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class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Women and family </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Women_and_family-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Women and family subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Women_and_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marriage_and_family_planning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage_and_family_planning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Marriage and family planning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage_and_family_planning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policies_on_divorce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policies_on_divorce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Policies on divorce </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policies_on_divorce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_wives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_wives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Second wives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_wives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Health care </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_and_religious_minorities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_and_religious_minorities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Ethnic and religious minorities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_and_religious_minorities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Population control </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Population_control-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Population control subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Population_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-One-child_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One-child_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 One-child policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One-child_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex-selective_abortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex-selective_abortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Sex-selective abortion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex-selective_abortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Fist_Campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Fist_Campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Iron Fist Campaign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Fist_Campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_ownership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_ownership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Property ownership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property_ownership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Employment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Employment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Employment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rural_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rural_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Rural work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rural_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_and_migrant_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_and_migrant_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Urban and migrant work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_and_migrant_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stereotypically_"feminine"_jobs_and_professions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stereotypically_"feminine"_jobs_and_professions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Stereotypically "feminine" jobs and professions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stereotypically_"feminine"_jobs_and_professions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_executives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_executives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Women executives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_executives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female_Billionaires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_Billionaires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Female Billionaires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Female_Billionaires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Women in politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimes_against_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimes_against_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Crimes against women </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Crimes_against_women-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Crimes against women subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Crimes_against_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Domestic_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Domestic violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Women's safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foot_binding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foot_binding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Foot binding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foot_binding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trafficking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trafficking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Trafficking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trafficking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prostitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prostitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Prostitution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prostitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Women in China</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" > 15 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A3%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86" title="المرأة في الصين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المرأة في الصين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ind%C9%99_qad%C4%B1nlar" title="Çində qadınlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çində qadınlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dones_a_la_Xina" title="Dones a la Xina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dones a la Xina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merched_yng_Ngweriniaeth_Pobl_Tsieina" title="Merched yng Ngweriniaeth Pobl Tsieina – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Merched yng Ngweriniaeth Pobl Tsieina" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frauen_in_der_Volksrepublik_China" title="Frauen in der Volksrepublik China – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Frauen in der Volksrepublik China" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mujeres_en_China" title="Mujeres en China – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mujeres en China" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="زنان در چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زنان در چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%82" title="चीन में महिलाएं – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीन में महिलाएं" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanita_di_Tiongkok" title="Wanita di Tiongkok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Wanita di Tiongkok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9A_%E0%A8%94%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82" title="ਚੀਨ ਵਿੱਚ ਔਰਤਾਂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੀਨ ਵਿੱਚ ਔਰਤਾਂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86" title="چین وچ خواتین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چین وچ خواتین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%88%D9%90%DA%86_%D8%AA%D9%90%D8%B1%D9%90%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="چین وِچ تِرِیمتاں – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="چین وِچ تِرِیمتاں" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="சீனாவில் பெண்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சீனாவில் பெண்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86" title="چین میں خواتین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چین میں خواتین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7" title="中國女性 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中國女性" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4144807#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Women_in_China" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"History of women in China" redirects here. For ancient and imperial China, see <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women in ancient and imperial China</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about women in the present day People's Republic of China. For women in the Republic of China, see <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Women in Taiwan</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Women in China</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Girl_in_Muyuan_in_Jiangxi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Girl_in_Muyuan_in_Jiangxi.jpg/220px-Girl_in_Muyuan_in_Jiangxi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Girl_in_Muyuan_in_Jiangxi.jpg/330px-Girl_in_Muyuan_in_Jiangxi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Girl_in_Muyuan_in_Jiangxi.jpg/440px-Girl_in_Muyuan_in_Jiangxi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A woman in rural <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">General Statistics</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Maternal_death" title="Maternal death">Maternal mortality</a> (per 100,000)</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">37 (2010)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_government" title="Women in government">Women in parliament</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">24.2% (2013)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Women over 25 with <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">secondary education</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">54.8% (2010)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Women in labour force</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">67.7% (2011)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Gender_Inequality_Index" title="Gender Inequality Index">Gender Inequality Index</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Value</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">0.192 (2021)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rank</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">48th out of 191</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Global_Gender_Gap_Report" title="Global Gender Gap Report"> Global Gender Gap Index</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Value</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">0.681 (2022)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_explorers_and_travelers" title="List of women explorers and travelers">Explorers and travelers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Womyn" title="Womyn">Womyn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_government" title="Women in government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Women in conservatism in the United States">Conservatives in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elected_and_appointed_female_heads_of_state_and_government" title="List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government">Heads of state or government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legislatures_by_female_members" title="List of legislatures by female members">Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">Queen regnant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of women monarchs">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_journalism" title="Women in journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law_enforcement" title="Women in law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_Nobel_laureates" title="List of female Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_positions_of_power" title="Women in positions of power">Positions of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_venture_capital" title="Women in venture capital">Venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence and abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Voting rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_of_women" title="Exchange of women">Exchange of women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Science</a></li><li>Technology</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_computing" title="Women in computing">Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_geology" title="Women in geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_medicine" title="Women in medicine">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dentistry" title="Women in dentistry">dentistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dentistry_in_the_United_States" title="Women in dentistry in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_for_women_in_science" title="List of organizations for women in science">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">Science, technology, engineering and mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_telegraphy" title="Women in telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Arts</a></li><li>Humanities</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_architecture" title="Women in architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_art_history_field" title="Women in the art history field">Art history field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_cinema" title="Women's cinema">Women's cinema</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dance" title="Women in dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_film" title="Women in film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chick_flick" title="Chick flick">"Chick flicks"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Fine arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_writing_(literary_category)" title="Women's writing (literary category)">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction" title="Women in speculative fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_photographers" title="Women photographers">Photographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_music" title="Women in music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_jazz" title="Women in jazz">Jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_punk_rock" title="Women in punk rock">Punk rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Shakespeare%27s_works" title="Women in Shakespeare's works">In Shakespeare's works</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Religion</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_as_theological_figures" title="Women as theological figures">Theological figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_gender_equality" title="Baháʼí Faith and gender equality">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Bible" title="Women in the Bible">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christianity" title="Women in Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Women in the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_women" title="Mormonism and women">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Opus_Dei" title="Women in Opus Dei">Opus Dei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hinduism" title="Women in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Judaism" title="Women in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sikhism" title="Women in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taoism" title="Women in Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Popular culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_comics_creators" title="Female comics creators">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_in_American_comics" title="Portrayal of women in American comics">Portrayal in American comics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_film" title="Women in film">Film industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_music" title="Women in music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy#Pirate_women_in_fiction" title="Women in piracy">Fictional pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction" title="Women in speculative fiction">Speculative fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_video_games" title="Women and video games">Video games</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_representation_in_video_games" title="Gender representation in video games">Gender representation in video games</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_sports" title="Women's sports">Sports</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto_racing" title="Auto racing">Auto racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_baseball" title="Women in baseball">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_basketball" title="Women's basketball">Basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_boxing" title="Women's boxing">Boxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_cricket" title="Women's cricket">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_sport" title="Cycle sport">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fastpitch_softball" title="Fastpitch softball">Fastpitch softball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_association_football" title="Women's association football">Football / soccer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_major_golf_championships" title="Women's major golf championships">Golf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnastics" title="Gymnastics">Gymnastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey" title="Ice hockey">Ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_lacrosse" title="Women's lacrosse">Lacrosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_mixed_martial_arts" title="Women's mixed martial arts">Mixed martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netball" title="Netball">Netball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralympic_Games" title="Paralympic Games">Paralympic Games</a></li> <li>Rodeo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roller_derby" title="Roller derby">Roller derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's rowing">Rowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_surfing" title="Women's surfing">Surfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_(sport)" title="Swimming (sport)">Swimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_tennis" title="Women's tennis">Tennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_and_field" title="Track and field">Track and field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volleyball" title="Volleyball">Volleyball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_sports" title="Winter sports">Winter sports</a> </li></ul> See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_sports" title="List of sports">List of sports</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Women_by_country" title="Category:Women by country">By country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Afghanistan" title="Women in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Albania" title="Women in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Algeria" title="Women in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Andorra" title="Women in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Angola" title="Women in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Argentina" title="Women in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Armenia" title="Women in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Australia" title="Women in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Azerbaijan" title="Women in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bahrain" title="Women in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bangladesh" title="Women in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Belgium" title="Women in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Benin" title="Women in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bhutan" title="Women in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Women in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Brunei" title="Women in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bulgaria" title="Women in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cambodia" title="Women in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Chad" title="Women in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Chile" title="Women in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Colombia" title="Women in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Comoros" title="Women in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Croatia" title="Women in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cuba" title="Women in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cyprus" title="Women in Cyprus">Cyprus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Women_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Women in Northern Cyprus">North</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Women in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ecuador" title="Women in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Egypt" title="Women in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_El_Salvador" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_East_Timor" title="Women in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ethiopia" title="Women in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Women in the Federated States of Micronesia">FS Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Fiji" title="Women in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Finland" title="Women in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_France" title="Women in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Women in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ghana" title="Women in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Greece" title="Women in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Guyana" title="Women in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Haiti" title="Women in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iceland" title="Women in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Indonesia" title="Women in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Israel" title="Women in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Women in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Japan" title="Women in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Jordan" title="Women in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kazakhstan" title="Women in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kenya" title="Women in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kiribati" title="Women in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kuwait" title="Women in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Women in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Laos" title="Women in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Libya" title="Women in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Madagascar" title="Women in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malaysia" title="Women in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Maldives" title="Women in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mali" title="Women in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Women in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mauritania" title="Women in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mauritius" title="Women in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mexico" title="Women in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mongolia" title="Women in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Morocco" title="Women in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Myanmar" title="Women in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nepal" title="Women in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_New_Zealand" title="Women in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Niger" title="Women in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nigeria" title="Women in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_North_Korea" title="Women in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Oman" title="Women in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Pakistan" title="Women in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Palau" title="Women in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Panama" title="Women in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Paraguay" title="Women in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Peru" title="Women in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Philippines" title="Women in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Poland" title="Women in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Portugal" title="Women in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Qatar" title="Women in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Russia" title="Women in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Senegal" title="Women in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Seychelles" title="Women in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Women in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Singapore" title="Women in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Spain" title="Women in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Somalia" title="Women in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Africa" title="Women in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Korea" title="Women in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Sudan" title="Women in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sudan" title="Women in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Suriname" title="Women in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Women in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sweden" title="Women in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tajikistan" title="Women in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Thailand" title="Women in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tonga" title="Women in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tunisia" title="Women in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkey" title="Women in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkmenistan" title="Women in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tuvalu" title="Women in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Women in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uganda" title="Women in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Women in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_States" title="Women in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uruguay" title="Women in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uzbekistan" title="Women in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vanuatu" title="Women in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vatican_City" title="Women in Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Venezuela" title="Women in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Yemen" title="Women in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_women" title="Kurdish women">Kurdistan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Template:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Template talk:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Women in China make up approximately 49% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-4">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> In modern China, the lives of women have changed significantly due to the late <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> reforms, the changes of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republican period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>, and the rise of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC).<a href="#cite_note-:102-6">[5]</a> Like women in many other cultures, women in China have been historically oppressed.<a href="#cite_note-:04-7">[6]</a> For thousands of years, women in China lived under the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal</a> social order characterized by the <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> teaching of "<a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>".<a href="#cite_note-:04-7">[6]</a> Achievement of women's liberation has been on the agenda of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) since the beginning of the PRC.<a href="#cite_note-:04-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-8">[7]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a> in 1949, <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party">Chairman</a> <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> replaced the common use of the term "女人" [nüren] with "妇女" [funü] as he famously said "妇女 [funü] 能顶半边天" (Women hold up half the sky).<a href="#cite_note-:13-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> "妇女" [funü] is a term for labouring women, which signifies the revolutionary role that women play in the liberation of China. The first celebration of "妇女节" (<a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">International Women's Day</a>) immediately after the establishment of CCP consolidated the representational strategies associated with "妇女" [funü].<a href="#cite_note-:13-8">[7]</a> During the Mao era, many policies were carried out to promote gender equality. The <a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">New Marriage Law</a> passed on May 1, 1950 outlawed forced marriage and concubinage.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> The last few regional practices of foot-binding died out, with the last case of foot-binding reported in 1957.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Leap_Forward" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Leap Forward">The Great Leap Forward</a>, while focusing on improving total productivity, created work opportunities for women. However, they still remained as peripheral roles and rarely climbed up to positions of decision-making.<a href="#cite_note-:22-14">[13]</a> The representation of women as "iron women" who worked restlessly in workplaces dismissed the unalleviated domestic burden that women were still forced to take and homogenized the individuality of women.<a href="#cite_note-:22-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:04-7">[6]</a> In contemporary China, although women's rights in China have improved tremendously, women still suffer a lower status compared with men.<a href="#cite_note-:04-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:102-6">[5]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">CCP general secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>, the gains of women have dropped compared to previous leaders.<a href="#cite_note-:102-6">[5]</a> After witnessing the growing feminist movements in China, the <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi Jinping Administration">government under Xi</a> shut down many activist NGOs and censored feminist platforms.<a href="#cite_note-:102-6">[5]</a> Feminism has been viewed by nationalists as a toxic Western ideology.<a href="#cite_note-:102-6">[5]</a> Xi Jinping has encouraged women to "actively foster a new type of marriage and childbearing culture."<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_development">Historical development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical development">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women in ancient and imperial China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_marriage" title="Traditional Chinese marriage">Traditional Chinese marriage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Tang_Dynasty_Empress_Wu_Zetian.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/A_Tang_Dynasty_Empress_Wu_Zetian.JPG/220px-A_Tang_Dynasty_Empress_Wu_Zetian.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/A_Tang_Dynasty_Empress_Wu_Zetian.JPG/330px-A_Tang_Dynasty_Empress_Wu_Zetian.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/A_Tang_Dynasty_Empress_Wu_Zetian.JPG 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Empress <a href="/wiki/Wu_Zetian" title="Wu Zetian">Wu Zetian</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_and_Imperial_China">Ancient and Imperial China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient and Imperial China">edit</a>]</div> Pre-modern Chinese society was predominantly <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal">patriarchal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilineal">patrilineal</a> from the 11th century B.C. onward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu200986-16">[15]</a> The freedoms and opportunities available to women varied depending on the time period and regional situation. Women's status, like men's, was closely tied to the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_kin" title="Chinese kin">Chinese kinship system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley19992-17">[16]</a> From the ancient Chinese views, the family structure is the micro-system of the political system. Therefore, loyalty towards the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> is the same as the women inside the family who should obey their husbands to fulfilled the rule that had been set up for a long tradition.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> A prejudiced preference for sons has long existed in China, leading to high rates of <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide" title="Female infanticide">female infanticide</a>. There was also a strong tradition of restricting women's <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a>, particularly that of upper-class women, which manifested through the practice of <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">foot binding</a>. However, the legal and social status of women has greatly changed in the 20th century, especially in the 1970s, after the <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">opening-up</a> policies were enacted.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cernuschi_Museum_20060812_164.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cernuschi_Museum_20060812_164.jpg/220px-Cernuschi_Museum_20060812_164.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cernuschi_Museum_20060812_164.jpg/330px-Cernuschi_Museum_20060812_164.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cernuschi_Museum_20060812_164.jpg/440px-Cernuschi_Museum_20060812_164.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Figurines of women, <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buste_de_suivante_(Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi)_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Buste_de_suivante_%28Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi%29_01.jpg/220px-Buste_de_suivante_%28Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi%29_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Buste_de_suivante_%28Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi%29_01.jpg/330px-Buste_de_suivante_%28Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi%29_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Buste_de_suivante_%28Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi%29_01.jpg/440px-Buste_de_suivante_%28Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi%29_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>Polychrome bust of a woman, <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> Older Chinese traditions surrounding marriage included many ritualistic steps. During the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, a marriage lacking a <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> or betrothal gift was seen as dishonorable. Only after gifts were exchanged would a marriage proceed; and the bride would be taken to live in the ancestral home of the new husband. Here, a wife was expected to live with the entirety of her husband's family and to follow all of their rules and beliefs. Many families followed the <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> teachings regarding honoring their elders. These rituals were passed down from father to son. Official family lists were compiled, containing the names of all the sons and wives. Brides who did not produce a son were written out of family lists. When a husband died, the bride was seen as the property of her spouse's family. <a href="/wiki/Ransoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Ransoms">Ransoms</a> were set by some brides' families to get their daughters back, though never with her children, who remained with her husband's family.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> In the late Qing dynasty period, extramarital sex by women and fornication (a label typically used to refer to pre-marital sex) by women were criminalized.<a href="#cite_note-:25-21">[20]</a>: 41  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_in_early_20th_century">Developments in early 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Developments in early 20th century">edit</a>]</div> Traditional family structures, including a multi-generational household in which paternal grandmothers dominated household life, persisted into the early years of the Republic of China.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> In the 1880s and 1890s, both male and female Chinese reformist intellectuals, concerned with the development of China to a modern country, raised feminist issues and gender equality in public debate; schools for girls were founded, a feminist press emerged, and the <a href="/wiki/Foot_Emancipation_Society" title="Foot Emancipation Society">Foot Emancipation Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tian_Zu_Hui" title="Tian Zu Hui">Tian Zu Hui</a>, promoting the abolition of foot binding.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> Early Reformers, including <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a>, a scholar, journalist, and political reformer in the last years of the Qing dynasty, were one of the first in late imperial China to consider "the woman question".<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> Many changes in women's lives took place during the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a>. In 1912 the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Suffrage_Alliance" title="Women's Suffrage Alliance">Women's Suffrage Alliance</a>, an umbrella organization of many local women's organizations, was founded to work for the inclusion of women's equal rights and suffrage in the constitution of the new republic after the abolition of the monarchy, and while the effort was not successful, it signified an important period of feminist activism.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> In November 1919, <a href="/wiki/Miss_Zhao%27s_suicide" title="Miss Zhao's suicide">Miss Zhao's suicide</a> sparked cultural debate regarding the role of modern women in social and political life.<a href="#cite_note-:4-26">[25]</a> A woman forced into an arranged marriage by her family, Miss Zhao, committed suicide by cutting her throat while being transported to the house of her would-be husband.<a href="#cite_note-:4-26">[25]</a> The formerly routine occurrence of a woman's suicide to avoid arranged marriage became an important center of debate for Chinese feminists.<a href="#cite_note-:4-26">[25]</a> Feminist commentators included Mao Zedong who published nine newspaper articles about the suicide and the need to overhaul societal norms relating to women.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> Simultaneously, <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Henrik Ibsen</a>'s play <a href="/wiki/A_Doll%27s_House" title="A Doll's House">A Doll's House</a> was newly-translated and being performed in Shanghai.<a href="#cite_note-:5-28">[27]</a> The example of the play's Nora further fueled radical intellectuals and the discussion of women's roles in China.<a href="#cite_note-:5-28">[27]</a> A generation of educated and professional <a href="/wiki/New_Woman" title="New Woman">new women</a> emerged after the inclusion of girls in the state school system and after women students were acted at the <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">University of Beijing</a> in 1920, and in the 1931 Civil Code, women were given equal inheritance rights, banned forced marriage and gave women the right to control their own money and initiate divorce.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> No nationally unified women's movement organized until China was unified under the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Government in Nanjing</a> in 1928; women's suffrage was included in the new Constitution of 1936, although the constitution was not implemented until 1947.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> Professor Lin Chun writes that "Women's liberation had been highlighted in the communist agenda from the outset, and, in that sense, the Chinese revolution was simultaneously a women's revolution, and Chinese socialism a women's cause."<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> By the 1920s, the Communist movement in China used a labor and peasant organizing strategy that combined workplace advocacy with women's rights advocacy.<a href="#cite_note-:6-32">[31]</a> The Communists would lead union organizing efforts among male workers while simultaneously working in nearby peasant communities on women's rights issues, including literacy for women.<a href="#cite_note-:6-32">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yang_Kaihui" title="Yang Kaihui">Yang Kaihui</a> were among the most effective Communist political organizers using this method.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> Poor peasant women were generally strong supporters of Communist Party programs.<a href="#cite_note-:42-34">[33]</a>: 157  During the White Terror that began with the 1927 <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai Massacre</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuomintang regime">Kuomintang</a> against the Communists, the Kuomintang specifically targeted women perceived as non-traditional.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[34]</a> Kuomintang forces presumed that women who had short hair and whom had not been subjected to the practice of <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">foot binding</a> were radicals.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[34]</a> Kuomintang forces cut their breasts off, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated corpses to cow the populace.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[34]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>, the Communists enacted women's rights measures in areas of the country they controlled.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> Orders issued by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Red Army</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviet</a> governments advanced the freedom to divorce and marry, liberating women from feudal marriages and resulting in women's strong support for the revolution.<a href="#cite_note-:21-37">[36]</a>: 181  In the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_base_area" title="Revolutionary base area">revolutionary base area</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi%E2%80%93Fujian_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet">Jiangxi</a>, the CCP-led authorities enacted the Marriage Regulations of 1931 and the Marriage Laws of 1941, which were modeled after Soviet Union statutes.<a href="#cite_note-:3-38">[37]</a> These statutes declared marriage as a free association between a woman and a man without the interference of other parties and permitted divorce on mutual agreement.<a href="#cite_note-:3-38">[37]</a> At the time, they were the most progressive marriage laws in China and created the conditions for women to divorce men they had been forced to marry, leave abusive spouses, and till their own land.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> Also during the Civil War, rural women were at the forefront of providing care to the dependents of men who fought in the Red Army, particularly through Women's Associations.<a href="#cite_note-:42-34">[33]</a>: 157  During <a href="/wiki/Land_Reform_Movement_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Land Reform Movement (China)">China's land reform movement</a> (which began after the defeat of the Japanese in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> and continued in the early years of the People's Republic of China), the Communist Party encouraged rural women in achieving a "double fanshen" - a revolutionary transformation as both a peasant and a feminist awakening as a woman.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> The Party urged rural women to reject traditional Chinese assumptions about their role in society.<a href="#cite_note-:20-41">[40]</a> In conjunction with land reform, the movement promoted women's issues such as the elimination of bride prices and reversing the stigma against widows remarrying.<a href="#cite_note-:20-41">[40]</a> The Party promoted successes in women's liberation, such as the progress of the <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> women of <a href="/wiki/Northwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest China">northwest China</a> who were said to have not just received land through the rural movement, but also "freedom over their own bodies" and embraced political participation.<a href="#cite_note-:20-41">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_in_the_People's_Republic_of_China">Developments in the People's Republic of China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Developments in the People's Republic of China">edit</a>]</div> After the founding of the PRC in 1949, newly-established local governments continued to prioritize women's political mobilization.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> Mao's statement that "women hold up half the sky" became a major slogan symbolizing the PRC's support for women's social and political equality with men.<a href="#cite_note-:21-37">[36]</a>: 298  The cultural stigma against young women working outside the home disintegrated.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> Chinese grandmothers increased their roles as caregivers for their grandchildren, facilitating younger women's opportunities for paid work.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> In a weakening of traditional Chinese <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineality</a>, grandmothers on the mother's side gained equal status to grandmothers on the father's side allowing them to fill gaps in childcare.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> Soon after its founding, the PRC passed the <a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">Marriage Law of 1950</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-38">[37]</a> It prohibited <a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">concubinage</a> and marriages when one party was sexually powerless, suffered from a venereal disease, <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> The law abolished arranged marriages, paying money or goods for a wife, and outlawed polygamy and child marriage.<a href="#cite_note-:3-38">[37]</a> Following the passage of the 1950 Marriage Law, mass campaigns promoted the principle of freely-chosen monogamous marriages and official registration of marriage.<a href="#cite_note-:532-47">[46]</a>: 70  John Engel, a professor of Family Resources at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii">University of Hawaii</a>, argues that the PRC established the Marriage Law of 1950 to redistribute wealth and achieve a classless society. The law "was intended to cause ... fundamental changes ... aimed at family revolution by destroying all former patterns ... and building up new relationships on the basis of the new law and new ethics."<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> Xiaorong Li, a researcher at the Institute for Philosophy and Public Policy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland,_Baltimore" title="University of Maryland, Baltimore">University of Maryland</a>, asserts that the Marriage Law of 1950 not only banned the most extreme forms of female subordination and oppression, but gave women the right to make their own marital decisions.<a href="#cite_note-Xiaorong-48">[47]</a> Several decades after the implementation of the 1950 Marriage Law, China still faced serious issues, particularly in population control.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> In the 1950s, high-level female Communist Party <a href="/wiki/Cadre_system_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Cadre system of the Chinese Communist Party">cadre</a> had a significant role in advocating for greater access to abortion and sterilization surgeries—in their view, women could not "<a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Chinese_communism" title="Feminism in Chinese communism">hold up half the sky</a>" nor advance their revolutionary work if they had too many children.<a href="#cite_note-:25-21">[20]</a>: 75  In the 1950s, the political campaign for "Five-Good Families" urged families to practice the principles of (1) "harmony between husbands and wives"; (2) "equality between men and women"; (3) "frugality in housekeeping"; (4) "solidarity among neighbors"; and (5) "honoring elders and caring for the young."<a href="#cite_note-:222-49">[48]</a> From the 1950s onwards, China sought to pursue gender equality by including women in the formal labor force.<a href="#cite_note-:532-47">[46]</a>: 132  In urban areas, this process was facilitated by the development of a network of public nurseries, daycare centers, and kindergartens.<a href="#cite_note-:532-47">[46]</a>: 132  In rural areas, working mothers obtained support from mothers-in-law and other extended family members, usually on the father's side.<a href="#cite_note-:532-47">[46]</a>: 132–133  <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Leap_Forward" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Leap Forward">The Great Leap Forward</a>'s focus on total workforce mobilization resulted in opportunities for women's labor advancement.<a href="#cite_note-:02-50">[49]</a> The necessity of mobilizing women's labor prompted the relaxing on birth control restrictions.<a href="#cite_note-:25-21">[20]</a>: 16  Increasing collectivization of labor brought more opportunities for women to "leave the home", thereby increasing their economic and personal independence.<a href="#cite_note-:21-37">[36]</a>: 297–298  The number of women in state institutions and <a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_China" title="State-owned enterprises of China">state-owned enterprises</a> more than tripled during the period 1957 to 1960.<a href="#cite_note-:022-51">[50]</a> As women became increasingly needed to work in agriculture and industry, and encouraged by policy to do so, the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Iron_Girls" title="Iron Girls">Iron Women</a> arose.<a href="#cite_note-:02-50">[49]</a> Women did traditionally male work in both fields and factories, including major movements of women into management positions.<a href="#cite_note-:12-52">[51]</a> Women competed for high productivity, and those who distinguished themselves came to be called Iron Women.<a href="#cite_note-:02-50">[49]</a> Women workers on the mobile film projection teams which brought <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">cinema</a> to rural China were promoted by media as <a href="/wiki/Model_worker" title="Model worker">model workers</a> and symbols of advancing gender equality.<a href="#cite_note-:122-53">[52]</a>: 104–105  Slogans such as "There is no difference between men and women in this new age," and "We can do anything, and anything we do, we can do it well," became popular.<a href="#cite_note-:022-51">[50]</a> Women's increasing roles in agricultural labor also had the indirect effect of supporting heavy industry campaign through increasing the availability of men for labor in projects such as the <a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front</a> construction.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a>: 151  During the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, one way China promoted its policy of state feminism was through <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_opera" title="Revolutionary opera">revolutionary opera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:03-55">[54]</a> Most of the eight model dramas in this period featured women as their main characters.<a href="#cite_note-:03-55">[54]</a> The narratives of these women protagonists begin with them oppressed by <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogyny</a>, class position, and imperialism before liberating themselves through the discovery of their own internal strength and the Communist Party.<a href="#cite_note-:03-55">[54]</a> A second marriage law was passed in 1980 and enacted in 1981.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> This New Marriage Law banned arranged and forced marriages and shifted the focus away from the dominance of men and onto the interests of children and women.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> Article 2 of the 1980 Marriage Law directly states: "the lawful rights and interests of women, children and the aged are protected. Family planning is practiced."<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> Adults, both men and women, also gained the right to lawful divorce.<a href="#cite_note-Tamney4-56">[55]</a> To fight the tenacity of tradition, Article 3 of the 1980 Marriage Law continued to ban concubinage, <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">bigamy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> The article forbade <a href="/wiki/Bride-buying" class="mw-redirect" title="Bride-buying">mercenary marriages</a> in which a <a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">bride price</a> or dowry is paid.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> According to Li, the traditional business of selling women in exchange for marriage returned after the law gave women the right to select their husbands.<a href="#cite_note-Xiaorong-48">[47]</a> In 1990, 18,692 cases were investigated by Chinese authorities.<a href="#cite_note-Xiaorong-48">[47]</a> Although the law generally prohibited the exaction of money or gifts in connection with marriage arrangements, bride price payments are still common in rural areas, though dowries have become smaller and less common.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] In urban areas the dowry custom has nearly disappeared. The bride price custom has since transformed into providing gifts for the bride or her family.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> Article 4 of the 1980 marriage law banned the usage of compulsion or the interference of third parties, stating: "marriage must be based upon the complete willingness of the two parties."<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> As Engel argues, the law also encouraged gender equality by making daughters just as valuable as sons, particularly in the potential for old-age insurance. Article 8 states: "after a marriage has been registered, the woman may become a member of the man's family, or the man may become a member of the woman's family, according to the agreed wishes of the two parties."<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> In 2001, the Marriage Law was further revised to protect women from the harmful social trends following China's market reforms, such as polygamy by wealthy men and underpaid female labor.<a href="#cite_note-:11-58">[57]</a> The law was deliberated via an open revision process which included input from feminist academics and women lawyers.<a href="#cite_note-:11-58">[57]</a> Other civil and criminal laws were also amended to better protect women's rights and interests, including the inheritance law.<a href="#cite_note-:11-58">[57]</a> In rural areas, women are often not conferred equal property rights depending on marriage relations.<a href="#cite_note-:27-59">[58]</a> In 2019 a government directive was released banning employers in China from posting "men preferred" or "men only" job advertising, and banning companies from asking women seeking jobs about their childbearing and marriage plans or requiring applicants to take pregnancy tests.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_and_family">Women and family</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Women and family">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage_and_family_planning">Marriage and family planning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Marriage and family planning">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_modern_China" title="Marriage in modern China">Marriage in modern China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madonna_of_China_NGM-v31-p555.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Madonna_of_China_NGM-v31-p555.jpg/220px-Madonna_of_China_NGM-v31-p555.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Madonna_of_China_NGM-v31-p555.jpg/330px-Madonna_of_China_NGM-v31-p555.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Madonna_of_China_NGM-v31-p555.jpg/440px-Madonna_of_China_NGM-v31-p555.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1631" /></a><figcaption>Mother carrying two children, 1917</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_marriage" title="Traditional Chinese marriage">Traditional marriage</a> in pre-revolutionary China was a contract between families rather than between individuals.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> The parents of the soon-to-be groom and bride <a href="/wiki/Arranged_marriage" title="Arranged marriage">arranged the marriage</a> with an emphasis on alliance between the two families.<a href="#cite_note-Tamney4-56">[55]</a> Spouse selection was based on family needs and the socioeconomic status of the potential mate, rather than love or attraction.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> Although the woman's role varied slightly with the husband's social status, typically her main duty was to provide a son to continue the family name.<a href="#cite_note-Yao-61">[60]</a> Arranged marriages were accomplished by a <a href="/wiki/Matchmaking" title="Matchmaking">matchmaker</a>, who acted as a link between the two families.<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> The arrangement of a marriage involved the negotiation of a <a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">bride price</a>, gifts to be bestowed to the bride's family, and occasionally a <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> of clothing, furniture, or jewelry from the bride's family for use in her new home.<a href="#cite_note-engel-46">[45]</a> Exchange of monetary compensation for a woman's hand in marriage was also used in purchase marriages.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Japanese invasion of China during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> strained traditional family structures.<a href="#cite_note-:17-63">[62]</a> It resulted in mass separations of the old from the young, particularly as the young fled into areas not under Japanese occupation or became soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-:17-63">[62]</a> As a result of the war, young women were also able to find work outside the home, which provided liberty from the traditional households.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> In 2013, <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a> stated that it was necessary for women to be "good wives and mothers" to ensure the "healthy growth of the next generation".<a href="#cite_note-:7-65">[64]</a> During the 2020 <a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a>, a civil code was adopted which contained a number of significant changes for China's laws on marriage and family.<a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[65]</a> A 30-day "cooling off period" was added to divorce proceedings. Before then, some divorces were finalized within hours of application, leading to concerns about impulsive divorces.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> In addition the new civil code continues to define marriage as only between a man and a woman.<a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[65]</a> The state news agency <a href="/wiki/Xinhua_News_Agency" title="Xinhua News Agency">Xinhua</a> described the new civil code as guarantying "a harmonious family and society".<a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[65]</a> Writing for <a href="/wiki/The_Diplomat" title="The Diplomat">The Diplomat</a>, Chauncey Jung writes that these revisions to the civil code complete a transition from the women hold up half of the sky era in which, at least rhetorically, China was one of the most progressive nations in the world in terms of women's rights to more regressive era of "strong family values for a harmonious society".<a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[65]</a> In 2022, an amendment to the Women's Rights and Interests Protection Law directed women to protect "family values".<a href="#cite_note-:7-65">[64]</a> In 2024, local governments were reported to call women to inquire about their pregnancy status, menstruation cycles, and intentions to have children.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Policies_on_divorce">Policies on divorce</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Policies on divorce">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">Marriage Law of 1950</a> empowered women to initiate divorce proceedings.<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> According to Elaine Jeffreys, an <a href="/wiki/Australian_Research_Council" title="Australian Research Council">Australian Research Council</a> Future Fellow and associate professor in China studies, divorce requests were only granted if they were justified by politically proper reasons. These requests were mediated by party-affiliated organizations, rather than accredited legal systems.<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> Chinese women were praised in society if they refused remarriage and remained alive to take care of their spouse's family.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> Ralph Haughwout Folsom, a professor of Chinese law, <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/International_business" title="International business">international business</a> transactions at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_San_Diego" title="University of San Diego">University of San Diego</a>, and John H. Minan, a trial attorney in the Civil Division of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Justice">U.S. Department of Justice</a> and a law professor at the University of San Diego, argue that the Marriage Law of 1950 allowed for much flexibility in the refusal of <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a> when only one party sought it. During the market-based economic reforms, China re-instituted a formal legal system and implemented provisions for divorce on a more individualized basis.<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> Jeffreys asserts that the Marriage Law of 1980 provided for divorce on the basis that emotions or mutual affections were broken.<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> As a result of the more liberal grounds for divorce, the divorce rates soared.<a href="#cite_note-folsom-73">[72]</a> As women began divorcing their husbands tensions increased and men resisted, especially in rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-kay-74">[73]</a> Although divorce was now legally recognized, thousands of women lost their lives for attempting to divorce their husbands and some committed suicide when the right to divorce was withheld.<a href="#cite_note-kay-74">[73]</a> Divorce, once seen as a rare act during the <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao era</a> (1949–1976), has become more common with rates continuing to increase.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> Along with this increase in divorce, it became evident that divorced women were often given an unfair share or housing and property.<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> The amended Marriage Law of 2001, which according to Jeffreys was designed to protect women's rights, provided a solution to this problem by reverting to a "moralistic fault-based system with a renewed focus on <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivist</a> mechanisms to protect marriage and family".<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> Although all property acquired during a marriage was seen as jointly-held,<a href="#cite_note-folsom-73">[72]</a> it was not until the implementation of Article 46 of the 2001 Marriage Law that the concealment of <a href="/wiki/Joint_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint property">joint property</a> was punishable.<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> This was enacted to ensure a fair division during a divorce.<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> The article also granted the right for a party to request compensation from a spouse who committed illegal <a href="/wiki/Cohabitation" title="Cohabitation">cohabitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">bigamy</a>, and family violence or <a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">desertion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Elaine-71">[70]</a> During <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi Jinping Administration">leadership</a>, the resurgent propaganda of traditional family values in Chinese discourse with the aim to increase birth rate created more obstacles more divorce.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> In 2020, the "民法典" [minfadian; Civil Code] adopted at the Third Session of the Thirteenth National People's Congress on May 28 introduced a 30-day "cool-off period" for divorce.<a href="#cite_note-:0-77">[76]</a> Article 2077 in Book Five Chapter IV states "Where either party is unwilling to divorce, he may withdraw the divorce registration application within thirty days after such an application is received by the marriage registration authority. Within thirty days after expiration of the period provided in the preceding paragraph, both parties shall personally visit the marriage registration authority to apply for issuance of a divorce certificate, and failing to do so will cause the divorce registration application to be deemed as withdrawn."<a href="#cite_note-:0-77">[76]</a> The news regarding the implementation of "cool-off period" immediately triggered widespread outrage on social media platforms, for many think it interferes with their marital freedom and even jeopardizes the condition for victims of domestic violence.<a href="#cite_note-:14-78">[77]</a> Regarding the worries of the general public, the Legislative Affairs Commission with the NPC Standing Committee claims that extreme situations including domestic violence and drug abuse do not need a "cool-off period" which only concerns with consensual divorce and those cases would be solved by lawsuit.<a href="#cite_note-:14-78">[77]</a> However, several cases of domestic violence or murder after the "cool-off period" came in effect pose doubts regarding the reality of such practice.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_wives">Second wives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Second wives">edit</a>]</div> In traditional China, polygamy was legal and having a concubine was considered a luxury for aristocratic families.<a href="#cite_note-Suowei_Xiao-80">[79]</a> Dynastic ambitions were the formal justification for polygamy in that era, as important families sought to increase the number of sons and cement their social and economic ambitions through arranged marriage.<a href="#cite_note-:9-81">[80]</a> Male sexual gratification was also an underlying motivation for polygamy, and concubines were typically younger than wives and chosen for looks rather than social status.<a href="#cite_note-:9-81">[80]</a> Polygamy continued into the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> era under the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lary_2022_121-82">[81]</a> During the nationalist period, other forms of polygamy emerged.<a href="#cite_note-:10-83">[82]</a> One form included two wives but not polygamous cohabitation - for example, if a young man had an arranged marriage in his village and then married a second time while at university.<a href="#cite_note-:10-83">[82]</a> Another form included dual families where a man married and had a family in China and married again while living and traveling abroad.<a href="#cite_note-Lary_2022_121-82">[81]</a> In the 1930s and 1940s, a man could only have one official wife, but polygamy remained in wealthier households where in addition to an official wife, a wealthy man might have a concubine.<a href="#cite_note-:532-47">[46]</a>: 70  In 1950, polygamy was outlawed, but the phenomenon of de facto polygamy, or so-called "second wives" (二奶 èrnǎi in Chinese), has reemerged in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a> When polygamy was legal, women were more tolerant of their husband's extramarital affairs. Today, women who discover that their husband has a "second wife" are less tolerant, and since the New Marriage Law of 1950 can ask for a divorce.<a href="#cite_note-C._Simon_Fan_and_Hon-Kwong_Liu_2004_442–452-85">[84]</a> The sudden <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> in China brought two types of people together: young female workers and rich businessmen from cities like <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>. In British-ruled Hong Kong, polygamy was legal until 1971 pursuant to the British colonial practice of not interfering in local customs that Britain viewed as relatively harmless to the public order.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> A number of rich businessmen are attracted to these economically dependent women and started relationships known as "keeping a second wife" (bao yinai) in <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-C._Simon_Fan_and_Hon-Kwong_Liu_2004_442–452-85">[84]</a> Some migrant women who struggle to find husbands become second wives and lovers.<a href="#cite_note-Graeme_Lang_and_Josephine_Smart_2002_546–569-87">[86]</a> There are many villages in the southern part of China where predominantly these "second wives" live.<a href="#cite_note-Graeme_Lang_and_Josephine_Smart_2002_546–569-87">[86]</a> The men come and spend a large amount of time in these villages every year while their first wife and family stay in the city.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> The relationships can range from just being casual paid sexual transactions to long-term relationships. If a relationship does develop more, some of the Chinese women quit their job and become 'live-in lovers' whose main job is to please the working man.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-89">[88]</a> The first wives in these situations have a hard time and deal with it in different ways. Women that are far away from their husbands do not have many options. Even if the wives do move to mainland China with their husbands, the businessman still finds ways to carry on affairs. Some wives follow the <a href="/wiki/Motto" title="Motto">motto</a> "one eye open, with the other eye closed" meaning they understand their husbands are bound to cheat but want to make sure they practice safe sex and do not bring home other children.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-89">[88]</a> Many first wives downplay the father's role to try to address the children's questions about a father that is often absent. Other women fear for their financial situations and protect their rights by putting the house and other major assets in their own names.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-89">[88]</a> This situation has created many social and legal issues. Unlike previous generations of <a href="/wiki/Arranged_marriage" title="Arranged marriage">arranged marriages</a>, the modern polygamy is more often voluntary.<a href="#cite_note-Graeme_Lang_and_Josephine_Smart_2002_546–569-87">[86]</a> Women in China face serious pressures to be married, by family and friends. There is a derogatory term for women who are not married by the time they are in their late twenties, <a href="/wiki/Sheng_nu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheng nu">sheng nu</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">History of education in China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education in China</a></div> Female primary and secondary school enrollment suffered more than male enrollment during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a> (1958–1961), and in 1961 there was a further sudden decrease.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer-90">[89]</a> As of 2023, Chinese girls receive more schooling on average than boys.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 69  A number of studies attribute the improvement in girls' schooling to the effects of the <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child policy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 69  Gender disparity persisted into the 1990s for tertiary institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer-90">[89]</a> By 2009, however, half of all college students were women.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 69  China's rate of increase in women's higher education levels has been substantially greater than countries with similar, and some countries with higher, per capita income levels.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 69  Studies for the years 2000-2009 found that Chinese women had higher financial returns on education than men did, with an 11-12% return per year of schooling compared with 6-7% for men.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 69  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_care">Health care</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Health care">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">Women's health in China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Girl_with_chopsticks_at_dumpling_restaurant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Girl_with_chopsticks_at_dumpling_restaurant.jpg/220px-Girl_with_chopsticks_at_dumpling_restaurant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Girl_with_chopsticks_at_dumpling_restaurant.jpg/330px-Girl_with_chopsticks_at_dumpling_restaurant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Girl_with_chopsticks_at_dumpling_restaurant.jpg/440px-Girl_with_chopsticks_at_dumpling_restaurant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2274" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A teenage girl with chopsticks</figcaption></figure> In traditional Chinese culture, which was a <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">patriarchal society based on Confucian ideology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">healthcare</a> system was tailored for men, and women were not prioritized.<a href="#cite_note-hong-92">[91]</a> Traditional culture emphasized the role of grandmothers in the management of childbirth.<a href="#cite_note-Lary_2022_42-93">[92]</a> Chinese health care has since undergone much reform and has tried to provide men and women with equal health care. The People's Republic of China has enacted various laws to protect the health care rights of women, including the Maternal and Child Care law.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This law and numerous others focus on protecting the rights of all women in the People's Republic of China.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the PRC's early years, traditional midwives came to be viewed as dirty and unscientific.<a href="#cite_note-Lary_2022_42-93">[92]</a> By 1959, over 750,000 midwives were retrained with some modern medical practice, but only 5,300 were fully modern trained midwives.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> With China's program of <a href="/wiki/Barefoot_doctor" title="Barefoot doctor">barefoot doctors</a>, perinatal practitioners were often older women.<a href="#cite_note-:16-95">[94]</a> Their work was effective, with much of the 1950s and 1960s population boom resulting from the decline in infant mortality.<a href="#cite_note-:16-95">[94]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> (1966–1976), the People's Republic of China began to focus on the provision of health care for women.<a href="#cite_note-hong-92">[91]</a> This change was apparent when the women in the workforce were granted health care. Health care policy required all women workers to receive <a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">urinalysis</a> and vaginal examinations yearly.<a href="#cite_note-hong-92">[91]</a> For women in China today, the most common type of cancer is <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Health_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="The World Health Organization">The World Health Organization</a> (WHO) suggests using routine screening to detect cervical cancer. However, information on cervical cancer screening is not widely available for women in China.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion in China</a> is legal and generally accessible.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> Abortions are widely-accepted and available to all women through China's family planning programme, public hospitals, private hospitals, and clinics nationwide.<a href="#cite_note-:24-98">[97]</a> In August 2022, the <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Commission" title="National Health Commission">National Health Commission</a> announced that it would direct measures toward "preventing unintended pregnancy and reducing abortions that are not medically necessary" in an effort to boost population growth.<a href="#cite_note-:32-99">[98]</a> The announced support measures include improvements with regard to insurance and taxation, improvements for education and housing, and encouraging local governments to boost infant care services and family friendly workplaces.<a href="#cite_note-:32-99">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnic_and_religious_minorities">Ethnic and religious minorities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ethnic and religious minorities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Girl_of_Tibet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Girl_of_Tibet.jpg/220px-Girl_of_Tibet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Girl_of_Tibet.jpg/330px-Girl_of_Tibet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Girl_of_Tibet.jpg/440px-Girl_of_Tibet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="734" /></a><figcaption>Girl from <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a></figcaption></figure> After the founding of People's Republic of China in 1949, the <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a> government authorities called traditional <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> customs on women "backwards or feudal".<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hui_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hui Chinese">Hui</a> Muslim women have internalized the concept of gender equality because they view themselves as not just Muslims but Chinese citizens, so they have the right to exercise rights like initiating divorce.<a href="#cite_note-WomenMosques-101">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-:28-102">[101]</a> A unique feature of <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam in China</a> is the presence of female-only <a href="/wiki/Mosques" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosques">mosques</a>. Women in China can act as prayer leaders and also become <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">imams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> Female-only mosques grant women more power over religious affairs. This is rare by global standards. By comparison, the first women's mosque in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> didn't open until January 2015.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> Among the <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui people</a> (but not other Muslim ethnic minorities such as the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Uyghur people">Uyghurs</a>) Quranic schools for girls evolved into woman-only mosques and women acted as imams as early as 1820.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> These imams are known as nü ahong (女阿訇), i.e. "female <a href="/wiki/Akhoond" class="mw-redirect" title="Akhoond">akhoond</a>", and they guide female Muslims in worship and prayer.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> Due to <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> having tight control over religious practices, Chinese Muslims are isolated from trends of radical Islam which emerged after the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>. According to Dr <a href="/wiki/Khaled_Abou_El_Fadl" title="Khaled Abou El Fadl">Khaled Abou El Fadl</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_in_Los_Angeles" class="mw-redirect" title="University of California in Los Angeles">University of California in Los Angeles</a>, this explains the situation whereby female imams, an ancient tradition long ended elsewhere, continue to exist in China.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> Among <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a>, it was believed that God designed women to endure hardship and work. The word for "helpless one", ʿājiza, was used for women who were not married, while women who were married were called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mazl%C5%ABm&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mazlūm (page does not exist)">mazlūm</a> in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>; however, divorce and remarriage was facile for the women.<a href="#cite_note-DaniMasson2003-108">[107]</a> The modern Uyghur dialect in <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a> uses the Arabic word for oppressed, maẓlum, to refer to "married old woman" and pronounce it as mäzim.<a href="#cite_note-Yakup2005-109">[108]</a> Women were normally referred to as "oppressed person" (mazlum-kishi). 13 or 12 years old was the age of marriage for women in <a href="/wiki/Hotan" title="Hotan">Khotan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yarkant_County" title="Yarkant County">Yarkand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> During the last years of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">imperial China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Xinjiang" title="Christianity in Xinjiang">Swedish Christian missionaries</a> observed the oppressive conditions for Uyghur Muslim women in Xinjiang during their stay between 1892 and 1938. Uyghur Muslim women were oppressed and often held domestic service positions, while <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> women were free and given a choice of profession.<a href="#cite_note-WomenMosques-101">[100]</a> When Uyghur Muslim women married Han Chinese men, the women were hated by their families and people. The Uyghur Muslims viewed single unmarried women as prostitutes and held them in extreme disregard.<a href="#cite_note-:28-102">[101]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Child marriages for girls were very common and the Uyghurs called girls "overripe" if they were not married by 15 or 16 years old. Four wives were allowed along with any number of temporary marriages contracted by <a href="/wiki/Mullahs" class="mw-redirect" title="Mullahs">Mullahs</a> to "pleasure wives" for a set time period.<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> Divorce and marriage was rampant, each being conducted by Mullahs simultaneously, and some men married hundreds of women and could divorce their wives for no given reason. Wives were forced to stay in the household, to be obedient to their husbands, and were judged according to how many children they could bear. Unmarried women were viewed as whores and many children were born with <a href="/wiki/Venereal_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Venereal diseases">venereal diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The birth of a girl was seen as a terrible calamity by the local Uyghur Muslims and boys were worth more to them. The constant stream of marriage and divorces led to children being mistreated by stepparents.<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] A Swedish missionary said "These girls were surely the first girls in Eastern Turkestan who had had a real youth before getting married. The Muslim woman has no youth. Directly from childhood's carefree playing of games, she enters life's bitter everyday toil… She is but a child and a wife." The <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad#Aisha" title="Criticism of Muhammad">marriage of 9 year old</a> <a href="/wiki/Aisha" title="Aisha">Aisha</a> to the Prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> was cited by Uyghur Muslims to justify <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children#Marriage" title="Islam and children">marrying girl children</a>, whom they viewed as mere products. The Muslims also attacked the Swedish <a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Christian mission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> resident in the city.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">Lobbying</a> by Swedish Christian missionaries led to child marriage for under 15-year-old girls to be banned by the Chinese Governor in <a href="/wiki/Urumqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Urumqi">Urumqi</a>, although the Uyghur Muslims ignored the law.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_control">Population control</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Population control">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="One-child_policy">One-child policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: One-child policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/One-child_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-child Policy">One-child Policy</a></div> In 1956, the Chinese government publicly announced its goal to control the exponentially increasing population size. The government planned to use education and publicity as their main modes of increasing awareness.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> launched the first program for smaller families under the guidance of Madame Li Teh-chuan, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Health of the People's Republic of China">Minister of Health</a> at the time. During this time, family planning and contraceptive usage were highly publicized and encouraged.<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> The One-child policy, initiated in 1978 and first applied in 1979, mandated that each married couple may bear only one child except in the case of special circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-Palmer-118">[117]</a> These conditions included, "the birth of a first child who has developed a non-hereditary disability that will make it difficult to perform productive labour later in life, the fact that both husband and wife are themselves single children, a misdiagnosis of barrenness in the wife combined with a passage of more than five years after the adoption of a child, and a remarrying husband and wife who have between them only one child."<a href="#cite_note-Palmer-118">[117]</a> The law was replaced by a <a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">two-child policy</a> in 2015,<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> and then a three-child policy in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> On July 26, 2021, all restrictions were lifted, allowing Chinese couples to have any number of children.<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sex-selective_abortion">Sex-selective abortion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sex-selective abortion">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg/250px-G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg/375px-G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg/500px-G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A roadside slogan calls motorists to crack down on medically unnecessary antenatal sex identification and sex-selective pregnancy termination practices. (<a href="/wiki/Daye,_Hubei" class="mw-redirect" title="Daye, Hubei">Daye, Hubei</a>, 2008)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of China">Missing women of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_China" title="Female infanticide in China">Female infanticide in China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_gender_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by gender ratio">List of Chinese administrative divisions by gender ratio</a></div> In China, males are traditionally thought to be of greater value to a family because they take on greater responsibilities, have the capacity to earn higher wages, continue the family line, receive an inheritance, and are able to care for their elderly parents.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> The preference for sons coupled with the one-child-policy have led to a high rate of <a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">sex-selective abortion</a> in China. Therefore, mainland China has a highly masculine <a href="/wiki/Sex_ratio" title="Sex ratio">sex ratio</a>. <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>-winning economist, asserted in 1990 that over 100 million women were missing globally, with 50 million <a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of China">women missing from China</a> alone. Sen attributed the deficit in the number of women to <a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">sex-selective abortion</a>, female <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a>, and inadequate nutrition for girls, all of which have were exacerbated by the <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sen-124">[123]</a> In 1986, the National Commission for Family Planning and the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(China)" title="Ministry of Health (China)">Ministry of Health</a> prohibited prenatal sex determination except when diagnosing hereditary diseases.<a href="#cite_note-:25-21">[20]</a>: 191 Individuals or clinics that violate the prohibition are subject to fines.<a href="#cite_note-:25-21">[20]</a>: 191  This prohibition was repeatedly affirmed in the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-:25-21">[20]</a>: 191 Since the 1990s, government efforts to promote daughter/son equality in <a href="/wiki/Family_planning_policies_of_China" title="Family planning policies of China">family planning</a> and to eliminate the traditional <a href="/wiki/Son_preference_in_China" title="Son preference in China">son preference in China</a> have increased, further accelerating after the United Nations-sponsored Caring for Girls national campaign in 2003.<a href="#cite_note-:532-47">[46]</a>: 6–7  Sex-selective abortions in China are illegal.<a href="#cite_note-:52-125">[124]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Human_sex_ratio" title="Human sex ratio">sex ratio</a> between male and female births in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> reached 117:100 in the year 2000, substantially more masculine than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103:100 and 107:100. It had risen from 108:100 in 1981—at the boundary of the natural baseline—to 111:100 in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> When family planning policies limited the number of children a family could have, immense social pressures are placed upon women. Women are mostly blamed when giving birth to a girl. Women were subjected to forced abortions if they appear to be having a girl.<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> This situation led to higher female infanticide rates and female deaths in China. Other Asian regions also have higher than average ratios, including <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> (110:100), which does not have a family planning policy.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> Many studies have explored the reason for the gender-based birthrate disparity in China as well as other countries. A study in 1990 attributed the high preponderance of reported male births in mainland China to four main causes: diseases which affect females more severely than males; the result of widespread under-reporting of female births;<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a> the illegal practice of sex-selective abortion made possible by the widespread availability of <a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">ultrasound</a>; and finally, acts of <a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">child abandonment</a> and infanticide. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_Fist_Campaign">Iron Fist Campaign</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Iron Fist Campaign">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Fist_Campaign" title="Iron Fist Campaign">Iron Fist Campaign</a></div> According to reports by <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>, family planning officials in <a href="/wiki/Puning" title="Puning">Puning</a> City, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> Province, launched the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Fist_Campaign" title="Iron Fist Campaign">Iron Fist Campaign</a> in April 2010.<a href="#cite_note-Amnesty-130">[129]</a> This campaign targeted individuals for <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(medicine)" title="Sterilization (medicine)">sterilization</a> in an attempt to control <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>. The targeted individuals were asked to go to governmental clinics where they would be sterilized. If they refused the procedure, then they put their families at risk for <a href="/wiki/Detainment" class="mw-redirect" title="Detainment">detainment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Amnesty-130">[129]</a> The Iron Fist Campaign lasted for 20 days and targeted 9,559 individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Amnesty-130">[129]</a> Approximately 50 percent consented and 1,377 relatives of targeted couples were detained.<a href="#cite_note-Amnesty-130">[129]</a> Family planning officials defended the Iron Fist Campaign, asserting that the large population of migrant workers in Puning misunderstood the One-child policy and therefore had not complied with family planning regulations.<a href="#cite_note-Amnesty-130">[129]</a> In an attempt to standardize family planning policies across all of China, the Population and Family Planning Law of 2002 was implemented, which protects individual rights and bans the usage of coercion or detainment.<a href="#cite_note-Amnesty-130">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Property_ownership">Property ownership</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Property ownership">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese property law">Chinese property law</a></div> In current-day China, women enjoy legal <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">equal rights</a> to <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, but in practice, these rights can be rescinded.<a href="#cite_note-:26-131">[130]</a> Chinese women have historically held little rights to private property, both by societal customs and by law. In <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">imperial China</a> (before 1911 C.E.), family households held property collectively, rather than as individual members of the household. This property customarily belonged to the family ancestral clan, with legal control belonging to the family head, or the eldest male.<a href="#cite_note-birge-132">[131]</a> Ancestry in imperial China was <a href="/wiki/Patrilinearity" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilinearity">patrilineal</a>, or passed through the male, and women could not share in the family property.<a href="#cite_note-mccreery-133">[132]</a> Upon the death of the head of the household, the property was passed to the eldest son. In the absence of an eligible son, a family would often adopt a son to continue the family line and property.<a href="#cite_note-bernhardt-134">[133]</a> However, as Kathryn Bernhardt, a scholar of Chinese history points out, nearly one in three women during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279 C.E.) would either have no brothers or no sons, leaving them with some agency over family property. In these cases, unmarried daughters would receive their fathers' property in the absence of direct male descendants, or an unmarried widow would choose the family heir.<a href="#cite_note-bernhardt-134">[133]</a> A law enacted during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644 C.E.) required that in the absence of a direct male descendant, a man's property was to go to his nephews. With this change in law, women's access to private property was even more restricted. At that point, only if none of a man's sons and none of his brothers' sons were alive to inherit property would a daughter receive the inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-mccreery-133">[132]</a> In most cases, the most control over family property that a widow would receive was maintenance, or the agency to control the property while an heir came of age.<a href="#cite_note-bernhardt-134">[133]</a> In some cases after some reforms in the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1912), some women could retain maintenance over undivided property even after their sons came of age.<a href="#cite_note-ocko-135">[134]</a> Law during the Republican era interpreted this to mean that widows held complete power over sons in control of the family property.<a href="#cite_note-ocko-135">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Nationalist Party">Kuomintang</a>, which assumed power over China in 1911, publicly advocated for gender equality, though not very many changes in property rights went into effect until the enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the Republic of China">Republican Civil Code</a> in 1930, which changed the definitions of property and family inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-bernhardt-134">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-ocko-135">[134]</a> The code specified that family property legally belonged to the father, with no connection to the ancestral clan.<a href="#cite_note-bernhardt-134">[133]</a> Inheritance of this property was based on direct <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">lineage</a>, regardless of gender, so that sons and daughters would receive an equal share of family property upon the death of their parents. Furthermore, a man's will or appointment of a different heir could not fully bypass the legally mandated inheritance structures, preventing families from holding onto gender-discriminatory customs.<a href="#cite_note-bernhardt-134">[133]</a> Despite the law's equitable wording on the property, some scholars, such as Deborah Davis and Kathryn Bernhardt, point out that the legal definitions regarding property may not have entirely changed the practices of the general public.<a href="#cite_note-bernhardt-134">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-davis-136">[135]</a> The <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC), which assumed control in 1949, also promised <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a>. The PRC's approach was different from the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>. With regards to land, all land was owned by the state and allocated for people to use, so technically no individual, male or female, owned land. In 1978, the Chinese government set up a household farming system that split agricultural land into small plots for villages to allocate to citizens.<a href="#cite_note-Hare-137">[136]</a> The land was distributed to households with legal responsibility in the family head or the eldest male. A woman's access to land was then contingent on her being part of a household. Land leases were technically supposed to transfer with marriage to a woman's marital family, meaning women could potentially lose land upon marriage.<a href="#cite_note-:26-131">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-chen-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-:27-59">[58]</a> In some rural areas, women can lose property rights if they marry outside of the village.<a href="#cite_note-:27-59">[58]</a> For property other than land, new Chinese laws allow for the distinction between personal and <a href="/wiki/Communal_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Communal property">communal property</a>. Married couples can simultaneously own some things individually while sharing others with their spouse and family. With regard to divorce, Chinese law generally demands a 50/50 split of property. The <a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">Marriage Law of 1980</a> defined different types of divorce that would split the conjugal property differently, such as instances of <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adultery</a> or domestic violence.<a href="#cite_note-davis-136">[135]</a> Since most divorce disputes are settled at a local level, the law allows courts to review specific situations and make decisions in the best interest of the children. Typically, such a decision would simultaneously favor the mother, especially in disputes over a house where the children would live. In some divorce disputes "ownership" and "use" over property would be distinguished, giving a mother and child "use" of the family house without awarding the mother full ownership of the house.<a href="#cite_note-davis-136">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Employment">Employment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Employment">edit</a>]</div> If female <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labor force</a> participation is used as the indicator to measure gender equality, China would be one of the most <a href="/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a> countries in the world: female labor force participation in China increased dramatically after the founding of the People's Republic and almost reached a universal level.<a href="#cite_note-bridgew.edu-139">[138]</a> Women's participation in the work force had been a policy goal since 1949, and increased greatly during the Great Leap Forward, as the need for total workforce mobilization in that period caused women to take on traditionally male roles.<a href="#cite_note-:02-50">[49]</a> According to a study by Bauer et al., of women who married between 1950 and 1965, 70 percent had jobs, and women who married between 1966 and 1976, 92 percent had jobs.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer-90">[89]</a> In 1982, Chinese working women represented 43 percent of the total population, a larger proportion than either working American women (35.3 percent) or working Japanese women (36 percent).<a href="#cite_note-Chen,_C.C._and_Yu,_KC_and_Miner,_JB_1997_160-140">[139]</a> As a result of the increased participation in the labor force, women's contribution to family income increased from 20 percent in the 1950s to 40 percent in the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-Chen,_C.C._and_Yu,_KC_and_Miner,_JB_1997_160-140">[139]</a> China has the world's most gender-balanced technical and professional work force and exceptional wage equality between women and men.<a href="#cite_note-:72-141">[140]</a>: 1  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural_work">Rural work</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Rural work">edit</a>]</div> In traditional China, the land was passed down from father to son and in the case of no son, the land was then given to a close male relative.<a href="#cite_note-matthews-142">[141]</a> Although in the past women in China were not granted ownership of land, today in rural areas of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, women possess pivotal roles in farming, which allows them control over the area's central sources of production.<a href="#cite_note-phatom-143">[142]</a> Population greatly affects the mode of farming that is utilized, which determines the duties women have.<a href="#cite_note-Woman-Work-144">[143]</a> According to tishwayan Thomas Rawski, a professor of Economics and History at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh" title="University of Pittsburgh">University of Pittsburgh</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a> method is utilized in less populated areas and results in women performing more of the agricultural duties, whereas in more populated areas complicated <a href="/wiki/Hoe-farming" title="Hoe-farming">plough cultivation</a> is used.<a href="#cite_note-Rasul_2003_495–508-145">[144]</a> Men typically performs <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a> cultivation, but during periods of high demand women pitch in with agricultural duties of planting, harvesting and transporting.<a href="#cite_note-Women's_Role_in_Economic_Development-146">[145]</a> Women also have key roles in <a href="/wiki/Tea_cultivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tea cultivation">tea cultivation</a> and double-cropping rice.<a href="#cite_note-Woman-Work-144">[143]</a> Agricultural income is supplemented by women's work in animal rearing, spinning, basket construction, weaving, and the production of other various crafts.<a href="#cite_note-Woman-Work-144">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_and_migrant_work">Urban and migrant work</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Urban and migrant work">edit</a>]</div> In China, only the person who works (not their spouse) receives <a href="/wiki/Social_security_in_China" title="Social security in China">social security</a> benefits.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-147">[146]</a>: 241  This is a factor contributing to women's high participation in the urban workplace.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-147">[146]</a>: 241  The People's Republic of China's dependence on low-wage manufacturing to produce goods for the <a href="/wiki/International_market" class="mw-redirect" title="International market">international market</a> is due to changes in <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">China's economic policies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gender_and_Change-148">[147]</a> These economic policies have also encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Export" title="Export">export</a> industries.<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> Urban industrial areas are staffed with young migrant women workers who leave their rural homes. Since males are more likely than females to attend college, rural females often migrate to urban employment in hopes of supplementing their families' incomes.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Migrant-150">[149]</a> In 1984 the reform of the Regulations of Permanent Residence Registration marked an increase in the migration of rural Chinese workers. As the restrictions on residence became more lenient, less penalizing, and permitted people to travel to find employment, more women engaged in <a href="/wiki/Migrant_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Migrant labor">migrant labor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Migrant-150">[149]</a> In the cities, women could find low-paying work as factory workers. These increased employment opportunities drew women out of rural areas in hopes of escaping poverty.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Migrant-150">[149]</a> Although this reformed system enabled the migration of rural residents, it prohibited them from accepting any benefits in the cities or changing their permanent residence, which led to a majority of <a href="/wiki/Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">migrant workers</a> not receiving any forms of medical care, education, or housing.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Migrant-150">[149]</a> Nationally, male <a href="/wiki/Migrant_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Migrant workers">migrant workers</a> outnumber female migrants 2:1, i.e. women comprise about 30% of the so-called '<a href="/wiki/Floating_population" title="Floating population">floating population</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Migrant-150">[149]</a> However, in some areas, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> Province, for example, the ratio favors women. In the industrial <a href="/wiki/Nanshan_District,_Shenzhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanshan District, Shenzhen">district of Nanshan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen" title="Shenzhen">Shenzhen</a>, 80 percent of the migrant workers were women. A preference for younger women over older women has led to a predominantly young population of migrant workers.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Migrant-150">[149]</a> Married women have more restrictions on mobility due to duties to the family, whereas younger women are more likely to not be married. Also, younger rural women are less likely to become pregnant, possess nimble fingers, are more able to work longer hours, and are less knowledgeable about their <a href="/wiki/Statutory" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory">statutory</a> rights.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Migrant-150">[149]</a> For the women who are able to gain employment, they then face the possibility of being forced to sign a contract prohibiting them from getting pregnant or married during their period of employment.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> Chinese law mandates the coverage of maternity leave and costs of childbirth. These maternity laws have led to employers' reluctance to hire women.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stereotypically_"feminine"_jobs_and_professions">Stereotypically "feminine" jobs and professions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Stereotypically "feminine" jobs and professions">edit</a>]</div> Along with economic reforms in China, gender differences in terms of physical appearance and bodily gestures have been made more visible through the media and commerce. This has created jobs that demand stereotypically feminine attributes, particularly in the service industry. Sales representatives in cosmetics and clothing stores are usually young, attractive women who continually cultivate their feminine appearance, corresponding to images of women in advertisements.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> Chinese women nowadays also dominate other domains of professional training such as <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>. Courses and workshops in psychotherapy attract women of different ages who feel the burden of sensitively mastering social relations in and outside their households and at the same time as a channel to realize themselves as individuals not reduced to their familial roles as mothers or wives.<a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_executives">Women executives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Women executives">edit</a>]</div> Women are substantially less represented in senior management than men.<a href="#cite_note-:72-141">[140]</a>: 1–2  According to the China Stock Market and Accounting Research Database, the proportion of women executives of publicly traded Chinese companies has increased in age cohorts from executives born in the 1950s to executives born in the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 70  As of 2017, only 12% of executives born in the 1950s were women, compared with 23% of those born in the 1970s, 35% of those born in the 1980s, and 42% of those born in the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 70  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female_Billionaires">Female Billionaires</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Female Billionaires">edit</a>]</div> In 2018 of all self-made female billionaires in the world, 61% were from China, including nine out of the top 10, as well as the world's richest self-made female billionaire <a href="/wiki/Zhong_Huijuan" title="Zhong Huijuan">Zhong Huijuan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_in_politics">Women in politics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Women in politics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Chinese_government" title="Women in Chinese government">Women in Chinese government</a></div> Mao Zedong established a quota for the inclusion of women within Communist Party leadership, although few women have reached the highest positions within the Party.<a href="#cite_note-:112-160">[159]</a>: 62  Rural women had a significant impact on China's land reform movement, with the Communist Party making specific efforts to mobilize them for agrarian revolution.<a href="#cite_note-:18-161">[160]</a> Party activists observed that because peasant women were less tied to old power structures, they more readily opposed those identified as class enemies.<a href="#cite_note-:19-162">[161]</a> In 1947, <a href="/wiki/Deng_Yingchao" title="Deng Yingchao">Deng Yingchao</a> emphasized at a land reform policy meeting that "women function as great mobilizers when they speak bitterness."<a href="#cite_note-:18-161">[160]</a> The <a href="/wiki/All-China_Women%27s_Federation" title="All-China Women's Federation">All-China Women's Federation</a> issued a call to Party activists to encourage peasant women to understand their "special bitterness" from a class perspective.<a href="#cite_note-:19-162">[161]</a> Women activists helped peasant women prepare to speak in public, including by roleplaying as landlords to help such women practice.<a href="#cite_note-:19-162">[161]</a> During the Cultural Revolution, two women who were model workers -- <a href="/wiki/Wu_Guixian" title="Wu Guixian">Wu Guixian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Li_Suwen" title="Li Suwen">Li Suwen</a>—rose to become national level political leaders in only seven years.<a href="#cite_note-:112-160">[159]</a>: 160  Women's political disadvantage is most evident in their severe under representation in the more powerful political positions.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer-90">[89]</a> At the top level of decision making, no woman has ever been among the nine members of the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_Standing_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China">Standing Committee of the Communist Party's Politburo</a>. Just 3 of 27 government ministers are women, and importantly, since 1997, China has fallen to 53rd place from 16th in the world in terms of female representation at its parliament, the <a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a>, according to the <a href="/wiki/Inter-Parliamentary_Union" title="Inter-Parliamentary Union">Inter-Parliamentary Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> Party leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a> have vigorously opposed the participation of women in the political process.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> Within the Chinese Communist Party women face a <a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">glass ceiling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> Since the early 2000s, <a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Service of the People's Republic of China">China's civil service</a> has institutionalized recruitment quotas for women (along with other quotas for non-Communist Party members and ethnic groups), to increase representation in the civil service.<a href="#cite_note-:032-166">[165]</a>: 147  Chinese women in politics generally have higher levels of educational attainment than men, with 75% of them having graduate-level degrees compared with 56% of men.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 71  Neighborhood committees of the Communist Party are often led by older women.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-91">[90]</a>: 118  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crimes_against_women">Crimes against women</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Crimes against women">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_violence">Domestic violence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Domestic violence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_China" title="Domestic violence in China">Domestic violence in China</a></div> In Henan in the 1980s, activist <a href="/wiki/Liang_Jun_(activist)" title="Liang Jun (activist)">Liang Jun</a> campaigned against domestic violence.<a href="#cite_note-:2-167">[166]</a> In 2004, the All-China Women's Federation compiled survey results to show that thirty percent of families in China experienced <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>, with 16 percent of men having beaten their wives. In 2003, the percentage of women domestically abusing men increased, with 10 percent of familial violence involving male victims.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-168">[167]</a> The Chinese Marriage Law was amended in 2001 to offer mediation services and compensation to those who were subjected to domestic violence. Domestic violence was finally criminalized with the 2005 amendment of the Law of Protection of Rights and Interests of Women.<a href="#cite_note-Margi-169">[168]</a> However, the lack of public awareness of the 2005 amendment has allowed <a href="/wiki/Spousal_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Spousal abuse">spousal abuse</a> to persist.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-168">[167]</a> In 2022, China's highest court issued guidelines<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> that make it easier for domestic violence victims to obtain personal protection orders.<a href="#cite_note-english.court.gov.cn-171">[170]</a> The guidelines broadens the definition of domestic violence to include additional conduct such as stalking, harassment, and verbal abuse; it also lowers the threshold for proof.<a href="#cite_note-english.court.gov.cn-171">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women's_safety">Women's safety</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Women's safety">edit</a>]</div> China is generally considered a safe place for women, having some of the lowest <a href="/wiki/Crime_rates" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime rates">crime rates</a> in the world. However, crime is systematically underreported and women continue to face <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> in public and private spaces.<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> In recent years, with the rise of feminist voices on China's social media platforms, many incidences of violence were able to be reported. One of the incidences that triggered the most outrage and fear was <a href="/wiki/2022_Tangshan_restaurant_attack" title="2022 Tangshan restaurant attack">2022 Tangshan restaurant attack</a>. On June 10, 2022, a group of men brutally assaulted four women at a barbecue restaurant in <a href="/wiki/Lubei_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Lubei District">Lubei District</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tangshan" title="Tangshan">Tangshan</a> at midnight. A drunken man, after his failed attempt to sexually harass a woman, was irritated and, along with his companions, violently attacked four women at the restaurant.<a href="#cite_note-:05-173">[172]</a> As the report of the incidence and the restaurant's CCTV footage were uploaded online, they were quickly circulated.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> The government officials, after the attack happened, initially offered self-contradictory accounts on the handling of suspects.<a href="#cite_note-:05-173">[172]</a> In an interview with the newspaper <a href="/wiki/The_Paper_(newspaper)" title="The Paper (newspaper)">The Paper</a> on the afternoon of June 10, Tangshan Police claimed they had detained the suspects right after the incidence, while the secretary of Commission for Political and Legal Affairs of Tangshan said the police were still searching for the suspects. On June 11, all the suspects were detained. A fierce public debate was also generated with regard to whether such attack was relevant to gender issues. Several Chinese authorities denied the significance of gender played in the attack, claiming it was about public security but not women's security specifically.<a href="#cite_note-:05-173">[172]</a> And many believed the blame should be about these specific attackers rather than be generalized to "all man".<a href="#cite_note-:05-173">[172]</a> However, many feminists disagreed with such view and were in outrage. They thought those voices essentially dismissed the origin of the attack being a failed attempt of sexual harassment towards women and underplayed the structural violence experienced by women in everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foot_binding">Foot binding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Foot binding">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">Foot binding</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foot_binding-_wealthy_Chinese_women.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Women with bound feet, Beijing, 1900" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Foot_binding-_wealthy_Chinese_women.jpg/220px-Foot_binding-_wealthy_Chinese_women.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Foot_binding-_wealthy_Chinese_women.jpg/330px-Foot_binding-_wealthy_Chinese_women.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Foot_binding-_wealthy_Chinese_women.jpg/440px-Foot_binding-_wealthy_Chinese_women.jpg 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption>Women with <a href="/wiki/Bound_feet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bound feet">bound feet</a> in 1900</figcaption></figure> In 1912, following the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and the end of imperial rule, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republican government</a> outlawed foot binding,<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> and popular attitudes toward the practice began to shift by the late nineteenth century. Foodbound women became the symbol of a weak Chinese state.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> Colonialism greatly influenced the shifting attitudes among elite Chinese men surrounding foot binding. As commentators from the West denounced foot binding, "elite Chinese rapidly came to understand foot binding as barbaric, painful, harmful to women's health and childbearing, unscientific..." and more.<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a> Although outlawed, it continued to be practiced in many areas.<a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> In 1949, the practice of footbinding was successfully banned.<a href="#cite_note-foot_binding-180">[179]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Y._Ko" title="Dorothy Y. Ko">Dorothy Y. Ko</a>, bound feet can be seen as a footnote of "all that was wrong with traditional China: oppression of women, <a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">insularity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">despotism</a>, and disregard for human rights". However they can also be seen as <a href="/wiki/Female_empowerment" class="mw-redirect" title="Female empowerment">female empowerment</a> within a traditional patriarchal society.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trafficking">Trafficking</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Trafficking">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Human trafficking in the People's Republic of China">Human trafficking in the People's Republic of China</a></div> In the 1950s, Mao Zedong, the first chairman of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, launched a campaign to eradicate prostitution throughout China. The campaign made the act of trafficking women severely punishable by law.<a href="#cite_note-Ditmore2-182">[181]</a> A major component was the <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">rehabilitation</a> program in which prostitutes and trafficked women were provided "medical treatment, thought reform, job training, and family reintegration".<a href="#cite_note-Ditmore2-182">[181]</a> Since the economic reform in 1979, sex trafficking and other social vices have revived.<a href="#cite_note-Ditmore2-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> According to United Nations Inter-Agency Project On Human Trafficking (UNIAP), China is both the source and the destination for human trafficking.<a href="#cite_note-:06-184">[183]</a> UNIAP reports shows, with the rise of inter-provincial migration within the country, Chinese women between 16 and 20 years are the main victims of trafficking.<a href="#cite_note-:06-184">[183]</a> Southeastern provinces such as Yunnan and Guizhou are the main source provinces, while Fujian, Guangdong, and Shandong are the main destination provinces of trafficking.<a href="#cite_note-:06-184">[183]</a> Cross-border trafficking of women is also prevalent in China.<a href="#cite_note-:06-184">[183]</a> Many migrants from Vietnam, Russia, Korea and Myanmar are trafficked into China and sold for purposes such as commercial sexual exploitation and forced marriage.<a href="#cite_note-:06-184">[183]</a> The huge market for human trafficking is partially due to the uneven gender ratio caused by the one-child policy.<a href="#cite_note-:15-185">[184]</a> The increasing bachelors in China produces a high demand for bride trafficking.<a href="#cite_note-:15-185">[184]</a> Women trafficked are kidnapped from their homes and sold to gangs who <a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">traffic women</a>, often displacing them by great distances, making it difficult for them to escape.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> Men who purchase the women often do not allow them to leave the house, and take their documentation.<a href="#cite_note-trafficking2-187">[186]</a> Many women become pregnant and have children, and are burdened to provide for their family.<a href="#cite_note-trafficking2-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-NPR_2022-02-17-188">[187]</a> In recent years, China passed a number of laws against trafficking including the latest statement "Notice by the General Office of the State Council of Issuing China's Action Plan against Human Abduction and Trafficking (2021-2030)" released in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a> However, recent trafficking cases such as the widespread <a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_chained_woman_incident" title="Xuzhou chained woman incident">Xuzhou chained woman incident</a> have pose doubt on the effective enforcement of anti-trafficking laws in China.<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> On January 28, 2022, a video showing a mentally traumatized woman chained to the wall in Fengxian, Xuzhou by her husband went viral on social platforms.<a href="#cite_note-:23-191">[190]</a> The government initially released a statement claiming the woman was legally married to the husband. As the public's skepticism grew, the statement was overturned by the police investigative team, who verified it was in fact a case of human trafficking.<a href="#cite_note-:23-191">[190]</a> The government later claimed to locate the true identity of the woman, although many were still highly skeptical of the result of official investigation.<a href="#cite_note-:23-191">[190]</a> Wuyi, a volunteer who went to Xuzhou to further investigate by herself, has encountered state obstruction and been imprisoned ever since.<a href="#cite_note-NPR_2022-02-17-188">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prostitution">Prostitution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Prostitution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitution in the People's Republic of China">Prostitution in the People's Republic of China</a></div> Shortly after taking power in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party embarked upon a series of campaigns that purportedly eradicated <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> by the early 1960s. Since the loosening of government controls over society in the early 1980s, prostitution in mainland China not only has become more visible, but also can now be found throughout both urban and rural areas. In spite of government efforts, prostitution has now developed to the extent that it comprises an industry involving a large number of people and producing a significant economic output.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Prostitution has also become associated with a number of problems, including <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">organized crime</a>, government corruption, and <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted diseases">sexually transmitted diseases</a>. Due to China's history of favoring sons over daughters in the family, there has been a disproportionately larger number of marriageable aged men unable to find available women, so some turn to prostitutes instead.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/28px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/42px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/56px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Feminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Women in the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">Feminism in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Chinese_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Chinese Communism">Feminism in Chinese Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_women_in_China" title="Globalization and women in China">Globalization and women in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban society in the People's Republic of China">Urban society in the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural society in the People's Republic of China">Rural society in the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in ancient China">Women in ancient China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of China">Missing women of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_China" title="Female infanticide in China">Female infanticide in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_patriarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese patriarchy">Chinese patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ideals_of_female_beauty" title="Chinese ideals of female beauty">Chinese ideals of female beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_gender_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by gender ratio">List of Chinese administrative divisions by gender ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_China" title="Concubinage in China">Concubinage in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">New Marriage Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_agriculture_in_China" title="Women in agriculture in China">Women in agriculture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_rural_left_behind_women" title="Chinese rural left behind women">Chinese rural left behind women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Women in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War">Women in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> For statistical purposes, the data for China do not include those for <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>. Data exclude 2.3 million servicemen, 4.65 million persons with permanent resident status difficult to define, and 0.12 per cent undercount based on the post enumeration survey. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm">"Women in Parliaments: World Classification"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140328105108/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-03-28. Retrieved 2017-03-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Women+in+Parliaments%3A+World+Classification&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipu.org%2Fwmn-e%2Fclassif.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf">"Human Development Report 2021/2022"</a> (PDF). HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Development+Report+2021%2F2022&rft.pub=HUMAN+DEVELOPMENT+REPORTS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fglobal-report-document%2Fhdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf">"Global Gender Gap Report 2022"</a> (PDF). World Economic Forum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220716120203/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Gender+Gap+Report+2022&rft.pub=World+Economic+Forum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww3.weforum.org%2Fdocs%2FWEF_GGGR_2022.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/products/dyb/dyb_2019/">"UNSD — Demographic and Social Statistics"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220414025155/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/products/dyb/dyb_2019/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 26 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UNSD+%E2%80%94+Demographic+and+Social+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funstats.un.org%2Funsd%2Fdemographic-social%2Fproducts%2Fdyb%2Fdyb_2019%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:102-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:102_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:102_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:102_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:102_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:102_6-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLu" class="citation news cs1">Lu, Shen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/under-xi-jinping-women-in-china-have-given-up-gains-11667995201">"Under Xi Jinping, Women in China Have Given Up Gains"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>. Retrieved 2022-11-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Under+Xi+Jinping%2C+Women+in+China+Have+Given+Up+Gains&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Shen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Funder-xi-jinping-women-in-china-have-given-up-gains-11667995201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:04-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:04_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_7-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2000" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Yuhui (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol1/iss1/3/">"Women's Movement and Change of Women's Status in China"</a>. Journal of International Women's Studies. 1 (1): 30–40. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220425173906/https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol1/iss1/3/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-25. Retrieved 2020-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Women%27s+Studies&rft.atitle=Women%27s+Movement+and+Change+of+Women%27s+Status+in+China&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-40&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Yuhui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvc.bridgew.edu%2Fjiws%2Fvol1%2Fiss1%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuang,_Xin2018" class="citation book cs1">Huang, Xin (11 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1048747933">The gender legacy of the Mao era : women's life stories in contemporary China</a>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-7062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-7062-7"><bdi>978-1-4384-7062-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1048747933">1048747933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+gender+legacy+of+the+Mao+era+%3A+women%27s+life+stories+in+contemporary+China&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2018-07-11&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1048747933&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-7062-7&rft.au=Huang%2C+Xin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1048747933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210811201903/https://clas.uiowa.edu/sites/clas.uiowa.edu.polisci/files/Sullivan%20-%20Poster.pdf">"A Suspended Sky: Chinese Women's Changing Political Interests"</a> (PDF). Department of Political Science, University of Iowa. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clas.uiowa.edu/sites/clas.uiowa.edu.polisci/files/Sullivan%20-%20Poster.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Political+Science%2C+University+of+Iowa&rft.atitle=A+Suspended+Sky%3A+Chinese+Women%27s+Changing+Political+Interests&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclas.uiowa.edu%2Fsites%2Fclas.uiowa.edu.polisci%2Ffiles%2FSullivan%2520-%2520Poster.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/yan1996002513/PP/">"Women hold up half the sky"</a>. Library of Congress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210119221541/https://www.loc.gov/item/yan1996002513/PP/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-19. Retrieved 2020-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Women+hold+up+half+the+sky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2Fyan1996002513%2FPP%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604135310/http://en.people.cn/90001/90776/90882/6778815.html">"China Focus: Holding up half the sky? – People's Daily Online"</a>. <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.people.cn/90001/90776/90882/6778815.html">the original</a> on 2020-06-04. Retrieved 2020-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=People%27s+Daily&rft.atitle=China+Focus%3A+Holding+up+half+the+sky%3F+%E2%80%93+People%27s+Daily+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.people.cn%2F90001%2F90776%2F90882%2F6778815.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315833408-46">"Revisions to the 1980 Marriage Law"</a>, China since 1949, Routledge, p. 200, 2013-11-14, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315833408-46">10.4324/9781315833408-46</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-83340-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-83340-8"><bdi>978-1-315-83340-8</bdi></a>, retrieved 2022-11-29</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+since+1949&rft.atitle=Revisions+to+the+1980+Marriage+Law&rft.pages=200&rft.date=2013-11-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315833408-46&rft.isbn=978-1-315-83340-8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315833408-46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKo2007" class="citation book cs1">Ko, Dorothy (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/816498682">Cinderella's sisters : a revisionist history of footbinding</a>. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-94140-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-94140-3"><bdi>978-0-520-94140-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/816498682">816498682</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200125205615/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/816498682">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-01-25. Retrieved 2022-11-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cinderella%27s+sisters+%3A+a+revisionist+history+of+footbinding&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F816498682&rft.isbn=978-0-520-94140-3&rft.aulast=Ko&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F816498682&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF高雨莘2017" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">高雨莘 (2017-09-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cn.nytimes.com/opinion/20170926/women-china-communist-revolution/">"毛泽东时代，妇女真的"能顶半边天"吗？"</a>. 纽约时报中文网 (in Chinese). Retrieved 2022-11-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E7%BA%BD%E7%BA%A6%E6%97%B6%E6%8A%A5%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E7%BD%91&rft.atitle=%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%EF%BC%8C%E5%A6%87%E5%A5%B3%E7%9C%9F%E7%9A%84%22%E8%83%BD%E9%A1%B6%E5%8D%8A%E8%BE%B9%E5%A4%A9%22%E5%90%97%EF%BC%9F&rft.date=2017-09-26&rft.au=%E9%AB%98%E9%9B%A8%E8%8E%98&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcn.nytimes.com%2Fopinion%2F20170926%2Fwomen-china-communist-revolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/china/2023/11/09/china-wants-women-to-stay-home-and-bear-children">"China wants women to stay home and bear children"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. November 9, 2023. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231113184521/https://www.economist.com/china/2023/11/09/china-wants-women-to-stay-home-and-bear-children">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-13. Retrieved 2023-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=China+wants+women+to+stay+home+and+bear+children&rft.date=2023-11-09&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fchina%2F2023%2F11%2F09%2Fchina-wants-women-to-stay-home-and-bear-children&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu200986-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWu200986_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWu2009">Wu (2009)</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley19992-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley19992_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeightley1999">Keightley (1999)</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHershatter2018" class="citation book cs1">Hershatter, Gail (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=5492087">Women and China's revolutions</a>. Lanham, Maryland: Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442215702" title="Special:BookSources/9781442215702"><bdi>9781442215702</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+China%27s+revolutions&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Lanham+%3A+Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781442215702&rft.aulast=Hershatter&rft.aufirst=Gail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublic.ebookcentral.proquest.com%2Fchoice%2Fpublicfullrecord.aspx%3Fp%3D5492087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2012" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, M. H. (2012). "The one-child policy and gender equality in education in China: Evidence from household data". Journal of Family and Economic Issues. 33: 41–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10834-011-9277-9">10.1007/s10834-011-9277-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145217120">145217120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Family+and+Economic+Issues&rft.atitle=The+one-child+policy+and+gender+equality+in+education+in+China%3A+Evidence+from+household+data.&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=41-52&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10834-011-9277-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145217120%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=M.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiesner-Hanks2011" class="citation book cs1">Wiesner-Hanks, Merry (2011). Gender in history: global perspectives (2nd ed.). Malden, Mass: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 29–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405189958" title="Special:BookSources/9781405189958"><bdi>9781405189958</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+in+history%3A+global+perspectives&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass&rft.pages=29-30&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781405189958&rft.aulast=Wiesner-Hanks&rft.aufirst=Merry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:25-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:25_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_21-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_21-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez2023" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Sarah Mellors (2023). Reproductive Realities in Modern China: Birth Control and Abortion, 1911-2021. Cambridge, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-02733-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-02733-5"><bdi>978-1-009-02733-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1366057905">1366057905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reproductive+Realities+in+Modern+China%3A+Birth+Control+and+Abortion%2C+1911-2021&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1366057905&rft.isbn=978-1-009-02733-5&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Mellors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLary2022" class="citation book cs1">Lary, Diana (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1292532755">China's grandmothers : gender, family, and aging from late Qing to twenty-first century</a>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-06478-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-06478-1"><bdi>978-1-009-06478-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1292532755">1292532755</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231231073002/https://search.worldcat.org/title/1292532755">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-12-31. Retrieved 2023-02-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+grandmothers+%3A+gender%2C+family%2C+and+aging+from+late+Qing+to+twenty-first+century&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1292532755&rft.isbn=978-1-009-06478-1&rft.aulast=Lary&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1292532755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Margaret E. Keck; Kathryn Sikkink (1998). Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Cornell University Press. p. 64. ISBN 0801484561. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHershatter2018" class="citation book cs1">Hershatter, Gail (2018). Women and China's Revolutions. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442215702" title="Special:BookSources/9781442215702"><bdi>9781442215702</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+China%27s+Revolutions&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781442215702&rft.aulast=Hershatter&rft.aufirst=Gail&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2016" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Lily Xiao Hong (2016-07-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=22alDAAAQBAJ&dq=Tang+Qunying&pg=PA508">Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: v. 2: Twentieth Century</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-49924-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-49924-6"><bdi>978-1-315-49924-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Dictionary+of+Chinese+Women%3A+v.+2%3A+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016-07-08&rft.isbn=978-1-315-49924-6&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Lily+Xiao+Hong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D22alDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DTang%2BQunying%26pg%3DPA508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_26-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2022-11-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. pp. 16–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2022-11-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=16-17&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2022-11-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Hershatter, G. (2018). Women and China's Revolutions. USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpakowskiMilwertz2006" class="citation book cs1">Spakowski, Nicola; Milwertz, Cecilia Nathansen (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q4uzfrO3Cu0C&dq=women+suffrage+in+china+1947&pg=PA5">Women and Gender in Chinese Studies</a>. LIT Verlag Münster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-9304-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-9304-0"><bdi>978-3-8258-9304-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Gender+in+Chinese+Studies&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-8258-9304-0&rft.aulast=Spakowski&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft.au=Milwertz%2C+Cecilia+Nathansen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq4uzfrO3Cu0C%26dq%3Dwomen%2Bsuffrage%2Bin%2Bchina%2B1947%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2006" class="citation book cs1">Lin, Chun (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63178961">The transformation of Chinese socialism</a>. Durham [N.C.]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3785-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3785-0"><bdi>978-0-8223-3785-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63178961">63178961</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230307022310/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63178961">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-07. Retrieved 2022-11-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+transformation+of+Chinese+socialism&rft.place=Durham+%5BN.C.%5D&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F63178961&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-3785-0&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Chun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F63178961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. pp. 22–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2022-11-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=22-23&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2022-11-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:42-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:42_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:42_34-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpper2020" class="citation book cs1">Opper, Marc (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/23824">People's Wars in China, Malaya, and Vietnam</a>. Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902">10.3998/mpub.11413902</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F23824">20.500.12657/23824</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-90125-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-90125-8"><bdi>978-0-472-90125-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.11413902">10.3998/mpub.11413902</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211359950">211359950</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118062521/https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.3998/mpub.11413902.8.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2023-09-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People%27s+Wars+in+China%2C+Malaya%2C+and+Vietnam&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F23824&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211359950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-0-472-90125-8&rft.aulast=Opper&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F23824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2022-11-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChing2021" class="citation book cs1">Ching, Pao-Yu (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1325647379">Revolution and counterrevolution : China's continuing class struggle since liberation</a> (2nd ed.). Paris: Foreign languages press. pp. 338–343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-491182-89-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-491182-89-2"><bdi>978-2-491182-89-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1325647379">1325647379</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034320/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1325647379">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-26. Retrieved 2022-10-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+counterrevolution+%3A+China%27s+continuing+class+struggle+since+liberation&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=338-343&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Foreign+languages+press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1325647379&rft.isbn=978-2-491182-89-2&rft.aulast=Ching&rft.aufirst=Pao-Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1325647379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:21-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:21_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:21_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:21_37-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCai蔡翔2016" class="citation book cs1">Cai, Xiang; 蔡翔 (2016). Revolution and its narratives : China's socialist literary and cultural imaginaries (1949-1966). Rebecca E. Karl, Xueping Zhong, 钟雪萍. Durham: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7461-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7461-9"><bdi>978-0-8223-7461-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/932368688">932368688</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+its+narratives+%3A+China%27s+socialist+literary+and+cultural+imaginaries+%281949-1966%29&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F932368688&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-7461-9&rft.aulast=Cai&rft.aufirst=Xiang&rft.au=%E8%94%A1%E7%BF%94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_38-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChing2021" class="citation book cs1">Ching, Pao-Yu (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1325647379">Revolution and counterrevolution : China's continuing class struggle since liberation</a> (2nd ed.). Paris: Foreign languages press. p. 338. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-491182-89-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-491182-89-2"><bdi>978-2-491182-89-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1325647379">1325647379</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034320/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1325647379">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-26. Retrieved 2022-10-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+counterrevolution+%3A+China%27s+continuing+class+struggle+since+liberation&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=338&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Foreign+languages+press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1325647379&rft.isbn=978-2-491182-89-2&rft.aulast=Ching&rft.aufirst=Pao-Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1325647379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2022-11-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeMare2019" class="citation book cs1">DeMare, Brian James (2019). Land wars : the story of China's agrarian revolution. Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 140–141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0849-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0849-8"><bdi>978-1-5036-0849-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1048940018">1048940018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+wars+%3A+the+story+of+China%27s+agrarian+revolution&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pages=140-141&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1048940018&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-0849-8&rft.aulast=DeMare&rft.aufirst=Brian+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:20-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:20_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_41-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeMare2019" class="citation book cs1">DeMare, Brian James (2019). Land wars : the story of China's agrarian revolution. Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0849-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0849-8"><bdi>978-1-5036-0849-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1048940018">1048940018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+wars+%3A+the+story+of+China%27s+agrarian+revolution&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pages=141&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1048940018&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-0849-8&rft.aulast=DeMare&rft.aufirst=Brian+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeMare2019" class="citation book cs1">DeMare, Brian James (2019). Land wars : the story of China's agrarian revolution. Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0849-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0849-8"><bdi>978-1-5036-0849-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1048940018">1048940018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+wars+%3A+the+story+of+China%27s+agrarian+revolution&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1048940018&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-0849-8&rft.aulast=DeMare&rft.aufirst=Brian+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLary2022" class="citation book cs1">Lary, Diana (2022). China's grandmothers : gender, family, and aging from late Qing to twenty-first century. Cambridge, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-06478-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-06478-1"><bdi>978-1-009-06478-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1292532755">1292532755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+grandmothers+%3A+gender%2C+family%2C+and+aging+from+late+Qing+to+twenty-first+century&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1292532755&rft.isbn=978-1-009-06478-1&rft.aulast=Lary&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLary2022" class="citation book cs1">Lary, Diana (2022). China's grandmothers : gender, family, and aging from late Qing to twenty-first century. Cambridge, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 64–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-06478-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-06478-1"><bdi>978-1-009-06478-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1292532755">1292532755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+grandmothers+%3A+gender%2C+family%2C+and+aging+from+late+Qing+to+twenty-first+century&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=64-65&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1292532755&rft.isbn=978-1-009-06478-1&rft.aulast=Lary&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLary2022" class="citation book cs1">Lary, Diana (2022). China's grandmothers : gender, family, and aging from late Qing to twenty-first century. Cambridge, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-06478-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-06478-1"><bdi>978-1-009-06478-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1292532755">1292532755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+grandmothers+%3A+gender%2C+family%2C+and+aging+from+late+Qing+to+twenty-first+century&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1292532755&rft.isbn=978-1-009-06478-1&rft.aulast=Lary&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-engel-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-engel_46-13">n</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngel1984" class="citation journal cs1">Engel, John W. (November 1984). "Marriage in the People's Republic of China: Analysis of a New Law". 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. pp. 104–105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-12. 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The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology. 19 (4): 298–315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14442213.2018.1481881">10.1080/14442213.2018.1481881</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149953461">149953461</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Asia+Pacific+Journal+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Gendered+Self-Improvement%3A+Autonomous+Personhood+and+the+Marriage+Predicament+of+Young+Women+in+Urban+China&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=298-315&rft.date=2018-08-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14442213.2018.1481881&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149953461%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hizi&rft.aufirst=Gil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14442213.2018.1481881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2020/03/22/china-home-to-61-of-world039s-self-made-woman-billionaire">"China home to 61% of world's self-made woman billionaires | The Star"</a>. www.thestar.com.my. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210123080242/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2020/03/22/china-home-to-61-of-world039s-self-made-woman-billionaire">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-23. 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CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220621220423/https://www.cnn.com/2022/06/12/asia/tangshan-video-attack-china-intl/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-21. Retrieved 2022-12-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Video+of+women+being+brutally+attacked+sparks+public+outrage+in+China&rft.date=2022-06-12&rft.au=Sophie+Jeong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2022%2F06%2F12%2Fasia%2Ftangshan-video-attack-china-intl%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theinitium.com/article/20220614-opinion-tangshan-gender-violence-law-governance/">"性別暴力的中國式治理難題：父權制催生的「黑惡勢力」，無法被父權本身所清除"</a>. theinitium.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221201073650/https://theinitium.com/article/20220614-opinion-tangshan-gender-violence-law-governance/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-01. Retrieved 2022-12-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=theinitium.com&rft.atitle=%E6%80%A7%E5%88%A5%E6%9A%B4%E5%8A%9B%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%BC%8F%E6%B2%BB%E7%90%86%E9%9B%A3%E9%A1%8C%EF%BC%9A%E7%88%B6%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%B6%E5%82%AC%E7%94%9F%E7%9A%84%E3%80%8C%E9%BB%91%E6%83%A1%E5%8B%A2%E5%8A%9B%E3%80%8D%EF%BC%8C%E7%84%A1%E6%B3%95%E8%A2%AB%E7%88%B6%E6%AC%8A%E6%9C%AC%E8%BA%AB%E6%89%80%E6%B8%85%E9%99%A4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheinitium.com%2Farticle%2F20220614-opinion-tangshan-gender-violence-law-governance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=8966942">"Painful Memories of China's Footbinding Survivors"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191102160630/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=8966942">Archived</a> 2019-11-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 19 March 2007. 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Paris: Foreign languages press. p. 337. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-491182-89-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-491182-89-2"><bdi>978-2-491182-89-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1325647379">1325647379</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034320/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1325647379">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-26. 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Retrieved 2022-12-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3&rft.atitle=%E3%80%90404%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86%E3%80%91%E7%AC%AC69%E6%9C%9F%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%9C%A8%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3%E8%B4%A9%E5%8D%96%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E4%BD%9C%E4%B8%BA%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E4%BB%8E%E5%BE%90%E5%B7%9E%E8%A2%AB%E7%BB%91%E5%85%AB%E5%AD%A9%E6%AF%8D%E4%BA%B2%E6%A1%88%E8%AF%B4%E8%B5%B7&rft.date=2022-02-04&rft.au=%E6%A1%A5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchinadigitaltimes.net%2Fchinese%2F676468.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_191-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_191-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theinitium.com/article/20220201-mainland-xuzhou-detained-mother/">"生了八個孩子的女人，人們說她瘋了：豐縣事件和一場對拐賣婦女的輿論清算"</a>. theinitium.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220207161157/https://theinitium.com/article/20220201-mainland-xuzhou-detained-mother/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-07. Retrieved 2022-12-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=theinitium.com&rft.atitle=%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%86%E5%85%AB%E5%80%8B%E5%AD%A9%E5%AD%90%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%B3%E4%BA%BA%EF%BC%8C%E4%BA%BA%E5%80%91%E8%AA%AA%E5%A5%B9%E7%98%8B%E4%BA%86%EF%BC%9A%E8%B1%90%E7%B8%A3%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6%E5%92%8C%E4%B8%80%E5%A0%B4%E5%B0%8D%E6%8B%90%E8%B3%A3%E5%A9%A6%E5%A5%B3%E7%9A%84%E8%BC%BF%E8%AB%96%E6%B8%85%E7%AE%97&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheinitium.com%2Farticle%2F20220201-mainland-xuzhou-detained-mother%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeightley1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Keightley" title="David Keightley">Keightley, David N.</a> (1999). "At the beginning: the status of women in Neolithic and Shang China". NAN NÜ. 1 (1): 1–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852699X00054">10.1163/156852699X00054</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NAN+N%C3%9C&rft.atitle=At+the+beginning%3A+the+status+of+women+in+Neolithic+and+Shang+China&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-63&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852699X00054&rft.aulast=Keightley&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2009" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wu 吴, Xiaohua 晓华 (2009). "周代男女角色定位及其对现代社会的影响" [Role orientation of men and women in the Zhou Dynasty and their effects on modern society]. Chang'An Daxue Xuebao (Shehui Kexue Ban) (in Chinese). 11 (3): 86–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chang%27An+Daxue+Xuebao+%28Shehui+Kexue+Ban%29&rft.atitle=%E5%91%A8%E4%BB%A3%E7%94%B7%E5%A5%B3%E8%A7%92%E8%89%B2%E5%AE%9A%E4%BD%8D%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%B6%E5%AF%B9%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%B1%E5%93%8D&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=86-92&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Wu+%E5%90%B4&rft.aufirst=Xiaohua+%E6%99%93%E5%8D%8E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_China&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Women in China <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Women+in+China">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Women+in+China&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Women_of_China" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Women of China">Women of China</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Country_Briefing_Papers/Women_in_PRC/default.asp">Women in the People's Republic of China</a> (Country Briefing Paper) (pdf doc.) by the <a href="/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank" title="Asian Development Bank">Asian Development Bank</a> (Pub. Date: 1998)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14492/14492-h/14492-h.htm">BURTON, MARGARET E. Notable Women of Modern China</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing,_Dean2010" class="citation book cs1">King, Dean (2010). <a href="/wiki/Unbound:_A_True_Story_of_War,_Love,_and_Survival" class="mw-redirect" title="Unbound: A True Story of War, Love, and Survival">Unbound: A True Story of War, Love, and Survival</a>. Little, Brown and Company. pp. 432 pages. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-16708-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-16708-6"><bdi>978-0-316-16708-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unbound%3A+A+True+Story+of+War%2C+Love%2C+and+Survival&rft.pages=432+pages&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-316-16708-6&rft.au=King%2C+Dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeStefanowska2007" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Stefanowska, A. D., eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u7mLql4TAxoC">Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E.</a> M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0765641823" title="Special:BookSources/978-0765641823"><bdi>978-0765641823</bdi></a>. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Dictionary+of+Chinese+Women%3A+Antiquity+Through+Sui%2C+1600+B.C.E.-618+C.E.&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0765641823&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du7mLql4TAxoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeStefanowskaHo1998" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Stefanowska, A. D.; Ho, Clara Wing-chung, eds. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uwPWtJ5WSQMC">Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: The Qing Period, 1644-1911</a>. M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0765618276" title="Special:BookSources/978-0765618276"><bdi>978-0765618276</bdi></a>. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Dictionary+of+Chinese+Women%3A+The+Qing+Period%2C+1644-1911&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0765618276&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuwPWtJ5WSQMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2011" class="citation journal cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2011). "The State of Chinese Women's History". Gender & History. 23 (2): 430–441. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0424.2011.01647.x">10.1111/j.1468-0424.2011.01647.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145575848">145575848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+%26+History&rft.atitle=The+State+of+Chinese+Women%27s+History&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=430-441&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0424.2011.01647.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145575848%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+China" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wang Zheng, Finding Women in the State: A Socialist Feminist Revolution in the People's Republic of China, 1949–1964. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520292291" title="Special:BookSources/9780520292291">9780520292291</a></li> <li>Yinhe, Li《中国女性的性与爱》(Sexuality and Love of Chinese Women), Oxford University Press, Hong Kong, 1996.</li> <li>Yinhe, Li《女性权力的崛起》(Rising Power of the Women), Chinese Social Science Press, 1997.</li> <li>Yinhe, Li《中国女性的感情与性》(Sexuality and Love of Chinese Women), China Today Press, 1998.</li> <li>Helen Gao (September 25, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/25/opinion/women-china-communist-revolution.html">"How Did Women Fare in China's Communist Revolution?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-China_Women%27s_Federation" title="All-China Women's Federation">All-China Women's Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagongmei" title="Dagongmei">Female migrant workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_women_in_China" title="Globalization and women in China">Globalization and women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ideals_of_female_beauty" title="Chinese ideals of female beauty">Ideals of female beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">In ancient and imperial times</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">Foot binding</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Good_Wife,_Wise_Mother" title="Good Wife, Wise Mother">Good Wife, Wise Mother</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Three_Obediences_and_Four_Virtues" title="Three Obediences and Four Virtues">Three Obediences and Four Virtues</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of China">Missing women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_preference_in_China" title="Son preference in China">Son preference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_China" title="Female infanticide in China">Female infanticide</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese marriage">Marriage</a> and family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese-foreign_marriages_in_mainland_China" title="Chinese-foreign marriages in mainland China">Chinese-foreign marriages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_policies_of_China" title="Family planning policies of China">Family planning policies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-child_policy" title="Three-child policy">Three-child policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ghost_marriage" title="Chinese ghost marriage">Ghost marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_modern_China" title="Marriage in modern China">Marriage in modern China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naked_marriage_in_China" title="Naked marriage in China">Naked marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">New Marriage Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_Tibet" title="Polyandry in Tibet">Polyandry in Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_marriage" title="Traditional Chinese marriage">Traditional Chinese marriage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">LGBT</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_China" title="Homosexuality in China">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_China" title="Intersex rights in China">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_Beijing" title="LGBTQ culture in Beijing">LGBTQ culture in Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_Chengdu" title="LGBTQ culture in Chengdu">LGBTQ culture in Chengdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_Hong_Kong" title="LGBTQ culture in Hong Kong">LGBTQ culture in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_Shanghai" title="LGBTQ culture in Shanghai">LGBTQ culture in Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_China" title="Recognition of same-sex unions in China">same-sex unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Tibet" title="LGBT rights in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Hong_Kong" title="LGBT rights in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgender in China">Transgender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Language</a></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">1912–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">1949–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Wu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin (266–420)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin (1115–1234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Modern_China" title="History of China">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">persecution of Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_China" title="List of extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a> / <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a> / <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_policy_of_China" title="Climate policy of China">Climate policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China" title="Environmental issues in China">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil service of the People's Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_China" title="Constitution of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_China" title="Vice President of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_China" title="Premier of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_China" title="Vice Premier of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_military_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China">Outline of military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_(China)" title="Ministry of National Defense (China)">Ministry of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Militia" title="Maritime Militia">Maritime Militia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce_in_China" title="E-commerce in China">E-commerce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_advertising_in_China" title="Online advertising in China">Online advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of trade of the People's Republic of China">Trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in China">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_China" title="Housing in China">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Civil aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_China" title="Category:Society of China">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">Rural society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy_in_China" title="Patriarchy in China">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_discrimination_in_China" title="Regional discrimination in China">Regional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_China" title="Welfare in China">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_China" title="Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Major Historical and Cultural Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fours_of_China" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Fours of China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Four Great Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Gentlemen" title="Four Gentlemen">Four Gentlemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_the_Four_Seasons" title="Flowers of the Four Seasons">Flowers of the Four Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Four Classic Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">Four arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paragons_of_the_Early_Tang" title="Four Paragons of the Early Tang">Four Paragons of the Early Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty">Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pests_campaign" title="Four Pests campaign">Four Pests campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_China" title="National symbols of China">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emblem_of_China" title="National Emblem of China">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Women_in_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#FFCBDB"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Women_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Asia" title="Women in Asia">Women in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Afghanistan" title="Women in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Armenia" title="Women in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Azerbaijan" title="Women in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bahrain" title="Women in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bangladesh" title="Women in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bhutan" title="Women in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Brunei" title="Women in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cambodia" title="Women in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cyprus" title="Women in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_East_Timor" title="Women in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Egypt" title="Women in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Women in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Indonesia" title="Women in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Israel" title="Women in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Japan" title="Women in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Jordan" title="Women in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kazakhstan" title="Women in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_North_Korea" title="Women in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Korea" title="Women in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kuwait" title="Women in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Women in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Laos" title="Women in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malaysia" title="Women in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Maldives" title="Women in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mongolia" title="Women in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Myanmar" title="Women in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nepal" title="Women in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Oman" title="Women in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Pakistan" title="Women in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Philippines" title="Women in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Qatar" title="Women in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Russia" title="Women in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Singapore" title="Women in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Women in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tajikistan" title="Women in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Thailand" title="Women in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkey" title="Women in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkmenistan" title="Women in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Women in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uzbekistan" title="Women in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Yemen" title="Women in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Abkhazia" title="Women in Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Women in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Ossetia" title="Women in South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Women in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hong_Kong" title="Women in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Macau" title="Women in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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