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.infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><p>The <b>Kingdom of France</b> is the historiographical name or <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella term">umbrella term</a> given to various political entities of France in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">early modern</a> period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe from the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> to 1848 during its dissolution. It was also an early <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">colonial power</a>, with colonies in Asia and Africa, and the largest being <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> in North America centred around the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>. </p><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of France</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro">Reaume de France</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Old_French_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old French language">Old French</a>)</span><br><span title="Middle French (ca. 1400-1600)-language text"><i lang="frm">Royaulme de France</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Middle_French_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle French language">Middle French</a>)</span><br><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Royaume de France</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span><br><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Regnum Franciæ</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">843–1792<br>1814–1815<br>1815–1848</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/125px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/188px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/250px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a></span></div><div style="padding: 2px 0px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/125px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/188px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/250px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Royal Standards<br>Top: 1643 design (1643–1790)<br>Bottom: Flag under the House of Bourbon (1589–1792; 1815–1848)</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%26_Navarre.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of Arms (1589–1792) of France"><img alt="Coat of Arms (1589–1792) of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Grand_Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%26_Navarre.svg/85px-Grand_Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%26_Navarre.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Grand_Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%26_Navarre.svg/128px-Grand_Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%26_Navarre.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Grand_Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%26_Navarre.svg/170px-Grand_Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%26_Navarre.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1190" data-file-height="1585"></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/National_emblem_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="National emblem of France">Coat of Arms (1589–1792)</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Montjoie_Saint_Denis!" title="Montjoie Saint Denis!">Montjoie Saint Denis!</a>"</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span></li><li><span style="font-size:85%;">"Mountjoy Saint Denis!"</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Marche_Henri_IV" title="Marche Henri IV">Marche Henri IV</a> or <a href="/wiki/Le_Retour_des_Princes_Fran%C3%A7ais_%C3%A0_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Retour des Princes Français à Paris">Le Retour des Princes Français à Paris</a></i></span><br><span style="font-size:85%;">("March of Henry IV")<br>(1590–1792, 1814–1830)</span></li></ul></div> <div style="text-align:center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="121" data-mwtitle="Marche_Henri_IV.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Marche_Henri_IV.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Marche_Henri_IV.ogg/Marche_Henri_IV.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></span></span></div><hr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Parisienne_(song)" title="La Parisienne (song)">La Parisienne</a></i></span><br><span style="font-size:85%;">("The Parisian")<br>(1830–1848)</span></li></ul></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="76" data-mwtitle="La_Parisienne_(Lefébure-Wély_arrangement_published_1851).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/La_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ab/La_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg/La_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg&lang=yue&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="yue" label="粵語 ‪(yue)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track></audio></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"> </div><div class="ib-country-anthem"><b><a href="/wiki/Royal_anthem" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal anthem">Royal anthem</a>:</b> <br><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Domine_salvum_fac_regem" title="Domine salvum fac regem">Domine salvum fac regem</a></i></span> (unofficial)<br>("Lord save the King")<br>(1515) <br><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="127" data-mwtitle="Rufst_du,_mein_Vaterland_(1938).oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Rufst_du%2C_mein_Vaterland_%281938%29.oga" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d3/Rufst_du%2C_mein_Vaterland_%281938%29.oga/Rufst_du%2C_mein_Vaterland_%281938%29.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></span></span></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of France in 1000"><img alt="The Kingdom of France in 1000" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg/250px-Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg/375px-Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg/500px-Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="340"></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Kingdom of France in 1000</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_France_(1789).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of France in 1789"><img alt="The Kingdom of France in 1789" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Kingdom_of_France_%281789%29.svg/250px-Kingdom_of_France_%281789%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Kingdom_of_France_%281789%29.svg/375px-Kingdom_of_France_%281789%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Kingdom_of_France_%281789%29.svg/500px-Kingdom_of_France_%281789%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456"></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Kingdom of France in 1789</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> (843–1792; 1814–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Versailles_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles (city)">Versailles</a> (unofficially, 1682–1789)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Largest city</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> (until 1539) • <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> (from the 12th century)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Regional languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Provençal language">Franco-Provençal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Champenois_language" title="Champenois language">Champenois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angevin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Angevin language">Angevin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_language_(O%C3%AFl)" title="Burgundian language (Oïl)">Burgundian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poitevin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Poitevin language">Poitevin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alsatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsatian language">Alsatian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">Feudal</a> <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">absolute monarchy</a> (843–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> (1791–1792; 1814–1815; 1815–1848)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_monarchs" title="List of French monarchs">Monarch</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 843–877 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1830–1848 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of France">Prime Minister</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1815 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles-Maurice_de_Talleyrand" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand">Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1847–1848 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>None (<a href="/wiki/Rule_by_decree" title="Rule by decree">rule by decree</a>)<br>(843–1302)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">Estates General</a><br>(1302–1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a><br>(1789–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_(France)" title="Legislative Assembly (France)">Legislative Assembly</a><br>(1791–1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a><br>(20 September 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a><br>(1814–1848)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9nat_conservateur" title="Sénat conservateur">Conservative Senate</a><br>(1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Peers_(France)" title="Chamber of Peers (France)">Chamber of Peers</a><br>(1814–1848)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corps_l%C3%A9gislatif" title="Corps législatif">Legislature</a><br>(until 4 June 1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(France)" title="Chamber of Deputies (France)">Chamber of Deputies</a><br>(4 June 1814–1848)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a>/<a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 10 August 843</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetian dynasty</a> established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3 July 987</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1337–1453</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1562–1598</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">5 May 1789</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_abolition_of_the_monarchy" title="Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy">Abolition of the monarchy</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">21 September 1792</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">6 April 1814</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2 August 1830</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">July Monarchy deposed</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">24 February 1848</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_livre" title="French livre">Livre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livre_parisis" title="Livre parisis">Livre parisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livre_tournois" title="Livre tournois">Livre tournois</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_denier" title="French denier">Denier</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_sol" title="French sol">Sol/Sou</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">Franc</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cu" title="Écu">Écu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_d%27or" title="Louis d'or">Louis d'or</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:FR" title="ISO 3166-2:FR">FR</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:France_colonial_Empire10.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of France"><img alt="Location of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/France_colonial_Empire10.png/250px-France_colonial_Empire10.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/France_colonial_Empire10.png/375px-France_colonial_Empire10.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/France_colonial_Empire10.png/500px-France_colonial_Empire10.png 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628"></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption3">Map of the first (light blue) and second (dark blue) French colonial empires</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b>1792:</b></span><br>French First Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b>1815:</b></span><br>First French Empire <i>(Hundred Days)</i></a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b>1848:</b></span><br>French Second Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <p>The Kingdom of France was descended directly from the <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">western Frankish realm</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, which was ceded to <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a> (843). A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, when <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a> was elected king and founded the <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetian dynasty</a>. The territory remained known as <i>Francia</i> and its ruler as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">rex Francorum</i></span> ('king of the Franks') well into the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. The first king calling himself <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">rex Francie</i></span> ('King of France') was <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II</a>, in 1190, and officially from 1204. From then, France was continuously ruled by the Capetians and their <a href="/wiki/Cadet_branch" title="Cadet branch">cadet lines</a> under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">Valois</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> until the monarchy was abolished in 1792 during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. The Kingdom of France was also ruled in <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a> over two time periods, 1284–1328 and 1572–1620, after which the institutions of Navarre were abolished and it was fully annexed by France (though the King of France continued to use the title "King of Navarre" through the end of the monarchy). </p><p><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France in the Middle Ages</a> was a decentralised, <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> monarchy. In <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Brittany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a> (the latter now a part of Spain), as well as <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aquitaine" title="Duchy of Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a>, the authority of the French king was barely felt. <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lorraine" title="Duchy of Lorraine">Lorraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Provence" title="County of Provence">Provence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Arles" title="Kingdom of Arles"> East Burgundy</a> were states of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and not yet a part of France. West Frankish kings were initially elected by the secular and ecclesiastical magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of male <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a>, which became codified in the <a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Salic law</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>, rivalry between the Capetian dynasty, rulers of the Kingdom of France and their vassals the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a>, who also ruled the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a> as part of their so-called competing <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>, resulted in many armed struggles. The most notorious of them all are the series of conflicts known as the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (1337–1453) in which the <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of England">kings of England</a> laid claim to the French throne. Emerging victorious from said conflicts, France subsequently sought to extend its influence into <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, but after initial gains was defeated by <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a> and the Holy Roman Empire in the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> (1494–1559). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">France in the early modern era</a> was increasingly centralised; the French language began to displace other languages from official use, and the monarch expanded his <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute power</a> in an administrative system, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i>, complicated by historic and regional irregularities in taxation, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions, and local prerogatives. Religiously, France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a>, which led to a series of civil wars, the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">Wars of Religion</a> (1562–1598). Subsequently, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas. </p><p>In the 16th to the 17th centuries, the First French colonial empire stretched from a total area at its peak in 1680 to over 10,000,000 square kilometres (3,900,000 sq mi), the second-largest empire in the world at the time behind the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. Colonial conflicts with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> led to the loss of much of its <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">North American holdings</a> by 1763. <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">French intervention</a> in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> helped the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> secure independence from <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">King George III</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a>, but was costly and achieved little for France. </p><p>France through its <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a>, became a superpower from 1643 until 1815;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> until the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish Empire lost its superpower status to France after the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees" title="Treaty of the Pyrenees">Treaty of the Pyrenees</a> (but maintained the status of <a href="/wiki/Great_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Power">Great Power</a> until the Napoleonic Wars and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Independence of Spanish America</a>). <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">France</a> lost its superpower status after <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s defeat against the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">1815</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, which began in 1789, the Kingdom of France <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">adopted a written constitution</a> in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="First French Republic">First French Republic</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">monarchy was restored</a> by the other great powers in 1814 and, with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a> in 1815, lasted until the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a>. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Political_history"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Political history</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#West_Francia"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">West Francia</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#High_Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">High Middle Ages</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Late_Middle_Ages_and_the_Hundred_Years'_War"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Late Middle Ages and the Hundred Years' War</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Renaissance_and_Reformation"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Renaissance and Reformation</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Italian_Wars"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Italian Wars</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Wars_of_Religion"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Wars of Religion</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Early_modern_period"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Early modern period</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Colonial_France"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Colonial France</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Thirty_Years'_War"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Thirty Years' War</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Administrative_structures"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Administrative structures</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Louis_XIV,_the_Sun_King"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Louis XIV, the Sun King</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Dissent_and_revolution"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Dissent and revolution</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Limited_monarchy"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Limited monarchy</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Restoration"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Restoration</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Aftermath_and_July_Monarchy"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">Aftermath and July Monarchy</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Territories_and_provinces"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Territories and provinces</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Religion"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Religion</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Fundamental_laws"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Fundamental laws</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Works_cited"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Works cited</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Historiography"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Historiography</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Political_history">Political history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political history" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Francia">West Francia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: West Francia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></div> <p>During the later years of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s rule, the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Franks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Franks">Kingdom of the Franks</a>. After Charlemagne's death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a> of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a> ruling over <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a>, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charles the Bald was also crowned <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lotharingia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Lotharingia">King of Lotharingia</a> after the death of <a href="/wiki/Lothair_II" title="Lothair II">Lothair II</a> in 869, but in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Meerssen" title="Treaty of Meerssen">Treaty of Meerssen</a> (870) was forced to cede much of Lotharingia to his brothers, retaining the <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a> basins (including <a href="/wiki/Verdun" title="Verdun">Verdun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vienne,_Is%C3%A8re" title="Vienne, Isère">Vienne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Besan%C3%A7on" title="Besançon">Besançon</a>) but leaving the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a> with <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a>. </p><p>Viking incursions up the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a>, and other inland waterways increased. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Simple" title="Charles the Simple">Charles the Simple</a> (898–922), Vikings under <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a> from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> settled along the Seine, downstream from Paris, in a region that came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_Middle_Ages">High Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France in the Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetian dynasty</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Carolingians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingians">Carolingians</a> were to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent power struggle between the two dynasties, the accession in 987 of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a>, Duke of France and Count of Paris, established the <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetian dynasty</a> on the throne. With its offshoots, the houses of <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">Valois</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a>, it was to rule France for more than 800 years.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The old order left the new dynasty in immediate control of little beyond the middle Seine and adjacent territories, while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Blois" title="Counts of Blois">counts of Blois</a> accumulated large domains of their own through marriage and through private arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support. </p><p>The area around the lower Seine became a source of particular concern when Duke <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of England">William</a> of Normandy took possession of the Kingdom of England by the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of 1066, making himself and his heirs the king's equal outside France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> inherited the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Counts_and_dukes_of_Anjou" title="Counts and dukes of Anjou">County of Anjou</a>, and married France's newly single ex-queen, <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a>, who ruled much of southwest France, in 1152. After defeating a <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_1173%E2%80%931174" title="Revolt of 1173–1174">revolt</a> led by Eleanor and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned, made the <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Brittany">Duke of Brittany</a> his vassal, and in effect ruled the western half of France as a greater power than the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's descendants over the division of his French territories, coupled with <a href="/wiki/John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">John of England</a>'s lengthy quarrel with <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II</a>, allowed Philip to recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bouvines" title="Battle of Bouvines">Battle of Bouvines</a> in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aquitaine" title="Duchy of Aquitaine">Duchy of Aquitaine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Middle_Ages_and_the_Hundred_Years'_War"><span id="Late_Middle_Ages_and_the_Hundred_Years.27_War"></span>Late Middle Ages and the Hundred Years' War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages and the Hundred Years' War" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France in the Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></div> <p>The death of <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_France" title="Charles IV of France">Charles IV of France</a> in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under <a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Salic law</a> the crown could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was <a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_France" title="Isabella of France">Isabella</a>, whose son was <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a>), so the throne passed to <a href="/wiki/Philip_VI_of_France" title="Philip VI of France">Philip VI</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Charles_of_Valois" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles of Valois">Charles of Valois</a>. This, in addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to <a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a> in the south of France, and the relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> of 1337–1453. The following century was to see devastating warfare, the <a href="/wiki/Armagnac%E2%80%93Burgundian_Civil_War" title="Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War">Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War</a>, peasant revolts (the <a href="/wiki/English_peasants%27_revolt_of_1381" class="mw-redirect" title="English peasants' revolt of 1381">English peasants' revolt of 1381</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Jacquerie" title="Jacquerie">Jacquerie</a></i> of 1358 in France) and the growth of nationalism in both countries.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, usually considered an outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>), which arrived from Italy in 1348, spreading rapidly up the Rhône valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that a population of some 18–20 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328 <a href="/wiki/Hearth_tax" title="Hearth tax">hearth tax</a> returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50 percent or more.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance_and_Reformation">Renaissance and Reformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Renaissance and Reformation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png/220px-Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="9000" data-file-height="6000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png/220px-Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png/330px-Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png/440px-Flag_of_Kingdom_of_France.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Flag of the Kingdom of France, designed in the late 19th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The Renaissance era was noted for the emergence of powerful centralized institutions, as well as a flourishing culture (much of it imported from <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kings built a strong fiscal system, which heightened the power of the king to raise armies that overawed the local nobility.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Paris especially there emerged strong traditions in literature, art and music. The prevailing style was <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">classical</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Villers-Cotter%C3%AAts" title="Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts">Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts</a> was signed into law by <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I</a> in 1539. Largely the work of <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_France" title="Chancellor of France">Chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Poyet" title="Guillaume Poyet">Guillaume Poyet</a>, it dealt with a number of government, judicial and ecclesiastical matters. Articles 110 and 111, the most famous, called for the use of the French language in all legal acts, notarised contracts and official legislation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italian_Wars">Italian Wars</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Italian Wars" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></div> <p>After the Hundred Years' War, <a href="/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France" title="Charles VIII of France">Charles VIII of France</a> signed three additional treaties with <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a>, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a> respectively at <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_%C3%89taples" title="Peace of Étaples">Étaples</a> (1492), <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Senlis" title="Treaty of Senlis">Senlis</a> (1493) and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Barcelona" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Barcelona">Barcelona</a> (1493). These three treaties cleared the way for France to undertake the long Italian Wars (1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. French efforts to gain dominance resulted only in the increased power of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wars_of_Religion">Wars of Religion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Wars of Religion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></div> <p>Barely were the Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with far-reaching consequences. Despite the conclusion of a <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_Bologna" title="Concordat of Bologna">Concordat</a> between France and the Papacy (1516), granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was deeply affected by the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>'s attempt to break the hegemony of Catholic Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority (later dubbed <i><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></i>) faced ever harsher repression under the rule of Francis I's son King <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II</a>. After Henry II's death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widow <a href="/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici" title="Catherine de' Medici">Catherine de' Medici</a> and her sons <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_France" title="Francis II of France">Francis II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_IX_of_France" title="Charles IX of France">Charles IX</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Henry III</a>. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful <a href="/wiki/Counts_and_dukes_of_Guise" title="Counts and dukes of Guise">dukes of Guise</a> culminated in a <a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">massacre of Huguenots</a> (1572), starting the first of the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a>, during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic forces. Opposed to absolute monarchy, the Huguenot <a href="/wiki/Monarchomachs" title="Monarchomachs">Monarchomachs</a> theorized during this time the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of rebellion">right of rebellion</a> and the legitimacy of <a href="/wiki/Tyrannicide" title="Tyrannicide">tyrannicide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Wars of Religion culminated in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Three_Henrys_(1584-1598)" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Three Henrys (1584-1598)">War of the Three Henrys</a> in which Henry III assassinated <a href="/wiki/Henry_I,_Duke_of_Guise" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry I, Duke of Guise">Henry de Guise</a>, leader of the Spanish-backed <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)" title="Catholic League (French)">Catholic League</a>, and the king was murdered in return. After the assassination of both Henry of Guise (1588) and Henry III (1589), the conflict was ended by the accession of the Protestant king of <a href="/wiki/Navarre" title="Navarre">Navarre</a> as <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV</a> (first king of the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbon dynasty">Bourbon dynasty</a>) and his subsequent abandonment of Protestantism (Expedient of 1592) effective in 1593, his acceptance by most of the Catholic establishment (1594) and by the Pope (1595), and his issue of the toleration decree known as the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a> (1598), which guaranteed freedom of private worship and civil equality.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early modern period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_early_modern_period" title="France in the early modern period">France in the early modern period</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:139px;max-width:139px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:215px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg/137px-Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="215" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2556" data-file-height="4018"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 137px;height: 215px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg/137px-Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="137" data-height="215" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg/206px-Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg/274px-Henry_IV_of_france_by_pourbous_younger.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:149px;max-width:149px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:215px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg/147px-Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="215" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="707"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 147px;height: 215px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg/147px-Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="147" data-height="215" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg/221px-Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg/294px-Louis_XIIIval_grace.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV</a> (left), by <a href="/wiki/Frans_Pourbus_the_younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Frans Pourbus the younger">Frans Pourbus the younger</a> (1610), <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIII of France">Louis XIII</a> (right), by <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Champaigne" title="Philippe de Champaigne">Philippe de Champaigne</a> (1647)</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonial_France">Colonial France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Colonial France" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a></div> <p>France's pacification under Henry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise to European hegemony. France was expansive during all but the end of the seventeenth century: the French began trading in India and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, founded <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec</a> and penetrated the North American <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, established plantation economies in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> and extended their trade contacts in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and enlarged their <a href="/wiki/Merchant_marine" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant marine">merchant marine</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thirty_Years'_War"><span id="Thirty_Years.27_War"></span>Thirty Years' War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Thirty Years' War" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></div> <p>Henry IV's son <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII" title="Louis XIII">Louis XIII</a> and his minister (1624–1642) <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu" title="Cardinal Richelieu">Cardinal Richelieu</a>, elaborated a policy against Spain and the Holy Roman Empire during the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648) which had broken out in Germany. After the death of both king and cardinal, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> (1648) secured universal acceptance of Germany's political and religious fragmentation, but the Regency of <a href="/wiki/Anne_of_Austria" title="Anne of Austria">Anne of Austria</a> and her minister <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin" title="Cardinal Mazarin">Cardinal Mazarin</a> experienced a civil uprising known as the <a href="/wiki/Fronde" class="mw-redirect" title="Fronde">Fronde</a> (1648–1653) which expanded into a <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees" title="Treaty of the Pyrenees">Treaty of the Pyrenees</a> (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory of <a href="/wiki/Roussillon" title="Roussillon">Roussillon</a> after the crushing of the ephemeral <a href="/wiki/Catalan_Republic_(1640%E2%80%931641)" title="Catalan Republic (1640–1641)">Catalan Republic</a> and ushered a short period of peace.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Administrative_structures">Administrative structures</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Administrative structures" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></div> <p>The <i>Ancien Régime</i>, a French term rendered in English as "Old Rule", or simply "Former Regime", refers primarily to the aristocratic, social and political system of early modern France under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties. The administrative and social structures of the Ancien Régime were the result of years of state-building, legislative acts (like the <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Villers-Cotter%C3%AAts" title="Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts">Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts</a>), internal conflicts and civil wars, but they remained a confusing patchwork of local <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(legal_ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege (legal ethics)">privilege</a> and historic differences until the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> brought about a radical suppression of administrative incoherence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Louis_XIV,_the_Sun_King"><span id="Louis_XIV.2C_the_Sun_King"></span>Louis XIV, the Sun King</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Louis XIV, the Sun King" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg/220px-Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="1975"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 313px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg/220px-Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="313" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg/330px-Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg/440px-Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>, a 1701 portrait by <a href="/wiki/Hyacinthe_Rigaud" title="Hyacinthe Rigaud">Hyacinthe Rigaud</a></figcaption></figure> <p>For most of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> (1643–1715), ("The Sun King"), France was the dominant power in Europe, aided by the diplomacy of Cardinal Richelieu's successor as the King's chief minister, (1642–61) <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Jules_Mazarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Jules Mazarin">Cardinal Jules Mazarin</a>, (1602–1661). Cardinal Mazarin oversaw the creation of a <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Royal Navy</a> that rivalled <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">England's</a>, expanding it from 25 ships to almost 200. The size of the <a href="/wiki/French_Royal_Army" title="French Royal Army">French Royal Army</a> was also considerably increased. Renewed wars (the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Devolution" title="War of Devolution">War of Devolution</a>, 1667–1668 and the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">Franco-Dutch War</a>, 1672–1678) brought further territorial gains (<a href="/wiki/Artois" title="Artois">Artois</a> and western <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> and the free <a href="/wiki/County_of_Burgundy" title="County of Burgundy">County of Burgundy</a>, previously left to the Empire in 1482), but at the cost of the increasingly concerted opposition of rival royal powers, and a legacy of an increasingly enormous <a href="/wiki/Government_debt" title="Government debt">national debt</a>. An adherent of the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">"Divine Right of Kings"</a>, which advocates the divine origin of temporal power and any lack of earthly restraint of monarchical rule, Louis XIV continued his predecessors' work of creating a <a href="/wiki/Centralized_government" title="Centralized government">centralized state</a> governed from the capital of Paris. He sought to eliminate the remnants of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> still persisting in parts of France and, by compelling the noble elite to regularly inhabit his lavish <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a>, built on the outskirts of Paris, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which had participated in the earlier "<a href="/wiki/The_Fronde" title="The Fronde">Fronde</a>" rebellion during Louis' minority. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured 150 years until the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McCabe says critics used fiction to portray the degraded Turkish court, using "the harem, the Sultan court, oriental despotism, luxury, gems and spices, carpets, and silk cushions" as an unfavorable analogy to the corruption of the French royal court.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The king sought to impose total religious uniformity on the country, repealing the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a> in 1685. It is estimated that anywhere between 150,000 and 300,000 Protestants fled France during the wave of persecution that followed the repeal,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (following "<a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a>" beginning a hundred and fifty years earlier until the end of the 18th century) costing the country a great many intellectuals, artisans, and other valuable people. Persecution extended to unorthodox Roman Catholics like the <a href="/wiki/Jansenists" class="mw-redirect" title="Jansenists">Jansenists</a>, a group that denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes. In this, he garnered the friendship of the papacy, which had previously been hostile to France because of its policy of putting all church property in the country under the jurisdiction of the state rather than that of Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 1700, King <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II of Spain</a> died, ending the Habsburg line in that country. Louis had long planned for this moment, but these plans were thrown into disarray by the will of King Charles, which left the entire Spanish Empire to Louis's grandson <a href="/wiki/Philip,_Duke_of_Anjou" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip, Duke of Anjou">Philip, Duke of Anjou</a>, (1683–1746). Essentially, Spain was to become a perpetual ally and even obedient satellite of France, ruled by a king who would carry out orders from Versailles. Realizing how this would upset the balance of power, the other European rulers were outraged. However, most of the alternatives were equally undesirable. For example, putting another Habsburg on the throne would end up recreating the grand multi-national <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Charles_V" title="Empire of Charles V">Empire of Charles V</a>; of the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and the Spanish territories in Italy, which would also grossly upset the power balance. However, the rest of Europe would not stand for his ambitions in Spain, and so the long <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> began (1701–1714), a mere three years after the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Grand_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Grand Alliance">War of the Grand Alliance</a> (1688–1697, <abbr title="also known as">a.k.a.</abbr> "War of the League of Augsburg") had just concluded.<sup id="cite_ref-daniel_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daniel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dissent_and_revolution">Dissent and revolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Dissent and revolution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg/220px-France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1147" data-file-height="916"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 176px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg/220px-France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="176" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg/330px-France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg/440px-France_anciennes_provinces_1789.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>The provinces of the Kingdom of France in 1789</figcaption></figure> <p>The reign (1715–1774) of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9gence" title="Régence">regency</a> (1715–1723) of <a href="/wiki/Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Philippe II, Duke of Orléans</a>, whose policies were largely continued (1726–1743) by <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Fleury" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Fleury">Cardinal Fleury</a>, prime minister in all but name. The exhaustion of Europe after two major wars resulted in a long period of peace, only interrupted by minor conflicts like the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> from 1733 to 1735. Large-scale warfare resumed with the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–1748). But alliance with the traditional Habsburg enemy (the "<a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution" title="Diplomatic Revolution">Diplomatic Revolution</a>" of 1756) against the rising power of Britain and <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> led to costly failure in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–63) and the loss of France's North American colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:148px;max-width:148px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:194px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis_XV,_King_of_France_(1710-1774)_edited_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Louis_XV%2C_King_of_France_%281710-1774%29_edited_2.jpg/146px-Louis_XV%2C_King_of_France_%281710-1774%29_edited_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="194" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1834" data-file-height="2436"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 146px;height: 194px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Louis_XV%2C_King_of_France_%281710-1774%29_edited_2.jpg/146px-Louis_XV%2C_King_of_France_%281710-1774%29_edited_2.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="146" data-height="194" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Louis_XV%2C_King_of_France_%281710-1774%29_edited_2.jpg/219px-Louis_XV%2C_King_of_France_%281710-1774%29_edited_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Louis_XV%2C_King_of_France_%281710-1774%29_edited_2.jpg/292px-Louis_XV%2C_King_of_France_%281710-1774%29_edited_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:194px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI,_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_(1754-1793),_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI%2C_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_%281754-1793%29%2C_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/138px-Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI%2C_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_%281754-1793%29%2C_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="194" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3592" data-file-height="5062"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 138px;height: 194px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI%2C_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_%281754-1793%29%2C_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/138px-Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI%2C_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_%281754-1793%29%2C_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="138" data-height="194" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI%2C_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_%281754-1793%29%2C_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/207px-Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI%2C_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_%281754-1793%29%2C_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI%2C_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_%281754-1793%29%2C_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/276px-Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-_Louis_XVI%2C_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_%281754-1793%29%2C_rev%C3%AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> (left), by <a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_van_Loo" title="Louis-Michel van Loo">Louis-Michel van Loo</a> (1763); <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a> (right), by <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet" title="Antoine-François Callet">Antoine-François Callet</a> (1775)</div></div></div></div> <p>On the whole, the 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established order. Louis XV was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses, overall weakness, and for losing <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> to the British. The writings of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> were a clear sign of discontent, but the king chose to ignore them. He died of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1774, and the French people shed few tears at his death. While France had not yet experienced the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> that was beginning in Britain, the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly, frivolous, aloof, and antiquated, even if true feudalism no longer existed in France. </p><p>Upon Louis XV's death, his grandson <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a> became king. Initially popular, he too came to be widely detested by the 1780s. He was married to an Austrian archduchess, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a>. French intervention in the American War of Independence was also very expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the country deeply in debt, Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms of <a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot,_Baron_de_Laune" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune">Turgot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Malesherbes</a>, but noble disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes' resignation in 1776. They were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Jacques Necker</a>. Necker had resigned in 1781 to be replaced by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Calonne</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">Brienne</a>, before being restored in 1788. A harsh winter that year led to widespread food shortages, and by then France was a powder keg ready to explode.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the eve of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of July 1789, France was in a profound institutional and financial crisis, but the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> had begun to permeate the educated classes of society.<sup id="cite_ref-daniel_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daniel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limited_monarchy">Limited monarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Limited monarchy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Kingdom of France (1791–92)</a></div> <p>On September 3, 1791, the absolute monarchy which had governed France for 948 years was forced to limit its power and become a provisional constitutional monarchy. However, this too would not last very long and on September 21, 1792, the French monarchy was effectively abolished by the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a>. The role of the King in France was finally ended with the <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">execution of Louis XVI</a> by <a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">guillotine</a> on Monday, January 21, 1793, followed by the "<a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a>", mass executions and the provisional "<a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a>" form of republican government, and the eventual beginnings of twenty-five years of reform, upheaval, dictatorship, wars and renewal, with the various <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restoration">Restoration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Restoration" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration in France</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:204px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg/142px-G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="205" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="1280"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 142px;height: 205px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg/142px-G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="142" data-height="205" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg/213px-G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg/284px-G%C3%A9rard_-_Louis_XVIII_of_France_in_Coronation_Robes.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:204px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlos_X_de_Francia_(Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Carlos_X_de_Francia_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg/142px-Carlos_X_de_Francia_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="204" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2059" data-file-height="2952"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 142px;height: 204px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Carlos_X_de_Francia_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg/142px-Carlos_X_de_Francia_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="142" data-height="204" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Carlos_X_de_Francia_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg/213px-Carlos_X_de_Francia_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Carlos_X_de_Francia_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg/284px-Carlos_X_de_Francia_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The two kings of the Restoration: <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVIII of France">Louis XVIII</a> (left) by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard" title="François Gérard">François Gérard</a> (1820s), <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a> (right) by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard" title="François Gérard">François Gérard</a> (1825)</div></div></div></div> <p>Following the French Revolution (1789–99) and the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> (1804–1814), the monarchy was restored when a <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">coalition of European powers</a> restored by arms the monarchy to the House of Bourbon in 1814. However the deposed Emperor Napoleon I returned triumphantly to Paris from his exile in <a href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</a> and ruled France for a short period known as the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a>. </p><p>When a <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Seventh_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Seventh Coalition">Seventh European Coalition</a> again deposed Napoleon after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a> in 1815, the Bourbon monarchy was once again restored. The Count of Provence - brother of Louis XVI, who was guillotined in 1793 - was crowned as <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a>, nicknamed "The Desired". Louis XVIII tried to conciliate the legacies of the Revolution and the Ancien Régime, by permitting the formation of a <a href="/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1814" title="Charter of 1814">constitutional Charter</a>, usually known as the "<i>Charte octroyée</i>" ("Granted Charter"). His reign was characterized by disagreements between the <a href="/wiki/Doctrinaires" title="Doctrinaires">Doctrinaires</a>, liberal thinkers who supported the Charter and the rising <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">Ultra-royalists</a>, aristocrats and clergymen who totally refused the Revolution's heritage. Peace was maintained by statesmen like <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Armand-Emmanuel_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis,_Duc_de_Richelieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu">Duke of Richelieu</a>, as well as the King's moderation and prudent intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1823, the <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a> revolt in Spain led to a <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Thousand_Sons_of_Saint_Louis" title="Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis">French intervention</a> on the royalists' side, which permitted King <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII of Spain</a> to abolish the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Constitution of 1812</a>. </p><p>However, the work of Louis XVIII was frustrated when, after his death on 16 September 1824, his brother the Count of Artois became king under the name of <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a>. Charles X was a strong <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> who supported the ultra-royalists and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_France" title="Catholic Church in France">Catholic Church</a>. Under his reign, the censorship of newspapers was reinforced, the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Sacrilege_Act" title="Anti-Sacrilege Act">Anti-Sacrilege Act</a> passed, and compensations to <a href="/wiki/French_emigration_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="French emigration (1789–1815)">Émigrés</a> were increased. However, the reign also witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Morea_expedition" title="Morea expedition">French intervention</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek Revolution</a> in favour of the Greek rebels, and the first phase of the <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">conquest of Algeria</a>. </p><p>The absolutist tendencies of the King were disliked by the Doctrinaire majority in the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(France)" title="Chamber of Deputies (France)">Chamber of Deputies</a>, that on 18 March 1830 <a href="/wiki/Address_of_the_221" title="Address of the 221">sent an address</a> to the King, upholding the rights of the Chamber and in effect supporting a transition to a full parliamentary system. Charles X received this address as a veiled threat, and in 25 July of the same year, he issued the <a href="/wiki/July_Ordinances" title="July Ordinances">St. Cloud Ordinances</a>, in an attempt to reduce Parliament's powers and re-establish absolute rule.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opposition reacted with riots in Parliament and <a href="/wiki/Barricades" class="mw-redirect" title="Barricades">barricades</a> in Paris, that resulted in the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The King abdicated, as did his son the Dauphin <a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine,_Duke_of_Angoul%C3%AAme" title="Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême">Louis Antoine</a>, in favour of his grandson <a href="/wiki/Henri,_Count_of_Chambord" title="Henri, Count of Chambord">Henri, Count of Chambord</a>, nominating his cousin the <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Philippe d'Orléans">Duke of Orléans</a> as regent.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was too late, and the liberal opposition won out over the monarchy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath_and_July_Monarchy">Aftermath and July Monarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Aftermath and July Monarchy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_(King_of_the_French)_by_Winterhalter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg/220px-1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 340px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg/220px-1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="340" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg/330px-1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg/440px-1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>An 1841 portrait of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a> by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Xaver_Winterhalter" title="Franz Xaver Winterhalter">Franz Xaver Winterhalter</a></figcaption></figure> <p>On 9 August 1830, the Chamber of Deputies elected <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans</a> as "King of the French": for the first time since French Revolution, the King was designated as the ruler of the French people and not the country. The Bourbon <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">white flag</a> was substituted with the <a href="/wiki/French_tricolour" class="mw-redirect" title="French tricolour">French tricolour</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1830" title="Charter of 1830">new Charter</a> was introduced in August 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">conquest of Algeria</a> continued, and new settlements were established in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Madagascar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tahiti" title="Kingdom of Tahiti">Tahiti</a> was placed under <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarjotChalineEncrevé2014232,_233_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarjotChalineEncrev%C3%A92014232,_233-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, despite the initial reforms, Louis Philippe was little different from his predecessors. The old <a href="/wiki/French_nobility" title="French nobility">nobility</a> was replaced by urban bourgeoisie, and the working class was excluded from voting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarjotChalineEncrevé2014202_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarjotChalineEncrev%C3%A92014202-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Louis Philippe appointed notable bourgeois as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France" title="Prime Minister of France">Prime Minister</a>, like banker <a href="/wiki/Casimir_P%C3%A9rier" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir Périer">Casimir Périer</a>, academic <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a>, general <a href="/wiki/Jean-de-Dieu_Soult" title="Jean-de-Dieu Soult">Jean-de-Dieu Soult</a>, and thus obtained the nickname of "Citizen King" (<i>Roi-Citoyen</i>). The July Monarchy was beset by corruption scandals and financial crisis. The opposition of the King was composed of <a href="/wiki/Legitimists" title="Legitimists">Legitimists</a>, supporting the <a href="/wiki/Henri,_Count_of_Chambord" title="Henri, Count of Chambord">Count of Chambord</a>, Bourbon claimant to the throne, and of <a href="/wiki/Bonapartist" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonapartist">Bonapartists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Republicanism in France">Republicans</a>, who fought against royalty and supported the principles of democracy. </p><p>The King tried to suppress the opposition with censorship, but when the <i><a href="/wiki/Campagne_des_banquets" title="Campagne des banquets">Campagne des banquets</a></i> ("Banquets' Campaign") was repressed in February 1848,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarjotChalineEncrevé2014211,_2012_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarjotChalineEncrev%C3%A92014211,_2012-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> riots and seditions erupted in Paris and later all France, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">February Revolution</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(France)" title="National Guard (France)">National Guard</a> refused to repress the rebellion, resulting in Louis Philippe abdicating and fleeing to England. On 24 February 1848, the monarchy was abolished and the <a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a> was proclaimed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarjotChalineEncrevé2014298,_299_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarjotChalineEncrev%C3%A92014298,_299-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite later attempts to re-establish the Kingdom in the 1870s, during the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a>, the French monarchy has not restored. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Territories_and_provinces">Territories and provinces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Territories and provinces" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_France" title="Provinces of France">Provinces of France</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_France" title="Territorial evolution of France">Territorial evolution of France</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg/220px-Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1796"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg/220px-Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg/330px-Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg/440px-Le_royaume_des_Francs_sous_Hugues_Capet-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a> between 987 and 996 AD with the royal domain is shown in blue.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_France_1030-fr.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Map_France_1030-fr.svg/220px-Map_France_1030-fr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="989" data-file-height="1126"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 250px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Map_France_1030-fr.svg/220px-Map_France_1030-fr.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="250" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Map_France_1030-fr.svg/330px-Map_France_1030-fr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Map_France_1030-fr.svg/440px-Map_France_1030-fr.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>The Kingdom of France in 1030 with the kingdom's royal domain in light blue</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png/220px-Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="1625"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 166px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png/220px-Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png" data-width="220" data-height="166" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png/330px-Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png/440px-Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Territorial development under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">King Philip II</a> between 1180 and 1223</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the 13th century, only a small part of what is now France was under control of the Frankish king; in the north there were Viking incursions leading to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a>; in the west, the <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Anjou" class="mw-redirect" title="Counts of Anjou">counts of Anjou</a> established themselves as powerful rivals of the king, by the late 11th century ruling over the "<a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>", which included the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">kingdom of England</a>. It was only with <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II of France</a> that the bulk of the territory of Western Francia came under the rule of the Frankish kings, and Philip was consequently the first king to call himself "king of France" (1190). The division of France between the Angevin (Plantagenet) kings of England and the Capetian kings of France would lead to the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, and France would regain control over these territories only by the mid 15th century. What is now eastern France (Lorraine, Arelat) was not part of Western Francia to begin with and was only incorporated into the kingdom during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">early modern period</a>. </p><p>Territories inherited from Western Francia: </p> <dl><dd>Domain of the Frankish king (royal domain or <i><a href="/wiki/Demesne" title="Demesne">demesne</a></i>, see <a href="/wiki/Crown_lands_of_France" title="Crown lands of France">crown lands of France</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ile_de_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Ile de France">Ile de France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourges" title="Bourges">Bourges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Orléans</a></li></ul></dd> <dd>Direct vassals of the French king in the 10th to 12th centuries: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Champagne" title="County of Champagne">County of Champagne</a> (to the royal domain in 1316)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Blois" title="County of Blois">County of Blois</a> (to the royal domain in 1391)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> (until 1477, then divided between France and the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburgs</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of Flanders</a> (to Burgundy in 1369)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Bourbon" title="Duke of Bourbon">Duchy of Bourbon</a> (1327–1523)</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Acquisitions during the 13th to 14th centuries: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a> (1204)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tourain" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Tourain">County of Tourain</a> (1204)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Anjou" title="County of Anjou">County of Anjou</a> (1225)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Maine" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Maine">County of Maine</a> (1225)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Auvergne" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Auvergne">County of Auvergne</a> (1271)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Toulouse" title="County of Toulouse">County of Toulouse</a> (1271), including: <ul><li>County of <a href="/wiki/Quercy" title="Quercy">Quercy</a></li> <li>County of <a href="/wiki/Rouergue" title="Rouergue">Rouergue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Rodez" title="County of Rodez">County of Rodez</a></li></ul></li> <li>County of <a href="/wiki/Gevaudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gevaudan">Gevaudan</a></li> <li>Viscounty of <a href="/wiki/Albi" title="Albi">Albi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimania" title="Septimania">Marquisat of Gothia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Champagne" title="County of Champagne">County of Champagne</a> (to the royal domain in 1316)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dauphin%C3%A9" title="Dauphiné">Dauphiné</a> (1349), hereditary possession of the kings of France, to be held by the <a href="/wiki/Dauphin_of_France" title="Dauphin of France">heir apparent</a>, but technically not part of the kingdom of France because it remained nominally part of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Blois" title="County of Blois">County of Blois</a> (to the royal domain in 1391)</li></ul> <p>Acquisitions from the Plantagenet kings of England with the French victory in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> 1453 </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aquitaine" title="Duchy of Aquitaine">Duchy of Aquitaine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Guyenne" title="Guyenne">Guyenne</a>), including: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Poitou" title="County of Poitou">County of Poitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_La_Marche" title="County of La Marche">County of La Marche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Angoul%C3%AAme" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Angoulême">County of Angoulême</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_P%C3%A9rigord" title="County of Périgord">County of Périgord</a> <ul><li>County of <a href="/wiki/Velay" title="Velay">Velay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Saintonge" title="County of Saintonge">County of Saintonge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Limousin" title="History of Limousin">Viscounty of Limousin</a></li> <li>Lordship of <a href="/wiki/Issoudun" title="Issoudun">Issoudun</a></li> <li>Lordship of <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9ols" title="Déols">Déols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Gascogne" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Gascogne">Duchy of Gascogne</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a>) <ul><li>County of <a href="/wiki/Agenais" title="Agenais">Agenais</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bretagne" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Bretagne">Duchy of Bretagne</a> (disputed since the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Breton_Succession" title="War of the Breton Succession">War of the Breton Succession</a>, to France in 1453, to the royal demesne in 1547)</li></ul> <p>Acquisitions after the end of the Hundred Years' War: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> (1477)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Calais" title="Pale of Calais">Pale of Calais</a> (1558)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a> (1620)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a>: <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> (1648), <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nijmegen" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Nijmegen">Treaty of Nijmegen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Ratisbon" title="Truce of Ratisbon">Truce of Ratisbon</a> (1684)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Artois" title="County of Artois">County of Artois</a> (1659)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roussillon" title="Roussillon">Roussillon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perpignan" title="Perpignan">Perpignan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montm%C3%A9dy" title="Montmédy">Montmédy</a> and other parts of <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Arras" title="Arras">Arras</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9thune" title="Béthune">Béthune</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravelines" title="Gravelines">Gravelines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thionville" title="Thionville">Thionville</a> (<a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees" title="Treaty of the Pyrenees">Treaty of the Pyrenees</a> 1659)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_County_of_Burgundy" class="mw-redirect" title="Free County of Burgundy">Free County of Burgundy</a> (1668, 1679)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Hainaut" title="French Hainaut">French Hainaut</a> (1679)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Orange" title="Principality of Orange">Principality of Orange</a> (1713)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lorraine" title="Duchy of Lorraine">Duchy of Lorraine</a> (1766)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Corsica" title="French conquest of Corsica">French conquest of Corsica</a> (1769)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comtat_Venaissin" title="Comtat Venaissin">Comtat Venaissin</a> (1791)</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Religion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg/220px-PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4568" data-file-height="3426"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg/220px-PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg/330px-PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg/440px-PA00078776-Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Reims_5.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Reims_Cathedral" title="Reims Cathedral">Reims Cathedral</a>, built where <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> was baptised by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Remigius" title="Saint Remigius">Remigius</a>, functioned as the site for the <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_French_monarch" title="Coronation of the French monarch">coronations of the kings of France</a> in the kingdom.</figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> was the official <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> of the Kingdom of France.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France was traditionally considered the Church's eldest daughter (French: <i>Fille aînée de l'Église</i>), and the <a href="/wiki/King_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="King of France">King of France</a> always maintained close links to the Pope,<sup id="cite_ref-Parisse_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parisse-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> receiving the title <i>Most Christian Majesty</i> from the Pope in 1464.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the French monarchy maintained a significant degree of autonomy, namely through its policy of "<a href="/wiki/Gallicanism" title="Gallicanism">Gallicanism</a>", whereby the king selected bishops rather than the papacy.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Protestant Reformation of the mid 16th century, France developed a large and influential Protestant population, primarily of <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a> confession; after French theologian and pastor <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> in France, the number of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_France" title="Protestantism in France">French Protestants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a>) steadily swelled to 10 percent of the population, or roughly 1.8 million people. The ensuring <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a>, and particularly the <a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">St. Bartholomew's Day massacre</a>, decimated the Huguenot community;<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protestants declined to seven to eight percent of the kingdom's population by the end of the 16th century. The <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a> brought decades of respite until its <a href="/wiki/Revocation_of_the_Edict_of_Nantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Revocation of the Edict of Nantes">revocation</a> in the late 17th century by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>. The resulting exodus of <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a> from the Kingdom of France created a <a href="/wiki/Brain_drain" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain drain">brain drain</a>, as many of them had occupied important places in society.<sup id="cite_ref-EB11_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB11-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">Jews have a documented presence</a> in France since at least the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kingdom of France was a center of Jewish learning in the Middle Ages, producing influential Jewish scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a> and even hosting <a href="/wiki/Disputation_of_Paris" title="Disputation of Paris">theological debates</a> between Jews and Christians. <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Widespread persecution</a> began in the 11th century and increased intermittently throughout the Middle Ages, with multiple expulsions and returns.<sup id="cite_ref-chabad_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chabad-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Fundamental_laws">Fundamental laws</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fundamental laws" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_laws_of_the_Kingdom_of_France" title="Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France">Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France</a></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><div class="excerpt"></div></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><div class="excerpt"> The <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> in the kingdom was not the same as <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_dictatorship" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian dictatorship">totalitarian dictatorship</a> for example, and there were limits on the king's power. These arose chiefly from religious constraints: because the monarchy was considered to be established by <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right</a>, that is, that the king was chosen by God to carry out his will, this implied that the king's subjects should obey and respect him. The king is accountable only to God, but this meant an implicit demand of virtue,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDignat2021_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignat2021-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><noscript><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 32px;height: 21px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="32" data-height="21" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/48px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/64px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><noscript><img 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title="Family tree of French monarchs">Family tree of French monarchs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_French_monarchs_(simplified)" title="Family tree of French monarchs (simplified)">Family tree of French monarchs (simplified)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_laws_of_the_Kingdom_of_France" title="Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France">Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integration_of_Normandy_into_the_royal_domain_of_the_Kingdom_of_France" title="Integration of Normandy into the royal domain of the Kingdom of France">Integration of Normandy into the royal domain of the Kingdom of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_ship_Inflexible_(1755)" title="French ship Inflexible (1755)">French ship Inflexible (1755)</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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<span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGallie1984" class="citation book cs1">Gallie, Duncan (January 26, 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kf43AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA208"><i>Social Inequality and Class Radicalism in France and Britain</i></a>. CUP Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521257640" title="Special:BookSources/9780521257640"><bdi>9780521257640</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Inequality+and+Class+Radicalism+in+France+and+Britain&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1984-01-26&rft.isbn=9780521257640&rft.aulast=Gallie&rft.aufirst=Duncan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkf43AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldrich1996" class="citation book cs1">Aldrich, Robert (1996). <i>Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion</i>. p. 304.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greater+France%3A+A+History+of+French+Overseas+Expansion&rft.pages=304&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Aldrich&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPage2003" class="citation book cs1">Page, Melvin E., ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC&pg=PA218"><i>Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781576073353" title="Special:BookSources/9781576073353"><bdi>9781576073353</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism%3A+An+International+Social%2C+Cultural%2C+and+Political+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781576073353&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqFTHBoRvQbsC%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnglund2005" class="citation book cs1">Englund, Steven (2005). <i>Napoleon: A Political Life</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 254.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+A+Political+Life&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Englund&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnglund2005" class="citation book cs1">Englund, Steven (2005). <i>Napoleon: A Political Life</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 254.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+A+Political+Life&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Englund&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2005" class="citation book cs1">Price, Roger (2005). <i>A Concise History of France</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AYjB2-RnWUwC&pg=PA30">30</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521844802" title="Special:BookSources/9780521844802"><bdi>9780521844802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+France&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780521844802&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradbury2007" class="citation book cs1">Bradbury, Jim (2007). <i>The Capetians: Kings of France, 987–1328</i>. Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781852855284" title="Special:BookSources/9781852855284"><bdi>9781852855284</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Capetians%3A+Kings+of+France%2C+987%E2%80%931328&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781852855284&rft.aulast=Bradbury&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAirlie1993" class="citation journal cs1">Airlie, Stuart (1993). "Review article: After Empire-recent work on the emergence of post-Carolingian kingdoms". <i>Early Medieval Europe</i>. <b>2</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">153–</span>161. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0254.1993.tb00015.x">10.1111/j.1468-0254.1993.tb00015.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+Medieval+Europe&rft.atitle=Review+article%3A+After+Empire-recent+work+on+the+emergence+of+post-Carolingian+kingdoms&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E161&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0254.1993.tb00015.x&rft.aulast=Airlie&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_W._Kibler1995" class="citation book cs1">William W. Kibler (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MQoKeohhNkMC&pg=PA879"><i>Medieval France: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 879. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824044442" title="Special:BookSources/9780824044442"><bdi>9780824044442</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+France%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=879&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780824044442&rft.au=William+W.+Kibler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMQoKeohhNkMC%26pg%3DPA879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Shervey Lewis, <i>Later medieval France: the polity</i> (1968).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alice Minerva Atkinson, <i>A Brief History of the Hundred Years' War</i> (2012)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_P._Byrne2006" class="citation book cs1">Joseph P. Byrne (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UmXsP_6UEYAC"><i>Daily life during the Black Death</i></a>. Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313332975" title="Special:BookSources/9780313332975"><bdi>9780313332975</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+life+during+the+Black+Death&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780313332975&rft.au=Joseph+P.+Byrne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUmXsP_6UEYAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Russell Major, <i>Representative Institutions in Renaissance France, 1421–1559</i> (1983).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Wolfe, <i>The fiscal system of renaissance France</i> (1972).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYarrow1974" class="citation book cs1">Yarrow, Philip John (1974). <i>A literary history of France: Renaissance France 1470–1589</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+literary+history+of+France%3A+Renaissance+France+1470%E2%80%931589&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Yarrow&rft.aufirst=Philip+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZerner2003" class="citation book cs1">Zerner, Henri (2003). <i>Renaissance art in France: the invention of classicism</i>. 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(2005). Jotham Parsons. The Church in the Republic: Gallicanism and Political Ideology in Renaissance France. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. 2004. pp. ix, 322. The American Historical Review, 110(4), 1254–1255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans J. Hillerbrand, <i>Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set</i>, paragraphs "France" and "Huguenots"; The Huguenot Population of France, 1600–1685: The Demographic Fate and Customs of a Religious Minority by Philip Benedict; American Philosophical Society, 1991, 164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB11-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB11_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 11th ed, Frank Puaux, "Huguenot"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenri_Pirenne2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Pirenne" title="Henri Pirenne">Henri Pirenne</a> (2001). <i>Mahomet et Charlemagne (reprint of 1937 classic)</i> (in French). Dover Publications. pp. <span class="nowrap">123–</span>128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-42011-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-42011-6"><bdi>0-486-42011-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mahomet+et+Charlemagne+%28reprint+of+1937+classic%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E123-%3C%2Fspan%3E128&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-486-42011-6&rft.au=Henri+Pirenne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chabad-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chabad_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2013" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Chaim (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/476620/jewish/Rashis-Method-of-Biblical-Commentary.htm">"Rashi's Method of Biblical Commentary"</a>. chabad.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rashi%27s+Method+of+Biblical+Commentary&rft.pub=chabad.org&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Chaim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Flibrary%2Farticle_cdo%2Faid%2F476620%2Fjewish%2FRashis-Method-of-Biblical-Commentary.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignat2021-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDignat2021_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDignat2021">Dignat 2021</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Works cited" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDignat2021" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dignat, Alban (27 May 2021). Grégor, Isabelle (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.herodote.net/Absolutisme_et_monarchie_en_France-synthese-260-152.php">"XVIIe siècle : Absolutisme et monarchie en France"</a> [17th century: Absolutism and Monarchy in France]. <i>Herodote.net</i> (in French). Herodote.net SAS<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Herodote.net&rft.atitle=XVIIe+si%C3%A8cle+%3A+Absolutisme+et+monarchie+en+France&rft.date=2021-05-27&rft.aulast=Dignat&rft.aufirst=Alban&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.herodote.net%2FAbsolutisme_et_monarchie_en_France-synthese-260-152.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li>Beik, William. <i>A Social and Cultural History of Early Modern France</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Social-Cultural-History-Modern-France/dp/0521709563/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Caron, François. <i>An Economic History of Modern France</i> (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99700525">online edition</a></li> <li>Doyle, William. <i>Old Regime France: 1648–1788</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731299/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Duby, Georges. <i>France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc</i> (1993), survey by a leader of the Annales School <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0631189459/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Fierro, Alfred. <i>Historical Dictionary of Paris</i> (1998) 392pp, an abridged translation of his <i>Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris</i> (1996), 1580pp</li> <li>Goubert, Pierre. <i>The Course of French History</i> (1991), standard French textbook <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415066719/">excerpt and text search</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/the-course-of-french-history-by-pierre-goubert.jsp">complete text online</a></li> <li>Goubert, Pierre. <i>Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen</i> (1972), social history from Annales School</li> <li>Haine, W. Scott. <i>The History of France</i> (2000), 280 pp. textbook. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313303282/excerpt">and text search</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/the-history-of-france-by-w-scott-haine-john-e-findling-frank-w-thackeray.jsp">online edition</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucien_Edward_Henry1882" class="citation journal cs1">Lucien Edward Henry (1882). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Royal_Family_of_France_(Henry)/Signs_of_Times" class="extiw" title="s:The Royal Family of France (Henry)/Signs of Times">Signs of Times</a>". <i>The Royal Family of France</i>: <span class="nowrap">17–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q107258901" class="extiw" title="d:Q107258901">Q107258901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Royal+Family+of+France&rft.atitle=Signs+of+Times&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=1882&rft.au=Lucien+Edward+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Holt, Mack P. <i>Renaissance and Reformation France: 1500–1648</i> (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731655/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Jones, Colin, and Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of France</i> (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521669928/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Jones, Colin. <i>The Great Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon</i> (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0140130934/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Jones, Colin. <i>Paris: Biography of a City</i> (2004), 592pp; comprehensive history by a leading British scholar <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0143036718/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. <i>The Ancien Régime: A History of France 1610–1774</i> (1999), survey by leader of the Annales School <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0631211969/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmerColton1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Roswell_Palmer" title="Robert Roswell Palmer">Palmer, R. R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joel_Colton" title="Joel Colton">Colton, Joel</a> (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernw00palm"><i>A History of the Modern World</i></a></span> (5th ed.). New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-41549-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-41549-9"><bdi>978-0-394-41549-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3016779">3016779</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Modern+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3016779&rft.isbn=978-0-394-41549-9&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rft.au=Colton%2C+Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmodernw00palm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Potter, David. <i>France in the Later Middle Ages 1200–1500,</i> (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199250472/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Potter, David. <i>A History of France, 1460–1560: The Emergence of a Nation-State</i> (1995)</li> <li>Price, Roger. <i>A Concise History of France</i> (1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/052136809X/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Raymond, Gino. <i>Historical Dictionary of France</i> (2nd ed. 2008) 528pp</li> <li>Roche, Daniel. <i>France in the Enlightenment</i> (1998), wide-ranging history 1700–1789 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/France-Enlightenment-Harvard-Historical-Studies/dp/0674001990/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Wolf, John B. <i>Louis XIV</i> (1968), the standard scholarly biography <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/103250721">online edition</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Historiography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Gildea, Robert. <i>The Past in French History</i> (1996)</li> <li>Nora, Pierre, ed. <i>Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past</i> (3 vol, 1996), essays by scholars; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Realms-Memory-Rethinking-Conflicts-Divisions/dp/0231084048/">excerpt and text search</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Realms-Memory-Construction-French-Traditions/dp/0231106343/">vol 2 excerpts</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Realms-Memory-Construction-French-Symbols/dp/0231109261/">vol 3 excerpts</a></li> <li>Pinkney, David H. "Two Thousand Years of Paris", <i>Journal of Modern History</i> (1951) 23#3 pp. 262–264 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1872710">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. <i>Histories: French Constructions of the Past</i> (1995). 654pp, 64 essays; emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Annales_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Annales School">Annales School</a></li> <li>Symes, Carol. "The Middle Ages between Nationalism and Colonialism", <i>French Historical Studies</i> (Winter 2011) 34#1 pp 37–46</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Th%C3%A9baud" title="Françoise Thébaud">Thébaud, Françoise</a>. "Writing Women's and Gender History in France: A National Narrative?" <i>Journal of Women's History</i> (2007) 19#1 pp. 167–172 in <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" 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href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&oldid=1276555064">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&oldid=1276555064</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_France&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="Dmkdjhd" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1739976756"> <span>Last edited on 19 February 2025, at 14:52</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7" title="مملكة فرنسا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة فرنسا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinu_de_Francia_(986-1791)" title="Reinu de Francia (986-1791) – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reinu de Francia (986-1791)" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransa_krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Fransa krallığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fransa krallığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="فرانسه شاهلیغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فرانسه شاهلیغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoat-l%C3%A2n-se_%C3%94ng-kok" title="Hoat-lân-se Ông-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoat-lân-se Ông-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Каралеўства Францыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каралеўства Францыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Кралство Франция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кралство Франция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevina_Francuska" title="Kraljevina Francuska – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kraljevina Francuska" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouantelezh_Bro-C%27hall" title="Rouantelezh Bro-C'hall – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rouantelezh Bro-C'hall" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_de_Fran%C3%A7a" title="Regne de França – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne de França" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francouzsk%C3%A9_kr%C3%A1lovstv%C3%AD" title="Francouzské království – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Francouzské království" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyrnas_Ffrainc" title="Teyrnas Ffrainc – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Teyrnas Ffrainc" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongeriget_Frankrig" title="Kongeriget Frankrig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kongeriget Frankrig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigreich_Frankreich" title="Königreich Frankreich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Königreich Frankreich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prantsusmaa_kuningriik" title="Prantsusmaa kuningriik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Prantsusmaa kuningriik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Βασίλειο της Γαλλίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βασίλειο της Γαλλίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Francia" title="Reino de Francia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino de Francia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C4%9Dlando_Francio" title="Reĝlando Francio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Reĝlando Francio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frantziako_Erresuma" title="Frantziako Erresuma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Frantziako Erresuma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87" title="پادشاهی فرانسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پادشاهی فرانسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_de_France" title="Royaume de France – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume de France" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADocht_na_Fraince" title="Ríocht na Fraince – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríocht na Fraince" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Francia" title="Reino de Francia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reino de Francia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4_%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="프랑스 왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프랑스 왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ֆրանսիայի թագավորություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆրանսիայի թագավորություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%80" title="फ्रांस की राजशाही – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फ्रांस की राजशाही" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevina_Francuska" title="Kraljevina Francuska – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kraljevina Francuska" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Prancis" title="Kerajaan Prancis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Prancis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyatu_de_Francia" title="Reyatu de Francia – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Reyatu de Francia" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konungsr%C3%ADki%C3%B0_Frakkland" title="Konungsríkið Frakkland – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Konungsríkið Frakkland" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_di_Francia" title="Regno di Francia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno di Francia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA" title="ממלכת צרפת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ממלכת צרפת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="საფრანგეთის სამეფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საფრანგეთის სამეფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyaniya_Fransay%C3%AA" title="Keyaniya Fransayê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Keyaniya Fransayê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ABni_de_Franzia" title="Rëni de Franzia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Rëni de Franzia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francijas_Karaliste" title="Francijas Karaliste – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Francijas Karaliste" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pranc%C5%ABzijos_karalyst%C4%97" title="Prancūzijos karalystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Prancūzijos karalystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regn_de_Fran%C3%A7a" title="Regn de França – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Regn de França" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_Kir%C3%A1lys%C3%A1g" title="Francia Királyság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Francia Királyság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Кралство Франција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кралство Франција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="फ्रान्सचे राजतंत्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फ्रान्सचे राजतंत्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94" title="საფრანგეთიშ ომაფე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="საფრანგეთიშ ომაფე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7" title="مملكة فرنسا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مملكة فرنسا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Beraja_Perancis" title="Kerajaan Beraja Perancis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan Beraja Perancis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Францын Хант Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Францын Хант Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkrijk_Frankrijk" title="Koninkrijk Frankrijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koninkrijk Frankrijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="フランス王国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フランス王国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongeriket_Frankrike" title="Kongeriket Frankrike – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kongeriket Frankrike" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konged%C3%B8met_Frankrike" title="Kongedømet Frankrike – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kongedømet Frankrike" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyaume_de_France" title="Reyaume de France – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Reyaume de France" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiaume_de_Fran%C3%A7a" title="Reiaume de França – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Reiaume de França" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="مملکت فرانس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مملکت فرانس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ro%C3%A9%C3%AFaume_ed_Franche" title="Roéïaume ed Franche – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Roéïaume ed Franche" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%B3lestwo_Francji_(987%E2%80%931791)" title="Królestwo Francji (987–1791) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Królestwo Francji (987–1791)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_da_Fran%C3%A7a" title="Reino da França – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reino da França" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regatul_Fran%C8%9Bei" title="Regatul Franței – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Regatul Franței" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Королевство Франция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Королевство Франция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnu_de_Frantza" title="Regnu de Frantza – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Regnu de Frantza" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbret%C3%ABria_e_Franc%C3%ABs" title="Mbretëria e Francës – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mbretëria e Francës" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kingdom of France" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%BAzske_kr%C3%A1%C4%BEovstvo" title="Francúzske kráľovstvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Francúzske kráľovstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francosko_kraljestvo" title="Francosko kraljestvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Francosko kraljestvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Краљевина Француска – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Краљевина Француска" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevina_Francuska" title="Kraljevina Francuska – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kraljevina Francuska" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranskan_kuningaskunta" title="Ranskan kuningaskunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ranskan kuningaskunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kungariket_Frankrike" title="Kungariket Frankrike – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kungariket Frankrike" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பிரான்சிய இராச்சியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிரான்சிய இராச்சியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Франция корольлеге – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Франция корольлеге" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%AA" title="ราชอาณาจักรฝรั่งเศส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชอาณาจักรฝรั่งเศส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransa_Krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Fransa Krallığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fransa Krallığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Французьке королівство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Французьке королівство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="مملکت فرانس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مملکت فرانس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_de_Fransa" title="Regno de Fransa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Regno de Fransa" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Ph%C3%A1p" title="Vương quốc Pháp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vương quốc Pháp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwey%C3%A5me_di_France" title="Rweyåme di France – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Rweyåme di France" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%85%B0%E8%A5%BF%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="法兰西王国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="法兰西王国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E8%A5%BF%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="法蘭西王國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="法蘭西王國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E8%A5%BF%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="法蘭西王國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="法蘭西王國" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" 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