speech.ogg/Benjamin_Harrison_speech.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">thirty-six-second recording</a><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Harrison_speech.ogg" title="File:Benjamin Harrison speech.ogg">ⓘ</a> was originally made on a wax <a href="/wiki/Phonograph_cylinder" title="Phonograph cylinder">phonograph cylinder</a> in 1889 by <a href="/wiki/Gianni_Bettini" title="Gianni Bettini">Gianni Bettini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Vincent_Voice_Library-92">[92]</a> Harrison also had electricity installed in the White House for the first time by <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">Edison General Electric Company</a>, but he and his wife would not touch the light switches for fear of electrocution and would often go to sleep with the lights on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore_&_Hale96-93">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> fell into obsolescence following the Civil War, though reform and expansion had begun under President <a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter95-94">[94]</a> When Harrison took office there were only two commissioned warships in the Navy. In his inaugural address he said, "construction of a sufficient number of warships and their necessary armaments should progress as rapidly as is consistent with care and perfection."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter97-95">[95]</a> Harrison's support for naval expansion was aided and encouraged by several naval officers, who argued that the navy would be useful for protecting American trade projecting American power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter95–96-96">[96]</a> In 1890, Captain <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan" title="Alfred Thayer Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a> published <a href="/wiki/The_Influence_of_Sea_Power_upon_History" title="The Influence of Sea Power upon History">The Influence of Sea Power upon History</a>, an influential work of naval strategy that called for naval expansion; Harrison strongly endorsed it, and Mahan was restored to his position of <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Naval_War_College" title="President of the Naval War College">President of the Naval War College</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter96–97-97">[97]</a> Secretary of the Navy Tracy spearheaded the rapid construction of vessels, and within a year congressional approval was obtained for building of the warships <a href="/wiki/USS_Indiana_(BB-1)" title="USS Indiana (BB-1)">Indiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Texas_(1892)" title="USS Texas (1892)">Texas</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Oregon_(BB-3)" title="USS Oregon (BB-3)">Oregon</a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Columbia_(C-12)" title="USS Columbia (C-12)">Columbia</a>. By 1898, with the help of the Carnegie Corporation, no less than ten modern warships, including steel hulls and greater displacements and armaments, had transformed the United States into a legitimate naval power. Seven of these had begun during the Harrison term.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter102-98">[98]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> had also been largely neglected since the Civil War, despite the continuing <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a>. When Harrison took office, there were roughly 28,000 officers and enlisted men, and much of the equipment was inferior to that of European armies. Secretary of War Proctor sought to institute several reforms, including an improved diet and the granting of <a href="/wiki/Furlough" title="Furlough">furloughs</a>, resulting in a decline of the desertion rate. Promotions for officers began to be granted based on the branch of service rather than on a regimental basis, and those subject to promotion were required to pass examinations. The Harrison administration also re-established the position of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Assistant Secretary of War">United States Assistant Secretary of War</a> to serve as the second-ranking member of the War Department. Harrison's reform efforts halved the desertion rate, but otherwise the army remained in largely the same state at the end of his tenure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter103–108-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standardization_of_place_names">Standardization of place names</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Standardization of place names">edit</a>]</div> By executive order, Harrison established the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Board_on_Geographic_Names" title="United States Board on Geographic Names">Board on Geographical Names</a> in 1890.<a href="#cite_note-eo28-100">[100]</a> The board was tasked with standardizing the spelling of the names of communities and municipalities within the United States; most towns with <a href="/wiki/Apostrophe" title="Apostrophe">apostrophes</a> or plurals as part of their names were rewritten as singular (e.g. Weston's Mills became <a href="/wiki/Weston_Mills,_New_York" title="Weston Mills, New York">Weston Mills</a>)<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> and places that ended in "burgh" were truncated to end in "burg." In <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Pittsburgh#Federal_abandonment_and_readoption_of_the_'h'" title="Name of Pittsburgh">one particularly controversial case</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a> in Pennsylvania was shortened to Pittsburg, only for the decision to be reversed 20 years later after local residents continued to use the "Pittsburgh" spelling.<a href="#cite_note-stewart-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Foreign policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897</a></div> Harrison appreciated the forces of nationalism and imperialism which were inevitably pulling the United States onward into playing a more important part in world affairs as it grew rapidly in financial and economic prowess. While the ineffective diplomatic corps was still mired in patronage, the rapidly growing consular service vigorously promoted commerce abroad.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In a speech in 1891, Harrison proclaimed that the United States was in a "new epoch" of trade and that the expanding navy would protect oceanic shipping and increase American influence and prestige abroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005119–121-104">[104]</a> The increasing importance of the United States in world affairs was reflected in the act of Congress in 1893 which raised the rank of the most important diplomatic representatives abroad from minister plenipotentiary to ambassador.<a href="#cite_note-online-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Socolofsky_&_Spetter,_p._111-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Latin America">edit</a>]</div> Harrison and Blaine agreed on an ambitious foreign policy that emphasized commercial reciprocity with other nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200574–76-105">[105]</a> Their goal was to replace Britain as the dominant commercial power in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Latin America–United States relations">Latin America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter117–118-106">[106]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_International_Conference_of_American_States" title="First International Conference of American States">First International Conference of American States</a> met in Washington in 1889; Harrison set an aggressive agenda including customs and currency integration and named a bipartisan conference delegation led by <a href="/wiki/John_B._Henderson" title="John B. Henderson">John B. Henderson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a>. Though the conference failed to achieve any diplomatic breakthrough, it did succeed in establishing an information center that became the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Pan American Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore_&_Hale108-107">[107]</a> In response to the diplomatic bust, Harrison and Blaine pivoted diplomatically and initiated a crusade for tariff reciprocity with Latin American nations; the Harrison administration concluded eight reciprocity treaties among these countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter117–120-108">[108]</a> The Harrison administration did not pursue reciprocity with Canada, as Harrison and Blaine believed that Canada was an integral part of the British economic bloc and could never be integrated into a trade system dominated by the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> On another front, Harrison sent <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> as ambassador to <a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a>, but failed in his attempts to establish a naval base there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter126–128-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samoa">Samoa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Samoa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Samoan_crisis" title="Samoan crisis">Samoan crisis</a></div> By 1889, the United States, Great Britain and Germany were locked in an escalating <a href="/wiki/Samoan_crisis" title="Samoan crisis">dispute</a> over control of the <a href="/wiki/Samoan_Islands" title="Samoan Islands">Samoan Islands</a> in the Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The dispute had started in 1887 when the Germans tried to establish control over the island chain and President Cleveland responded by sending three naval vessels to defend the Samoan government. American and German warships faced off but all were badly damaged by the <a href="/wiki/1889_Apia_cyclone" title="1889 Apia cyclone">1889 Apia cyclone</a> of March 15–17, 1889.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Seeking to improve relations with Britain and the United States, German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_Von_Bismarck" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Von Bismarck">Otto Von Bismarck</a> convened a conference in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. Delegates from the three countries agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1889)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1889)">Treaty of Berlin</a>, which established a three-power protectorate in Samoa. Historian George H. Ryden argues that Harrison played a key role in determining the status of this Pacific outpost by taking a firm stand on every aspect of Samoa conference negotiations; this included selection of the local ruler, refusal to allow an indemnity for Germany, as well as the establishment of the three-power protectorate, a first for the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter114–116-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> A serious long-term result was an American distrust of Germany's foreign policy after Bismarck was forced out in 1890.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_embargo_of_U.S._pork">European embargo of U.S. pork</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: European embargo of U.S. pork">edit</a>]</div> In response to vague reports of <a href="/wiki/Trichinosis" title="Trichinosis">trichinosis</a> that supposedly originated with American hogs, Germany and nine other European countries imposed a ban on importation of United States pork in the 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> At issue was over 1.3 billion pounds of pork products in 1880 with a value of $100 million annually.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Harrison persuaded Congress to enact the Meat Inspection Act of 1890 to guarantee the quality of the export product, and ordered Agriculture Secretary <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_McLain_Rusk" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeremiah McLain Rusk">Jeremiah McLain Rusk</a> to threaten Germany with retaliation by initiating an embargo against Germany's popular beet sugar. That proved decisive, and in September 1891 Germany relented; other nations soon followed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter131–136-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crises_in_Aleutian_Islands_and_Chile">Crises in Aleutian Islands and Chile</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Crises in Aleutian Islands and Chile">edit</a>]</div> The first international crisis Harrison faced arose from disputed fishing rights on the <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaskan</a> coast. After Canada claimed fishing and <a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">sealing</a> rights around many of the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>, the U.S. Navy seized several Canadian ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter137–138-122">[122]</a> In 1891, the administration began negotiations with the British that would eventually lead to a compromise over fishing rights after international arbitration, with the British government paying compensation in 1898.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore_&_Hale135–136Socolofsky_&_Spetter139–143-123">[123]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uss_baltimore_c-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Uss_baltimore_c-3.jpg/300px-Uss_baltimore_c-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Uss_baltimore_c-3.jpg/450px-Uss_baltimore_c-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Uss_baltimore_c-3.jpg/600px-Uss_baltimore_c-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="391" /></a><figcaption>Attack on sailors from the <a href="/wiki/USS_Baltimore_(C-3)" title="USS Baltimore (C-3)">USS Baltimore</a> spawned the 1891 Chilean crisis.</figcaption></figure> In 1891, a new diplomatic crisis, known as the <a href="/wiki/Baltimore_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltimore Crisis">Baltimore Crisis</a>, emerged in <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>. The American minister to Chile, <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Egan_(land_reformer_and_diplomat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrick Egan (land reformer and diplomat)">Patrick Egan</a>, granted asylum to Chileans who were seeking refuge during the <a href="/wiki/1891_Chilean_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1891 Chilean Civil War">1891 Chilean Civil War</a>. Egan, previously a militant Irish immigrant to the U.S., was motivated by a personal desire to thwart Great Britain's influence in Chile.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter146-124">[124]</a> The crisis began in earnest when sailors from the <a href="/wiki/USS_Baltimore_(C-3)" title="USS Baltimore (C-3)">USS Baltimore</a> took <a href="/wiki/Shore_leave" title="Shore leave">shore leave</a> in <a href="/wiki/Valparaiso" class="mw-redirect" title="Valparaiso">Valparaiso</a> and a fight ensued, resulting in the deaths of two American sailors and the arrest of three dozen others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005127-125">[125]</a> The Baltimore's captain, Winfield Schley, based on the nature of the sailors' wounds, insisted the sailors had been bayonet-attacked by Chilean police without provocation. With Blaine incapacitated, Harrison drafted a demand for reparations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005128–129Socolofsky_&_Spetter147–149-126">[126]</a> The Chilean Minister of Foreign Affairs replied that Harrison's message was "erroneous or deliberately incorrect," and said that the Chilean government was treating the affair the same as any other criminal matter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005128–129Socolofsky_&_Spetter147–149-126">[126]</a> Tensions increased to the brink of war – Harrison threatened to break off diplomatic relations unless the United States received a suitable apology, and said the situation required "grave and patriotic consideration". The president also remarked, "If the dignity as well as the prestige and influence of the United States are not to be wholly sacrificed, we must protect those who in foreign ports display the flag or wear the colors."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter151-127">[127]</a> A recuperated Blaine made brief conciliatory overtures to the Chilean government which had no support in the administration; he then reversed course and joined the chorus for unconditional concessions and apology by the Chileans. The Chileans ultimately obliged, and war was averted. Theodore Roosevelt later applauded Harrison for his use of the "big stick" in the matter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore_&_Hale134-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter150–151-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Annexation_of_Hawaii">Annexation of Hawaii</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Annexation of Hawaii">edit</a>]</div> The United States had reached a reciprocity treaty with <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> in 1875, and since had then had blocked Japanese and British efforts to take control of the Hawaii. Harrison sought to annex the country, which held a strategic position in the Pacific Ocean,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter200–201-130">[130]</a> and hosted a growing sugar business controlled by American settlers.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Following <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii">a coup d'état</a> against Queen <a href="/wiki/Liliuokalani" class="mw-redirect" title="Liliuokalani">Liliuokalani</a>, the new government of Hawaii led by <a href="/wiki/Sanford_B._Dole" title="Sanford B. Dole">Sanford Dole</a> petitioned for annexation by the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter204–205-134">[134]</a> Harrison was interested in expanding American influence in Hawaii and in establishing a naval base at <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a>, but had not previously expressed an opinion on annexing the islands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005125–126-135">[135]</a> The United States <a href="/wiki/Consul_(representative)" title="Consul (representative)">consul</a> in Hawaii recognized the new Hawaiian government on February 1, 1893, and forwarded their proposal of annexation to Washington. With just one month left before leaving office, the administration signed the annexation treaty on February 14 and submitted it to the Senate the next day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter204–205-134">[134]</a> The Senate failed to act, and President Cleveland withdrew the treaty shortly after taking office later that year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005132Moore_&_Hale147-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vacations_and_travel">Vacations and travel</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Vacations and travel">edit</a>]</div> The Harrisons made many trips out of the capital, which included speeches at most stops – including Philadelphia, New England, Indianapolis and Chicago. The president typically made his best impression speaking before large audiences, as opposed to more intimate settings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter157-137">[137]</a> The most notable of his presidential trips was a five-week tour of the west in the spring of 1891, aboard a lavishly outfitted train.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter171-138">[138]</a> Harrison enjoyed a number of short trips out of the capital—usually for hunting—to nearby Virginia or Maryland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter166-139">[139]</a> During the hot Washington summers, the Harrisons took refuge in <a href="/wiki/Deer_Park,_Maryland" title="Deer Park, Maryland">Deer Park, Maryland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_May_Point" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape May Point">Cape May Point</a>, New Jersey. In 1890, Postmaster General Wanamaker joined with other Philadelphia devotees of the Harrisons and made a gift to them of a summer cottage at Cape May. Harrison, though appreciative, was uncomfortable with the appearance of impropriety; a month later, he paid Wanamaker $10,000 as reimbursement to the donors. Nevertheless, Harrison's opponents made the gift the subject of national ridicule, and Mrs. Harrison and the president were vigorously criticized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter168-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Election_of_1892">Election of 1892</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Election of 1892">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892 United States presidential election</a></div> By 1892, the treasury surplus had evaporated and the nation's economic health was worsening – precursors to the eventual <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005107,_126–127-141">[141]</a> Although Harrison had cooperated with Congressional Republicans on legislation, several party leaders withdrew their support due to discontent over Harrison's appointments. Matthew Quay, Thomas Platt, and Thomas Reed quietly organized the Grievance Committee, the ambition of which was to initiate a dump-Harrison offensive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter81-142">[142]</a> Many of Harrison's detractors persisted in pushing for an incapacitated Blaine, though he announced that he was not a candidate in February 1892.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005134–137-143">[143]</a> Some party leaders still hoped to draft Blaine into running, and speculation increased when he resigned at the 11th hour as Secretary of State in June.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005138–139-144">[144]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/1892_Republican_National_Convention" title="1892 Republican National Convention">convention</a> in <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis" title="Minneapolis">Minneapolis</a>, Harrison prevailed on the first ballot, but encountered significant opposition, with Blaine and William McKinley both receiving votes on the lone ballot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005140–141-145">[145]</a> At the convention, Vice President Morton was dropped from the ticket, and was replaced by Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Whitelaw_Reid" title="Whitelaw Reid">Whitelaw Reid</a>. The Democrats renominated former President Cleveland, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier. The tariff revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that many voters had begun to favor lowering the tariff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005147–150-146">[146]</a> The Populist Party held its first national convention in July, nominating a presidential ticket led by former Congressman <a href="/wiki/James_B._Weaver" title="James B. Weaver">James Weaver</a> of Iowa. The convention adopted the <a href="/wiki/Omaha_Platform" title="Omaha Platform">Omaha Platform</a>, which called for free silver, the reintroduction of Greenbacks, a graduated <a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Income tax in the United States">income tax</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">eight-hour work day</a>, the direct election of senators, and the nationalization of railroads. Many traditionally Republican Westerners defected to Weaver, but the party failed to galvanize its supporters in the South, with the exception of North Carolina.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite748–751-147">[147]</a> The effects of the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/Homestead_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Homestead Strike">Homestead Strike</a> and other strikes split the Republicans, as many Northern laborers defected to the Democratic Party. Cleveland's opposition to high tariffs throughout his career benefited his 1892 campaign, and Democrats attacked Republicans as the party of big business.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite752–754-148">[148]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1892.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ElectoralCollege1892.svg/220px-ElectoralCollege1892.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ElectoralCollege1892.svg/330px-ElectoralCollege1892.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ElectoralCollege1892.svg/440px-ElectoralCollege1892.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>1892 electoral vote results</figcaption></figure> Harrison's wife Caroline began a critical struggle with <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> earlier in 1892 and two weeks before the election, on October 25, she died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005149-149">[149]</a> Her role as <a href="/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States" title="First Lady of the United States">First Lady</a> was filled by their daughter, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Harrison_McKee" title="Mary Harrison McKee">Mary Harrison McKee</a> for the balance of Harrison's presidency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005156Moore_&_Hale143–145-150">[150]</a> Mrs. Harrison's terminal illness and the fact that both major candidates had served in the White House called for a low key campaign, and resulted in neither of them actively campaigning personally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter198–199-151">[151]</a> Cleveland ultimately won the election by 277 electoral votes to Harrison's 145, the most decisive margin in 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-EV_1892-152">[152]</a> Cleveland won 46 percent of the popular vote, beating Harrison by a margin of approximately 375,000 votes.<a href="#cite_note-BH-CE-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter199-153">[153]</a> Cleveland swept the four swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Indiana, and also became the first Democrat since the Civil War to carry Wisconsin and Indiana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter200-154">[154]</a> Weaver garnered just over one million voters and twenty-two electoral votes, with most of his support coming from Western voters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite755–756-155">[155]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1892" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1892">1892 congressional elections</a>, Democrats retained control of the House and won a majority in the Senate. The resulting <a href="/wiki/53rd_United_States_Congress" title="53rd United States Congress">53rd United States Congress</a> marked the first time since the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> that Democrats held unified <a href="/wiki/Party_divisions_of_United_States_Congresses" title="Party divisions of United States Congresses">control</a> of the presidency and both houses of Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite755-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_reputation">Historical reputation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Historical reputation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">Historical rankings of presidents of the United States</a></div> As a one-term president, and one of several Republicans to serve during a short span in the late 19th century, Harrison is one of the least well-known presidents, and is perhaps best known as the only president to be the grandson of <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">another president</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerhardt141-157">[157]</a> A 2012 article in <a href="/wiki/New_York_(magazine)" title="New York (magazine)">New York</a> selected Harrison as the "most forgotten president."<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Closely scrutinized by Democrats, Harrison's reputation was largely intact when he left the White House.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams191-159">[159]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a>, Harrison became more popular in retirement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_20056-160">[160]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Heather_Cox_Richardson" title="Heather Cox Richardson">Heather Cox Richardson</a> writes that Harrison has largely escaped blame for the Panic of 1893, with both the contemporary general public and many later historians primarily faulting Grover Cleveland for the economic crisis, which was one of the worst recessions in U.S. history.<a href="#cite_note-onion-161">[161]</a> Biographer Ray E. Boomhower writes that, in the decades after Harrison left office, historians generally ranked Harrison "in the middle of the pack and even lower" among all U.S. presidents; Boomhower argues that a contributing factor to this low standing was the fact that no biography on Harrison was published until the release of a three-volume biography by Harry J. Sievers in the 1950s and 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoomhower_2019165-162">[162]</a> Harrison's legacy among historians is scant, and "general accounts of his period inaccurately treat Harrison as a cipher".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetterx-163">[163]</a> Some historians have portrayed Harrison as a "lightweight puppet of party bosses",<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> and Lillian Cunningham of the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a> notes that "[f]ew U.S. history books even mention Benjamin Harrison—but when they do, the write-ups are usually not too flattering."<a href="#cite_note-cunningham-165">[165]</a> In a 2019 ranking of the worst U.S. presidents based on a compilation of rankings by scholars, <a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</a> ranked Harrison as the 11th-worst president out of 45.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> A 2018 poll of the <a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association" title="American Political Science Association">American Political Science Association</a>'s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Harrison as the 32nd best president.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> A 2017 <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a> poll of historians ranked Harrison as the 30th best president.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> A 2022 Siena College Research Institute poll ranked Harrison as the 34th best president out of the 45 to serve up to that time.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Historian Allan B. Spetter writes, <blockquote>Because of his lack of personal passion and the failure of anything truly eventful, such as a major war, during his administration, Harrison, along with every other President from the post-Reconstruction era to 1900, has been assigned to the rankings of mediocrity. He has been remembered as an average President, not among the best but certainly not among the worst.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></blockquote> Many recent historians have recognized the importance of the Harrison administration in influencing the foreign policy of the late nineteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetterx-163">[163]</a> Historians have often given Secretary of State Blaine credit for foreign-policy initiatives but historian Charles Calhoun argues that Harrison was more responsible for the success of trade negotiations, the buildup of the steel Navy, overseas expansion, and emphasis on the American role in dominating the hemisphere through the Monroe Doctrine. The major weakness which Calhoun sees was that the public and indeed the grassroots Republican Party was not fully prepared for this onslaught of major activity.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Nonetheless, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, signed into law by Harrison, remains in effect over 120 years later,<a href="#cite_note-Batten_2010_p209-173">[173]</a> and Harrison's conservationist efforts would be continued under presidents such as <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cunningham-165">[165]</a> Harrison's support for African American voting rights and education would be the last significant attempts to protect <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a> until the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Batten_2010_p209-173">[173]</a> Though he writes that Harrison had a "far better than average civil rights record," Clay S. Jenkinson of <a href="/wiki/Governing_(magazine)" title="Governing (magazine)">Governing</a> criticizes Harrison's policies towards Native Americans, in particular his role in the Wounded Knee Massacre.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Richardson similarly argues that the root cause of the Wounded Knee Massacre was the Harrison administration's efforts to curry favor in South Dakota through the opening of Native American lands to settlers, thereby gaining support for Republicans ahead of the <a href="/wiki/1890%E2%80%9391_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1890–91 United States Senate elections">1890 Senate elections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Richardson also argues that the Harrison administration and their allies in the Republican Party deserve much of the blame for the Panic of 1893, as their demonization of Democratic policies during the 1892 election and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_transition" title="United States presidential transition">presidential transition</a> period led to panic among investors, and Harrison's subsequent inaction during the early days of the economic crisis allowed it to spiral into one of the worst recessions in U.S. history.<a href="#cite_note-onion-161">[161]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em ;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200547-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200547_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200547_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun_2005">Calhoun 2005</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter8-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter8_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSocolofsky_&_Spetter">Socolofsky & Spetter</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200545–46-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun_200545–46_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun_2005">Calhoun 2005</a>, pp. 45–46. </li> <li id="cite_note-BH-CE-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BH-CE_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BH-CE_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BH-CE_4-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/bharrison/campaigns-and-elections">"Benjamin Harrison: Campaigns and Elections"</a>. 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<a href="#CITEREFCalhoun_2005">Calhoun 2005</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter54–55-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter54–55_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSocolofsky_&_Spetter">Socolofsky & Spetter</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpetter301–302-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpetter301–302_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpetter">Spetter</a>, p. 301–302. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSpetter (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite631–632-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite631–632_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite">White</a>, pp. 631–632. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_1993661-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun_1993661_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun_1993">Calhoun 1993</a>, p. 661. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter49-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter49_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSocolofsky_&_Spetter">Socolofsky & Spetter</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter46–49-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESocolofsky_&_Spetter46–49_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSocolofsky_&_Spetter">Socolofsky & Spetter</a>, p. 46–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005100–104Socolofsky_&_Spetter51–52-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005100–104Socolofsky_&_Spetter51–52_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun_2005100–104Socolofsky_&_Spetter51–52_47-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun_2005">Calhoun 2005</a>, pp. 100–104; 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Washington Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Harrison%2C+the+first+American+president+who+tried+to+save+a+species&rft.date=2016-06-12&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fon-leadership%2Fwp%2F2016%2F06%2F12%2Fbenjamin-harrison-the-first-american-president-who-tried-to-save-a-species%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFU.S._News_Staff2019" class="citation news cs1">U.S. News Staff (November 6, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/news/special-reports/the-worst-presidents/articles/ranking-americas-worst-presidents">"Ranking America's Worst Presidents"</a>. U.S. News and World Report.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ranking+America%27s+Worst+Presidents&rft.date=2019-11-06&rft.au=U.S.+News+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fnews%2Fspecial-reports%2Fthe-worst-presidents%2Farticles%2Franking-americas-worst-presidents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottinghausVaughn2018" class="citation news cs1">Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (19 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/">"How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?"</a>. New York Times. Retrieved 14 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Does+Trump+Stack+Up+Against+the+Best+%E2%80%94+and+Worst+%E2%80%94+Presidents%3F&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft.aulast=Rottinghaus&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft.au=Vaughn%2C+Justin+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2018%2F02%2F19%2Fopinion%2Fhow-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall">"Presidential Historians Survey 2017"</a>. C-SPAN. Retrieved 14 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=C-SPAN&rft.atitle=Presidential+Historians+Survey+2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fpresidentsurvey2017%2F%3Fpage%3Doverall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFieldstadt2022" class="citation news cs1">Fieldstadt, Elisha (September 12, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/presidents-ranked-worst-best/">"Presidents ranked from worst to best"</a>. CBS News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Presidents+ranked+from+worst+to+best&rft.date=2022-09-12&rft.aulast=Fieldstadt&rft.aufirst=Elisha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fpictures%2Fpresidents-ranked-worst-best%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Spetter, Allan B. (4 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/bharrison/impact-and-legacy">"BENJAMIN HARRISON: IMPACT AND LEGACY"</a>. Miller Center. University of Virginia. Retrieved 16 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Miller+Center&rft.atitle=BENJAMIN+HARRISON%3A+IMPACT+AND+LEGACY&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft.aulast=Spetter&rft.aufirst=Allan+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fbharrison%2Fimpact-and-legacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Charles Calhoun, Benjamin Harrison (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Charles Calhoun, "Reimagining the "Lost Men" of the Gilded Age: Perspectives on the Late Nineteenth Century Presidents". Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2002) 1#3: 225–257. </li> <li id="cite_note-Batten_2010_p209-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Batten_2010_p209_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Batten_2010_p209_173-1">b</a> <a href="#Batten">Batten</a>, p. 209 </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkinson2023" class="citation news cs1">Jenkinson, Clay S. (March 26, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governing.com/context/good-government-and-the-road-to-wounded-knee">"Good Government and the Road to Wounded Knee"</a>. Governing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Good+Government+and+the+Road+to+Wounded+Knee&rft.date=2023-03-26&rft.aulast=Jenkinson&rft.aufirst=Clay+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governing.com%2Fcontext%2Fgood-government-and-the-road-to-wounded-knee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBade2010" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rachael_Bade" title="Rachael Bade">Bade, Rachael</a> (June 28, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rollcall.com/2010/06/28/how-politics-led-to-death-at-wounded-knee/">"How Politics Led to Death at Wounded Knee"</a>. Roll Call.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+Politics+Led+to+Death+at+Wounded+Knee&rft.date=2010-06-28&rft.aulast=Bade&rft.aufirst=Rachael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frollcall.com%2F2010%2F06%2F28%2Fhow-politics-led-to-death-at-wounded-knee%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoomhower_2019" class="citation book cs1">Boomhower, Ray E. (2019). Mr. President: A Life of Benjamin Harrison. Indiana Historical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871954282" title="Special:BookSources/9780871954282"><bdi>9780871954282</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mr.+President%3A+A+Life+of+Benjamin+Harrison&rft.pub=Indiana+Historical+Society&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780871954282&rft.aulast=Boomhower&rft.aufirst=Ray+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalhoun_2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Calhoun" title="Charles W. Calhoun">Calhoun, Charles William</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5mLuIx6z1qcC">Benjamin Harrison</a>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6952-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6952-5"><bdi>978-0-8050-6952-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Harrison&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-6952-5&rft.aulast=Calhoun&rft.aufirst=Charles+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5mLuIx6z1qcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerhardt" class="citation book cs1">Gerhardt, Michael J. (2013). The Forgotten Presidents: Their Untold Constitutional Legacy. OUP USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199967797" title="Special:BookSources/9780199967797"><bdi>9780199967797</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Presidents%3A+Their+Untold+Constitutional+Legacy&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199967797&rft.aulast=Gerhardt&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore_&_Hale" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Chieko; Hale, Hester Anne (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HKBFgjrulnUC">Benjamin Harrison: Centennial President</a>. Nova Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60021-066-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60021-066-2"><bdi>978-1-60021-066-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Harrison%3A+Centennial+President&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-60021-066-2&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Chieko&rft.au=Hale%2C+Hester+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHKBFgjrulnUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Robert C., ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kb0sFxQ6yHoC">Encyclopedia of African-American politics</a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4475-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4475-7"><bdi>978-0-8160-4475-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African-American+politics&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-4475-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKb0sFxQ6yHoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSocolofsky_&_Spetter" class="citation book cs1">Socolofsky, Homer E.; Spetter, Allan B. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyofbenj0000soco">The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison</a>. University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0320-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0320-6"><bdi>978-0-7006-0320-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0320-6&rft.aulast=Socolofsky&rft.aufirst=Homer+E.&rft.au=Spetter%2C+Allan+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresidencyofbenj0000soco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpetter2016" class="citation book cs1">Spetter, Allan B. (2016). "Benjamin Harrison". In Gormley, Ken (ed.). The Presidents and the Constitution: A Living History. New York: New York University Press Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781479839902" title="Special:BookSources/9781479839902"><bdi>9781479839902</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Harrison&rft.btitle=The+Presidents+and+the+Constitution%3A+A+Living+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781479839902&rft.aulast=Spetter&rft.aufirst=Allan+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, Lew (1888). Life and Public Services of Benjamin Harrison. Edgewood Publishing Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Public+Services+of+Benjamin+Harrison&rft.pub=Edgewood+Publishing+Co&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Lew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_White_(historian)" title="Richard White (historian)">White, Richard</a> (2017). <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_for_Which_It_Stands" title="The Republic for Which It Stands">The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age: 1865–1896</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190619060" title="Special:BookSources/9780190619060"><bdi>9780190619060</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Republic+for+Which+It+Stands%3A+The+United+States+During+Reconstruction+and+the+Gilded+Age%3A+1865%E2%80%931896&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780190619060&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams" class="citation book cs1">Williams, R. Hal (1974). "Benjamin Harrison 1889–1893". In Woodward, C. Vann (ed.). Responses of the Presidents to the Charges of Misconduct. Dell Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 191–195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-440-05923-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-440-05923-2"><bdi>0-440-05923-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Harrison+1889%E2%80%931893&rft.btitle=Responses+of+the+Presidents+to+the+Charges+of+Misconduct&rft.pages=191-195&rft.pub=Dell+Publishing+Co.%2C+Inc&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-440-05923-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=R.+Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Kirt H. (2005). "The Politics of Place and Presidential Rhetoric in the United States, 1875–1901". In Rigsby, Enrique D.; Aune, James Arnt (eds.). Civil Rights Rhetoric and the American Presidency. TAMU Press. pp. 16–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58544-440-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58544-440-3"><bdi>978-1-58544-440-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Politics+of+Place+and+Presidential+Rhetoric+in+the+United+States%2C+1875%E2%80%931901&rft.btitle=Civil+Rights+Rhetoric+and+the+American+Presidency&rft.pages=16-40&rft.pub=TAMU+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58544-440-3&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Kirt+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatten" class="citation journal cs1">Batten, Donna, ed. (2010). "Gale Encyclopedia of American Law". 5 (3 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>: 208–209.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Gale+Encyclopedia+of+American+Law&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=208-209&rft.date=2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalhoun_1993" class="citation journal cs1">Calhoun, Charles W. (Fall 1993). "Civil Religion and the Gilded Age Presidency: The Case of Benjamin Harrison". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 23 (4): 651–667. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551144">27551144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Civil+Religion+and+the+Gilded+Age+Presidency%3A+The+Case+of+Benjamin+Harrison&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=651-667&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27551144%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Calhoun&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalhoun_2002" class="citation journal cs1">Calhoun, Charles W. (July 2002). "Reimagining the "Lost Men" of the Gilded Age: Perspectives on the Late Nineteenth Century Presidents". The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. 1 (3): 225–257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1537781400000244">10.1017/S1537781400000244</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25144300">25144300</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162509769">162509769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Gilded+Age+and+Progressive+Era&rft.atitle=Reimagining+the+%22Lost+Men%22+of+the+Gilded+Age%3A+Perspectives+on+the+Late+Nineteenth+Century+Presidents&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=225-257&rft.date=2002-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162509769%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25144300%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1537781400000244&rft.aulast=Calhoun&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gallagher, Douglas Steven. "The 'smallest mistake': explaining the failures of the Hayes and Harrison presidencies." White House Studies 2.4 (2002): 395–414.</li> <li>Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed. 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidentprofiles.com//">online</a></li> <li>Spetter, Allan. "Harrison and Blaine: Foreign Policy, 1889–1893" Indiana Magazine of History 65#3 (1969), pp. 214–227 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27789596">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart" class="citation journal cs1">Stuart, Paul (September 1977). "United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission". Social Service Review. 51 (3): 451–463. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F643524">10.1086/643524</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30015511">30015511</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143506388">143506388</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Service+Review&rft.atitle=United+States+Indian+Policy%3A+From+the+Dawes+Act+to+the+American+Indian+Policy+Review+Commission&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=451-463&rft.date=1977-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143506388%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30015511%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F643524&rft.aulast=Stuart&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Benjamin+Harrison" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Volwiler, A. T. "Harrison, Blaine, and American Foreign Policy, 1889-1893" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 79#4 1938) pp. 637–648 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/984943">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Baker, George W. "Benjamin Harrison and Hawaiian Annexation: A Reinterpretation." Pacific Historical Review 33.3 (1964): 295–309. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3636837">online</a></li> <li>Calhoun, Charles W. "Benjamin Harrison, Centennial President: A Review Essay." Indiana Magazine of History (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/imh/article/download/10865/15440">online</a></li> <li>Dozer, Donald Marquand. "Benjamin Harrison and the Presidential Campaign of 1892." American Historical Review 54.1 (1948): 49–77. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1841756">online</a></li> <li>Gunderson, Megan M. Benjamin Harrison (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminharrison0000gund">for middle schools</a></li> <li>Holbrook, Francis X., and John Nikol. "Chilean Crisis of 1891–1892." American Neptune 38.4 (1978): 291–300.</li> <li>Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850: 1877–1896 (1919) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyunitedst18rhodgoog">online complete</a>; old, factual and heavily political, by winner of Pulitzer Prize</li> <li>Ringenberg, William C. "Benjamin Harrison: The Religious Thought and Practice of a Presbyterian President." American Presbyterians 64.3 (1986): 175–189. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23330850">online</a></li> <li>Sievers, Harry Joseph. Benjamin Harrison, Hoosier president: The White House and after (1968), vol 3 of his thin but scholarly biography</li> <li>Sinkler, George. "Benjamin Harrison and the Matter of Race." Indiana Magazine of History (1969): 197–213. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/imh/article/download/9444/12602">online</a></li> <li>Socolofsky, Homer E. "Benjamin Harrison and the American west." Great Plains Quarterly (1985): 249–258. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2833&context=greatplainsquarterly">online</a></li> <li>Taylor, Mark Zachary. "Ideas and Their Consequences: Benjamin Harrison and the Seeds of Economic Crisis, 1889–1893." Critical Review 33.1 (2021): 102–127. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2020.1881354">https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2020.1881354</a></li> <li>Wilson, Kirtley Hasketh. "The problem with public memory: Benjamin Harrison confronts the 'southern question'." in Before the rhetorical presidency (Texas A&M University Press, 2008) pp. 267–288.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Harrison, Benjamin. Public papers and addresses of Benjamin Harrison, twenty-third President of the United States, March 4, 1889, to March 4, 1893. (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ngtABAAAQBAJ&dq=Benjamin+Harrison+president&pg=PA1">online</a></li> <li>Harrison, Benjamin. Speeches of Benjamin Harrison, Twenty-third President of the United States (DigiCat, 2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xed1EAAAQBAJ&dq=Benjamin+Harrison+president&pg=PT9">online</a></li> <li>Volwiler, Albert T., ed. The Correspondence between Benjamin Harrison and James G. Blaine, 1882–1893 (1940)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/bharrison">Miller Center on the Presidency at U of Virginia</a>, brief articles on Harrison and his presidency</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Benjamin_Harrison" title="Template:Benjamin Harrison"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Benjamin_Harrison" title="Template talk:Benjamin Harrison"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Benjamin_Harrison" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Benjamin Harrison"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Benjamin_Harrison" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">23rd</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1889–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Indiana" title="List of United States senators from Indiana">Senator from Indiana</a> (1881–1887)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Plantation" title="Berkeley Plantation">Berkeley Plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/70th_Indiana_Infantry_Regiment" title="70th Indiana Infantry Regiment">70th Indiana Infantry Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_Presidential_Site" title="Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site">Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880_Republican_National_Convention" title="1880 Republican National Convention">1880 Republican National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Republican_National_Convention" title="1888 Republican National Convention">1888 Republican National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_porch_campaign" title="Front porch campaign">Front porch campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Hill_Cemetery" title="Crown Hill Cemetery">Crown Hill Cemetery</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Harrison,_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo,_1896.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg/100px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg/150px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg/200px-Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2588" data-file-height="3282" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison">Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_Disability_Pension_Act" title="Dependent and Disability Pension Act">Dependent and Disability Pension Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/51st_United_States_Congress" title="51st United States Congress">51st United States Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act" title="Sherman Silver Purchase Act">Sherman Silver Purchase Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodge_Bill" title="Lodge Bill">Lodge Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Revision_Act" title="General Revision Act">Land Revision Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McKinley_Tariff" title="McKinley Tariff">McKinley Tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1891" title="Immigration Act of 1891">Immigration Act of 1891</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geary_Act" title="Geary Act">Geary Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_International_Conference_of_American_States" title="First International Conference of American States">First International Conference of American States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_crisis" title="Baltimore crisis">Baltimore crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Benjamin_Harrison" title="List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison">List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_Republican_National_Convention" title="1892 Republican National Convention">1892 Republican National Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Statue of Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison (Indianapolis statue)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Fort Benjamin Harrison">Fort Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Harrison_State_Park" title="Fort Harrison State Park">Fort Harrison State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_Hall" title="Harrison Hall">Harrison Hall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harrison_family_of_Virginia" title="Harrison family of Virginia">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Harrison" title="Caroline Harrison">Caroline Harrison</a> (first wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Dimmick_Harrison" title="Mary Dimmick Harrison">Mary Dimmick Harrison</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Russell Benjamin Harrison">Russell Benjamin Harrison</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Harrison_McKee" title="Mary Harrison McKee">Mary Harrison McKee</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Harrison_Walker" title="Elizabeth Harrison Walker">Elizabeth Harrison Walker</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison_III" title="William Henry Harrison III">William Henry Harrison III</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Harrison" title="John Scott Harrison">John Scott Harrison</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Harrison" title="Anna Harrison">Anna Harrison</a> (grandmother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison V</a> (great-grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cleves_Symmes" title="John Cleves Symmes">John Cleves Symmes</a> (great-grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_IV" title="Benjamin Harrison IV">Benjamin Harrison IV</a> (great-great-grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_III" title="Benjamin Harrison III">Benjamin Harrison III</a> (great-great-great grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Carter_I" title="Robert Carter I">Robert Carter I</a> (great-great-great grandfather)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">← Grover Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Grover_Cleveland" title="Category:Grover Cleveland">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_presidents" title="Template:US presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_presidents" title="Template talk:US presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidents of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents and presidencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="display:flex"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;flex:1;text-align:left;white-space:nowrap"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">1789–1797</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">1797–1801</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Presidency of Thomas Jefferson">1801–1809</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Madison" title="Presidency of James Madison">1809–1817</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Monroe" title="Presidency of James Monroe">1817–1825</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidency of John Quincy Adams">1825–1829</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">1829–1837</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Presidency of Martin Van Buren">1837–1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison#Presidency_(1841)" title="William Henry Harrison">1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Tyler" title="Presidency of John Tyler">1841–1845</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">1845–1849</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor#Presidency_(1849–1850)" title="Zachary Taylor">1849–1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Millard_Fillmore" title="Presidency of Millard Fillmore">1850–1853</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_Pierce" title="Presidency of Franklin Pierce">1853–1857</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">1857–1861</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">1861–1865</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">1865–1869</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">1869–1877</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">1877–1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield#Presidency_(1881)" title="James A. Garfield">1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">1881–1885</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#First_presidency_(1885–1889)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1885–1889</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">1889–1893</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#Second_presidency_(1893–1897)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1893–1897</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">1897–1901</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">1901–1909</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">1909–1913</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">1913–1921</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">1921–1923</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">1923–1929</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">1929–1933</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">1933–1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">1945–1953</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1953–1961</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">1961–1963</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">1963–1969</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">1969–1974</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">1974–1977</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">1977–1981</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">1981–1989</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">1989–1993</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">1993–2001</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">2001–2009</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">2009–2017</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">2021–present</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidency timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_Washington_presidency" title="Timeline of the George Washington presidency">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_McKinley_presidency" title="Timeline of the William McKinley presidency">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Theodore Roosevelt presidency">T. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_Howard_Taft_presidency" title="Timeline of the William Howard Taft presidency">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Warren_G._Harding_presidency" title="Timeline of the Warren G. Harding presidency">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Herbert_Hoover_presidency" title="Timeline of the Herbert Hoover presidency">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_presidency" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy presidency">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Richard_Nixon_presidency" title="Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Gerald_Ford_presidency" title="Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_presidency" title="Timeline of the Jimmy Carter presidency">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_presidency" title="Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Bill_Clinton_presidency" title="Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George W. Bush presidency">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Barack_Obama_presidency" title="Timeline of the Barack Obama presidency">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Donald_Trump_presidencies" title="Timeline of the Donald Trump presidencies">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Joe_Biden_presidency" title="Timeline of the Joe Biden presidency">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Presidents of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Republican_Party" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#FFB6B6;;background:#E81B23; color:white"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Template:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Template talk:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Republican_Party" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#FFB6B6;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth Party System</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Republican_Party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets">Presidential tickets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Convention" title="Republican National Convention">national conventions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Republican Party presidential primaries">presidential primaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1856_Republican_National_Convention" title="1856 Republican National Convention">1856 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">Frémont</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_L._Dayton" title="William L. Dayton">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_Republican_National_Convention" title="1860 Republican National Convention">1860 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_National_Union_National_Convention" title="1864 National Union National Convention">1864 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a>/<a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Republican_National_Convention" title="1868 Republican National Convention">1868 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a>/<a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Colfax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Republican_National_Convention" title="1872 Republican National Convention">1872 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Republican_National_Convention" title="1876 Republican National Convention">1876 (Cincinnati)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_A._Wheeler" title="William A. Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880_Republican_National_Convention" title="1880 Republican National Convention">1880 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">Garfield</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_Republican_National_Convention" title="1884 Republican National Convention">1884 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">Blaine</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_A._Logan" title="John A. Logan">Logan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Republican_National_Convention" title="1888 Republican National Convention">1888 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a>/<a href="/wiki/Levi_P._Morton" title="Levi P. Morton">Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_Republican_National_Convention" title="1892 Republican National Convention">1892 (Minneapolis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a>/<a href="/wiki/Whitelaw_Reid" title="Whitelaw Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1896_Republican_National_Convention" title="1896 Republican National Convention">1896 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a>/<a href="/wiki/Garret_Hobart" title="Garret Hobart">Hobart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_Republican_National_Convention" title="1900 Republican National Convention">1900 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_Republican_National_Convention" title="1904 Republican National Convention">1904 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks" title="Charles W. Fairbanks">Fairbanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_Republican_National_Convention" title="1908 Republican National Convention">1908 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a>/<a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_National_Convention" title="1912 Republican National Convention">1912 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a>/<a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">Sherman</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Murray_Butler" title="Nicholas Murray Butler">Butler</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1912 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Republican_National_Convention" title="1916 Republican National Convention">1916 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks" title="Charles W. Fairbanks">Fairbanks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1916_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1916 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_National_Convention" title="1920 Republican National Convention">1920 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1920 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_National_Convention" title="1924 Republican National Convention">1924 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Dawes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1924 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_Republican_National_Convention" title="1928 Republican National Convention">1928 (Kansas City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Curtis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1928_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1928 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_Republican_National_Convention" title="1932 Republican National Convention">1932 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Curtis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1932_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1932 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Republican_National_Convention" title="1936 Republican National Convention">1936 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alf_Landon" title="Alf Landon">Landon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Frank_Knox" title="Frank Knox">Knox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1936 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Republican_National_Convention" title="1940 Republican National Convention">1940 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Willkie</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_L._McNary" title="Charles L. McNary">McNary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1940 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Republican_National_Convention" title="1944 Republican National Convention">1944 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Dewey</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_W._Bricker" title="John W. Bricker">Bricker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1944_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1944 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Republican_National_Convention" title="1948 Republican National Convention">1948 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Dewey</a>/<a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Warren</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1948 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention" title="1952 Republican National Convention">1952 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a>/<a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention" title="1956 Republican National Convention">1956 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a>/<a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_National_Convention" title="1960 Republican National Convention">1960 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Jr." title="Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.">Lodge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Republican_National_Convention" title="1964 Republican National Convention">1964 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_E._Miller" title="William E. Miller">Miller</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1964 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention" title="1968 Republican National Convention">1968 (Miami Beach)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Agnew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Republican_National_Convention" title="1972 Republican National Convention">1972 (Miami Beach)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Agnew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1972_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1972 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Republican_National_Convention" title="1976 Republican National Convention">1976 (Kansas City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Ford</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1976_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1976 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_National_Convention" title="1980 Republican National Convention">1980 (Detroit)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1980 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_National_Convention" title="1984 Republican National Convention">1984 (Dallas)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1984 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_National_Convention" title="1988 Republican National Convention">1988 (New Orleans)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dan_Quayle" title="Dan Quayle">Quayle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1988 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_National_Convention" title="1992 Republican National Convention">1992 (Houston)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dan_Quayle" title="Dan Quayle">Quayle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1992 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Republican_National_Convention" title="1996 Republican National Convention">1996 (San Diego)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jack_Kemp" title="Jack Kemp">Kemp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1996_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1996 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_Republican_National_Convention" title="2000 Republican National Convention">2000 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2000 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Republican_National_Convention" title="2004 Republican National Convention">2004 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2004_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2004 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Republican_National_Convention" title="2008 Republican National Convention">2008 (St. Paul)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">McCain</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2008 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Republican_National_Convention" title="2012 Republican National Convention">2012 (Tampa)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Romney</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2012 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Republican_National_Convention" title="2016 Republican National Convention">2016 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2016 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Republican_National_Convention" title="2020 Republican National Convention">2020 (Charlotte/other locations)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2020 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_National_Convention" title="2024 Republican National Convention">2024 (Milwaukee)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2024 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2028_Republican_National_Convention" title="2028 Republican National Convention">2028 (Houston)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">Presidential</a> <a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">administrations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a> (1861–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">Johnson</a> (1865–1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a> (1869–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a> (1877–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">Garfield</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">Arthur</a> (1881–1885)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harrison</a> (1889–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">McKinley</a> (1897–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> (1901–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">Taft</a> (1909–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">Harding</a> (1921–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a> (1923–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a> (1929–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a> (1953–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> (1969–1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">Ford</a> (1974–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a> (1981–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> (1989–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a> (2001–2009)</li> <li>Trump (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">U.S. House leaders</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the United States House of Representatives">Speakers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">Conference chairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Pennington" title="William Pennington">Pennington</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galusha_A._Grow" title="Galusha A. Grow">Grow</a> (1861–1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Colfax</a> (1863–1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_M._Pomeroy" title="Theodore M. Pomeroy">Pomeroy</a> (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">Blaine</a> (1869–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._McCrary" title="George W. McCrary">McCrary</a> (1875–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Hale" title="Eugene Hale">Hale</a> (1877–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Frye" title="William P. Frye">Frye</a> (1879–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Warren_Keifer" title="J. Warren Keifer">Keifer</a> (1881–1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gurney_Cannon" title="Joseph Gurney Cannon">Cannon</a> (1883–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brackett_Reed" title="Thomas Brackett Reed">Reed</a> (1889–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Henderson_(politician)" title="Thomas J. Henderson (politician)">T. J. Henderson</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brackett_Reed" title="Thomas Brackett Reed">Reed</a> (1895–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_B._Henderson" title="David B. Henderson">D. B. Henderson</a> (1899–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gurney_Cannon" title="Joseph Gurney Cannon">Cannon</a> (1903–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Robert_Mann_(Illinois_politician)" title="James Robert Mann (Illinois politician)">Mann</a> (1911–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_H._Gillett" title="Frederick H. Gillett">Gillett</a> (1919–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Longworth" title="Nicholas Longworth">Longworth</a> (1925–1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Snell" title="Bertrand Snell">Snell</a> (1931–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Martin_Jr." title="Joseph W. Martin Jr.">Martin</a> (1939–1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Halleck" title="Charles A. Halleck">Halleck</a> (1959–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Ford</a> (1965–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jacob_Rhodes" title="John Jacob Rhodes">Rhodes</a> (1973–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Michel" title="Robert H. Michel">Michel</a> (1981–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Gingrich</a> (1995–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Hastert" title="Dennis Hastert">Hastert</a> (1999–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Boehner" title="John Boehner">Boehner</a> (2007–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a> (2015–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_McCarthy" title="Kevin McCarthy">McCarthy</a> (2019–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Johnson</a> (2023–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Committee" title="Republican National Committee">RNC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Chairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_D._Morgan" title="Edwin D. Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jarvis_Raymond" title="Henry Jarvis Raymond">Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Lawrence_Ward" title="Marcus Lawrence Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Claflin" title="William Claflin">Claflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_D._Morgan" title="Edwin D. Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachariah_Chandler" title="Zachariah Chandler">Chandler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Donald_Cameron" title="J. Donald Cameron">Cameron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Jewell" title="Marshall Jewell">Jewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_M._Sabin" title="Dwight M. Sabin">Sabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Jones_(industrialist)" title="Benjamin Franklin Jones (industrialist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Quay" title="Matthew Quay">Quay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_S._Clarkson" title="James S. Clarkson">Clarkson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James_Campbell" title="William James Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_H._Carter" title="Thomas H. Carter">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna" title="Mark Hanna">Hanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay_Payne" title="Henry Clay Payne">Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Cortelyou" title="George B. Cortelyou">Cortelyou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._New" title="Harry S. New">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Harris_Hitchcock" title="Frank Harris Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fremont_Hill" title="John Fremont Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Rosewater" title="Victor Rosewater">Rosewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_D._Hilles" title="Charles D. Hilles">Hilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Russell_Willcox" title="William Russell Willcox">Wilcox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_H._Hays" title="Will H. Hays">Hays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Adams" title="John T. Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Butler" title="William M. Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Work" title="Hubert Work">Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_H._Huston" title="Claudius H. Huston">Huston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_D._Fess" title="Simeon D. Fess">Fess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Sanders" title="Everett Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_P._Fletcher" title="Henry P. Fletcher">Fletcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hamilton_(Kansas_politician)" title="John Hamilton (Kansas politician)">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Martin_Jr." title="Joseph W. Martin Jr.">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_Walsh" title="Bailey Walsh">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_E._Spangler" title="Harrison E. Spangler">Spangler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Brownell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._Carroll_Reece" title="B. Carroll Reece">Reece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Scott" title="Hugh Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Gabrielson" title="Guy Gabrielson">Gabrielson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Summerfield" title="Arthur Summerfield">Summerfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Wesley_Roberts" title="C. Wesley Roberts">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_W._Hall" title="Leonard W. Hall">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meade_Alcorn" title="Meade Alcorn">Alcorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thruston_Ballard_Morton" title="Thruston Ballard Morton">T. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Miller" title="William E. Miller">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dean_Burch" title="Dean Burch">Burch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_C._Bliss" title="Ray C. Bliss">Bliss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Morton" title="Rogers Morton">R. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(politician)" title="Mary Louise Smith (politician)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Brock" title="Bill Brock">Brock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Richards_(Utah_politician)" title="Richard Richards (Utah politician)">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Laxalt" title="Paul Laxalt">Laxalt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Frank_Fahrenkopf" title="Frank Fahrenkopf">Fahrenkopf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fahrenkopf" title="Frank Fahrenkopf">Fahrenkopf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Atwater" title="Lee Atwater">Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Yeutter" title="Clayton Yeutter">Yeutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bond_(political_executive)" title="Richard Bond (political executive)">Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haley_Barbour" title="Haley Barbour">Barbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Nicholson_(Secretary_of_Veterans_Affairs)" title="Jim Nicholson (Secretary of Veterans Affairs)">Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Gilmore" title="Jim Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Racicot" title="Marc Racicot">Racicot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Gillespie" title="Ed Gillespie">Gillespie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Mehlman" title="Ken Mehlman">Mehlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel_Mart%C3%ADnez" title="Mel Martínez">Martínez</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Duncan" title="Mike Duncan">Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Duncan" title="Mike Duncan">Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Steele" title="Michael Steele">Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reince_Priebus" title="Reince Priebus">Priebus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronna_McDaniel" title="Ronna McDaniel">McDaniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Whatley" title="Michael Whatley">Whatley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Chair elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2009_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2009 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2011 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2013 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2015 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2017 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2019_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2019 Republican National Committee chairmanship election (page does not exist)">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2021_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2021 Republican National Committee chairmanship election (page does not exist)">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2023 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2024</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_parties_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="List of state parties of the Republican Party (United States)">Parties</a> by state and territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Republican_Party" title="Alabama Republican Party">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Republican_Party" title="Alaska Republican Party">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Republican_Party" title="Arizona Republican Party">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Arkansas" title="Republican Party of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Republican_Party" title="California Republican Party">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Republican_Party" title="Colorado Republican Party">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Republican_Party" title="Connecticut Republican Party">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_State_Committee_of_Delaware" title="Republican State Committee of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Florida" title="Republican Party of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Republican_Party" title="Georgia Republican Party">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Republican_Party" title="Hawaii Republican Party">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Republican_Party" title="Idaho Republican Party">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Republican_Party" title="Illinois Republican Party">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Republican_Party" title="Indiana Republican Party">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Iowa" title="Republican Party of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_Republican_Party" title="Kansas Republican Party">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Kentucky" title="Republican Party of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Louisiana" title="Republican Party of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_Republican_Party" title="Maine Republican Party">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_Republican_Party" title="Maryland Republican Party">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Republican_Party" title="Massachusetts Republican Party">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Republican_Party" title="Michigan Republican Party">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Minnesota" title="Republican Party of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Republican_Party" title="Mississippi Republican Party">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Republican_Party" title="Missouri Republican Party">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_Republican_Party" title="Montana Republican Party">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Republican_Party" title="Nebraska Republican Party">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Republican_Party" title="Nevada Republican Party">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Republican_State_Committee" title="New Hampshire Republican State Committee">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Republican_Party" title="New Jersey Republican Party">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_New_Mexico" title="Republican Party of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Republican_State_Committee" title="New York Republican State Committee">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Republican_Party" title="North Carolina Republican Party">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota_Republican_Party" title="North Dakota Republican Party">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_Republican_Party" title="Ohio Republican Party">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Republican_Party" title="Oklahoma Republican Party">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Republican_Party" title="Oregon Republican Party">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Republican_Party" title="Pennsylvania Republican Party">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Republican_Party" title="Rhode Island Republican Party">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Republican_Party" title="South Carolina Republican Party">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_Republican_Party" title="South Dakota Republican Party">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Republican_Party" title="Tennessee Republican Party">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Texas" title="Republican Party of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_Republican_Party" title="Utah Republican Party">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_Republican_Party" title="Vermont Republican Party">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Virginia" title="Republican Party of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_State_Republican_Party" title="Washington State Republican Party">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_Republican_Party" title="West Virginia Republican Party">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Wisconsin" title="Republican Party of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyoming_Republican_Party" title="Wyoming Republican Party">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_American_Samoa" title="Republican Party of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Republican_Party" title="District of Columbia Republican Party">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Guam" title="Republican Party of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(Northern_Mariana_Islands)" title="Republican Party (Northern Mariana Islands)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Republican Party of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Republican Party of the Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)_organizations" title="Republican Party (United States) organizations">Affiliated organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Congress</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">House Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Digest" title="Legislative Digest">Legislative Digest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steering_and_Policy_Committees_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Steering and Policy Committees of the United States House of Representatives">Steering and Policy Committees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Republican_Conference" title="Senate Republican Conference">Senate Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Republican_Policy_Committee" title="United States Senate Republican Policy Committee">Policy Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Republican Party (United States)">Factions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Caucus" title="Freedom Caucus">Freedom Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_Solvers_Caucus" title="Problem Solvers Caucus">Problem Solvers Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Governance_Group" title="Republican Governance Group">Republican Governance Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Study_Committee" title="Republican Study Committee">Republican Study Committee</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Fundraising groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Congressional_Committee" title="National Republican Congressional Committee">National Republican Congressional Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Redistricting_Trust" title="National Republican Redistricting Trust">National Republican Redistricting Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Senatorial_Committee" title="National Republican Senatorial Committee">National Republican Senatorial Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Attorneys_General_Association" title="Republican Attorneys General Association">Republican Attorneys General Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Governors_Association" title="Republican Governors Association">Republican Governors Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Sectional groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_Republicans" title="College Republicans">College Republicans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairpersons_of_the_College_Republicans" title="List of chairpersons of the College Republicans">Chairmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Hispanic_Conference" title="Congressional Hispanic Conference">Congressional Hispanic Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_Cabin_Republicans" title="Log Cabin Republicans">Log Cabin Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Jewish_Coalition" title="Republican Jewish Coalition">Republican Jewish Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Hispanic_Assembly" title="Republican National Hispanic Assembly">Republican National Hispanic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicans_Abroad" title="Republicans Abroad">Republicans Abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teen_Age_Republicans" title="Teen Age Republicans">Teen Age Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Republicans" title="Young Republicans">Young Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicans_Overseas" 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