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<span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociological_use_and_differentiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociological_use_and_differentiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Sociological use and differentiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociological_use_and_differentiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_issues_in_secularization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_issues_in_secularization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Current issues in secularization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_issues_in_secularization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_secularization_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_secularization_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticism of secularization theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_secularization_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Regional developments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regional_developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Regional developments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Regional_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Recent developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5.1</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5.2</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Arab world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A9" title="علمنة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علمنة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="ধর্মনিরপেক্ষকরণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ধর্মনিরপেক্ষকরণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_(%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Секулярызацыя (сацыялогія) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Секулярызацыя (сацыялогія)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularitzaci%C3%B3" title="Secularització – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Secularització" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularizace" title="Sekularizace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sekularizace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularisering" title="Sekularisering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sekularisering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4kularisierung" title="Säkularisierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Säkularisierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmalikustamine" title="Ilmalikustamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ilmalikustamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BA%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Εκκοσμίκευση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εκκοσμίκευση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularizaci%C3%B3n" title="Secularización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Secularización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularizo" title="Sekularizo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sekularizo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularizazio" title="Sekularizazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sekularizazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="سکولارسازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سکولارسازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9cularisation" title="Sécularisation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sécularisation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularisaasje" title="Sekularisaasje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sekularisaasje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B8%EC%86%8D%ED%99%94" title="세속화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="세속화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="धर्मनिरपेक्षीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="धर्मनिरपेक्षीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularizacija" title="Sekularizacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sekularizacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularisasi" title="Sekularisasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sekularisasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secolarizzazione" title="Secolarizzazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Secolarizzazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9F" title="חילון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חילון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Секуляризация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Секуляризация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saecularizatio" title="Saecularizatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Saecularizatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabiedr%C4%ABbas_sekulariz%C4%81cija" title="Sabiedrības sekularizācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sabiedrības sekularizācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekuliarizacija" title="Sekuliarizacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sekuliarizacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szekulariz%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Szekularizáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szekularizáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularisering" title="Secularisering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Secularisering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E4%BF%97%E5%8C%96" title="世俗化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="世俗化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularisering" title="Sekularisering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sekularisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularisering" title="Sekularisering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sekularisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%8E%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87" title="سیکولرَونه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سیکولرَونه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularyzacja" title="Sekularyzacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sekularyzacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seculariza%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Secularização – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Secularização" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularizare" title="Secularizare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Secularizare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Секуляризация общества – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Секуляризация общества" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shekullarizimi" title="Shekullarizimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shekullarizimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Secularization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekulariz%C3%A1cia_(sociol%C3%B3gia_n%C3%A1bo%C5%BEenstva)" title="Sekularizácia (sociológia náboženstva) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sekularizácia (sociológia náboženstva)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Секуларизација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Секуларизација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularizacija" title="Sekularizacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sekularizacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maallistuminen" title="Maallistuminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Maallistuminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularisering" title="Sekularisering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sekularisering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekularisasyon" title="Sekularisasyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sekularisasyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Societal transition away from religion</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Secularization_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Secularization (disambiguation)">Secularization (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <b>secularization</b> (<a href="/wiki/British_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="British English language">British English</a>: <span lang="en-GB"><b>secularisation</b></span>) is a multilayered concept that generally denotes "a transition from a religious to a more worldly level."<sup id="cite_ref-Latre_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Latre-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many types of secularization and most do not lead to atheism, irreligion, nor are they automatically antithetical to religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Eller_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secularization has different connotations such as implying differentiation of secular from religious domains, the marginalization of religion in those domains, or it may also entail the transformation of religion as a result of its recharacterization (e.g. as a private concern, or as a non-political matter or issue).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secularism's origins can be traced to the Bible itself and fleshed out throughout Christian history into the modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">Secular</a>" is a part of the Christian church's history, which even has <i>secular clergy</i> since the medieval period.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, secular and religious entities were not separated in the medieval period, but coexisted and interacted naturally.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant contributions to principles used in modern secularism came from prominent theologians and Christian writers such as <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius of Padua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talleyrand" class="mw-redirect" title="Talleyrand">Talleyrand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "secularization" can also mean the lifting of monastic restrictions from a member of the clergy,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to <a href="/wiki/Deconsecration" title="Deconsecration">deconsecration</a>, removing the consecration of a religious building so that it may be used for other purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first use of "secular" as a change from religion to the mundane is from the 16th century that referred to transforming ecclesiastical possessions for civil purposes, such as monasteries to hospitals; and by the 19th century it gained traction as a political object of secularist movements.<sup id="cite_ref-Latre_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Latre-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century, "secularization" had diversified into various versions in light of the diversity of experiences from different cultures and institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars recognize that secularity is structured by Protestant models of Christianity, shares a parallel language to religion, and intensifies Protestant features such as iconoclasm, skepticism towards rituals, and emphasizes beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-sec_para_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sec_para-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In doing so, secularism perpetuates Christian traits under a different name.<sup id="cite_ref-sec_para_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sec_para-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b>secularization thesis</b> expresses the idea that through the lens of the European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">enlightenment</a> <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">modernization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalization</a>, combined with the ascent of science and technology, religious authority diminishes in all aspects of social life and governance.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years, the secularization thesis has been challenged due to some global studies indicating that the irreligious population of the world may be in decline as a percentage of the world population due to irreligious countries having <a href="/wiki/Sub-replacement_fertility" title="Sub-replacement fertility">subreplacement fertility</a> rates and religious countries having higher birth rates in general.<sup id="cite_ref-CambridgeZuckerman_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CambridgeZuckerman-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christian sociologist <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter L. Berger</a> coined the term <a href="/wiki/Desecularization" title="Desecularization">desecularization</a> to describe this phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, secularization rates are stalling or reversing in some countries/regions such as the countries in the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> or large cities in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> with significant amounts of religious immigrants.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no particular monolithic direction or trend for secularization since even in Europe, the trends in religious history and demographical religious measures (e.g. belief, belonging, etc) are mixed and make the region an exception compared to other parts of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even global studies show that many people who do not identify with a religion, still hold religious beliefs and participate in religious practices, thus complicating the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unaff_Yet_Rel-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Secularization, in the main, sociological meaning of the term, involves the historical process in which <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> declines in social and cultural significance. As a result of secularization the role of religion in modern societies becomes restricted. In secularized societies <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> lacks cultural authority, and religious organizations have little social power. </p><p>Secularization has many levels of meaning, both as a <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> and as a political process. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> (1818–1883), <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> (1856–1939), <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> (1864–1920), and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> (1858–1917) postulated that the modernization of society would include a decline in levels of formal <a href="/wiki/Religiosity" title="Religiosity">religiosity</a>. Study of this process seeks to determine the manner in which, or extent to which religious <a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">creeds</a>, practices, and institutions are losing social significance. Some theorists argue that the secularization of modern civilization partly results from our inability to adapt the broad ethical and spiritual needs of people to the increasingly fast advance of the physical sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "secularization" also has additional meanings, primarily historical and religious.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applied to <a href="/wiki/Secularization_(church_property)" title="Secularization (church property)">church property</a>, historically it refers to the seizure of church lands and buildings, such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>'s 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">dissolution of the monasteries</a> in England and the later acts during the 18th-century <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, as well as by various <a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anti-clerical</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism"> enlightened absolutist</a> European governments during the 18th and 19th centuries, which resulted in the expulsion and suppression of the religious communities which occupied them. The 19th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Kulturkampf" title="Kulturkampf">Kulturkampf</a></i> in Germany and Switzerland and similar events in many other countries also were expressions of secularization.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Still another form of secularization refers to the act of <a href="/wiki/Prince-bishop" title="Prince-bishop">Prince-Bishops</a> or holders of a position in a <a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monastic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Military_order_(religious_society)" title="Military order (religious society)">Military Order</a> - holding a combined religious and secular authority under the Catholic Church - who broke away and made themselves into completely secular (typically, <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a>) hereditary rulers. For example, <a href="/wiki/Gotthard_Kettler" title="Gotthard Kettler">Gotthard Kettler</a> (1517–1587), the last Master of the <a href="/wiki/Livonian_Order" title="Livonian Order">Livonian Order</a>, converted to <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, secularised (and took to himself) the lands of <a href="/wiki/Semigallia" title="Semigallia">Semigallia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Courland" title="Courland">Courland</a> which he had held on behalf of the order – which enabled him to marry and leave to his descendants the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia" title="Duchy of Courland and Semigallia">Duchy of Courland and Semigallia</a>. Perhaps the most widely known example of such secularization is that of 1525, which led to the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, a state which would later become a major power in European politics. </p><p>The 1960s saw a trend toward increasing secularization in Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. This transformation accompanied major social factors: economic prosperity, youth rebelling against the rules and conventions of society, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_revolution" title="Sexual revolution">sexual revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">women's liberation</a>, radical theology, and radical politics.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study found evidence that a rise in secularization generally has preceded economic growth over the past century. The multilevel, time-lagged regressions also indicate that tolerance for individual rights predicted 20th century economic growth even better than secularization.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to another study, the rise of <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a> and <a href="/wiki/AI" class="mw-redirect" title="AI">AI</a>) could accelerate secularization throughout the 21st century in many world regions, even though "this correlation does not prove any meaningful connection between automation and religious decline". The findings suggest that automation may reduce the instrumental value of religion, as technology provides secular alternatives for solving problems traditionally addressed by religion.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, cross-cultural studies indicate that people in general do not think of natural and supernatural explanations as antagonistic or dichotomous, but instead see them as coexisting and complementary.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reconciliation of natural and supernatural explanations is normal and pervasive from a psychological standpoint across cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to the "modernization" thesis, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Smith_(sociologist)" title="Christian Smith (sociologist)">Christian Smith</a> and others argue that intellectual and cultural élites promote secularization to enhance their own status and influence. Smith believes that <a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">intellectuals</a> have an inherent tendency to be hostile to their native cultures, causing them to embrace secularism.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Jack David Eller, secularization is compatible with religion since most versions of secularity do not lead to atheism or irreligion.<sup id="cite_ref-Eller_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Global studies show that many people who do not identify with a religion, still hold religious beliefs and participate in religious practices, thus complicating the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unaff_Yet_Rel-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Secularization is sometimes credited both to the cultural shifts in society following the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> as a substitute for <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstition</a>—<a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> called this process the "disenchantment of the world"—and to the changes made by religious institutions to compensate. At the most basic stages, this begins with a slow transition from <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral traditions</a> to a writing culture that diffuses knowledge. This first reduces the authority of clerics as the custodians of revealed knowledge. The shift of responsibility for <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> from the family and community to the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> has had two consequences: </p> <ul><li><i>Collective conscience</i> as defined by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> is diminished;</li> <li>Religion becomes a matter of individual choice rather than an observed social obligation.</li></ul> <p>A major issue in the study of secularization is the extent to which certain trends such as decreased attendance at places of worship indicate a decrease in religiosity or simply a privatization of religious belief, where religious beliefs no longer play a dominant role in public life or in other aspects of decision making. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jack David Eller (2010) outlined Peter Glasner's 10 different institutional, normative, or cognitive versions of secularization, most of which do not lead to irreligion or atheism:<sup id="cite_ref-Eller_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Routinization — institutionalizing religion through integration into the society</li> <li>Differentiation — a redefined place or relation to society such as in pluralization</li> <li>Disengagement — the detachment of certain facets of social life from religion</li> <li>Transformation — change over time (e.g. Protestantism developed in Christianity)</li> <li>Generalization — where religion becomes less specific, more abstract, and inclusive</li> <li>Segmentation — the development of specialized religious institutions coexisting with other social institutions</li> <li>Desacralization — distancing the references of the "supernatural" from the material world</li> <li>Decline — the reduction in quantitative measures of religious identification and participation</li> <li>Secularization — pluralism through which society moves away from the "sacred" and toward the "profane"</li> <li>Secularism — the only form that leads to outright rejection of religion, amounting to atheism</li></ol> <p>C. John Sommerville (1998) outlined six uses of the term secularization in the scientific literature. The first five are more along the lines of 'definitions' while the sixth is more of a 'clarification of use':<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>When discussing <b>macro social structures</b>, secularization can refer to <i>differentiation</i>: a process in which the various aspects of society, economic, political, legal, and moral, become increasingly specialized and distinct from one another.</li> <li>When discussing <b>individual institutions</b>, secularization can denote the transformation of a religion into a secular institution. Examples would be the evolution of institutions such as <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> from a predominantly religious institution into a secular institution (with a divinity school now housing the religious element illustrating differentiation).</li> <li>When discussing <b>activities</b>, secularization refers to the transfer of activities from religious to secular institutions, such as a shift in the provision of social services from churches to the government.</li> <li>When discussing <b>mentalities</b>, secularization refers to the transition from <i>ultimate</i> concerns to <i>proximate</i> concerns. E.g., individuals in the West are now more likely to moderate their behavior in response to more immediately applicable consequences rather than out of concern for <i>post-mortem</i> consequences. This is a personal religious decline or movement toward a secular lifestyle.</li> <li>When discussing <b>populations</b>, secularization refers to broad patterns of societal decline in levels of religiosity as opposed to the individual-level secularization of (4) above. This understanding of secularization is also distinct from (1) above in that it refers specifically to religious decline rather than societal differentiation.</li> <li>When discussing <b>religion</b>, secularization can only be used unambiguously to refer to religion in a generic sense. For example, a reference to Christianity is not clear unless one specifies exactly which denominations of Christianity are being discussed.</li></ol> <p><a href="/wiki/Abdel_Wahab_El-Messiri" title="Abdel Wahab El-Messiri">Abdel Wahab Elmessiri</a> (2002) outlined two meanings of the term secularization: </p> <ol><li><b>Partial Secularization</b>: which is the common meaning of the word, and expresses "The separation between religion and state".</li> <li><b>Complete Secularization</b>: this definition is not limited to the partial definition, but exceeds it to "The separation between all (religion, moral, and human) values, and (not just the state) but also to (the human nature in its public and private sides), so that the holiness is removed from the world, and this world is transformed into a usable matter that can be employed for the sake of the strong".</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociological_use_and_differentiation">Sociological use and differentiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sociological use and differentiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As studied by sociologists, one of the major themes of secularization is that of "differentiation"—i.e., the tendency for areas of life to become more distinct and specialized as a society becomes modernized. European sociology, influenced by <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, was interested in the process of change from the so-called primitive societies to increasingly advanced societies. In the United States, the emphasis was initially on change as an aspect of progress, but <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a> refocused on society as a system immersed in a constant process of increased differentiation, which he saw as a process in which new institutions take over the tasks necessary in a society to guarantee its survival as the original monolithic institutions break up. This is a devolution from single, less differentiated institutions to an increasingly differentiated subset of institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following Parsons, this concept of differentiation has been widely applied. As phrased by <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Casanova_(sociologist)" title="José Casanova (sociologist)">José Casanova</a>, this "core and the central thesis of the theory of secularization is the conceptualization of the process of societal modernization as a process of functional differentiation and emancipation of the secular spheres—primarily the state, the economy, and science—from the religious sphere and the concomitant differentiation and specialization of religion within its own newly found religious sphere". Casanova also describes this as the theory of "privatization" of religion, which he partially criticizes.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While criticizing certain aspects of the traditional sociological theory of secularization, however, <a href="/wiki/David_Martin_(sociologist)" title="David Martin (sociologist)">David Martin</a> argues that the concept of social differentiation has been its "most useful element".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_issues_in_secularization">Current issues in secularization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Current issues in secularization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At present, secularization as understood in the West is being debated in the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">sociology of religion</a>. In his works <i>Legitimacy of the Modern Age</i> (1966) and <i>The Genesis of the Copernican World</i> (1975), <a href="/wiki/Hans_Blumenberg" title="Hans Blumenberg">Hans Blumenberg</a> has rejected the idea of a historical continuity – fundamental to the so-called 'theorem of secularization'; the <a href="/wiki/Modern_history#Modern_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">Modern age</a> in his view represents an independent epoch opposed to Antiquity and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> by a rehabilitation of human curiosity in reaction to theological absolutism. "Blumenberg targets <a href="/wiki/Karl_L%C3%B6with" title="Karl Löwith">Löwith</a>'s argument that progress is the secularization of <a href="/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> beliefs and argues to the contrary that the modern age, including its belief in progress, grew out of a new secular self-affirmation of culture against the <a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Pannenberg" title="Wolfhart Pannenberg">Wolfhart Pannenberg</a>, a student of Löwith, has continued the debate against Blumenberg.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hans Blumberg's assumption that secularization did not exactly grow out of a western-christian tradition also seems to be in line with more recent findings by Christoph Kleine and Monika Wohlrab-Sahr who have shown that similar historical developments can also be found in largely non-christian contexts such as Japan or Sri Lanka.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Secular_Age" title="A Secular Age">A Secular Age</a></i> (2007) challenges what he calls 'the subtraction thesis' – that science leads to religion being subtracted from more and more areas of life. </p><p>Proponents of "secularization theory" demonstrate widespread declines in the prevalence of religious belief throughout the West, particularly in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter Berger</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) have argued that levels of religiosity are not declining, while other scholars (e.g., Mark Chaves, N. J. Demerath) have countered by introducing the idea of 'neo-secularization', which broadens the definition of secularization to include the decline of religious authority and its ability to influence society. </p><p>In other words, rather than using the proportion of irreligious apostates as the sole measure of secularity, 'neo-secularization' argues that individuals increasingly look outside of religion for authoritative positions. 'Neo-secularizationists' would argue that religion has diminishing authority on issues such as <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>, and argue that religion's authority is declining and secularization is taking place even if religious affiliation may not be declining in the United States (a debate still taking place).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, some claim that demographic forces offset the process of secularization, and may do so to such an extent that individuals can consistently drift away from religion even as society becomes more religious. This is especially the case in societies like <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> (with the <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">ultra-Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">religious Zionists</a>) where committed religious groups have several times the birth rate of seculars. The religious fertility effect operates to a greater or lesser extent in all countries, and is amplified in the West by religious immigration. For instance, even as the white British became more secular, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, England, has become more religious in the past 25 years as religious immigrants and their descendants have increased their share of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Across the board, the question of secularization has generated considerable (and occasionally heated) debates in the social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_secularization_theory">Criticism of secularization theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Criticism of secularization theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Today, criticism is directed against the assertion that religion has become less important in the modern age. Critics point to developments in South Korea, Russia and the USA. The combination of institutional religion with other interests, such as economic or political interests, leads to the strengthening of these religions in their respective societies. However, there are also factors that lead to a diminishing importance of religion. This is the main trend in Western Europe.<a class="external autonumber" href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Säkularisierung#cite_note-28">[1]</a> Some scholars point to the permanent interplay between secularization and (re)sacralization in Western societies. For example, after the first democratic revolutions in the 18th and 19th centuries, religious traditions quickly regained strength.<a class="external autonumber" href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Säkularisierung#cite_note-29">[2]</a> It has also been denied that secularization ever took place in the USA - a country that was co-founded by many religious sectarians who were expelled from their home countries and where witches were still being persecuted in 1692. Detlef Pollack<a class="external autonumber" href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detlef_Pollack">[3]</a>, on the other hand, argues that the higher religiosity of Americans compared to Europeans is well compatible with the assumptions of secularization theory: among other things, it can be explained by the unusually high degree of existential insecurity and social inequality in the USA and the millions of religious immigrants from Latin America. However, liberal Americans have increasingly distanced themselves from church and religion due to the growing fusion of evangelical and conservative positions.<a class="external autonumber" href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Säkularisierung#cite_note-30">[4]</a> </p><p>Another point of criticism in the discourse on secularization is the inadequate examination of the Eurocentric nature of general terms, concepts, and definitions. For example, the religious studies scholar and intercultural theologian Michael Bergunder<a class="external autonumber" href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Bergunder">[5]</a> criticizes the fact that the terms religion and esotericism<a class="external autonumber" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism#:~:text=Somewhat%20crudely%2C%20esotericism%20can%20be,the%20divine%20aspect%20of%20existence.">[6]</a> are tainted by a Eurocentric origin thinking. This inaccurate use of the terms hinders a constructive discussion about secularization in a global context. As an alternative, Bergunder<a class="external autonumber" href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Bergunder">[7]</a> argues for a historicization from the present of these general terms according to Foucault's<a class="external autonumber" href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault">[8]</a>. In this way, hitherto unseen connections and the origins of the modern understanding of secularization from the 19th century can be revealed.<a class="external autonumber" href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Säkularisierung#cite_note-:0-31">[9]</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_developments">Regional developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Regional developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>1870–1930</b>. Christian Smith examined the secularization of American public life between 1870 and 1930. He noted that in 1870 a Protestant establishment thoroughly dominated American culture and its public institutions. By the turn of the 20th century, however, <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> had displaced the <a href="/wiki/Baconian_method" title="Baconian method">Baconian method</a> (which had hitherto bolstered <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>) and higher education had been thoroughly secularized. In the 1910s "<a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">legal realism</a>" gained prominence, de-emphasizing the religious basis for <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>. That same decade publishing houses emerged that were independent of the Protestant establishment. During the 1920s secularization extended into popular culture and mass public education ceased to be under Protestant cultural influence. Although the general public was still highly religious during this time period, by 1930 the old Protestant establishment was in "shambles".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Key to understanding the secularization, Smith argues, was the rise of an elite intellectual class skeptical of religious orthodoxies and influenced by the European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> tradition. They consciously sought to displace a Protestant establishment they saw as standing in their way.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>2000–2021</b>. Annual <a href="/wiki/Gallup_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup (company)">Gallup</a> polls from 2008 through 2015 showed that the fraction of Americans who did not identify with any particular religion steadily rose from 14.6% in 2008 to 19.6% in 2015. At the same time, the fraction of Americans identifying as <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_United_States" title="Christianity in the United States">Christians</a> sank from 80.1% to 69% in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2021 ~21% of Americans declared no religious identity or preference.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given that non-Christian religions stayed roughly the same (at about 5-7% from 2008 to 2021) secularization thus seems to have affected primarily Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, researchers argue that being unaffiliated does not automatically mean objectively nonreligious<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unaff_Yet_Rel-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hout_2017_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hout_2017-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since most of the unaffiliated do still hold some religious and spiritual beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unaff_Yet_Rel-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, 72% of American unaffiliated or "Nones" believe in God or a Higher Power.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "None" response is more of an indicator for lacking affiliation than an active measure for irreligiosity, and a majority of the "Nones" can either be conventionally religious or "spiritual".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unaff_Yet_Rel-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History">History</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Britain, secularization came much later than in most of Western Europe. It began in the 1960s as part of a much larger social and cultural revolution. Until then the postwar years had seen a revival of religiosity in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociologists and historians have engaged in vigorous debates over when it started, how fast it happened, and what caused it.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sponsorship by royalty, aristocracy, and influential local gentry provided an important support system for organized religion. The sponsorship faded away in the 20th century, as the local élites were no longer so powerful or so financially able to subsidize their favorite activities. In coal-mining districts, local collieries typically funded local chapels, but that ended<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (March 2016)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> as the industry grew distressed and the unionized miners rejected élite interference in their local affairs. This allowed secularizing forces to gain strength.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recent_developments">Recent developments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Recent developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Data from the annual <a href="/wiki/British_Social_Attitudes_Survey" title="British Social Attitudes Survey">British Social Attitudes survey</a> and the biennial <a href="/wiki/European_Social_Survey" title="European Social Survey">European Social Survey</a> suggest that the proportion of Britons who identify as Christian fell from 55% (in 1983) to 43% (in 2015). While members of non-Christian religions – principally Muslims and Hindus – quadrupled, the non-religious ("nones") now make up 53% of the British population.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than six in 10 "nones" were brought up as Christians, mainly Anglican or Catholic. Only 2% of "nones" were raised in religions other than Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People who were brought up to practice a religion, but who now identify as having no religion, so-called "non-verts", had different rates of leaving the religion of their upbringing, namely 14% for Jews, 10% for Muslims and Sikhs, and 6% for Hindus. The proportions of the non-religious who convert to a faith are small: 3% now identify as Anglicans, less than 0.5% convert to Catholicism, 2% join other Christian denominations, and 2% convert to non-Christian faiths.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> that large majority (89%) of those who were raised as Christians in the United Kingdom still identify as such, while the remainder mostly self-identify as religiously unaffiliated.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spain used to be one of the most religious countries in Europe, but secularization has progressed fast during the past few decades. This was partly due to the role of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> constituting the "doctrinal basis of the most significant organizations of the anti-democratic and anti-liberal right-wing"<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anti-clericalism</a> that was one of the roots of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish civil war</a>. Notably, the dictatorship of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>'s core ideology was <a href="/wiki/National_Catholicism" title="National Catholicism">national Catholicism</a>. </p><p>However, agreements linked to the constitution of 1978 separated church and state. In 2001, 82% of Spaniards identified as Catholic but only half did in 2021. Only around 20% of Spaniards go to mass regularly and only 20% of weddings are taking place in a church (2019). Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a> was legalized in 1981, as was <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">same-sex marriage</a> soon after.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other European countries, Germany has recorded a decrease in <a href="/wiki/Religiosity" title="Religiosity">religiosity</a> (in terms of proportion of individuals affiliated to a Church and baptisms for example) but the trends in East and West Germany are significantly different. In East Germany, the process of secularization has been significantly quicker.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These differences are explained by sociologists (<a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Stolz" title="Jörg Stolz">Jörg Stolz</a>, Detlef Pollack and <a href="/wiki/Nan_Dirk_de_Graaf" title="Nan Dirk de Graaf">Nan Dirk de Graaf</a><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) by the State repression in the 1950s and 1960s, which challenges predictions of natural cohort replacements stated by the Voas model.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism in India</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, post-independence, has seen the emergence of an assertive secular state.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One traditional view of Chinese culture sees the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> – influential over many centuries – as basically secular.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chang Pao-min summarises perceived historical consequences of very early secularization in China: </p> <blockquote> <p>The early secularization of Chinese society, which must be recognized as a sign of modernity [...] has ironically left China for centuries without a powerful and stable source of morality and law. All this simply means that the pursuit of wealth or power or simply the competition for survival can be and often has been ruthless without any sense of restraint. [...] Along with the early secularization of Chinese society which was equally early, the concomitant demise of feudalism and hereditary aristocracy, another remarkable development, transformed China earlier than any other country into a unitary system politically, with one single power centre. It also rendered Chinese society much more egalitarian than Western Europe and Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>In this arguably secular setting, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> régime of the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> (in power on the Chinese mainland from 1949) promoted deliberate secularization.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_world">Arab world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Arab world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Islam and secularism</a></div><p>Many countries in the Arab world show signs of increasing secularization. For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, support for imposing <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> (Islamic law) fell from 84% in 2011 to 34% in 2016. Egyptians also pray less: among older Egyptians (55+) 90% prayed daily in 2011. Among the younger generation (age 18–24) that fraction was only 70% in 2011. By contrast, in 2016 these numbers had fallen to <80% (55+) and <40% (18–24).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other age groups were in between these values. In <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, the number of people listening to daily recitals of the Quran fell by half from 2011 to 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these developments seem to be driven by need, e.g. by stagnating incomes which force women to contribute to household income and therefore to work. High living costs delay marriage and, as a consequence, seem to encourage pre-marital sex.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in other countries, such as <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a>, support for sharia and Islamist ideas seems to grow. Even in countries in which secularization is growing, there are backlashes. For instance, the president of Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi" title="Abdel Fattah el-Sisi">Abdel-Fattah al-Sisi</a>, has banned hundreds of newspapers and websites who may provoke opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_persecution_complex" title="Christian persecution complex">Christian persecution complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_God_theology" title="Death of God theology">Death of God theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline of Christianity in the Western world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_religion#Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories of religion">Rational choice theory of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularity" title="Secularity">Secularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_state" title="Secular state">Secular state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Latre-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Latre_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Latre_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLatréVanheeswijck2015" class="citation journal cs1">Latré, Stijn; Vanheeswijck, Guido (1 January 2015). "Secularization: History of the Concept". <i>International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition)</i>: <span class="nowrap">388–</span>394. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03113-5">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03113-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080970875" title="Special:BookSources/9780080970875"><bdi>9780080970875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences+%28Second+Edition%29&rft.atitle=Secularization%3A+History+of+the+Concept&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E388-%3C%2Fspan%3E394&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03113-5&rft.isbn=9780080970875&rft.aulast=Latr%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Stijn&rft.au=Vanheeswijck%2C+Guido&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eller-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eller_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eller_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eller_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEller2010" class="citation book cs1">Eller, Jack (2010). "What is Atheism?". In Zuckerman, Phil (ed.). <i>Atheism and Secularity</i>. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger. pp. <span class="nowrap">12–</span>13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313351839" title="Special:BookSources/9780313351839"><bdi>9780313351839</bdi></a>. <q>The point is that the sacred/secular dichotomy is, like most dichotomies, false. "Secular" certainly does not mean "atheistic" or without religion, definitely not anti-religion; in fact, as I illustrate in a chapter in the second volume of this collection, there is a proud tradition of "Islamic secularism." Despite the predictions of the "secularization theorists" like Marx and Weber, "modern" or secular processes have not meant the demise of religion and have actually proved to be quite compatible with religion—have even led, at least in the short term, to a surprising revival of religion. The problem with earlier secularization theories is that they presumed that secularization was a single, all-encompassing, and unidirectional phenomenon. However, as Peter Glasner has more recently shown, "secular" and "secularization" embrace a variety of diverse processes and responses, not all of which—indeed, few of which—are inherently antithetical to religion, Glasner identifies ten different versions of secularization, organized in terms of whether their thrust is primarily institutional, normative, or cognitive... The upshot of this analysis is that secularism most assuredly does not translate simply and directly into atheism. Many good theists support the secularization of the American government in the form of the "separation of church and state," and all of them go about at least part of their day without doing religion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+Atheism%3F&rft.btitle=Atheism+and+Secularity&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780313351839&rft.aulast=Eller&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullivantLee2016" class="citation book cs1">Bullivant, Stephen; Lee, Lois (2016). <i>A Dictionary of Atheism</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191816819" title="Special:BookSources/9780191816819"><bdi>9780191816819</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Atheism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780191816819&rft.aulast=Bullivant&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Lee%2C+Lois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErtit2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ertit, Volkan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel9040092">"Secularization: The Decline of the Supernatural Realm1"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Religions_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Religions (journal)">Religions</a></i>. <b>9</b> (4): 92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel9040092">10.3390/rel9040092</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=Secularization%3A+The+Decline+of+the+Supernatural+Realm1&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=92&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel9040092&rft.aulast=Ertit&rft.aufirst=Volkan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel9040092&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlinerblau2022" class="citation book cs1">Berlinerblau, Jacques (2022). <i>Secularism: The Basics</i>. Routledge. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367691585" title="Special:BookSources/9780367691585"><bdi>9780367691585</bdi></a>. <q>In the first part of this book we will chart the slow, unsteady development of political secularism (Set 2) across time and space. You might be surprised to see that we'll trace its origins to the Bible. From there we will watch how secularism's core principles emerged, in dribs and drabs, during the Christian Middle Ages, the Protestant Reformation, and the Enlightenment. Secularism, some might be surprised to learn, has a religious genealogy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secularism%3A+The+Basics&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780367691585&rft.aulast=Berlinerblau&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2014" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Hugh M. (2014). <i>The Secular Clergy in England, 1066-1216</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198702566" title="Special:BookSources/9780198702566"><bdi>9780198702566</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secular+Clergy+in+England%2C+1066-1216&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780198702566&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEller2022" class="citation book cs1">Eller, Jack David (2022). <i>Introducing Anthropology of Religion : Culture to the Ultimate</i> (Third ed.). Routledge. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781032023045" title="Special:BookSources/9781032023045"><bdi>9781032023045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Anthropology+of+Religion+%3A+Culture+to+the+Ultimate&rft.pages=282&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781032023045&rft.aulast=Eller&rft.aufirst=Jack+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/religion-past-and-present/secular-priest-SIM_124156">"Secular Priest"</a>. <i>Religion Past and Present Online</i>. Brill. April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Religion+Past+and+Present+Online&rft.atitle=Secular+Priest&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Freligion-past-and-present%2Fsecular-priest-SIM_124156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTierney1988" class="citation book cs1">Tierney, Brian (1988). <i>The Crisis of Church and State, 1050-1300 : With Selected Documents</i>. Toronto: Published by University of Toronto Press in association with the Medieval Academy of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802067012" title="Special:BookSources/9780802067012"><bdi>9780802067012</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crisis+of+Church+and+State%2C+1050-1300+%3A+With+Selected+Documents&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=Published+by+University+of+Toronto+Press+in+association+with+the+Medieval+Academy+of+America&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780802067012&rft.aulast=Tierney&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrayer2016" class="citation book cs1">Strayer, Joseph R. (2016). <i>On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691169330" title="Special:BookSources/9780691169330"><bdi>9780691169330</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Medieval+Origins+of+the+Modern+State&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780691169330&rft.aulast=Strayer&rft.aufirst=Joseph+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlinerblau2022" class="citation book cs1">Berlinerblau, Jacques (2022). <i>Secularism: The Basics</i>. Routledge. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367691585" title="Special:BookSources/9780367691585"><bdi>9780367691585</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secularism%3A+The+Basics&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780367691585&rft.aulast=Berlinerblau&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/secularization">"secularization"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2018</span> – via The Free Dictionary.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=secularization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreedictionary.com%2Fsecularization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_S._Armentrout_and_Robert_Boak_Slocum2000" class="citation web cs1">Donald S. Armentrout and Robert Boak Slocum (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.episcopalchurch.org/glossary/secularizing-a-consecrated-building/">"Secularizing a Consecrated Building"</a>. <i>An Episcopal Dictionary of the Church</i>. The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society. <q>This service is used to deconsecrate and secularize a consecrated building that is to be taken down or used for other purposes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=An+Episcopal+Dictionary+of+the+Church&rft.atitle=Secularizing+a+Consecrated+Building&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Donald+S.+Armentrout+and+Robert+Boak+Slocum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.episcopalchurch.org%2Fglossary%2Fsecularizing-a-consecrated-building%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlasner1977" class="citation book cs1">Glasner, Peter E. (1977). <i>The Sociology of Secularisation : A Critique of a Concept</i>. London: Routledge & K. Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780710084552" title="Special:BookSources/9780710084552"><bdi>9780710084552</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+Secularisation+%3A+A+Critique+of+a+Concept&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+K.+Paul&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780710084552&rft.aulast=Glasner&rft.aufirst=Peter+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sec_para-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sec_para_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sec_para_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankholm2022" class="citation book cs1">Blankholm, Joseph (2022). <i>The Secular Paradox : On the Religiosity of the Not Religious</i>. New York: New York University Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781479809509" title="Special:BookSources/9781479809509"><bdi>9781479809509</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secular+Paradox+%3A+On+the+Religiosity+of+the+Not+Religious&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781479809509&rft.aulast=Blankholm&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051208002707/http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~pnorris/ACROBAT/Sacred_and_Secular/Chapter%201.pdf">"The Secularization Debate"</a>, chapter 1 (pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dto-P2YfWJIC&dq=%22The+Secularization+Debate%22&pg=PA3">3</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dto-P2YfWJIC&pg=PA32">32</a>) of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorrisInglehart2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pippa_Norris" title="Pippa Norris">Norris, Pippa</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Inglehart" title="Ronald Inglehart">Inglehart, Ronald</a> (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sacredsecularrel0000norr"><i>Sacred and Secular. Religion and Politics Worldwide</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83984-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83984-6"><bdi>978-0-521-83984-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+and+Secular.+Religion+and+Politics+Worldwide&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83984-6&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=Pippa&rft.au=Inglehart%2C+Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsacredsecularrel0000norr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHekmatpour2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hekmatpour, Peyman (2020-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2020.1771013">"Inequality and Religiosity in a Global Context: Different Secularization Paths for Developed and Developing Nations"</a>. <i>International Journal of Sociology</i>. <b>50</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">286–</span>309. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207659.2020.1771013">10.1080/00207659.2020.1771013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7659">0020-7659</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219748670">219748670</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=Inequality+and+Religiosity+in+a+Global+Context%3A+Different+Secularization+Paths+for+Developed+and+Developing+Nations&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E286-%3C%2Fspan%3E309&rft.date=2020-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219748670%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-7659&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00207659.2020.1771013&rft.aulast=Hekmatpour&rft.aufirst=Peyman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F00207659.2020.1771013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CambridgeZuckerman-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CambridgeZuckerman_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckerman2006" class="citation book cs1">Zuckerman, Phil (2006). "3 - Atheism: Contemporary Numbers and Patterns". In Martin, Michael (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Atheism</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">47–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL0521842700.004">10.1017/CCOL0521842700.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139001182" title="Special:BookSources/9781139001182"><bdi>9781139001182</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3+-+Atheism%3A+Contemporary+Numbers+and+Patterns&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Atheism&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCCOL0521842700.004&rft.isbn=9781139001182&rft.aulast=Zuckerman&rft.aufirst=Phil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5eV3hMR7lmoC&dq=secularization+thesis&pg=PA253">Cultures and Globalization: Conflicts and Tensions</a> edited by Helmut K Anheier, Yudhishthir Raj Isar, SAGE, Mar 27, 2007, page 253</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sneps.net/RD/uploads/1-Shall%20the%20Religious%20Inherit%20the%20Earth.pdf">Shall the Religious Inherit the Earth?: Demography and Politics in the Twenty-First Century</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kaufmann" title="Eric Kaufmann">Eric Kaufmann</a>, Belfer Center, Harvard University/Birkbeck College, University of London</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/jcs/article/52/2/232/781896">Desecularization: A Conceptual Framework</a> by Vyacheslav Karpov, Journal of Church and State, Volume 52, Issue 2, Spring 2010, Pages 232–270, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jcs/csq058">https://doi.org/10.1093/jcs/csq058</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/eric-kaufmann/london-a-rising-island-of-religion_b_2336699.html">London: A Rising Island of Religion in a Secular Sea</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kaufmann" title="Eric Kaufmann">Eric Kaufmann</a>, <i>Huffington Post</i>, February 20, 2013 </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssaf_Moghadam2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Assaf_Moghadam" title="Assaf Moghadam">Assaf Moghadam</a> (August 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wcfia.harvard.edu/files/wcfia/files/723_moghadam03_03.pdf"><i>A Global Resurgence of Religion?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Global+Resurgence+of+Religion%3F&rft.pub=Weatherhead+Center+for+International+Affairs%2C+Harvard+University&rft.date=2003-08&rft.au=Assaf+Moghadam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwcfia.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Fwcfia%2Ffiles%2F723_moghadam03_03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavie2022" class="citation book cs1">Davie, Grace (2022). "15. Religion, Secularity, and Secularization in Europe". <i>The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Europe</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 270, 273, 278, 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198834267" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198834267"><bdi>978-0198834267</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=15.+Religion%2C+Secularity%2C+and+Secularization+in+Europe&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Religion+and+Europe&rft.pages=270%2C+273%2C+278%2C+282&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0198834267&rft.aulast=Davie&rft.aufirst=Grace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-unaffiliated.aspx">"Religiously Unaffiliated"</a>. <i>The Global Religious Landscape</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>: Religion & Public Life. 18 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Global+Religious+Landscape&rft.atitle=Religiously+Unaffiliated&rft.date=2012-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2Fglobal-religious-landscape-unaffiliated.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Unaff_Yet_Rel-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unaff_Yet_Rel_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonZurlo2016" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Todd; Zurlo, Gina (2016). "Unaffiliated, Yet Religious: A Methodological and Demographic Analysis". In Cipriani, Roberto; Garelli, Franco (eds.). <i>Annual Review of the Sociology of Religion: Volume 7: Sociology of Atheism</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">56–</span>60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004317536" title="Special:BookSources/9789004317536"><bdi>9789004317536</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Unaffiliated%2C+Yet+Religious%3A+A+Methodological+and+Demographic+Analysis&rft.btitle=Annual+Review+of+the+Sociology+of+Religion%3A+Volume+7%3A+Sociology+of+Atheism&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789004317536&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft.au=Zurlo%2C+Gina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=472">text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100615170139/http://religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=472">Archived</a> 2010-06-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Casanova, Jose (1994). <i>Public Religions in the Modern World</i>. University of Chicago Press, pg. 13. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-09535-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-09535-5">0-226-09535-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gould, Andrew in: <i>Origins of Liberal Dominance: State, Church, and Party in Nineteenth-century Europe</i>, University of Michigan Press, 1999, p. 82, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11015-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11015-5">978-0-472-11015-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Jeffrey Cox, "Secularization and other master narratives of religion in modern Europe." <i>Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte</i> (2001): 24-35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuckBentleyLawson2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ruck, Damian J.; Bentley, R. Alexander; Lawson, Daniel J. 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Simon and Schuster (2013). pp 14-15. "All of this points to a simple conclusion: When Americans answer the "what is your religion" question by saying "none," it doesn't necessarily mean that they are devoid of religiousness. A "none" response could also mean that the respondents simply don't belong to a formal religious organization, group, or denomination. Or it could mean that they don't choose to label themselves with the name of a formal religious organization, group, or denomination. The "none" in these instances reflects how the respondents wanted to view themselves or how they chose to express their religion, not necessarily an absence of religiousness.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoutFischer2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hout, Michael; Fischer, Claude S. 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Simon and Schuster (2013). pp 14-15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrescher2016" class="citation book cs1">Drescher, Elizabeth (2016). <i>Choosing our Religion: The Spiritual Lives of America's Nones</i>. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199341221" title="Special:BookSources/9780199341221"><bdi>9780199341221</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Choosing+our+Religion%3A+The+Spiritual+Lives+of+America%27s+Nones&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780199341221&rft.aulast=Drescher&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Callum G. Brown, <i>The Death of Christian Britain: Understanding Secularisation, 1800-2000</i> (2009) pp 170-92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeremy Morris, "Secularization and religious experience: arguments in the historiography of modern British religion." <i>Historical Journal</i> 55#1 (2012): 195-219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steve Bruce, "Patronage and secularization: social obligation and church support Patronage and secularization: social obligation and church support," <i>British Journal of Sociology</i> (2012) 63#3 pp 533-552.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/britain/21728600-only-15-call-themselves-anglicans-dont-bet-church-losing-its-official-role-any-time">"A majority of Britons now follow no religion"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. 9 Sep 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171013065031/https://www.economist.com/news/britain/21728600-only-15-call-themselves-anglicans-dont-bet-church-losing-its-official-role-any-time">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-10-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=A+majority+of+Britons+now+follow+no+religion&rft.date=2017-09-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fbritain%2F21728600-only-15-call-themselves-anglicans-dont-bet-church-losing-its-official-role-any-time&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherwoodcorrespondent2017" class="citation news cs1">Sherwood, Harriet; correspondent, religion (2017-05-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/13/uk-losing-faith-religion-young-reject-parents-beliefs">"Nearly 50% are of no religion – but has UK hit 'peak secular'?"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170831194722/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/13/uk-losing-faith-religion-young-reject-parents-beliefs">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-08-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-09-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Nearly+50%25+are+of+no+religion+%E2%80%93+but+has+UK+hit+%27peak+secular%27%3F&rft.date=2017-05-13&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Sherwood&rft.aufirst=Harriet&rft.au=correspondent%2C+religion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2017%2Fmay%2F13%2Fuk-losing-faith-religion-young-reject-parents-beliefs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|last2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullivant2017" class="citation web cs1">Bullivant, Steven (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stmarys.ac.uk/research/centres/benedict-xvi/docs/2017-may-no-religion-report.pdf">"The "No Religion" Population of Britain: Recent Data from the British Social Attitudes Survey (2015) and the European Social Survey (2014)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_University,_Twickenham" title="St Mary's University, Twickenham">St Mary's University, Twickenham</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-03-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=St+Mary%27s+University%2C+Twickenham&rft.atitle=The+%E2%80%9CNo+Religion%E2%80%9D+Population+of+Britain%3A+Recent+Data+from+the+British+Social+Attitudes+Survey+%282015%29+and+the+European+Social+Survey+%282014%29&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Bullivant&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stmarys.ac.uk%2Fresearch%2Fcentres%2Fbenedict-xvi%2Fdocs%2F2017-may-no-religion-report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2018/05/Being-Christian-in-Western-Europe-FOR-WEB1.pdf">"Being Christian in Western Europe"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project</i>. 2018-05-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-01-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center%27s+Religion+%26+Public+Life+Project&rft.atitle=Being+Christian+in+Western+Europe&rft.date=2018-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Freligion%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F7%2F2018%2F05%2FBeing-Christian-in-Western-Europe-FOR-WEB1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvilés_Farré2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Juan_Avil%C3%A9s_Farr%C3%A9" title="Juan Avilés Farré">Avilés Farré, Juan</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.openedition.org/cvz/2771?lang=es">"Catolicismo y derecha autoritaria. Del maurismo a Falange Española"</a>. In Aubert, Paul (ed.). <i>Religión y sociedad en España (siglos XIX y XX)</i>. Collection de la Casa de Velázquez. Madrid: <a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Casa de Velázquez">Casa de Velázquez</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">255–</span>263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788490961124" title="Special:BookSources/9788490961124"><bdi>9788490961124</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Catolicismo+y+derecha+autoritaria.+Del+maurismo+a+Falange+Espa%C3%B1ola&rft.btitle=Religi%C3%B3n+y+sociedad+en+Espa%C3%B1a+%28siglos+XIX+y+XX%29&rft.place=Madrid&rft.series=Collection+de+la+Casa+de+Vel%C3%A1zquez&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E255-%3C%2Fspan%3E263&rft.pub=Casa+de+Vel%C3%A1zquez&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9788490961124&rft.aulast=Avil%C3%A9s+Farr%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Juan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.openedition.org%2Fcvz%2F2771%3Flang%3Des&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous2021" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Anonymous (2021-05-01). "Religion in Spain - Empty pews, big pulpit". <i>The Economist</i>. Vol. May 1, 2021. pp. <span class="nowrap">26–</span>27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Religion+in+Spain+-+Empty+pews%2C+big+pulpit.&rft.volume=May+1%2C+2021&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E26-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2021-05-01&rft.au=Anonymous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melissa Hardy, Vegard Skirbekk & Marcin Stonawski (2020) The Religiously Unaffiliated in Germany, 1949–2013: Contrasting Patterns of Social Change in East and West, The Sociological Quarterly, 61:2, 254-286, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00380253.2019.1593064">https://doi.org/10.1080/00380253.2019.1593064</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jörg Stolz, Detlef Pollack, Nan Dirk De Graaf, Can the State Accelerate the Secular Transition? Secularization in East and West Germany as a Natural Experiment, European Sociological Review, Volume 36, Issue 4, August 2020, Pages 626–642, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcaa014">https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcaa014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Voas, The Rise and Fall of Fuzzy Fidelity in Europe, European Sociological Review, Volume 25, Issue 2, April 2009, Pages 155–168, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcn044">https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcn044</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalanter" class="citation journal cs1">Galanter, Marc. "Hinduism, Secularism, and the Indian Judiciary". <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>21</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Hinduism%2C+Secularism%2C+and+the+Indian+Judiciary&rft.volume=21&rft.aulast=Galanter&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger2012" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Berger, Peter</a> (2012-02-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-american-interest.com/2012/02/15/is-confucianism-a-religion/">"Is Confucianism a Religion?"</a>. <i>The American Interest</i>. The American Interest LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5777">1556-5777</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150817062142/http://www.the-american-interest.com/2012/02/15/is-confucianism-a-religion/">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-08-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-03</span></span>. <q>There can be no doubt that Confucianism has been a powerful cultural influence throughout East Asia, providing social and political values not only in China, but in Japan, South Korea and Vietnam. [...] [T]here has been the view of Confucianism as nothing but a secular, perhaps even a secularizing morality.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Interest&rft.atitle=Is+Confucianism+a+Religion%3F&rft.date=2012-02-15&rft.issn=1556-5777&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-american-interest.com%2F2012%2F02%2F15%2Fis-confucianism-a-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang1999" class="citation journal cs1">Chang, Pao-min (1999). "Corruption and Crime in China: Old Problems and New trends". <i>The Journal of East Asian Affairs</i>. <b>13</b> (1, Spring/Summer). Institute for National Security Strategy: 223. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1010-1608">1010-1608</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23257220">23257220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+East+Asian+Affairs&rft.atitle=Corruption+and+Crime+in+China%3A+Old+Problems+and+New+trends&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1%2C+Spring%2FSummer&rft.pages=223&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23257220%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1010-1608&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Pao-min&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span> quoted in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBao-Er2007" class="citation book cs1">Bao-Er (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ohtoVh2twaYC"><i>China's Child Contracts: A philosophy of child rights in twenty-first century China</i></a>. Blaxland, New South Wales: The Blue Mountains Legal Research Centre. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781921300561" title="Special:BookSources/9781921300561"><bdi>9781921300561</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Child+Contracts%3A+A+philosophy+of+child+rights+in+twenty-first+century+China&rft.place=Blaxland%2C+New+South+Wales&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=The+Blue+Mountains+Legal+Research+Centre&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781921300561&rft.au=Bao-Er&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DohtoVh2twaYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> See for example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarsh2011" class="citation book cs1">Marsh, Christopher (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-xlLFUegIBQC">"Introduction: From Forced Secularization to Desecularization"</a>. <i>Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival</i>. A&C Black. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441112477" title="Special:BookSources/9781441112477"><bdi>9781441112477</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-03</span></span>. <q>[...] forced secularization is not so easily achieved, and [...] the lengths to which the Soviet and PRC regimes went was insufficient to completely - or even thoroughly - expunge religion from society. [...] [T]hese regimes were willing to go to great lengths to eliminate religion in the name of science and progress, and the outcome at every stage was uncertain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+From+Forced+Secularization+to+Desecularization&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+State+in+Russia+and+China%3A+Suppression%2C+Survival%2C+and+Revival&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781441112477&rft.aulast=Marsh&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-xlLFUegIBQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_79-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"The new Arab Cosmopolitans". <i>The Economist</i>. 4 Nov 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+new+Arab+Cosmopolitans.&rft.date=2017-11-04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecularization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Berger, Peter. <i>The Sacred Canopy</i>. (1967)</li> <li>Berger, Peter. <i>The Desecularization of the World</i>. (1999)</li> <li>Brown, Callum G. <i>The Death of Christian Britain: Understanding Secularisation, 1800-2000</i> (2009).</li> <li>Bruce, Steve, and Tony Glendinning, "When was secularization? Dating the decline of the British churches and locating its cause" <i>British journal of sociology</i> 61#1 (2010): 107-126.</li> <li>Bruce, Steve. <i>Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults</i> (1996)</li> <li>Bruce, Steve. <i>God is Dead: Secularization in the West</i>. (2002)</li> <li>Casanova, Jose. <i>Public Religions in the Modern World.</i> (1994)</li> <li>Chaves, M. <i>Secularization As Declining Religious Authority</i>. Social Forces 72(3):749–74. (1994)</li> <li>Ellul, Jacques. <i>The New Demons.</i> (1973/tr. 1975)</li> <li>Gauchet, Marcel. <i>The Disenchantment of the World.</i> (1985/tr. 1997)</li> <li>Gilbert, Alan D. <i>The making of post-Christian Britain: a history of the secularization of modern society</i> (Longman, 1980).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_F._Inglehart" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald F. Inglehart">Inglehart, Ronald F.</a>, "Giving Up on God: The Global Decline of Religion", <i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i>, vol. 99, no. 5 (September / October 2020), pp. 110–118.</li> <li>Martin, David. <i>A General Theory of Secularization</i>. (New York: Harper & Row, 1979).</li> <li>Pollack, Detlef. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/23326428/Varieties_of_Secularization_Theories_and_Their_Indispensable_Core">Varieties of Secularization Theories and Their Indispensable Core</a>, <i>The Germanic Review: Literature, Culture, Theory</i>, 90:1 (2015), 60-79.</li> <li>Pollack, Detlef & Gergely Rosta. <i>Religion and Modernity: An International Comparison</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.</li> <li>Ruck Damian J., Bentley R. Alexander, Lawson Daniel J. <i>Religious change preceded economic change in the 20th century</i>. <a href="/wiki/Science_Advances" title="Science Advances">Science Advances</a> 4(7):eaar8680 (2018) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.aar8680">10.1126/sciadv.aar8680</a></li> <li>Sommerville, C. J. "Secular Society Religious Population: Our Tacit Rules for Using the Term Secularization". <i>Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion</i> 37#2 :249–53. (1998)</li> <li>Said, E. <i>Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient</i>. London: Penguin. (1978).</li> <li>Skolnik, Jonathan and Peter Eli Gordon, eds., <i><a href="/wiki/New_German_Critique" title="New German Critique">New German Critique</a></i> 94 (2005) Special Issue on Secularization and Disenchantment</li> <li>Stark, Rodney, Laurence R. Iannaccone, Monica Turci, and Marco Zecchi. "How Much Has Europe Been Secularized?" <i>Inchiesta</i> 32 #136 pp:99–112. (2002)</li> <li>Stark, Rodney. <i>Triumph of Faith: Why the World Is More Religious than Ever</i>. Wilmington: ISI Books. (2015)</li> <li>Stolz, J. <i>Secularization theories in the twenty-first century: Ideas, evidence, and problems. Presidential address.</i> Social Compass, 67(2), 282-308 (2020) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0037768620917320">10.1177/0037768620917320</a></li> <li>Taylor, Charles. <i>A Secular Age</i>. (Harvard University Press, 2007)</li> <li>Warrier, Maya. "Processes of Secularisation in Contemporary India: Guru Faith in the Mata Amritanandamayi Mission," <i>Modern Asian Studies </i>(2003)</li> <li>Wohlrab-Sahr, Monika & Marian Burchardt. "Multiple Secularities: Toward a Cultural Sociology of Secular Modernities". <i>Comparative Sociology</i> 11(6): 875-909, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-12341249">doi.org/10.1163/15691330-12341249</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularization&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 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