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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Classifications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Classifications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dimensional_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimensional_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Dimensional models </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimensional_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Disorders </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Disorders-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality_disorder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Personality disorder </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality_disorder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eating_disorder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eating_disorder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Eating disorder </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eating_disorder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sleep_disorder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sleep_disorder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Sleep disorder </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sleep_disorder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexuality_related" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexuality_related"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Sexuality related </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexuality_related-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_and_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Signs and symptoms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Signs and symptoms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Course" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Course </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Course-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Disability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risk_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risk_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Risk factors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Risk_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Risk factors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Risk_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drug_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drug_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Drug use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drug_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronic_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronic_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Chronic disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronic_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personality_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Personality traits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causal_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causal_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Causal models </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causal_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Diagnosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_routine_use_of_MRI/fMRI_in_diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_routine_use_of_MRI/fMRI_in_diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Potential routine use of MRI/fMRI in diagnosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_routine_use_of_MRI/fMRI_in_diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Prevention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lifestyle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lifestyle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Lifestyle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lifestyle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Therapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Medication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Epidemiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_civilizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_civilizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Ancient civilizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_civilizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.1 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eighteenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eighteenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.2 Eighteenth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eighteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nineteenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nineteenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.3 Nineteenth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nineteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.4 Twentieth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_and_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_and_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Europe and the United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_and_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa_and_Nigeria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_and_Nigeria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Africa and Nigeria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_and_Nigeria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mental_illness_in_the_Latin_American_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_illness_in_the_Latin_American_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Mental illness in the Latin American community </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_illness_in_the_Latin_American_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Movements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Cultural bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_and_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_and_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Laws and policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_and_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perception_and_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perception_and_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Perception and discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perception_and_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stigma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stigma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6.1 Stigma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stigma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_and_general_public" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_and_general_public"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6.2 Media and general public </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_and_general_public-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6.3 Violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Mental health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Other animals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Mental disorder</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 113 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-113" aria-hidden="true" > 113 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geestesteuring" title="Geestesteuring – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geestesteuring" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychische_St%C3%B6rung" title="Psychische Störung – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Psychische Störung" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="اضطراب نفسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اضطراب نفسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaut%C3%ADa_mental" title="Malautía mental – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Malautía mental" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="মানসিক বিসংগতি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মানসিক বিসংগতি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfermed%C3%A1_mental" title="Enfermedá mental – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Enfermedá mental" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apytu%27%C5%A9_mba%27asy" title="Apytu'ũ mba'asy – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Apytu'ũ mba'asy" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psixoloji_pozuntu" title="Psixoloji pozuntu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Psixoloji pozuntu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B6%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%B1" title="سایکولوژیک مریضلیکلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سایکولوژیک مریضلیکلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF" title="মানসিক ব্যাধি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মানসিক ব্যাধি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheng-s%C3%AEn-p%C4%93%E2%81%BF" title="Cheng-sîn-pēⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Cheng-sîn-pēⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D2%A1%D0%B0%D2%A1%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Психик ҡаҡшау – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Психик ҡаҡшау" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D1%96%D1%85%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Псіхічны разлад – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Псіхічны разлад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%85%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Псыхічны разлад – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Псыхічны разлад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Психично разстройство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Психично разстройство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evna_bolest" title="Duševna bolest – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Duševna bolest" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trastorn_mental" title="Trastorn mental – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Trastorn mental" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evn%C3%AD_porucha" title="Duševní porucha – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Duševní porucha" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afiechyd_meddwl" title="Afiechyd meddwl – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Afiechyd meddwl" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykisk_sygdom" title="Psykisk sygdom – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Psykisk sygdom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychische_St%C3%B6rung" title="Psychische Störung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Psychische Störung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="मानसिक रोग – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="मानसिक रोग" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ps%C3%BC%C3%BChikah%C3%A4ire" title="Psüühikahäire – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Psüühikahäire" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CF%85%CF%87%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B8%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Ψυχική ασθένεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ψυχική ασθένεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C3%A9ria" title="Matéria – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Matéria" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trastorno_mental" title="Trastorno mental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Trastorno mental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psika_malsano" title="Psika malsano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Psika malsano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buruko_gaitz" title="Buruko gaitz – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Buruko gaitz" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="اختلال روانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اختلال روانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paglaapan" title="Paglaapan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Paglaapan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trouble_psychique" title="Trouble psychique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Trouble psychique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neamhoird_mheabhracha" title="Neamhoird mheabhracha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Neamhoird mheabhracha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfermidade_mental" title="Enfermidade mental – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enfermidade mental" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EC%8B%A0_%EC%A7%88%ED%99%98" title="정신 질환 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정신 질환" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հոգեկան հիվանդություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հոգեկան հիվանդություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="मनोविकार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मनोविकार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evna_bolest" title="Duševna bolest – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Duševna bolest" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangguan_jiwa" title="Gangguan jiwa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gangguan jiwa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C3%B0r%C3%B6skun" title="Geðröskun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Geðröskun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbo_mentale" title="Disturbo mentale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disturbo mentale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%94_%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הפרעה נפשית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הפרעה נפשית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kpa%C5%8B_k%CA%8Ad%C9%94%C5%8B" title="Kpaŋ kʊdɔŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kpaŋ kʊdɔŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಮಾನಸಿಕ ರೋಗಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಾನಸಿಕ ರೋಗಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ფსიქიკური დაავადება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფსიქიკური დაავადება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%8B%D1%82%D2%9B%D1%83" title="Психикалық ауытқу – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Психикалық ауытқу" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugonjwa_wa_akili" title="Ugonjwa wa akili – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ugonjwa wa akili" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twoub_sichik" title="Twoub sichik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Twoub sichik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troub_fizik" title="Troub fizik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Troub fizik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ps%C3%AEkopat%C3%AE" title="Psîkopatî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Psîkopatî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83" title="Психикалык оору – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Психикалык оору" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%9C%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%94" title="ຄວາມຜິດປົກກະຕິທາງຈິດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຄວາມຜິດປົກກະຕິທາງຈິດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morbus_mentis" title="Morbus mentis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Morbus mentis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihiski_trauc%C4%93jumi" title="Psihiski traucējumi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Psihiski traucējumi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psichikos_sutrikimas" title="Psichikos sutrikimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Psichikos sutrikimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maladia_psicolojial" title="Maladia psicolojial – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Maladia psicolojial" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malatia_mentala" title="Malatia mentala – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Malatia mentala" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="मानसिक रोग – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="मानसिक रोग" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Душевно растројство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Душевно растројство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="മാനസികരോഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മാനസികരോഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="मनोविकार – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मनोविकार" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyakit_mental" title="Penyakit mental – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penyakit mental" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangguan_jiwa" title="Gangguan jiwa – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Gangguan jiwa" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ACng-g%C4%ADng-b%C3%A2ng" title="Sìng-gĭng-bâng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sìng-gĭng-bâng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychische_aandoening" title="Psychische aandoening – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Psychische aandoening" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="मानसिक रोग – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मानसिक रोग" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D" title="मानसिक ल्वय् – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मानसिक ल्वय्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E7%96%BE%E6%82%A3" title="精神疾患 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="精神疾患" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykisk_lidelse" title="Psykisk lidelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Psykisk lidelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykisk_liding" title="Psykisk liding – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Psykisk liding" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malauti%C3%A1_mentala" title="Malautiá mentala – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Malautiá mentala" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%95_%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%97" title="ମାନସିକ ରୋଗ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମାନସିକ ରୋଗ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhiy_kasallik" title="Ruhiy kasallik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ruhiy kasallik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਮਨੋਵਿਕਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਨੋਵਿਕਾਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%DB%81%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%86_%D9%88%DA%AF%DA%91%D9%86%D8%A7" title="ذہنی توازن وگڑنا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ذہنی توازن وگڑنا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disaada" title="Mental disaada – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Mental disaada" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%83%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%91" title="រោគសរសៃប្រសាទ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រោគសរសៃប្រសាទ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychsche_St%C3%B6%C3%B6rnisse" title="Psychsche Stöörnisse – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Psychsche Stöörnisse" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaburzenia_psychiczne" title="Zaburzenia psychiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zaburzenia psychiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transtorno_mental" title="Transtorno mental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Transtorno mental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boal%C4%83_mintal%C4%83" title="Boală mintală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Boală mintală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waq%27ayay" title="Waq'ayay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Waq'ayay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Психическое расстройство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Психическое расстройство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83" title="मानसिकरोगः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मानसिकरोगः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Mental disorder" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87rregullimi_mendor" title="Çrregullimi mendor – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Çrregullimi mendor" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F" title="මානසික ‍අක්‍රමතා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මානසික ‍අක්‍රමතා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness" title="Mental illness – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mental illness" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evn%C3%A1_porucha" title="Duševná porucha – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Duševná porucha" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evna_motnja" title="Duševna motnja – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Duševna motnja" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itaala%27aanta_maskaxda" title="Itaala'aanta maskaxda – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Itaala'aanta maskaxda" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B4%DB%8E%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C" title="پەشێویی دەروونی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەشێویی دەروونی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%9B%D0%B0%D1%98" title="Ментални поремећај – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ментални поремећај" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentalni_poreme%C4%87aj" title="Mentalni poremećaj – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mentalni poremećaj" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mielenterveyden_h%C3%A4iri%C3%B6" title="Mielenterveyden häiriö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mielenterveyden häiriö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykisk_st%C3%B6rning" title="Psykisk störning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Psykisk störning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakit_sa_pag-iisip" title="Sakit sa pag-iisip – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sakit sa pag-iisip" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="உளப் பிறழ்ச்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உளப் பிறழ்ச்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Психик авырулар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Психик авырулар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A4" title="మానసిక రుగ్మత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మానసిక రుగ్మత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95" title="ความผิดปกติทางจิต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความผิดปกติทางจิต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D1%80%D3%AF%D2%B3%D3%A3" title="Бемориҳои рӯҳӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бемориҳои рӯҳӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhsal_bozukluk" title="Ruhsal bozukluk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ruhsal bozukluk" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Distressing thought or behavioral pattern</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Mental Illness" redirects here. For the album by Aimee Mann, see <a href="/wiki/Mental_Illness_(album)" title="Mental Illness (album)">Mental Illness (album)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Mental disorder</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Mental breakdown, mental disability, mental disease, mental health condition, mental illness, nervous breakdown, psychiatric disability, psychiatric disorder, psychological disability, psychological disorder<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-psychiatric-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-psychological-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mayo_Clinic_2019-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical psychology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">Agitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">mania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Cognitive impairment, social problems, suicide</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Types</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety disorders">Anxiety disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eating_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Eating disorders">eating disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mood_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Mood disorders">mood disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality disorders">personality disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychotic_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotic disorders">psychotic disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorders</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_factor" title="Environmental factor">environmental factors</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a> and medications</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">Antidepressants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">antipsychotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">anxiolytics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mood_stabilizer" title="Mood stabilizer">mood stabilizers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">stimulants</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">18% per year (United States)<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> A mental disorder, also referred to as a mental illness,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> a mental health condition,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> or a psychiatric disability,<a href="#cite_note-psychiatric-2">[2]</a> is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> A mental disorder is also characterized by a <a href="/wiki/Clinically_significant" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinically significant">clinically significant</a> disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior, often in a <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">social context</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-10">[10]</a> Such disturbances may occur as single episodes, may be persistent, or may be <a href="/wiki/Relapsing%E2%80%93remitting" title="Relapsing–remitting">relapsing–remitting</a>. There are many different types of mental disorders, with <a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">signs and symptoms</a> that vary widely between specific disorders.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> A mental disorder is one aspect of <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_mental_disorders" title="Causes of mental disorders">causes of mental disorders</a> are often unclear. Theories incorporate findings from a range of fields. Disorders may be associated with particular regions or functions of the brain. Disorders are usually <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">diagnosed</a> or assessed by a <a href="/wiki/Mental_health_professional" title="Mental health professional">mental health professional</a>, such as a <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology#Professional_practice" title="Clinical psychology">clinical psychologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychiatrist" title="Psychiatrist">psychiatrist</a>, psychiatric nurse, or <a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">clinical social worker</a>, using various methods such as <a href="/wiki/Psychometric_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychometric tests">psychometric tests</a>, but often relying on observation and questioning. Cultural and religious beliefs, as well as <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">social norms</a>, should be taken into account when making a diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5pg101-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Services_for_mental_disorders" title="Services for mental disorders">Services for mental disorders</a> are usually based in <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_hospitals" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric hospitals">psychiatric hospitals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outpatient_clinics" class="mw-redirect" title="Outpatient clinics">outpatient clinics</a>, or in the <a href="/wiki/Community_mental_health_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Community mental health services">community</a>, Treatments are provided by mental health professionals. Common treatment options are <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_medication" title="Psychiatric medication">psychiatric medication</a>, while lifestyle changes, social interventions, <a href="/wiki/Peer_support" title="Peer support">peer support</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Self-help" title="Self-help">self-help</a> are also options. In a minority of cases, there may be <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_commitment" title="Involuntary commitment">involuntary detention</a> or <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">treatment</a>. Prevention programs have been shown to reduce depression.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jacka2017-13">[13]</a> In 2019, common mental disorders around the globe include: <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>, which affects about 264 million people; <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>, which affects about 50 million; <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>, which affects about 45 million; and <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Psychoses" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoses">psychoses</a>, which affect about 20 million people.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodevelopmental disorders">Neurodevelopmental disorders</a> include <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">autism spectrum disorder (ASD)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>, of which onset occurs early in the developmental period.<a href="#cite_note-APA1-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Stigma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(discrimination)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentalism (discrimination)">discrimination</a> can add to the suffering and disability associated with mental disorders, leading to various <a href="/wiki/Social_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Social movements">social movements</a> attempting to increase understanding and challenge <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">social exclusion</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Nervous breakdown" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Nervous_breakdown_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Nervous breakdown (disambiguation)">Nervous breakdown (disambiguation)</a>.</div> The definition and classification of mental disorders are key issues for researchers as well as service providers and those who may be diagnosed. For a mental state to be classified as a disorder, it generally needs to cause dysfunction.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Most international clinical documents use the term mental "disorder", while "illness" is also common. It has been noted that using the term "mental" (i.e., of the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a>) is not necessarily meant to imply separateness from the brain or <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a>. According to the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (<a href="/wiki/DSM-IV" class="mw-redirect" title="DSM-IV">DSM-IV</a>), published in 1994, a mental disorder is a psychological <a href="/wiki/Syndrome" title="Syndrome">syndrome</a> or pattern that is associated with <a href="/wiki/Mental_distress" title="Mental distress">distress</a> (e.g., via a painful <a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">symptom</a>), <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a> (impairment in one or more important areas of functioning), increased risk of death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy; however, it excludes normal responses such as the <a href="/wiki/Grief" title="Grief">grief</a> from loss of a loved one and also excludes <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviant behavior</a> for political, religious, or societal reasons not arising from a dysfunction in the individual.<a href="#cite_note-psychol-med-16">[16]</a> DSM-IV predicates the definition with caveats, stating that, as in the case with many medical terms, mental disorder "lacks a consistent operational definition that covers all situations", noting that different levels of abstraction can be used for medical definitions, including pathology, symptomology, deviance from a normal range, or etiology, and that the same is true for mental disorders, so that sometimes one type of definition is appropriate and sometimes another, depending on the situation.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In 2013, the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> (APA) redefined mental disorders in the <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a> as "a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning."<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The final draft of <a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">ICD-11</a> contains a very similar definition.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The terms "mental breakdown" or "nervous breakdown" may be used by the general population to mean a mental disorder.<a href="#cite_note-Pick2006-20">[20]</a> The terms "nervous breakdown" and "mental breakdown" have not been formally defined through a medical diagnostic system such as the DSM-5 or <a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">ICD-10</a> and are nearly absent from scientific literature regarding mental illness.<a href="#cite_note-Rapport-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mayo-22">[22]</a> Although "nervous breakdown" is not rigorously defined, surveys of laypersons suggest that the term refers to a specific acute time-limited reactive disorder involving symptoms such as anxiety or depression, usually precipitated by external <a href="/wiki/Stressor" title="Stressor">stressors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rapport-21">[21]</a> Many health experts today refer to a nervous breakdown as a mental health crisis.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nervous_illness">Nervous illness</h3></div> In addition to the concept of mental disorder, some people have argued for a return to the old-fashioned concept of nervous illness. In How Everyone Became Depressed: The Rise and Fall of the Nervous Breakdown (2013), Edward Shorter, a professor of psychiatry and the history of medicine, says: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">About half of them are depressed. Or at least that is the diagnosis that they got when they were put on antidepressants. ... They go to work but they are unhappy and uncomfortable; they are somewhat anxious; they are tired; they have various physical pains—and they tend to obsess about the whole business. There is a term for what they have, and it is a good old-fashioned term that has gone out of use. They have nerves or a nervous illness. It is an illness not just of mind or brain, but a disorder of the entire body. ... We have a package here of five symptoms—mild depression, some anxiety, fatigue, somatic pains, and obsessive thinking. ... We have had nervous illness for centuries. When you are too nervous to function ... it is a nervous breakdown. But that term has vanished from medicine, although not from the way we speak.... The nervous patients of yesteryear are the depressives of today. That is the bad news.... There is a deeper illness that drives depression and the symptoms of mood. We can call this deeper illness something else, or invent a neologism, but we need to get the discussion off depression and onto this deeper disorder in the brain and body. That is the point.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Edward Shorter, Faculty of Medicine, the University of Toronto<a href="#cite_note-shorter-24">[24]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In eliminating the nervous breakdown, psychiatry has come close to having its own nervous breakdown.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/David_Healy_(psychiatrist)" title="David Healy (psychiatrist)">David Healy</a>, MD, FRCPsych, Professor of Psychiatry, University of Cardiff, Wales<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Nerves stand at the core of common mental illness, no matter how much we try to forget them.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Peter J. Tyrer, FMedSci, Professor of Community Psychiatry, Imperial College, London<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"Nervous breakdown" is a pseudo-medical term to describe a wealth of stress-related feelings and they are often made worse by the belief that there is a real phenomenon called "nervous breakdown". <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Richard E. Vatz, co-author of explication of views of Thomas Szasz in "<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>: Primary Values and Major Contentions"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classifications">Classifications</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disorders" title="Classification of mental disorders">Classification of mental disorders</a></div> There are currently two widely established systems that classify mental disorders: <ul><li>ICD-11 Chapter 06: Mental, behavioural or neurodevelopmental disorders, part of the <a href="/wiki/International_Classification_of_Diseases" title="International Classification of Diseases">International Classification of Diseases</a> produced by the WHO (in effect since 1 January 2022).<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a> (DSM-5) produced by the APA since 1952.</li></ul> Both of these list categories of disorder and provide standardized criteria for diagnosis. They have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain. Other classification schemes may be used in non-western cultures, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Classification_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders">Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders</a>, and other manuals may be used by those of alternative theoretical persuasions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Psychodynamic_Diagnostic_Manual" title="Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual">Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual</a>. In general, mental disorders are classified separately from <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological disorders">neurological disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Learning_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning disabilities">learning disabilities</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>. Unlike the DSM and ICD, some approaches are not based on identifying distinct categories of disorder using <a href="/wiki/Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">dichotomous</a> symptom profiles intended to separate the abnormal from the normal. There is significant scientific debate about the relative merits of categorical versus such non-categorical (or hybrid) schemes, also known as <a href="/wiki/Continuum_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuum (theory)">continuum</a> or dimensional models. A <a href="/wiki/Spectrum_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectrum approach">spectrum approach</a> may incorporate elements of both. In the scientific and academic literature on the definition or classification of mental disorder, one extreme argues that it is entirely a matter of value judgements (including of what is <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">normal</a>) while another proposes that it is or could be entirely <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a> (including by reference to statistical norms).<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Common hybrid views argue that the concept of mental disorder is objective even if only a "fuzzy <a href="/wiki/Prototype" title="Prototype">prototype</a>" that can never be precisely defined, or conversely that the concept always involves a mixture of scientific facts and subjective value judgments.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Although the diagnostic categories are referred to as 'disorders', they are presented as medical diseases, but are not validated in the same way as most medical diagnoses. Some neurologists argue that classification will only be reliable and valid when based on neurobiological features rather than clinical interview, while others suggest that the differing ideological and practical perspectives need to be better integrated.<a href="#cite_note-Katsching-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kato-31">[31]</a> The DSM and ICD approach remains under attack both because of the implied causality model<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and because some researchers believe it better to aim at underlying brain differences which can precede symptoms by many years.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dimensional_models">Dimensional models</h3></div> The high degree of <a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidity</a> between disorders in categorical models such as the DSM and ICD have led some to propose dimensional models. Studying comorbidity between disorders have demonstrated two latent (unobserved) factors or dimensions in the structure of mental disorders that are thought to possibly reflect etiological processes. These two dimensions reflect a distinction between internalizing disorders, such as mood or anxiety symptoms, and externalizing disorders such as behavioral or substance use symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> A single general factor of psychopathology, similar to the <a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)">g factor</a> for intelligence, has been empirically supported. The p factor model supports the internalizing-externalizing distinction, but also supports the formation of a third dimension of thought disorders such as schizophrenia.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Biological evidence also supports the validity of the internalizing-externalizing structure of mental disorders, with twin and adoption studies supporting heritable factors for externalizing and internalizing disorders.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> A leading dimensional model is the <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_Taxonomy_of_Psychopathology" title="Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology">Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disorders">Disorders</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_as_defined_by_the_DSM_and_ICD" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mental disorders as defined by the DSM and ICD">List of mental disorders as defined by the DSM and ICD</a></div> There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human behavior and personality that can become disordered.<a href="#cite_note-Gazzaniga-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-webMD_types-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-SurgeonGeneral1999chap2-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anxiety_disorder">Anxiety disorder</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">Anxiety disorder</a></div> An anxiety disorder is <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_(mood)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety (mood)">anxiety</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a> that interferes with normal functioning may be classified as an anxiety disorder.<a href="#cite_note-webMD_types-40">[40]</a> Commonly recognized categories include specific <a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">phobias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">generalized anxiety disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">social anxiety disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">panic disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agoraphobia" title="Agoraphobia">agoraphobia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mood_disorder">Mood disorder</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">Mood disorder</a></div> Other affective (emotion/mood) processes can also become disordered. Mood disorder involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia, or despair is known as <a href="/wiki/Major_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Major depression">major depression</a> (also known as unipolar or clinical depression). Milder, but still prolonged depression, can be diagnosed as <a href="/wiki/Dysthymia" title="Dysthymia">dysthymia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar disorder</a> (also known as manic depression) involves abnormally "high" or pressured mood states, known as <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">mania</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hypomania" title="Hypomania">hypomania</a>, alternating with normal or depressed moods. The extent to which unipolar and bipolar mood phenomena represent distinct categories of disorder, or mix and merge along a dimension or spectrum of mood, is subject to some scientific debate.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychotic_disorder">Psychotic disorder</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychotic_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotic disorder">Psychotic disorder</a></div> Patterns of belief, language use and perception of reality can become dysregulated (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Delusions" class="mw-redirect" title="Delusions">delusions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thought_disorder" title="Thought disorder">thought disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallucinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Hallucinations">hallucinations</a>). Psychotic disorders in this domain include <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">delusional disorder</a>. <a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">Schizoaffective disorder</a> is a category used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders. <a href="/wiki/Schizotypy" title="Schizotypy">Schizotypy</a> is a category used for individuals showing some of the characteristics associated with schizophrenia, but without meeting cutoff criteria. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personality_disorder">Personality disorder</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">Personality disorder</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality</a>—the fundamental characteristics of a person that influence thoughts and behaviors across situations and time—may be considered disordered if judged to be abnormally rigid and <a href="/wiki/Maladaptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Maladaptive">maladaptive</a>. Although treated separately by some, the commonly used categorical schemes include them as mental disorders, albeit on a separate <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#Multi_axial_system" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">axis II</a> in the case of the DSM-IV. A number of different personality disorders are listed, including those sometimes classed as eccentric, such as <a href="/wiki/Paranoid_personality_disorder" title="Paranoid personality disorder">paranoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizoid_personality_disorder" title="Schizoid personality disorder">schizoid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schizotypal_personality_disorder" title="Schizotypal personality disorder">schizotypal</a> personality disorders; types that have described as dramatic or emotional, such as <a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">antisocial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histrionic_personality_disorder" title="Histrionic personality disorder">histrionic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder" title="Narcissistic personality disorder">narcissistic</a> personality disorders; and those sometimes classed as fear-related, such as <a href="/wiki/Avoidant_personality_disorder" title="Avoidant personality disorder">anxious-avoidant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dependent_personality_disorder" title="Dependent personality disorder">dependent</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder">obsessive–compulsive</a> personality disorders. Personality disorders, in general, are defined as emerging in childhood, or at least by adolescence or early adulthood. The ICD also has a category for enduring personality change after a catastrophic experience or psychiatric illness. If an inability to sufficiently adjust to life circumstances begins within three months of a particular event or situation, and ends within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated, it may instead be classed as an <a href="/wiki/Adjustment_disorder" title="Adjustment disorder">adjustment disorder</a>. There is an emerging consensus that personality disorders, similar to personality traits in general, incorporate a mixture of acute dysfunctional behaviors that may resolve in short periods, and maladaptive temperamental traits that are more enduring.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Furthermore, there are also non-categorical schemes that rate all individuals via a profile of different dimensions of personality without a symptom-based cutoff from normal personality variation, for example through schemes based on dimensional models.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eating_disorder">Eating disorder</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">Eating disorder</a></div> An eating disorder is a serious mental health condition that involves an unhealthy relationship with food and body image. They can cause severe physical and psychological problems.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Eating disorders involve disproportionate concern in matters of food and weight.<a href="#cite_note-webMD_types-40">[40]</a> Categories of disorder in this area include <a href="/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa" title="Anorexia nervosa">anorexia nervosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa" title="Bulimia nervosa">bulimia nervosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exercise_bulimia" title="Exercise bulimia">exercise bulimia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Binge_eating_disorder" title="Binge eating disorder">binge eating disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sleep_disorder">Sleep disorder</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sleep_disorder" title="Sleep disorder">Sleep disorder</a></div> Sleep disorders are associated with disruption to normal <a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a> patterns. A common sleep disorder is <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, which is described as difficulty falling and/or staying asleep. Other sleep disorders include <a href="/wiki/Narcolepsy" title="Narcolepsy">narcolepsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleep_apnea" title="Sleep apnea">sleep apnea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep_behavior_disorder" title="Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder">REM sleep behavior disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_sleep_deprivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic sleep deprivation">chronic sleep deprivation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Restless_legs_syndrome" title="Restless legs syndrome">restless leg syndrome</a>. Narcolepsy is a condition of extreme tendencies to fall asleep whenever and wherever. People with narcolepsy feel refreshed after their random sleep, but eventually get sleepy again. Narcolepsy diagnosis requires an overnight stay at a sleep center for analysis, during which doctors ask for a detailed sleep history and sleep records. Doctors also use <a href="/wiki/Actigraphy" title="Actigraphy">actigraphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polysomnography" title="Polysomnography">polysomnography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-50">[50]</a> Doctors will do a multiple sleep latency test, which measures how long it takes a person to fall asleep.<a href="#cite_note-:2-50">[50]</a> Sleep apnea, when breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, can be a serious sleep disorder. Three types of sleep apnea include <a href="/wiki/Obstructive_sleep_apnea" title="Obstructive sleep apnea">obstructive sleep apnea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_sleep_apnea" title="Central sleep apnea">central sleep apnea</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Complex_sleep_apnea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Complex sleep apnea (page does not exist)">complex sleep apnea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Sleep apnea can be diagnosed at home or with polysomnography at a sleep center. An ear, nose, and throat doctor may further help with the sleeping habits. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexuality_related">Sexuality related</h3></div> Sexual disorders include <a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">dyspareunia</a> and various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Paraphilia" title="Paraphilia">paraphilia</a> (sexual arousal to objects, situations, or individuals that are considered abnormal or harmful to the person or others). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Impulse_control_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Impulse control disorder">Impulse control disorder</a>: People who are abnormally unable to resist certain urges or impulses that could be harmful to themselves or others, may be classified as having an impulse control disorder, and disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Kleptomania" title="Kleptomania">kleptomania</a> (stealing) or <a href="/wiki/Pyromania" title="Pyromania">pyromania</a> (fire-setting). Various behavioral addictions, such as gambling addiction, may be classed as a disorder. Obsessive–compulsive disorder can sometimes involve an inability to resist certain acts but is classed separately as being primarily an anxiety disorder. <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">Substance use disorder</a>: This disorder refers to the use of drugs (legal or illegal, including <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic beverages">alcohol</a>) that persists despite significant problems or harm related to its use. <a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">Substance dependence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a> fall under this umbrella category in the DSM. Substance use disorder may be due to a pattern of compulsive and repetitive use of a drug that results in tolerance to its effects and withdrawal symptoms when use is reduced or stopped. <a href="/wiki/Dissociative_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissociative disorder">Dissociative disorder</a>: People with severe disturbances of their self-identity, memory, and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings may be classified as having these types of disorders, including <a href="/wiki/Depersonalization-derealization_disorder" title="Depersonalization-derealization disorder">depersonalization derealization disorder</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder" title="Dissociative identity disorder">dissociative identity disorder</a> (which was previously referred to as multiple personality disorder or "split personality"). <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_disorder" title="Cognitive disorder">Cognitive disorder</a>: These affect cognitive abilities, including learning and memory. This category includes <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a> and mild and major neurocognitive disorder (previously termed <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>). <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disorder" title="Developmental disorder">Developmental disorder</a>: These disorders initially occur in childhood. Some examples include <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">autism spectrum</a> disorder, <a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">oppositional defiant disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">conduct disorder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD), which may continue into adulthood. Conduct disorder, if continuing into adulthood, may be diagnosed as antisocial personality disorder (dissocial personality disorder in the ICD). Popular labels such as <a href="/wiki/Psychopath" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychopath">psychopath</a> (or sociopath) do not appear in the DSM or ICD but are linked by some to these diagnoses. Somatoform disorders may be diagnosed when there are problems that appear to originate in the body that are thought to be manifestations of a mental disorder. This includes <a href="/wiki/Somatization_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatization disorder">somatization disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conversion_disorder" title="Conversion disorder">conversion disorder</a>. There are also disorders of how a person perceives their body, such as <a href="/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder" title="Body dysmorphic disorder">body dysmorphic disorder</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neurasthenia" title="Neurasthenia">Neurasthenia</a> is an old diagnosis involving somatic complaints as well as fatigue and low spirits/depression, which is officially recognized by the ICD-10 but no longer by the DSM-IV.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Factitious_disorder" title="Factitious disorder">Factitious disorders</a> are diagnosed where symptoms are thought to be reported for personal gain. Symptoms are often deliberately produced or feigned, and may relate to either symptoms in the individual or in someone close to them, particularly people they care for. There are attempts to introduce a category of <a href="/wiki/Relational_disorder" title="Relational disorder">relational disorder</a>, where the diagnosis is of a relationship rather than on any one individual in that relationship. The relationship may be between children and their parents, between couples, or others. There already exists, under the category of psychosis, a diagnosis of <a href="/wiki/Shared_psychotic_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared psychotic disorder">shared psychotic disorder</a> where two or more individuals share a particular delusion because of their close relationship with each other. There are a number of uncommon psychiatric <a href="/wiki/Syndromes" class="mw-redirect" title="Syndromes">syndromes</a>, which are often named after the person who first described them, such as <a href="/wiki/Capgras_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Capgras syndrome">Capgras syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Clerambault_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="De Clerambault syndrome">De Clerambault syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Othello_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Othello syndrome">Othello syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganser_syndrome" title="Ganser syndrome">Ganser syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cotard_delusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotard delusion">Cotard delusion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Delusional_parasitosis" title="Delusional parasitosis">Ekbom syndrome</a>, and additional disorders such as the <a href="/wiki/Couvade_syndrome" title="Couvade syndrome">Couvade syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geschwind_syndrome" title="Geschwind syndrome">Geschwind syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Course">Course</h3></div> The onset of psychiatric disorders usually occurs from childhood to early adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Impulse-control disorders and a few anxiety disorders tend to appear in childhood. Some other anxiety disorders, substance disorders, and mood disorders emerge later in the mid-teens.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Symptoms of schizophrenia typically manifest from late adolescence to early twenties.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The likely course and outcome of mental disorders vary and are dependent on numerous factors related to the disorder itself, the individual as a whole, and the social environment. Some disorders may last a brief period of time, while others may be long-term in nature. All disorders can have a varied course. Long-term international studies of schizophrenia have found that over a half of individuals recover in terms of symptoms, and around a fifth to a third in terms of symptoms and functioning, with many requiring no medication. While some have serious difficulties and support needs for many years, "late" recovery is still plausible. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) concluded that the long-term studies' findings converged with others in "relieving patients, carers and clinicians of the chronicity paradigm which dominated thinking throughout much of the 20th century."<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Jobe2005-58">[58]</a> A follow-up study by <a href="/wiki/Mauricio_Tohen" title="Mauricio Tohen">Tohen and coworkers</a> revealed that around half of people initially diagnosed with bipolar disorder achieve symptomatic recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks, and nearly all achieve it within two years, with nearly half regaining their prior occupational and residential status in that period. Less than half go on to experience a new episode of mania or major depression within the next two years.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disability">Disability</h3></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Disorder</th> <th>Disability-adjusted life years<a href="#cite_note-Grand-60">[60]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Major depressive disorder</td> <td>65.5 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Alcohol-use disorder</td> <td>23.7 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Schizophrenia</td> <td>16.8 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bipolar disorder</td> <td>14.4 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other drug-use disorders</td> <td>8.4 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Panic disorder</td> <td>7.0 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Obsessive–compulsive disorder</td> <td>5.1 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Primary insomnia</td> <td>3.6 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Post-traumatic stress disorder</td> <td>3.5 million </td></tr> </tbody></table> Some disorders may be very limited in their functional effects, while others may involve substantial disability and support needs. In this context, the terms psychiatric disability and psychological disability are sometimes used instead of mental disorder.<a href="#cite_note-psychiatric-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-psychological-3">[3]</a> The degree of ability or disability may vary over time and across different life domains. Furthermore, psychiatric disability has been linked to <a href="/wiki/Institutional_syndrome" title="Institutional syndrome">institutionalization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(discrimination)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentalism (discrimination)">discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">social exclusion</a> as well as to the inherent effects of disorders. Alternatively, functioning may be affected by the stress of having to hide a condition in work or school, etc., by adverse effects of medications or other substances, or by mismatches between illness-related variations and demands for regularity.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> It is also the case that, while often being characterized in purely negative terms, some mental traits or states labeled as psychiatric disabilities can also involve above-average creativity, non-<a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a>, goal-striving, meticulousness, or empathy.<a href="#cite_note-Rogers&Pilgram05-62">[62]</a> In addition, the public perception of the level of disability associated with mental disorders can change.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Nevertheless, internationally, people report equal or greater disability from commonly occurring mental conditions than from commonly occurring physical conditions, particularly in their social roles and personal relationships. The proportion with access to professional help for mental disorders is far lower, however, even among those assessed as having a severe psychiatric disability.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Disability in this context may or may not involve such things as: <ul><li>Basic <a href="/wiki/Activities_of_daily_living" title="Activities of daily living">activities of daily living</a>. Including looking after the self (health care, grooming, dressing, shopping, cooking etc.) or looking after accommodation (chores, DIY tasks, etc.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpersonal relationships">Interpersonal relationships</a>. Including <a href="/wiki/Communication_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication skills">communication skills</a>, ability to form relationships and sustain them, ability to leave the home or mix in crowds or particular settings</li> <li>Occupational functioning. Ability to acquire an employment and hold it, cognitive and social skills required for the job, dealing with <a href="/wiki/Workplace" title="Workplace">workplace</a> culture, or studying as a student.</li></ul> In terms of total <a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Disability-adjusted life years">disability-adjusted life years</a> (DALYs), which is an estimate of how many years of life are lost due to premature death or to being in a state of poor health and disability, psychiatric disabilities rank amongst the most disabling conditions. Unipolar (also known as Major) depressive disorder is the third leading cause of disability worldwide, of any condition mental or physical, accounting for 65.5 million years lost. The first systematic description of global disability arising in youth, in 2011, found that among 10- to 24-year-olds nearly half of all disability (current and as estimated to continue) was due to psychiatric disabilities, including substance use disorders and conditions involving <a href="/wiki/Self-harm" title="Self-harm">self-harm</a>. Second to this were accidental injuries (mainly traffic collisions) accounting for 12 percent of disability, followed by communicable diseases at 10 percent. The psychiatric disabilities associated with most disabilities in high-income countries were unipolar major depression (20%) and alcohol use disorder (11%). In the eastern Mediterranean region, it was unipolar major depression (12%) and schizophrenia (7%), and in Africa it was unipolar major depression (7%) and bipolar disorder (5%).<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Suicide, which is often attributed to some underlying mental disorder, is a leading cause of death among teenagers and adults under 35.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-understanding_suicidal_behaviour_a02-67">[67]</a> There are an estimated 10 to 20 million non-fatal attempted suicides every year worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risk_factors">Risk factors</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_mental_disorders" title="Causes of mental disorders">Causes of mental disorders</a></div> The predominant view as of 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mental_disorder&action=edit">[update]</a> is that genetic, psychological, and environmental factors all contribute to the development or progression of mental disorders.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Different risk factors may be present at different ages, with risk occurring as early as during prenatal period.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_genetics" title="Psychiatric genetics">Psychiatric genetics</a></div> A number of psychiatric disorders are linked to a family history (including depression, narcissistic personality disorder<a href="#cite_note-Torgersen-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> and anxiety).<a href="#cite_note-Bienvenu_Ginsburg_2007-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Twin_study" title="Twin study">Twin studies</a> have also revealed a very high <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a> for many mental disorders (especially autism and schizophrenia).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Although researchers have been looking for decades for clear linkages between <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and mental disorders, that work has not yielded specific genetic <a href="/wiki/Biomarker" title="Biomarker">biomarkers</a> yet that might lead to better diagnosis and better treatments.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Statistical research looking at eleven disorders found widespread <a href="/wiki/Assortative_mating" title="Assortative mating">assortative mating</a> between people with mental illness. That means that individuals with one of these disorders were two to three times more likely than the general population to have a partner with a mental disorder. Sometimes people seemed to have preferred partners with the same mental illness. Thus, people with schizophrenia or ADHD are seven times more likely to have affected partners with the same disorder. This is even more pronounced for people with Autism spectrum disorders who are 10 times more likely to have a spouse with the same disorder.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environment">Environment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_prevalence_of_mental_illness_is_higher_in_more_unequal_rich_countries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/The_prevalence_of_mental_illness_is_higher_in_more_unequal_rich_countries.jpg/220px-The_prevalence_of_mental_illness_is_higher_in_more_unequal_rich_countries.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/The_prevalence_of_mental_illness_is_higher_in_more_unequal_rich_countries.jpg/330px-The_prevalence_of_mental_illness_is_higher_in_more_unequal_rich_countries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/The_prevalence_of_mental_illness_is_higher_in_more_unequal_rich_countries.jpg/440px-The_prevalence_of_mental_illness_is_higher_in_more_unequal_rich_countries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="734" /></a><figcaption>The prevalence of mental illness is higher in more <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economically unequal</a> countries.</figcaption></figure> During the prenatal stage, factors like unwanted pregnancy, lack of adaptation to pregnancy or substance use during pregnancy increases the risk of developing a mental disorder.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> Maternal stress and birth complications including prematurity and infections have also been implicated in increasing susceptibility for mental illness.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Infants neglected or not provided optimal nutrition have a higher risk of developing cognitive impairment.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> Social influences have also been found to be important,<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Abuse" title="Abuse">abuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neglect" title="Neglect">neglect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">bullying</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_stress" title="Social stress">social stress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_event_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traumatic event (psychological)">traumatic events</a>, and other negative or overwhelming life experiences. Aspects of the wider community have also been implicated,<a href="#cite_note-Krabbendam-79">[79]</a> including employment problems, <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomic">socioeconomic</a> inequality, lack of social cohesion, problems linked to <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migration</a>, and features of particular societies and cultures. The specific risks and pathways to particular disorders are less clear, however. <a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_cognition" title="Nutrition and cognition">Nutrition also plays a role</a> in mental disorders.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-SarrisLogan2015-80">[80]</a> In schizophrenia and psychosis, risk factors include migration and discrimination, childhood trauma, bereavement or separation in families, recreational use of drugs,<a href="#cite_note-schizophreniacommission.org.uk-81">[81]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_schizophrenia#Urbanicity" title="Causes of schizophrenia">urbanicity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Krabbendam-79">[79]</a> In anxiety, risk factors may include parenting factors including parental rejection, lack of parental warmth, high hostility, harsh discipline, high maternal negative affect, anxious childrearing, modelling of dysfunctional and drug-abusing behavior, and child abuse (emotional, physical and sexual).<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Adults with imbalance work to life are at higher risk for developing anxiety.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> For bipolar disorder, stress (such as childhood adversity) is not a specific cause, but does place genetically and biologically vulnerable individuals at risk for a more severe course of illness.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drug_use">Drug use</h3></div> Mental disorders are associated with drug use including: <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rcpsych.ac.uk-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_alcohol_consumption#Mental_health_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of alcohol consumption">alcohol</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> use of which appears to promote <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a> and schizophrenia, usage of a number of drugs has been associated with development of the disorder, including cannabis, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amphetamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphetamines">amphetamines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Picchioni_et_al_2007-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-rcpsych.ac.uk-84">[84]</a> There has been debate regarding the relationship between usage of <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a> and bipolar disorder.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Cannabis has also been associated with depression.<a href="#cite_note-rcpsych.ac.uk-84">[84]</a> Adolescents are at increased risk for tobacco, alcohol and drug use; Peer pressure is the main reason why adolescents start using substances. At this age, the use of substances could be detrimental to the development of the brain and place them at higher risk of developing a mental disorder.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronic_disease">Chronic disease</h3></div> People living with chronic conditions like HIV and diabetes are at higher risk of developing a mental disorder. People living with diabetes experience significant stress from the biological impact of the disease, which places them at risk for developing anxiety and depression. Diabetic patients also have to deal with emotional stress trying to manage the disease. Conditions like heart disease, stroke, respiratory conditions, cancer, and arthritis increase the risk of developing a mental disorder when compared to the general population.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personality_traits">Personality traits</h3></div> Risk factors for mental illness include a propensity for high neuroticism<a href="#cite_note-NeuroticismMA-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ormel2013-92">[92]</a> or "emotional instability". In anxiety, risk factors may include temperament and attitudes (e.g. pessimism).<a href="#cite_note-Bienvenu_Ginsburg_2007-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causal_models">Causal models</h3></div> Mental disorders can arise from multiple sources, and in many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause currently established. An <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eclectic" class="extiw" title="wikt:eclectic">eclectic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">pluralistic</a> mix of models may be used to explain particular disorders.<a href="#cite_note-Ormel2013-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kendler2012-93">[93]</a> The primary paradigm of contemporary mainstream Western psychiatry is said to be the <a href="/wiki/Biopsychosocial_model" title="Biopsychosocial model">biopsychosocial model</a> which incorporates biological, psychological and social factors, although this may not always be applied in practice. <a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a> follows a <a href="/wiki/Biomedical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical">biomedical</a> model where many mental disorders are conceptualized as disorders of brain circuits likely caused by developmental processes shaped by a complex interplay of genetics and experience. A common assumption is that disorders may have resulted from genetic and <a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">developmental</a> vulnerabilities, exposed by <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a> in life (for example in a <a href="/wiki/Diathesis%E2%80%93stress_model" title="Diathesis–stress model">diathesis–stress model</a>), although there are various views on what causes <a href="/wiki/Individual_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual differences">differences between individuals</a>. Some types of mental disorders may be viewed as primarily <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodevelopmental disorders">neurodevelopmental disorders</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a> may be used as an overall explanatory theory, while <a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">attachment theory</a> is another kind of evolutionary-psychological approach sometimes applied in the context of mental disorders. <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoanalytic">Psychoanalytic</a> theories have continued to evolve alongside and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a>-<a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behavioral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">systemic-family</a> approaches. A distinction is sometimes made between a "<a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">medical model</a>" or a "<a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">social model</a>" of psychiatric disability.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2></div> Psychiatrists seek to provide a <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">medical diagnosis</a> of individuals by an assessment of <a href="/wiki/Symptoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptoms">symptoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_signs" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical signs">signs</a> and impairment associated with particular types of mental disorder. Other mental health professionals, such as clinical psychologists, may or may not apply the same diagnostic categories to their <a href="/wiki/Clinical_formulation" title="Clinical formulation">clinical formulation</a> of a client's difficulties and circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The majority of mental health problems are, at least initially, assessed and treated by family physicians (in the UK <a href="/wiki/General_practitioners" class="mw-redirect" title="General practitioners">general practitioners</a>) during consultations, who may refer a patient on for more specialist diagnosis in <a href="/wiki/Acute_(medicine)" title="Acute (medicine)">acute</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chronic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic (medicine)">chronic</a> cases. Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview known as a <a href="/wiki/Mental_status_examination" title="Mental status examination">mental status examination</a>, where evaluations are made of appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances. The views of other professionals, relatives, or other third parties may be taken into account. A physical examination to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted. <a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Psychological testing</a> is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, which may include <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but such methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrists from conducting more thorough diagnostic evaluations.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> It has been found that most clinicians evaluate patients using an unstructured, open-ended approach, with limited training in <a href="/wiki/Evidence_based_assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence based assessment">evidence-based assessment</a> methods, and that inaccurate diagnosis may be common in routine practice.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidity</a> is very common in psychiatric diagnosis, where the same person meets the criteria for more than one disorder. On the other hand, a person may have several different difficulties only some of which meet the criteria for being diagnosed. There may be specific problems with accurate diagnosis in developing countries. More structured approaches are being increasingly used to measure levels of mental illness. <ul><li>HoNOS is the most widely used measure in English mental health services, being used by at least 61 trusts.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In HoNOS a score of 0–4 is given for each of 12 factors, based on functional living capacity.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Research has been supportive of HoNOS,<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> although some questions have been asked about whether it provides adequate coverage of the range and complexity of mental illness problems, and whether the fact that often only 3 of the 12 scales vary over time gives enough subtlety to accurately measure outcomes of treatment.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a>. Please improve this section by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22criticism%22+psychiatric+diagnosis">"criticism" psychiatric diagnosis</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22criticism%22+psychiatric+diagnosis+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22criticism%22+psychiatric+diagnosis&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22criticism%22+psychiatric+diagnosis+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22criticism%22+psychiatric+diagnosis">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22criticism%22+psychiatric+diagnosis&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (July 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Since the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Paula_Caplan" title="Paula Caplan">Paula Caplan</a> has been concerned about the subjectivity of psychiatric diagnosis, and people being arbitrarily "slapped with a psychiatric label." Caplan says because psychiatric diagnosis is unregulated, doctors are not required to spend much time interviewing patients or to seek a second opinion. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders can lead a psychiatrist to focus on narrow checklists of symptoms, with little consideration of what is actually causing the person's problems. So, according to Caplan, getting a psychiatric diagnosis and label often stands in the way of recovery.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In 2013, psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Allen_Frances" title="Allen Frances">Allen Frances</a> wrote a paper entitled "The New Crisis of Confidence in Psychiatric Diagnosis", which said that "psychiatric diagnosis... still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests." Frances was also concerned about "unpredictable overdiagnosis."<a href="#cite_note-frana-104">[104]</a> For many years, marginalized psychiatrists (such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Breggin" title="Peter Breggin">Peter Breggin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>) and outside critics (such as <a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Kirk" title="Stuart A. Kirk">Stuart A. Kirk</a>) have "been accusing psychiatry of engaging in the systematic medicalization of normality." More recently these concerns have come from insiders who have worked for and promoted the American Psychiatric Association (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Robert_Spitzer_(psychiatrist)" title="Robert Spitzer (psychiatrist)">Robert Spitzer</a>, Allen Frances).<a href="#cite_note-stuarta-105">[105]</a> A 2002 editorial in the <a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a> warned of inappropriate medicalization leading to <a href="/wiki/Disease_mongering" title="Disease mongering">disease mongering</a>, where the boundaries of the definition of illnesses are expanded to include personal problems as medical problems or risks of diseases are emphasized to broaden the market for medications.<a href="#cite_note-Moynihan-106">[106]</a> Gary Greenberg, a psychoanalyst, in his book "the Book of Woe", argues that mental illness is really about <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> and how the DSM creates diagnostic labels to categorize people's suffering.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Indeed, the psychiatrist Thomas Szasz, in his book "the Medicalization of Everyday Life", also argues that what is psychiatric illness, is not always biological in nature (i.e. social problems, poverty, etc.), and may even be a part of the human condition.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_routine_use_of_MRI/fMRI_in_diagnosis">Potential routine use of MRI/fMRI in diagnosis</h3></div> in 2018 the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> commissioned a review to reach a consensus on whether modern clinical <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a>/<a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a> will be able to be used in the diagnosis of mental health disorders. The criteria presented by the APA stated that the <a href="/wiki/Biomarker_(medicine)" title="Biomarker (medicine)">biomarkers</a> used in diagnosis should: <ol><li>"have a sensitivity of at least 80% for detecting a particular psychiatric disorder"</li> <li>should "have a specificity of at least 80% for distinguishing this disorder from other psychiatric or medical disorders"</li> <li>"should be reliable, reproducible, and ideally be noninvasive, simple to perform, and inexpensive"</li> <li>proposed biomarkers should be verified by 2 independent studies each by a different investigator and different population samples and published in a peer-reviewed journal.</li></ol> The review concluded that although <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> diagnosis may technically be feasible, very large studies are needed to evaluate specific biomarkers which were not available.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prevention_of_mental_disorders" title="Prevention of mental disorders">Prevention of mental disorders</a></div> The 2004 WHO report "Prevention of Mental Disorders" stated that "Prevention of these disorders is obviously one of the most effective ways to reduce the [disease] burden."<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The 2011 <a href="/wiki/European_Psychiatric_Association" title="European Psychiatric Association">European Psychiatric Association</a> (EPA) guidance on prevention of mental disorders states "There is considerable evidence that various psychiatric conditions can be prevented through the implementation of effective evidence-based interventions."<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> A 2011 <a href="/wiki/UK_Department_of_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="UK Department of Health">UK Department of Health</a> report on the economic case for mental health promotion and mental illness prevention found that "many interventions are outstandingly good value for money, low in cost and often become self-financing over time, saving public expenditure".<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> In 2016, the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Mental_Health" title="National Institute of Mental Health">National Institute of Mental Health</a> re-affirmed prevention as a research priority area.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a> may affect the child's mental health, and evidence suggests that helping parents to be more effective with their children can address mental health needs.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Universal prevention (aimed at a population that has no increased risk for developing a mental disorder, such as school programs or mass media campaigns) need very high numbers of people to show effect (sometimes known as the "power" problem). Approaches to overcome this are (1) focus on high-incidence groups (e.g. by targeting groups with high risk factors), (2) use multiple interventions to achieve greater, and thus more statistically valid, effects, (3) use cumulative meta-analyses of many trials, and (4) run very large trials.<a href="#cite_note-Muñoz_et_al_2010-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_mental_disorders" title="Treatment of mental disorders">Treatment of mental disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Services_for_mental_disorders" title="Services for mental disorders">Services for mental disorders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mental_health_professional" title="Mental health professional">Mental health professional</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornow_Pritzhagen_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tornow_Pritzhagen_10.jpg/220px-Tornow_Pritzhagen_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tornow_Pritzhagen_10.jpg/330px-Tornow_Pritzhagen_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tornow_Pritzhagen_10.jpg/440px-Tornow_Pritzhagen_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3308" data-file-height="2742" /></a><figcaption>The "Haus Tornow am See" (former manor house) in Germany from 1912 is today separated into a special education school and a hotel with integrated work/job- and <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_rehabilitation" title="Psychiatric rehabilitation">rehabilitation</a>-training for people with mental disorders.</figcaption></figure> Treatment and support for mental disorders are provided in <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_hospitals" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric hospitals">psychiatric hospitals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinics" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinics">clinics</a> or a range of <a href="/wiki/Community_mental_health_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Community mental health services">community mental health services</a>. In some countries services are increasingly based on a <a href="/wiki/Recovery_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Recovery approach">recovery approach</a>, intended to support individual's personal journey to gain the kind of life they want. There is a range of different types of treatment and what is most suitable depends on the disorder and the individual. Many things have been found to help at least some people, and a <a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo</a> effect may play a role in any intervention or medication. In a minority of cases, individuals may be treated against their will, which can cause particular difficulties depending on how it is carried out and perceived. Compulsory treatment while in the community versus non-compulsory treatment does not appear to make much of a difference except by maybe decreasing victimization.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lifestyle">Lifestyle</h3></div> Lifestyle strategies, including dietary changes, exercise and quitting smoking may be of benefit.<a href="#cite_note-Jacka2017-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-SarrisLogan2015-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-MarxMoseley2017-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Therapy">Therapy</h3></div> There is also a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapists" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotherapists">psychotherapists</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Family_therapy" title="Family therapy">family therapy</a>), <a href="/wiki/Licensed_Professional_Counselor" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensed Professional Counselor">counselors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> professionals. In addition, there are <a href="/wiki/Peer_support" title="Peer support">peer support</a> roles where personal experience of similar issues is the primary source of expertise.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> A major option for many mental disorders is <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>. There are several main types. <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a> (CBT) is widely used and is based on modifying the patterns of thought and behavior associated with a particular disorder. Other psychotherapies include dialectic behavioral therapy (DBT) and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT). <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a>, addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use. <a href="/wiki/Systemic_therapy" title="Systemic therapy">Systemic therapy</a> or family therapy is sometimes used, addressing a network of significant others as well as an individual. Some psychotherapies are based on a <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">humanistic</a> approach. There are many specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be offshoots or hybrids of the above types. Mental health professionals often employ an <a href="/wiki/Integrative_Psychotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrative Psychotherapy">eclectic or integrative approach</a>. Much may depend on the <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_relationship" title="Therapeutic relationship">therapeutic relationship</a>, and there may be problems with <a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (social sciences)">trust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">confidentiality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_engagement" title="Social engagement">engagement</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medication">Medication</h3></div> A major option for many mental disorders is <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_medication" title="Psychiatric medication">psychiatric medication</a> and there are several main groups. <a href="/wiki/Antidepressants" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidepressants">Antidepressants</a> are used for the treatment of clinical depression, as well as often for anxiety and a range of other disorders. <a href="/wiki/Anxiolytics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiolytics">Anxiolytics</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Sedatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedatives">sedatives</a>) are used for anxiety disorders and related problems such as insomnia. <a href="/wiki/Mood_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Mood stabilizers">Mood stabilizers</a> are used primarily in bipolar disorder. <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipsychotics">Antipsychotics</a> are used for psychotic disorders, notably for <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenic_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Schizophrenic reaction">positive symptoms in schizophrenia</a>, and also increasingly for a range of other disorders. <a href="/wiki/Stimulants" class="mw-redirect" title="Stimulants">Stimulants</a> are commonly used, notably for <a href="/wiki/ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="ADHD">ADHD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there may be considerable overlap in the disorders for which they are actually indicated, and there may also be <a href="/wiki/Off-label_use" title="Off-label use">off-label use</a> of medications. There can be problems with <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse effects">adverse effects</a> of medication and <a href="/wiki/Compliance_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compliance (medicine)">adherence</a> to them, and there is also criticism of <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_marketing" title="Pharmaceutical marketing">pharmaceutical marketing</a> and professional <a href="/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflicts of interest">conflicts of interest</a>. However, these medications in combination with non-pharmacological methods, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) are seen to be most effective in treating mental disorders. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_2">Other</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">Electroconvulsive therapy</a> (ECT) is sometimes used in severe cases when other interventions for severe intractable depression have failed. ECT is usually indicated for treatment resistant depression, severe vegetative symptoms, psychotic depression, intense suicidal ideation, depression during pregnancy, and catatonia. <a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">Psychosurgery</a> is considered experimental but is advocated by some <a href="/wiki/Neurologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurologists">neurologists</a> in certain rare cases.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Counseling" class="mw-redirect" title="Counseling">Counseling</a> (professional) and <a href="/wiki/Co-counseling" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-counseling">co-counseling</a> (between peers) may be used. <a href="/wiki/Psychoeducation" title="Psychoeducation">Psychoeducation</a> programs may provide people with the information to understand and manage their problems. Creative therapies are sometimes used, including <a href="/wiki/Music_therapy" title="Music therapy">music therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art_therapy" title="Art therapy">art therapy</a> or drama therapy. Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including peer support, <a href="/wiki/Self-help_groups_for_mental_health" title="Self-help groups for mental health">self-help groups for mental health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supported_housing" class="mw-redirect" title="Supported housing">supported housing</a> or supported employment (including <a href="/wiki/Social_firms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social firms">social firms</a>). Some advocate <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplements" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary supplements">dietary supplements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_accommodation" title="Reasonable accommodation">Reasonable accommodations</a> (adjustments and supports) might be put in place to help an individual cope and succeed in environments despite potential disability related to mental health problems. This could include an <a href="/wiki/Emotional_support_animal" title="Emotional support animal">emotional support animal</a> or specifically trained <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_service_dog" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric service dog">psychiatric service dog</a>. As of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mental_disorder&action=edit">[update]</a> cannabis is specifically not recommended as a treatment.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prevalence_of_mental_disorders" title="Prevalence of mental disorders">Prevalence of mental disorders</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mental_and_behavioral_disorders_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Mental_and_behavioral_disorders_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/290px-Mental_and_behavioral_disorders_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Mental_and_behavioral_disorders_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/435px-Mental_and_behavioral_disorders_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Mental_and_behavioral_disorders_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/580px-Mental_and_behavioral_disorders_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Deaths from mental and behavioral disorders per million persons in 2012 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  0–6</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  7–9</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  10–15</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  16–24</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  25–31</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  32–39</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  40–53</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  54–70</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  71–99</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  100–356</div></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuropsychiatric_conditions_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Neuropsychiatric_conditions_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/290px-Neuropsychiatric_conditions_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Neuropsychiatric_conditions_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/435px-Neuropsychiatric_conditions_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Neuropsychiatric_conditions_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/580px-Neuropsychiatric_conditions_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a> for neuropsychiatric conditions per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <2,200</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  2,200–2,400</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  2,400–2,600</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  2,600–2,800</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  2,800–3,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  3,000–3,200</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  3,200–3,400</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  3,400–3,600</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  3,600–3,800</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  3,800–4,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  4,000–4,200</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  >4,200</div> </div></figcaption></figure> Mental disorders are common. Worldwide, more than one in three people in most countries report sufficient criteria for at least one at some point in their life.<a href="#cite_note-WHOICPE-130">[130]</a> In the United States, 46% qualify for a mental illness at some point.<a href="#cite_note-DoiarchpsycMissing-131">[131]</a> An ongoing survey indicates that anxiety disorders are the most common in all but one country, followed by mood disorders in all but two countries, while substance disorders and impulse-control disorders were consistently less prevalent.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Rates varied by region.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> A review of anxiety disorder surveys in different countries found average lifetime prevalence estimates of 16.6%, with women having higher rates on average.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> A review of mood disorder surveys in different countries found lifetime rates of 6.7% for major depressive disorder (higher in some studies, and in women) and 0.8% for Bipolar I disorder.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> In the United States the frequency of disorder is: anxiety disorder (28.8%), mood disorder (20.8%), impulse-control disorder (24.8%) or substance use disorder (14.6%).<a href="#cite_note-DoiarchpsycMissing-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-NumbersCountNIMH-137">[137]</a> A 2004 cross-Europe study found that approximately one in four people reported meeting criteria at some point in their life for at least one of the DSM-IV disorders assessed, which included mood disorders (13.9%), anxiety disorders (13.6%), or alcohol disorder (5.2%). Approximately one in ten met the criteria within a 12-month period. Women and younger people of either gender showed more cases of the disorder.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> A 2005 review of surveys in 16 European countries found that 27% of adult Europeans are affected by at least one mental disorder in a 12-month period.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> An international review of studies on the prevalence of schizophrenia found an average (median) figure of 0.4% for lifetime prevalence; it was consistently lower in poorer countries.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Studies of the prevalence of personality disorders (PDs) have been fewer and smaller-scale, but one broad Norwegian survey found a five-year prevalence of almost 1 in 7 (13.4%). Rates for specific disorders ranged from 0.8% to 2.8%, differing across countries, and <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">by gender</a>, educational level and other factors.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> A US survey that incidentally screened for personality disorder found a rate of 14.79%.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Approximately 7% of a preschool pediatric sample were given a psychiatric diagnosis in one clinical study, and approximately 10% of 1- and 2-year-olds receiving developmental screening have been assessed as having significant emotional/behavioral problems based on parent and pediatrician reports.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> While rates of psychological disorders are often the same for men and women, women tend to have a higher rate of depression. Each year 73 million women are affected by major depression, and suicide is ranked 7th as the cause of death for women between the ages of 20–59. Depressive disorders account for close to 41.9% of the psychiatric disabilities among women compared to 29.3% among men.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_mental_disorders" title="History of mental disorders">History of mental disorders</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_civilizations">Ancient civilizations</h3></div> Ancient civilizations described and treated a number of mental disorders. Mental illnesses were well known in ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-NemetNejat-145">[145]</a> where diseases and mental disorders were believed to be caused by specific deities.<a href="#cite_note-BlackGreen1992-146">[146]</a> Because hands symbolized control over a person, mental illnesses were known as "hands" of certain deities.<a href="#cite_note-BlackGreen1992-146">[146]</a> One psychological illness was known as Qāt Ištar, meaning "Hand of <a href="/wiki/Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishtar">Ishtar</a>".<a href="#cite_note-BlackGreen1992-146">[146]</a> Others were known as "Hand of <a href="/wiki/Shamash" title="Shamash">Shamash</a>", "Hand of the Ghost", and "Hand of the God".<a href="#cite_note-BlackGreen1992-146">[146]</a> Descriptions of these illnesses, however, are so vague that it is usually impossible to determine which illnesses they correspond to in modern terminology.<a href="#cite_note-BlackGreen1992-146">[146]</a> Mesopotamian doctors kept detailed record of their patients' <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a> and assigned spiritual meanings to them.<a href="#cite_note-NemetNejat-145">[145]</a> The royal family of <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> was notorious for its members often being insane.<a href="#cite_note-NemetNejat-145">[145]</a> The Greeks coined terms for <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">melancholy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hysteria" title="Hysteria">hysteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">phobia</a> and developed the <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humorism</a> theory. Mental disorders were described, and treatments developed, in Persia, Arabia and in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h4></div> Conceptions of madness in the Middle Ages in Christian Europe were a mixture of the divine, diabolical, magical and humoral, and transcendental.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In the early modern period, some people with mental disorders may have been victims of the witch-hunts. While not every witch and sorcerer accused were mentally ill, all mentally ill were considered to be witches or sorcerers.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Many terms for mental disorders that found their way into everyday use first became popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eighteenth_century">Eighteenth century</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gautier_-_Salpetriere.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gautier_-_Salpetriere.JPG/220px-Gautier_-_Salpetriere.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gautier_-_Salpetriere.JPG/330px-Gautier_-_Salpetriere.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gautier_-_Salpetriere.JPG/440px-Gautier_-_Salpetriere.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1792" data-file-height="1209" /></a><figcaption>Eight patients representing mental diagnoses as of the 19th century at the <a href="/wiki/Salp%C3%AAtri%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Salpêtrière">Salpêtrière</a>, Paris</figcaption></figure> By the end of the 17th century and into the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, madness was increasingly seen as an organic physical phenomenon with no connection to the soul or moral responsibility. Asylum care was often harsh and treated people like wild animals, but towards the end of the 18th century a <a href="/wiki/Moral_treatment" title="Moral treatment">moral treatment</a> movement gradually developed. Clear descriptions of some syndromes may be rare before the 19th century.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nineteenth_century">Nineteenth century</h4></div> Industrialization and population growth led to a massive expansion of the number and size of insane asylums in every Western country in the 19th century. Numerous different classification schemes and diagnostic terms were developed by different authorities, and the term <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a> was coined (1808), though medical superintendents were still known as alienists.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Twentieth_century">Twentieth century</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_mentally_ill_patient_in_a_strait-jacket_attached_to_the_wa_Wellcome_V0016643ER.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/A_mentally_ill_patient_in_a_strait-jacket_attached_to_the_wa_Wellcome_V0016643ER.jpg/220px-A_mentally_ill_patient_in_a_strait-jacket_attached_to_the_wa_Wellcome_V0016643ER.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/A_mentally_ill_patient_in_a_strait-jacket_attached_to_the_wa_Wellcome_V0016643ER.jpg/330px-A_mentally_ill_patient_in_a_strait-jacket_attached_to_the_wa_Wellcome_V0016643ER.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/A_mentally_ill_patient_in_a_strait-jacket_attached_to_the_wa_Wellcome_V0016643ER.jpg/440px-A_mentally_ill_patient_in_a_strait-jacket_attached_to_the_wa_Wellcome_V0016643ER.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2325" data-file-height="3015" /></a><figcaption>A patient in a strait-jacket and barrel contraption, 1908</figcaption></figure> The turn of the 20th century saw the development of psychoanalysis, which would later come to the fore, along with <a href="/wiki/Emil_Kraepelin" title="Emil Kraepelin">Kraepelin</a>'s classification scheme. Asylum "inmates" were increasingly referred to as "patients", and asylums were renamed as hospitals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe_and_the_United_States">Europe and the United States</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Insulin_shock_therapy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Insulin_shock_therapy.jpg/220px-Insulin_shock_therapy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Insulin_shock_therapy.jpg/330px-Insulin_shock_therapy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Insulin_shock_therapy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="243" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Insulin_shock_therapy" title="Insulin shock therapy">Insulin shock procedure</a>, 1950s</figcaption></figure> Early in the 20th century in the United States, a <a href="/wiki/Mental_hygiene" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental hygiene">mental hygiene</a> movement developed, aiming to prevent mental disorders. <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical psychology</a> and social work developed as professions. <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> saw a massive increase of conditions that came to be termed "<a href="/wiki/Combat_stress_reaction" title="Combat stress reaction">shell shock</a>". <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> saw the development in the U.S. of a new psychiatric manual for categorizing mental disorders, which along with existing systems for collecting census and hospital statistics led to the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) also developed a section on mental disorders. The term <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (biological)">stress</a>, having emerged from <a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">endocrinology</a> work in the 1930s, was increasingly applied to mental disorders. Electroconvulsive therapy, insulin shock therapy, <a href="/wiki/Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">lobotomies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neuroleptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroleptic">neuroleptic</a> <a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">chlorpromazine</a> came to be used by mid-century.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> In the 1960s there were many challenges to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a> itself. These challenges came from psychiatrists like Thomas Szasz who argued that mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts; from sociologists such as <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a> who said that mental illness was merely another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists; from behavioral psychologists who challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena; and from gay rights activists who criticised the APA's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder. A study published in Science by <a href="/wiki/Rosenhan_experiment" title="Rosenhan experiment">Rosenhan</a> received much publicity and was viewed as an attack on the efficacy of psychiatric diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Deinstitutionalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Deinstitutionalization">Deinstitutionalization</a> gradually occurred in the West, with isolated psychiatric hospitals being closed down in favor of community mental health services. A <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Psychiatric survivors movement">consumer/survivor movement</a> gained momentum. Other kinds of psychiatric medication gradually came into use, such as "psychic energizers" (later antidepressants) and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_pharmacology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium pharmacology">lithium</a>. <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepines">Benzodiazepines</a> gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity. Advances in <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, genetics, and psychology led to new research agendas. Cognitive behavioral therapy and other psychotherapies developed. The DSM and then ICD adopted new criteria-based classifications, and the number of "official" diagnoses saw a large expansion. Through the 1990s, new <a href="/wiki/SSRI" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRI">SSRI</a>-type antidepressants became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world, as later did antipsychotics. Also during the 1990s, a recovery approach developed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa_and_Nigeria">Africa and Nigeria</h3></div> Most Africans view mental disturbances as external <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual attack">spiritual attack</a> on the person. Those who have a mental illness are thought to be under a spell or bewitched. Often than usual, People view a mentally ill person as possessed of an evil spirit and is seen as more of <a href="/wiki/Sociological" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological">sociological</a> perspective than a psychological order.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> estimated that fewer than 10% of mentally ill Nigerians have access to a psychiatrist or health worker, because there is a low ratio of mental-health specialists available in a country of 200 million people. WHO estimates that the number of mentally ill Nigerians ranges from 40 million to 60 million. Disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, personality disorder, old age-related disorder, and substance-abuse disorder are common in Nigeria, as in other countries in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Nigeria is still nowhere near being equipped to solve prevailing mental health challenges. With little scientific research carried out, coupled with insufficient mental-health hospitals in the country, traditional healers provide specialized <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a> care to those that require their services and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacotherapy" title="Pharmacotherapy">pharmacotherapy</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Self.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Self.svg/200px-Self.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Self.svg/300px-Self.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Self.svg/400px-Self.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> Different societies or cultures, even different individuals in a <a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">subculture</a>, can disagree as to what constitutes optimal versus pathological biological and psychological functioning. Research has demonstrated that cultures vary in the relative importance placed on, for example, happiness, autonomy, or social relationships for pleasure. Likewise, the fact that a behavior pattern is valued, accepted, encouraged, or even statistically normative in a culture does not necessarily mean that it is conducive to optimal psychological functioning. People in all cultures find some behaviors bizarre or even incomprehensible. But just what they feel is bizarre or incomprehensible is ambiguous and subjective.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> These differences in determination can become highly contentious. The process by which conditions and difficulties come to be defined and treated as medical conditions and problems, and thus come under the authority of doctors and other health professionals, is known as <a href="/wiki/Medicalization" title="Medicalization">medicalization</a> or pathologization. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_illness_in_the_Latin_American_community">Mental illness in the Latin American community</h3></div> There is a perception in <a href="/wiki/Latin_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin American">Latin American</a> communities, especially among older people, that discussing problems with mental health can create embarrassment and shame for the family. This results in fewer people seeking treatment.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Latin Americans from the US are slightly more likely to have a mental health disorder than first-generation Latin American immigrants, although differences between ethnic groups were found to disappear after adjustment for place of birth.<a href="#cite_note-Ramos-Olazagasti_&_Conway-157">[157]</a> From 2015 to 2018, rates of serious mental illness in young adult Latin Americans increased by 60%, from 4% to 6.4%. The prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depressive episodes</a> in young and adult Latin Americans increased from 8.4% to 11.3%. More than a third of Latin Americans reported more than one bad mental health day in the last three months.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> The rate of suicide among Latin Americans was about half the rate of non-Latin American white Americans in 2018, and this was the second-leading cause of death among Latin Americans ages 15 to 34.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> However, Latin American suicide rates rose steadily after 2020 in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic, even as the national rate declined.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Family relations are an integral part of the Latin American community. Some research has shown that Latin Americans are more likely rely on family bonds, or familismo, as a source of therapy while struggling with mental health issues. Because Latin Americans have a high rate of religiosity, and because there is less stigma associated with religion than with psychiatric services,<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> religion may play a more important therapeutic role for the mentally ill in Latin American communities. However, research has also suggested that religion may also play a role in stigmatizing mental illness in Latin American communities, which can discourage community members from seeking professional help.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></div> Religious, <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Transpersonal" title="Transpersonal">transpersonal</a> experiences and beliefs meet many criteria of delusional or psychotic disorders.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> A belief or experience can sometimes be shown to produce distress or disability—the ordinary standard for judging mental disorders.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> There is a link between <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_schizophrenia" title="Religion and schizophrenia">religion and schizophrenia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Siddle_Haddock_Tarrier_Faragher-167">[167]</a> a complex mental disorder characterized by a difficulty in recognizing reality, regulating emotional responses, and thinking in a clear and logical manner. Those with schizophrenia commonly report some type of <a href="/wiki/Religious_delusion" title="Religious delusion">religious delusion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Siddle_Haddock_Tarrier_Faragher-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> and religion itself may be a trigger for schizophrenia.<a href="#cite_note-Mohr_1095–1103-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Movements">Movements</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giorgio_Antonucci.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Giorgio_Antonucci.jpg/220px-Giorgio_Antonucci.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Giorgio_Antonucci.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>Giorgio Antonucci</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr_Thomas_S_Szasz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Dr_Thomas_S_Szasz.jpg/220px-Dr_Thomas_S_Szasz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Dr_Thomas_S_Szasz.jpg/330px-Dr_Thomas_S_Szasz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Dr_Thomas_S_Szasz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="212" /></a><figcaption>Thomas Szasz</figcaption></figure> Controversy has often surrounded psychiatry, and the term <a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">anti-psychiatry</a> was coined by the psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/David_Cooper_(psychiatrist)" title="David Cooper (psychiatrist)">David Cooper</a> in 1967. The anti-psychiatry message is that <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric treatment">psychiatric treatments</a> are ultimately more damaging than helpful to patients, and psychiatry's history involves what may now be seen as dangerous treatments.<a href="#cite_note-burns111-171">[171]</a> Electroconvulsive therapy was one of these, which was used widely between the 1930s and 1960s. Lobotomy was another practice that was ultimately seen as too invasive and brutal. <a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a> and other sedatives were sometimes over-prescribed, which led to an epidemic of dependence. There was also concern about the large increase in prescribing psychiatric drugs for children. Some charismatic psychiatrists came to personify the movement against psychiatry. The most influential of these was <a href="/wiki/R.D._Laing" class="mw-redirect" title="R.D. Laing">R.D. Laing</a> who wrote a series of best-selling books, including <a href="/wiki/The_Divided_Self" class="mw-redirect" title="The Divided Self">The Divided Self</a>. Thomas Szasz wrote <a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Mental_Illness" title="The Myth of Mental Illness">The Myth of Mental Illness</a>. Some ex-patient groups have become militantly anti-psychiatric, often referring to themselves as <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Psychiatric survivors movement">survivors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-burns111-171">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Antonucci" title="Giorgio Antonucci">Giorgio Antonucci</a> has questioned the basis of psychiatry through his work on the dismantling of two psychiatric hospitals (in the city of <a href="/wiki/Imola" title="Imola">Imola</a>), carried out from 1973 to 1996. The <a href="/wiki/Consumer/survivor_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer/survivor movement">consumer/survivor movement</a> (also known as user/survivor movement) is made up of individuals (and organizations representing them) who are clients of mental health services or who consider themselves survivors of psychiatric interventions. Activists campaign for improved mental health services and for more involvement and empowerment within mental health services, policies and wider society.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Patient_advocacy" title="Patient advocacy">Patient advocacy</a> organizations have expanded with increasing deinstitutionalization in developed countries, working to challenge the <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes">stereotypes</a>, stigma and exclusion associated with psychiatric conditions. There is also a <a href="/wiki/Carers_rights_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Carers rights movement">carers rights movement</a> of people who help and support people with mental health conditions, who may be relatives, and who often work in difficult and time-consuming circumstances with little acknowledgement and without pay. An anti-psychiatry movement fundamentally challenges mainstream psychiatric theory and practice, including in some cases asserting that psychiatric concepts and diagnoses of 'mental illness' are neither real nor useful.<a href="#cite_note-AntiPsychCoal-175">[175]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Alternatively, a movement for <a href="/wiki/Global_mental_health" title="Global mental health">global mental health</a> has emerged, defined as 'the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving mental health and achieving equity in mental health for all people worldwide'.<a href="#cite_note-Patel-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_bias">Cultural bias</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Depression_and_culture" title="Depression and culture">Depression and culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_healthcare" title="Cultural competence in healthcare">Cultural competence in healthcare</a></div> Diagnostic guidelines of the 2000s, namely the DSM and to some extent the ICD, have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook. Opponents argue that even when diagnostic criteria are used across different cultures, it does not mean that the underlying constructs have validity within those cultures, as even reliable application can prove only consistency, not legitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-Widiger2000-179">[179]</a> Advocating a more <a href="/wiki/Culturally_sensitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Culturally sensitive">culturally sensitive</a> approach, critics such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bell_(physician)" title="Carl Bell (physician)">Carl Bell</a> and Marcello Maviglia contend that the cultural and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic">ethnic</a> diversity of individuals is often discounted by researchers and service providers.<a href="#cite_note-wash-post-180">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychiatry" title="Cross-cultural psychiatry">Cross-cultural psychiatrist</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kleinman" title="Arthur Kleinman">Arthur Kleinman</a> contends that the Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM-IV. Disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as "culture-bound", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, revealing to Kleinman an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Kleinman's negative view towards the <a href="/wiki/Culture-bound_syndrome" title="Culture-bound syndrome">culture-bound syndrome</a> is largely shared by other cross-cultural critics. Common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out and frustration that even those included are often misinterpreted or misrepresented.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Many mainstream psychiatrists are dissatisfied with the new culture-bound diagnoses, although for partly different reasons. Robert Spitzer, a lead architect of the <a href="/wiki/DSM-III" class="mw-redirect" title="DSM-III">DSM-III</a>, has argued that adding cultural formulations was an attempt to appease cultural critics, and has stated that they lack any scientific rationale or support. Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved. In general, mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are significant only to specific symptom presentations.<a href="#cite_note-Widiger2000-179">[179]</a> Clinical conceptions of mental illness also overlap with <a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">personal and cultural values</a> in the domain of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, so much so that it is sometimes argued that separating the two is impossible without fundamentally redefining the essence of being a particular person in a society.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> In clinical psychiatry, persistent distress and disability indicate an internal disorder requiring treatment; but in another context, that same distress and disability can be seen as an indicator of emotional struggle and the need to address social and structural problems.<a href="#cite_note-Karasz05-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> This dichotomy has led some academics and clinicians to advocate a <a href="/wiki/Postmodernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist">postmodernist</a> conceptualization of mental distress and well-being.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Such approaches, along with cross-cultural and "<a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</a>" psychologies centered on alternative cultural and ethnic and <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race-based</a> identities and experiences, stand in contrast to the mainstream psychiatric community's alleged avoidance of any explicit involvement with either morality or culture.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> In many countries there are attempts to challenge perceived prejudice against <a href="/wiki/Minority_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Minority groups">minority groups</a>, including alleged <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">institutional racism</a> within psychiatric services.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> There are also ongoing attempts to improve professional <a href="/wiki/Cross_cultural_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross cultural sensitivity">cross cultural sensitivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laws_and_policies">Laws and policies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mental_health_law" title="Mental health law">Mental health law</a></div> Three-quarters of countries around the world have mental health legislation. Compulsory admission to mental health facilities (also known as <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_commitment" title="Involuntary commitment">involuntary commitment</a>) is a controversial topic. It can impinge on personal liberty and the right to choose, and carry the risk of abuse for political, social, and other reasons; yet it can potentially prevent harm to self and others, and assist some people in attaining their right to healthcare when they may be unable to decide in their own interests.<a href="#cite_note-WHORIGHTS-191">[191]</a> Because of this it is a concern of <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a>. All human rights oriented mental health laws require proof of the presence of a mental disorder as defined by internationally accepted standards, but the type and severity of disorder that counts can vary in different jurisdictions. The two most often used grounds for involuntary admission are said to be serious likelihood of immediate or imminent danger to self or others, and the need for treatment. Applications for someone to be involuntarily admitted usually come from a mental health practitioner, a family member, a close relative, or a guardian. Human-rights-oriented laws usually stipulate that independent medical practitioners or other accredited mental health practitioners must examine the patient separately and that there should be regular, time-bound review by an independent review body.<a href="#cite_note-WHORIGHTS-191">[191]</a> The individual should also have personal access to independent advocacy. For <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">involuntary treatment</a> to be administered (by force if necessary), it should be shown that an individual lacks the mental capacity for <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a> (i.e. to understand treatment information and its implications, and therefore be able to make an informed choice to either accept or refuse). Legal challenges in some areas have resulted in <a href="/wiki/Supreme_court" title="Supreme court">supreme court</a> decisions that a person does not have to agree with a psychiatrist's characterization of the issues as constituting an "illness", nor agree with a psychiatrist's conviction in medication, but only recognize the issues and the information about treatment options.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Proxy consent (also known as <a href="/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker" title="Surrogate decision-maker">surrogate or substituted decision-making</a>) may be transferred to a personal representative, a family member, or a legally appointed guardian. Moreover, patients may be able to make, when they are considered well, an <a href="/wiki/Advance_directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Advance directive">advance directive</a> stipulating how they wish to be treated should they be deemed to lack mental capacity in the future.<a href="#cite_note-WHORIGHTS-191">[191]</a> The right to <a href="/wiki/Decision_aids" title="Decision aids">supported decision-making</a>, where a person is helped to understand and choose treatment options before they can be declared to lack capacity, may also be included in the legislation.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> There should at the very least be <a href="/wiki/Shared_decision-making" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared decision-making">shared decision-making</a> as far as possible. Involuntary treatment laws are increasingly extended to those living in the community, for example <a href="/wiki/Outpatient_commitment" title="Outpatient commitment">outpatient commitment</a> laws (known by different names) are used in New Zealand, Australia, the United Kingdom, and most of the United States. The World Health Organization reports that in many instances national mental health legislation takes away the rights of persons with mental disorders rather than protecting rights, and is often outdated.<a href="#cite_note-WHORIGHTS-191">[191]</a> In 1991, the United Nations adopted the Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care, which established minimum human rights standards of practice in the mental health field. In 2006, the UN formally agreed the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_Persons_with_Disabilities" title="Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities">Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a> to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of disabled people, including those with psychiatric disabilities.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> The term <a href="/wiki/Insanity" title="Insanity">insanity</a>, sometimes used <a href="/wiki/Colloquialism" title="Colloquialism">colloquially</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">synonym</a> for mental illness, is often used technically as a legal term. The <a href="/wiki/Insanity_defense" title="Insanity defense">insanity defense</a> may be used in a legal trial (known as the <a href="/wiki/Mental_Disorder_(Insanity)_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental Disorder (Insanity) Defense">mental disorder defence</a> in some countries). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perception_and_discrimination">Perception and discrimination</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenogenic_parents" class="mw-redirect" title="Schizophrenogenic parents">Schizophrenogenic parents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refrigerator_mother" class="mw-redirect" title="Refrigerator mother">Refrigerator mother</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(discrimination)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentalism (discrimination)">Mentalism (discrimination)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stigma">Stigma</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">social stigma</a> associated with mental disorders is a widespread problem. The US Surgeon General stated in 1999 that: "Powerful and pervasive, stigma prevents people from acknowledging their own mental health problems, much less disclosing them to others."<a href="#cite_note-SurgeonGeneral1999chap8-195">[195]</a> Additionally, researcher Wulf Rössler in 2016, in his article, "The Stigma of Mental Disorders" stated <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"For millennia, society did not treat persons suffering from depression, autism, schizophrenia and other mental illnesses much better than slaves or criminals: they were imprisoned, tortured or killed".<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a></blockquote> In the United States, racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to experience mental health disorders often due to low <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a>, and discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-199">[199]</a> In Taiwan, people with mental disorders often face misconceptions from the general public. These misconceptions include the belief that mental health issues stem from excessive worry, having too much free time, a lack of progress or ambition, not taking life seriously, neglecting real-life responsibilities, mental weakness, unwillingness to be <a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">resilient</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perfectionism_(psychology)" title="Perfectionism (psychology)">perfectionism</a>, or a lack of <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">courage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MedPartner_2019-200">[200]</a> <a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment discrimination</a> is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of unemployment among those with a diagnosis of mental illness.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> An Australian study found that having a psychiatric disability is a bigger barrier to employment than a physical disability.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The mentally ill are stigmatized in Chinese society and can not legally marry.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Efforts are being undertaken worldwide to eliminate the stigma of mental illness,<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> although the methods and outcomes used have sometimes been criticized.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Media_and_general_public">Media and general public</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_in_art_and_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental disorders in art and literature">Mental disorders in art and literature</a></div> Media coverage of mental illness comprises predominantly negative and <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a> depictions, for example, of incompetence, violence or criminality, with far less coverage of positive issues such as accomplishments or human rights issues.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Such negative depictions, including in children's cartoons, are thought to contribute to stigma and negative attitudes in the public and in those with mental health problems themselves, although more sensitive or serious cinematic portrayals have increased in prevalence.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Carter_Center" title="Carter Center">Carter Center</a> has created fellowships for journalists in South Africa, the U.S., and <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, to enable reporters to research and write stories on mental health topics.<a href="#cite_note-Fellows-211">[211]</a> Former <a href="/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States" title="First Lady of the United States">US First Lady</a> <a href="/wiki/Rosalynn_Carter" title="Rosalynn Carter">Rosalynn Carter</a> began the fellowships not only to train reporters in how to sensitively and accurately discuss mental health and mental illness, but also to increase the number of stories on these topics in the news media.<a href="#cite_note-RCFellows-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-RCadvoc-213">[213]</a> There is also a <a href="/wiki/World_Mental_Health_Day" title="World Mental Health Day">World Mental Health Day</a>, which in the United States and Canada falls within a <a href="/wiki/Mental_Illness_Awareness_Week" title="Mental Illness Awareness Week">Mental Illness Awareness Week</a>. The general public have been found to hold a strong <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotype</a> of dangerousness and desire for social distance from individuals described as mentally ill.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> A US national survey found that a higher percentage of people rate individuals described as displaying the characteristics of a mental disorder as "likely to do something violent to others", compared to the percentage of people who are rating individuals described as being troubled.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> In the article, "Discrimination Against People with a Mental Health Diagnosis: Qualitative Analysis of Reported Experiences", an individual who has a mental disorder, revealed that, "If people don't know me and don't know about the problems, they'll talk to me quite happily. Once they've seen the problems or someone's told them about me, they tend to be a bit more wary."<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> In addition, in the article, "Stigma and its Impact on Help-Seeking for Mental Disorders: What Do We Know?" by George Schomerus and Matthias Angermeyer, it is affirmed that "Family doctors and psychiatrists have more pessimistic views about the outcomes for mental illnesses than the general public (Jorm et al., 1999), and mental health professionals hold more negative stereotypes about mentally ill patients, but, reassuringly, they are less accepting of restrictions towards them."<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Recent depictions in media have included leading characters successfully living with and managing a mental illness, including in bipolar disorder in <a href="/wiki/Homeland_(TV_series)" title="Homeland (TV series)">Homeland</a> (2011) and <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iron_Man_3" title="Iron Man 3">Iron Man 3</a> (2013).<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Violence">Violence</h4></div> Despite public or media opinion, national studies have indicated that severe mental illness does not independently predict future violent behavior, on average, and is not a leading cause of violence in society. There is a statistical association with various factors that do relate to violence (in anyone), such as substance use and various personal, social, and economic factors.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19188537-220">[220]</a> A 2015 review found that in the United States, about 4% of violence is attributable to people diagnosed with mental illness,<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> and a 2014 study found that 7.5% of crimes committed by mentally ill people were directly related to the symptoms of their mental illness.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> The majority of people with serious mental illness are never violent.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> In fact, findings consistently indicate that it is many times more likely that people diagnosed with a serious mental illness living in the community will be the victims rather than the perpetrators of violence.<a href="#cite_note-Stuart03-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> In a study of individuals diagnosed with "severe mental illness" living in a US inner-city area, a quarter were found to have been <a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">victims</a> of at least one violent crime over the course of a year, a proportion eleven times higher than the inner-city average, and higher in every category of crime including violent assaults and theft.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> People with a diagnosis may find it more difficult to secure prosecutions, however, due in part to prejudice and being seen as less credible.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> However, there are some specific diagnoses, such as childhood conduct disorder or adult antisocial personality disorder or <a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">psychopathy</a>, which are defined by, or are inherently associated with, conduct problems and violence. There are conflicting findings about the extent to which certain specific symptoms, notably some kinds of psychosis (hallucinations or delusions) that can occur in disorders such as schizophrenia, delusional disorder or mood disorder, are linked to an increased risk of serious violence on average. The <a href="/wiki/Mediation_(statistics)" title="Mediation (statistics)">mediating</a> factors of violent acts, however, are most consistently found to be mainly socio-demographic and socio-economic factors such as being young, male, of lower socioeconomic status and, in particular, substance use (including <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol use disorder">alcohol use</a>) to which some people may be particularly vulnerable.<a href="#cite_note-Rogers&Pilgram05-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stuart03-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19668362-229">[229]</a> High-profile cases have led to fears that serious crimes, such as homicide, have increased due to deinstitutionalization, but the evidence does not support this conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19668362-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Violence that does occur in relation to mental disorder (against the mentally ill or by the mentally ill) typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions, often in a family setting rather than between strangers.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> It is also an issue in health care settings<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> and the wider community.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mental_health">Mental health</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a></div> The recognition and understanding of <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> conditions have changed over time and across cultures and there are still variations in definition, assessment, and <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disorders" title="Classification of mental disorders">classification</a>, although standard guideline criteria are widely used. In many cases, there appears to be a continuum between mental health and mental illness, making diagnosis complex.<a href="#cite_note-SurgeonGeneral1999chap2-41">[41]</a>: 39  According to the World Health Organization, over a third of people in most countries report problems at some time in their life which meet the criteria for diagnosis of one or more of the common types of mental disorder.<a href="#cite_note-WHOICPE-130">[130]</a> Corey M Keyes has created a two continua model of mental illness and health which holds that both are related, but distinct dimensions: one continuum indicates the presence or absence of mental health, the other the presence or absence of mental illness.<a href="#cite_note-two_continuum-234">[234]</a> For example, people with optimal mental health can also have a mental illness, and people who have no mental illness can also have poor mental health.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_psychopathology" title="Animal psychopathology">Animal psychopathology</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Psychopathology" title="Psychopathology">Psychopathology</a> in non-human <a href="/wiki/Primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates">primates</a> has been studied since the mid-20th century. Over 20 behavioral patterns in captive chimpanzees have been documented as (statistically) abnormal for frequency, severity or oddness—some of which have also been observed in the wild. Captive <a href="/wiki/Great_apes" class="mw-redirect" title="Great apes">great apes</a> show gross behavioral abnormalities such as <a href="/wiki/Stereotypy" title="Stereotypy">stereotypy</a> of movements, <a href="/wiki/Self-mutilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-mutilation">self-mutilation</a>, disturbed emotional reactions (mainly fear or aggression) towards companions, lack of species-typical communications, and generalized <a href="/wiki/Learned_helplessness" title="Learned helplessness">learned helplessness</a>. In some cases such behaviors are hypothesized to be equivalent to symptoms associated with psychiatric disorders in humans such as depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. Concepts of antisocial, borderline and schizoid personality disorders have also been applied to non-human great apes.<a href="#cite_note-Brune2006-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> The risk of <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphism</a> is often raised concerning such comparisons, and assessment of non-human animals cannot incorporate evidence from linguistic communication. However, available evidence may range from nonverbal behaviors—including physiological responses and homologous facial displays and acoustic utterances—to neurochemical studies. It is pointed out that human psychiatric classification is often based on statistical description and judgment of behaviors (especially when speech or language is impaired) and that the use of verbal self-report is itself problematic and unreliable.<a href="#cite_note-Brune2006-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fabrega2006-238">[238]</a> Psychopathology has generally been traced, at least in captivity, to adverse rearing conditions such as early separation of infants from mothers; early sensory deprivation; and extended periods of <a href="/wiki/Social_isolation" title="Social isolation">social isolation</a>. Studies have also indicated individual variation in temperament, such as sociability or impulsiveness. Particular causes of problems in captivity have included integration of strangers into existing groups and a lack of individual space, in which context some pathological behaviors have also been seen as coping mechanisms. Remedial interventions have included careful individually tailored re-socialization programs, <a href="/wiki/Behavior_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavior therapy">behavior therapy</a>, environment enrichment, and on rare occasions psychiatric drugs. Socialization has been found to work 90% of the time in disturbed chimpanzees, although restoration of functional sexuality and caregiving is often not achieved.<a href="#cite_note-Brune2006-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lilienfeld1999-239">[239]</a> Laboratory researchers sometimes try to develop <a href="/wiki/Animal_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal models">animal models</a> of human mental disorders, including by inducing or treating symptoms in animals through genetic, neurological, chemical or behavioral manipulation,<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> but this has been criticized on <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> grounds<a href="#cite_note-pmid15925695-242">[242]</a> and opposed on <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a> grounds. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Psi_and_Caduceus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Psi_and_Caduceus.svg/28px-Psi_and_Caduceus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Psi_and_Caduceus.svg/42px-Psi_and_Caduceus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Psi_and_Caduceus.svg/56px-Psi_and_Caduceus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychiatry" title="Portal:Psychiatry">Psychiatry portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness" title="50 Signs of Mental Illness">50 Signs of Mental Illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders" title="List of mental disorders">List of mental disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness_portrayed_in_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness portrayed in media">Mental illness portrayed in media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_in_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental disorders in film">Mental disorders in film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness_in_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness in fiction">Mental illness in fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parity_of_esteem" title="Parity of esteem">Parity of esteem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_evaluation" title="Psychological evaluation">Psychological evaluation</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mhamd.org/information-and-help/paying-for-care/applying-for-disability-benefits-with-a-mental-illness/">"Applying for Disability Benefits with a Mental Illness"</a>. mhamd.org. 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UK: Cambridge University Press: 1759–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0033291709992261">10.1017/S0033291709992261</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-8978">1469-8978</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-2917">0033-2917</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/01588231">01588231</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3101504">3101504</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20624327">20624327</a>. <q>In DSM-IV, each of the mental disorders is conceptualized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e., impairment in one or more important areas of functioning) or with a significantly increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom. In addition, this syndrome or pattern must not be merely an expectable and culturally sanctioned response to a particular event, for example, the death of a loved one. Whatever its original cause, it must currently be considered a manifestation of behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunction in the individual. Neither deviant behavior (e.g., political, religious, or sexual) nor conflicts that are primarily between the individual and society are mental disorders unless the deviance or conflict is a symptom of a dysfunction in the individual, as described above.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Medicine&rft.atitle=What+is+a+mental%2Fpsychiatric+disorder%3F+From+DSM-IV+to+DSM-V&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1759-65&rft.date=2010-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3101504%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.eissn=1469-8978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0033291709992261&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F01588231&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20624327&rft.issn=0033-2917&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=DJ&rft.au=Phillips%2C+KA&rft.au=Bolton%2C+D&rft.au=Fulford%2C+KW&rft.au=Sadler%2C+JZ&rft.au=Kendler%2C+KS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3101504&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinPhillipsBoltonFulford2010" class="citation journal cs1">Stein DJ, Phillips KA, Bolton D, Fulford KW, Sadler JZ, Kendler KS (November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3101504">"What is a mental/psychiatric disorder? From DSM-IV to DSM-V"</a>. Psychological Medicine. 40 (11). UK: Cambridge University Press: 1759–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0033291709992261">10.1017/S0033291709992261</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-8978">1469-8978</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-2917">0033-2917</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/01588231">01588231</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3101504">3101504</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20624327">20624327</a>. <q>... although this manual provides a classification of mental disorders, it must be admitted that no definition adequately specifies precise boundaries for the concept of 'mental disorder.' The concept of mental disorder, like many other concepts in medicine and science, lacks a consistent operational definition that covers all situations. All medical conditions are defined on various levels of abstraction—for example, structural pathology (e.g., ulcerative colitis), symptom presentation (e.g., migraine), deviance from a physiological norm (e.g., hypertension), and etiology (e.g., pneumococcal pneumonia). Mental disorders have also been defined by a variety of concepts (e.g., distress, dyscontrol, disadvantage, disability, inflexibility, irrationality, syndromal pattern, etiology, and statistical deviation). Each is a useful indicator for a mental disorder, but none is equivalent to the concept, and different situations call for different definitions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Medicine&rft.atitle=What+is+a+mental%2Fpsychiatric+disorder%3F+From+DSM-IV+to+DSM-V&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1759-65&rft.date=2010-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3101504%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.eissn=1469-8978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0033291709992261&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F01588231&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20624327&rft.issn=0033-2917&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=DJ&rft.au=Phillips%2C+KA&rft.au=Bolton%2C+D&rft.au=Fulford%2C+KW&rft.au=Sadler%2C+JZ&rft.au=Kendler%2C+KS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3101504&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596">"Use of the Manual"</a>. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.books.9780890425596.UseofDSM5">10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.UseofDSM5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780890425541" title="Special:BookSources/9780890425541"><bdi>9780890425541</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190919004915/https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Use+of+the+Manual&rft.btitle=Diagnostic+and+statistical+manual+of+mental+disorders&rft.place=Arlington%2C+VA&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=American+Psychiatric+Association&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.books.9780890425596.UseofDSM5&rft.isbn=9780890425541&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsm.psychiatryonline.org%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1176%2Fappi.books.9780890425596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054">"Chapter 6 on mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders"</a>. ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics, 2018 version. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2018. Retrieved 2 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ICD-11+for+Mortality+and+Morbidity+Statistics%2C+2018+version&rft.atitle=Chapter+6+on+mental%2C+behavioural+and+neurodevelopmental+disorders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ficd.who.int%2Fbrowse11%2Fl-m%2Fen%23%2Fhttp%253a%252f%252fid.who.int%252ficd%252fentity%252f334423054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pick2006-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Pick2006_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickering2006" class="citation book cs1">Pickering N (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9JnuZHxvHykC&pg=PA1">The Metaphor of Mental Illness</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-853087-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-853087-9"><bdi>978-0-19-853087-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Metaphor+of+Mental+Illness&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-853087-9&rft.aulast=Pickering&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9JnuZHxvHykC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rapport-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rapport_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rapport_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRapportToddLumleyFisicaro1998" class="citation journal cs1">Rapport LJ, Todd RM, Lumley MA, Fisicaro SA (October 1998). "The diagnostic meaning of "nervous breakdown" among lay populations". Journal of Personality Assessment. 71 (2): 242–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15327752jpa7102_11">10.1207/s15327752jpa7102_11</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9857496">9857496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+Assessment&rft.atitle=The+diagnostic+meaning+of+%22nervous+breakdown%22+among+lay+populations&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=242-52&rft.date=1998-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15327752jpa7102_11&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9857496&rft.aulast=Rapport&rft.aufirst=LJ&rft.au=Todd%2C+RM&rft.au=Lumley%2C+MA&rft.au=Fisicaro%2C+SA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mayo-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Mayo_22-0">^</a> Hall-Flavin, Daniel K. (26 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/nervous-breakdown/AN00476">"Nervous Breakdown"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131108013817/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/nervous-breakdown/AN00476">Archived</a> 8 November 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Mayo Clinic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211102155753/https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/expert-answers/nervous-breakdown/faq-20057830">Archived copy</a>, 2 November 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealthdirect_Australia2019" class="citation web cs1">Healthdirect Australia (14 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/nervous-breakdown">"Nervous breakdown"</a>. www.healthdirect.gov.au. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190325220525/https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/nervous-breakdown">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.healthdirect.gov.au&rft.atitle=Nervous+breakdown&rft.date=2019-02-14&rft.au=Healthdirect+Australia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthdirect.gov.au%2Fnervous-breakdown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-shorter-24"><a href="#cite_ref-shorter_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShorter2013" class="citation book cs1">Shorter E (2013). How Everyone Became Depressed: The Rise and Fall of the Nervous Breakdown. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997825-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997825-0"><bdi>978-0-19-997825-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Everyone+Became+Depressed%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Nervous+Breakdown&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-997825-0&rft.aulast=Shorter&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> David Healy (2013) Pharmageddon, University of California Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27576-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27576-8">978-0-520-27576-8</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Peter Tyrer (2013) Models for Mental Disorder, Wiley-Blackwell <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-54052-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-54052-7">978-1-118-54052-7</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/334423054">"ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics"</a>. icd.who.int. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/334423054">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2018. Retrieved 13 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=icd.who.int&rft.atitle=ICD-11+for+Mortality+and+Morbidity+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ficd.who.int%2Fbrowse11%2Fl-m%2Fen%23%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F334423054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerrios1999" class="citation journal cs1">Berrios GE (April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.revistas.usp.br/acp/article/view/17193">"Classifications in psychiatry: a conceptual history"</a>. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 33 (2): 145–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1440-1614.1999.00555.x">10.1046/j.1440-1614.1999.00555.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10336212">10336212</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25866251">25866251</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240221121901/https://www.revistas.usp.br/acp/article/view/17193">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2024. 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The British Journal of Psychiatry. 178 (6): 561–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fbjp.178.6.561">10.1192/bjp.178.6.561</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1472-1465">1472-1465</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1250">0007-1250</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/89649366">89649366</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1537306">1537306</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11388975">11388975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Value+of+HoNOS+in+assessing+patient+change+in+NHS+psychotherapy+and+psychological+treatment+services&rft.volume=178&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=561-6&rft.date=2001-06&rft.eissn=1472-1465&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1192%2Fbjp.178.6.561&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1537306&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11388975&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F89649366&rft.issn=0007-1250&rft.aulast=Audin&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Margison%2C+FR&rft.au=Clark%2C+JM&rft.au=Barkham%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1192%252Fbjp.178.6.561&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaplan2012" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paula_Caplan" title="Paula Caplan">Caplan PJ</a> (28 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/psychiatrys-bible-the-dsm-is-doing-more-harm-than-good/2012/04/27/gIQAqy0WlT_story.html">"Psychiatry's bible, the DSM, is doing more harm than good"</a>. Opinions. Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190603024110/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/psychiatrys-bible-the-dsm-is-doing-more-harm-than-good/2012/04/27/gIQAqy0WlT_story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 4 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Psychiatry%27s+bible%2C+the+DSM%2C+is+doing+more+harm+than+good&rft.date=2012-04-28&rft.aulast=Caplan&rft.aufirst=PJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fopinions%2Fpsychiatrys-bible-the-dsm-is-doing-more-harm-than-good%2F2012%2F04%2F27%2FgIQAqy0WlT_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-frana-104"><a href="#cite_ref-frana_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrances2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allen_Frances" title="Allen Frances">Frances A</a> (August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655">"The new crisis of confidence in psychiatric diagnosis"</a>. Ideas and Opinions. Annals of Internal Medicine. 159 (3): 221–2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655">10.7326/0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23685989">23685989</a>. <q>Unfortunately, the extensive research has had no effect on psychiatric diagnosis, which still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests. … In the past 20 years, the rate of attention-deficit disorder tripled, the rate of bipolar disorder doubled, and the rate of autism increased more than 20-fold (4). The lesson should be clear that every change in the diagnostic system can lead to unpredictable overdiagnosis.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+new+crisis+of+confidence+in+psychiatric+diagnosis&rft.volume=159&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=221-2&rft.date=2013-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2F0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23685989&rft.aulast=Frances&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7326%252F0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stuarta-105"><a href="#cite_ref-stuarta_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkGomoryCohen2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Kirk" title="Stuart A. Kirk">Kirk SA</a>, Gomory T, Cohen D (2013). 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Transaction Publishers. p. 185.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mad+Science%3A+Psychiatric+Coercion%2C+Diagnosis%2C+and+Drugs&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.aufirst=SA&rft.au=Gomory%2C+T&rft.au=Cohen%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Moynihan-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Moynihan_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoynihanHeathHenry2002" class="citation journal cs1">Moynihan R, Heath I, Henry D (April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1122833">"Selling sickness: the pharmaceutical industry and disease mongering"</a>. Education And Debate; Commentary. 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New York: Blue Rider Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0399158537" title="Special:BookSources/978-0399158537"><bdi>978-0399158537</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/827119919">827119919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Book+of+Woe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Blue+Rider+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F827119919&rft.isbn=978-0399158537&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbookofwoedsmunma0000gree_t5n8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzasz2007" class="citation book cs1">Szasz T (2007). 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Mental Health America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220714183549/https://www.mhanational.org/issues/latinxhispanic-communities-and-mental-health">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mental+Health+America&rft.atitle=Latinx%2FHispanic+Communities+and+Mental+Health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mhanational.org%2Fissues%2Flatinxhispanic-communities-and-mental-health&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ramos-Olazagasti_&_Conway-157"><a href="#cite_ref-Ramos-Olazagasti_&_Conway_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamos-OlazagastiConway" class="citation web cs1">Ramos-Olazagasti, Maria; Conway, C. Andrew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hispanicresearchcenter.org/research-resources/the-prevalence-of-mental-health-disorders-among-latino-parents/">"The Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders Among Latino Parents"</a>. Hispanic Research Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220703214654/https://www.hispanicresearchcenter.org/research-resources/the-prevalence-of-mental-health-disorders-among-latino-parents/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hispanic+Research+Center&rft.atitle=The+Prevalence+of+Mental+Health+Disorders+Among+Latino+Parents&rft.aulast=Ramos-Olazagasti&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft.au=Conway%2C+C.+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hispanicresearchcenter.org%2Fresearch-resources%2Fthe-prevalence-of-mental-health-disorders-among-latino-parents%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProBrownRojoPatel2022" class="citation journal cs1">Pro, George; Brown, Clare; Rojo, Martha; Patel, Jenil; Flax, Chasmine; Haynes, Tiffany (3 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ps.202100614">"Downward National Trends in Mental Health Treatment Offered in Spanish: State Differences by Proportion of Hispanic Residents"</a>. Psychiatric Services. 73 (11): 1232–1238. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ps.202100614">10.1176/appi.ps.202100614</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1075-2730">1075-2730</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35502519">35502519</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248503963">248503963</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220612003548/https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ps.202100614">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+Services&rft.atitle=Downward+National+Trends+in+Mental+Health+Treatment+Offered+in+Spanish%3A+State+Differences+by+Proportion+of+Hispanic+Residents&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1232-1238&rft.date=2022-05-03&rft.issn=1075-2730&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248503963%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35502519&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ps.202100614&rft.aulast=Pro&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Brown%2C+Clare&rft.au=Rojo%2C+Martha&rft.au=Patel%2C+Jenil&rft.au=Flax%2C+Chasmine&rft.au=Haynes%2C+Tiffany&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fps.psychiatryonline.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ps.202100614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> "Disparities in behavioral health risk factors in the past decade have also grown and closely parallel the overall growth in the Latin American population (11–13). From 2015 to 2018, rates of serious mental illness in Latin American populations increased by 60% (from 4.0% to 6.4%) among those ages 18–25 years and by 77% (from 2.2% to 3.9%) among those ages 26–49 years (14). This report was based on analysis of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health and used the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA’s) definition of serious mental illness as a diagnosable mental, behavior, or emotional disorder that causes serious functional impairment that substantially interferes with one or more major life activities (15). A similar trend between 2015 and 2018 has been observed for the prevalence of major depressive episodes among Latin Americans ages 12–49 years, which increased from 8.4% to 11.3% (14). In a study based on data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, more than one-third (34%) of Latin American respondents reported at least one poor mental health day in the past month (mean=3.6 days), and 11% reported frequent mental distress (16)." </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=4&lvlid=69">"Mental and Behavioral Health - Hispanics - The Office of Minority Health"</a>. minorityhealth.hhs.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220717072008/https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=4&lvlid=69">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=minorityhealth.hhs.gov&rft.atitle=Mental+and+Behavioral+Health+-+Hispanics+-+The+Office+of+Minority+Health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fminorityhealth.hhs.gov%2Fomh%2Fbrowse.aspx%3Flvl%3D4%26lvlid%3D69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> "However, the suicide rate for [Latin Americans] is less than half that of the non-[Latin American] white population. In 2019, suicide was the second leading cause of death for Latin Americans, ages 15 to 34.1" </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattani" class="citation news cs1">Pattani, Aneri. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inquirer.com/health/coronavirus/suicide-rates-increasing-black-hispanic-20210831.html">"Pandemic unveils growing suicide crisis for communities of color"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220717072008/https://www.inquirer.com/health/coronavirus/suicide-rates-increasing-black-hispanic-20210831.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Pandemic+unveils+growing+suicide+crisis+for+communities+of+color&rft.aulast=Pattani&rft.aufirst=Aneri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inquirer.com%2Fhealth%2Fcoronavirus%2Fsuicide-rates-increasing-black-hispanic-20210831.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDespres2022" class="citation web cs1">Despres, Cliff (9 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://salud-america.org/more-latino-men-are-dying-by-suicide-even-as-the-national-rate-declines/">"More Latino Men Are Dying by Suicide, Even as the National Rate Declines"</a>. Salud America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220629104418/https://salud-america.org/more-latino-men-are-dying-by-suicide-even-as-the-national-rate-declines/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salud+America&rft.atitle=More+Latino+Men+Are+Dying+by+Suicide%2C+Even+as+the+National+Rate+Declines&rft.date=2022-03-09&rft.aulast=Despres&rft.aufirst=Cliff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsalud-america.org%2Fmore-latino-men-are-dying-by-suicide-even-as-the-national-rate-declines%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillatoroMoralesMays2014" class="citation journal cs1">Villatoro, Alice P.; Morales, Eduardo S.; Mays, Vickie M. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4194077">"Family culture in mental health help-seeking and utilization in a nationally representative sample of Latinos in the United States: The NLAAS"</a>. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 84 (4): 353–363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0099844">10.1037/h0099844</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4194077">4194077</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24999521">24999521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Orthopsychiatry&rft.atitle=Family+culture+in+mental+health+help-seeking+and+utilization+in+a+nationally+representative+sample+of+Latinos+in+the+United+States%3A+The+NLAAS.&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=353-363&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4194077%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24999521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0099844&rft.aulast=Villatoro&rft.aufirst=Alice+P.&rft.au=Morales%2C+Eduardo+S.&rft.au=Mays%2C+Vickie+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4194077&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rutgers.edu/news/mental-health-stigma-fueled-religious-belief-may-prevent-many-latinos-seeking-help">"Mental Health Stigma, Fueled by Religious Belief, May Prevent Many Latinos from Seeking Help"</a>. www.rutgers.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221205175557/https://www.rutgers.edu/news/mental-health-stigma-fueled-religious-belief-may-prevent-many-latinos-seeking-help">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rutgers.edu&rft.atitle=Mental+Health+Stigma%2C+Fueled+by+Religious+Belief%2C+May+Prevent+Many+Latinos+from+Seeking+Help&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rutgers.edu%2Fnews%2Fmental-health-stigma-fueled-religious-belief-may-prevent-many-latinos-seeking-help&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierre2001" class="citation journal cs1">Pierre JM (May 2001). "Faith or delusion? At the crossroads of religion and psychosis". Journal of Psychiatric Practice. 7 (3): 163–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00131746-200105000-00004">10.1097/00131746-200105000-00004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15990520">15990520</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22897500">22897500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychiatric+Practice&rft.atitle=Faith+or+delusion%3F+At+the+crossroads+of+religion+and+psychosis&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=163-72&rft.date=2001-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22897500%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15990520&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00131746-200105000-00004&rft.aulast=Pierre&rft.aufirst=JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonFriedman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson CV, Friedman HL (2008). "Enlightened or Delusional?: Differentiating Religious, Spiritual, and Transpersonal Experiences from Psychopathology". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 48 (4): 505–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022167808314174">10.1177/0022167808314174</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11244%2F24872">11244/24872</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145541617">145541617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Humanistic+Psychology&rft.atitle=Enlightened+or+Delusional%3F%3A+Differentiating+Religious%2C+Spiritual%2C+and+Transpersonal+Experiences+from+Psychopathology&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=505-27&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11244%2F24872&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145541617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0022167808314174&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=CV&rft.au=Friedman%2C+HL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke2010" class="citation book cs1">Clarke I (2010). Psychosis and Spirituality: Consolidating the New Paradigm. John Wiley & Sons. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-97029-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-97029-4"><bdi>978-0-470-97029-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychosis+and+Spirituality%3A+Consolidating+the+New+Paradigm&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-470-97029-4&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siddle_Haddock_Tarrier_Faragher-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Siddle_Haddock_Tarrier_Faragher_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siddle_Haddock_Tarrier_Faragher_167-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiddleHaddockTarrierFaragher2002" class="citation journal cs1">Siddle R, Haddock G, Tarrier N, Faragher EB (March 2002). 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Journal of Comparative Psychology. 113 (4): 365–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0735-7036.113.4.365">10.1037/0735-7036.113.4.365</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-2087">1939-2087</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0735-7036">0735-7036</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83648068">83648068</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/08997203">08997203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10608560">10608560</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190808195546/https://animalstudiesrepository.org/acwp_asie/49/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Comparative+Psychology&rft.atitle=A+preliminary+investigation+of+the+construct+of+psychopathic+personality+%28psychopathy%29+in+chimpanzees+%28Pan+troglodytes%29&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=365-75&rft.date=1999-12&rft.eissn=1939-2087&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0735-7036.113.4.365&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F08997203&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10608560&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83648068&rft.issn=0735-7036&rft.aulast=Lilienfeld&rft.aufirst=SO&rft.au=Gershon%2C+J&rft.au=Duke%2C+M&rft.au=Marino%2C+L&rft.au=de+Waal%2C+FB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanimalstudiesrepository.org%2Facwp_asie%2F49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoran_M2003" class="citation journal cs1">Moran M (20 June 2003). "Animals Can Model Psychiatric Symptoms". Psychiatric News. 38 (12): 20–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fpn.38.12.0020">10.1176/pn.38.12.0020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+News&rft.atitle=Animals+Can+Model+Psychiatric+Symptoms&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=20-30&rft.date=2003-06-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fpn.38.12.0020&rft.au=Moran+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSánchezLaddPlotsky2001" class="citation journal cs1">Sánchez MM, Ladd CO, Plotsky PM (2001). "Early adverse experience as a developmental risk factor for later psychopathology: evidence from rodent and primate models". Development and Psychopathology. 13 (3): 419–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0954579401003029">10.1017/S0954579401003029</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-2198">1469-2198</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0954-5794">0954-5794</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11523842">11523842</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25469071">25469071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Development+and+Psychopathology&rft.atitle=Early+adverse+experience+as+a+developmental+risk+factor+for+later+psychopathology%3A+evidence+from+rodent+and+primate+models&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=419-49&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A25469071%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.eissn=1469-2198&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0954579401003029&rft.issn=0954-5794&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11523842&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1nchez&rft.aufirst=MM&rft.au=Ladd%2C+CO&rft.au=Plotsky%2C+PM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid15925695-242"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid15925695_242-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthewsChristmasSwanSorrell2005" class="citation journal cs1">Matthews K, Christmas D, Swan J, Sorrell E (2005). "Animal models of depression: navigating through the clinical fog". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 29 (4–5): 503–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2005.03.005">10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1873-7528">1873-7528</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0149-7634">0149-7634</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/78-643607">78-643607</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3552135">3552135</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15925695">15925695</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23468566">23468566</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+%26+Biobehavioral+Reviews&rft.atitle=Animal+models+of+depression%3A+navigating+through+the+clinical+fog&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=503-13&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23468566%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.eissn=1873-7528&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2005.03.005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3552135&rft.issn=0149-7634&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78-643607&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15925695&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Christmas%2C+D&rft.au=Swan%2C+J&rft.au=Sorrell%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2006" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson J (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/privatepublicpro0000atki/page/n1/mode/2up">Private and Public Protection: Civil Mental Health Legislation</a>. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903765-61-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903765-61-6"><bdi>978-1-903765-61-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2007367763">2007367763</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/475785132">475785132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Private+and+Public+Protection%3A+Civil+Mental+Health+Legislation&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Dunedin+Academic+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F475785132&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007367763&rft.isbn=978-1-903765-61-6&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprivatepublicpro0000atki%2Fpage%2Fn1%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedAgassi1976" class="citation book cs1">Fried Y, Agassi J (1976). Paranoia: A Study in Diagnosis. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Vol. 50. Springer Dordrecht. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-1506-6">10.1007/978-94-010-1506-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-0704-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-277-0704-8"><bdi>978-90-277-0704-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2214-7942">2214-7942</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paranoia%3A+A+Study+in+Diagnosis&rft.series=Boston+Studies+in+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.pub=Springer+Dordrecht&rft.date=1976&rft.issn=2214-7942&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-010-1506-6&rft.isbn=978-90-277-0704-8&rft.aulast=Fried&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Agassi%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">publisher missing</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedAgassi1983" class="citation book cs1">Fried Y, Agassi J (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychiatryasmedi0000frie">Psychiatry as Medicine</a>. The Hague: Nijhoff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-2837-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-247-2837-4"><bdi>978-90-247-2837-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83004224">83004224</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychiatry+as+Medicine&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Nijhoff&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83004224&rft.isbn=978-90-247-2837-4&rft.aulast=Fried&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Agassi%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpsychiatryasmedi0000frie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks2005" class="citation book cs1">Hicks JW (2005). <a href="/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness" title="50 Signs of Mental Illness">50 Signs of Mental Illness: A Guide to Understanding Mental Health</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300106572" title="Special:BookSources/9780300106572"><bdi>9780300106572</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=50+Signs+of+Mental+Illness%3A+A+Guide+to+Understanding+Mental+Health&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780300106572&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=JW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHockenburyHockenbury2004" class="citation book cs1">Hockenbury D, Hockenbury S (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studyguidetoacco00corn">Discovering Psychology</a>. Worth Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-5704-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-5704-7"><bdi>978-0-7167-5704-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+Psychology&rft.pub=Worth+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-5704-7&rft.aulast=Hockenbury&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Hockenbury%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudyguidetoacco00corn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/download/23442">Ending Discrimination Against People with Mental and Substance Use Disorders: The Evidence for Stigma Change</a>. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F23442">10.17226/23442</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-43912-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-43912-1"><bdi>978-0-309-43912-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27631043">27631043</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220128171620/https://www.nap.edu/login.php?record_id=23442">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ending+Discrimination+Against+People+with+Mental+and+Substance+Use+Disorders%3A+The+Evidence+for+Stigma+Change&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27631043&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F23442&rft.isbn=978-0-309-43912-1&rft.au=National+Academies+of+Sciences%2C+Engineering%2C+and+Medicine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fdownload%2F23442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Porter R</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/madnessbriefhist0000port_w7r4/mode/2up">Madness: a brief history</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280267-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280267-4"><bdi>0-19-280267-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/madnessbriefhist0000port">the original</a> on 18 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madness%3A+a+brief+history&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-19-280267-4&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmadnessbriefhist0000port&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadden2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Radden J (20 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220404132044/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-disorder/">Mental Disorder (Illness)</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054">1095-5054</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643092515">643092515</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-disorder/">the original</a> on 4 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mental+Disorder+%28Illness%29&rft.date=2019-02-20&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F643092515&rft.issn=1095-5054&rft.aulast=Radden&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmental-disorder%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=stanford%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellerEysenck1992" class="citation book cs1">Weller MP, Eysenck M, eds. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificbasiso0000unse_l5x6/mode/2up">The Scientific Basis of Psychiatry</a> (2nd ed.). London: W. B. Saunders. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0702014486" title="Special:BookSources/0702014486"><bdi>0702014486</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Basis+of+Psychiatry&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.+B.+Saunders&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0702014486&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificbasiso0000unse_l5x6%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization2018" class="citation book cs1">World Health Organization (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112024825/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/275718/9789241550383-eng.pdf">Management of physical health conditions in adults with severe mental disorders</a> (PDF). Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse. Geneva. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-155038-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-155038-3"><bdi>978-92-4-155038-3</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/275718/9789241550383-eng.pdf?ua=1">the original</a> (Guidelines) on 12 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management+of+physical+health+conditions+in+adults+with+severe+mental+disorders&rft.place=Geneva&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-92-4-155038-3&rft.au=World+Health+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Firis%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10665%2F275718%2F9789241550383-eng.pdf%3Fua%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiencke2006" class="citation book cs1">Wiencke M (2006). "Schizophrenie als Ergebnis von Wechselwirkungen: Georg Simmels Individualitätskonzept in der Klinischen Psychologie". In Kim D (ed.). Georg Simmel in Translation: Interdisciplinary Border-Crossings in Culture and Modernity. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Press. pp. 123–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84718-060-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84718-060-5"><bdi>978-1-84718-060-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Schizophrenie+als+Ergebnis+von+Wechselwirkungen%3A+Georg+Simmels+Individualit%C3%A4tskonzept+in+der+Klinischen+Psychologie&rft.btitle=Georg+Simmel+in+Translation%3A+Interdisciplinary+Border-Crossings+in+Culture+and+Modernity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=123-55&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84718-060-5&rft.aulast=Wiencke&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMental+disorder" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12135" class="extiw" title="d:Q12135">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">11</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#334423054%2Funspecified">6E8Z</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F99">F99</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=290">290</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=319">319</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001523">D001523</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb28852.htm">28852</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Travelling_with_a_mental_health_condition#Q12135" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Travelling with a mental health condition">Travelling with a mental health condition</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://consultqd.clevelandclinic.org/overcoming-mental-health-stigma-in-the-latino-community/">Overcoming Mental Health Stigma in the Latino Community – Consult QD</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220704054720/https://consultqd.clevelandclinic.org/overcoming-mental-health-stigma-in-the-latino-community/">Archived</a> 4 July 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> clevelandclinic.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nimh.nih.gov">National Institute of Mental Health</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090529190231/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/">Archived</a> 29 May 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cartercenter.com/health/mental_health/intl_women.html">International Committee of Women Leaders on Mental Health</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081030045640/http://www.cartercenter.com/health/mental_health/intl_women.html">Archived</a> 30 October 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Mental illness <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Mental+disorder">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Mental+disorder&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mental_disorders_(Classification)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_disorders" title="Template:Mental disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mental_disorders" title="Template talk:Mental disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mental_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mental disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mental_disorders_(Classification)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mental disorders</a> (<a href="/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disorders" title="Classification of mental disorders">Classification</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Adult_personality_and_behavior" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Adult personality and behavior</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sexual</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ego-dystonic_sexual_orientation" title="Ego-dystonic sexual orientation">Ego-dystonic sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphilia" title="Paraphilia">Paraphilia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fetishism" title="Sexual fetishism">Fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">Voyeurism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_anhedonia" title="Sexual anhedonia">Sexual anhedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_anorexia" title="Sexual anorexia">Sexual anorexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_maturation_disorder" title="Sexual maturation disorder">Sexual maturation disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_relationship_disorder" title="Sexual relationship disorder">Sexual relationship disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factitious_disorder" title="Factitious disorder">Factitious disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factitious_disorder_imposed_on_self" title="Factitious disorder imposed on self">Munchausen syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_intimacy" title="Fear of intimacy">Fear of intimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_dysphoria" title="Gender dysphoria">Gender dysphoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermittent_explosive_disorder" title="Intermittent explosive disorder">Intermittent explosive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excoriation_disorder" title="Excoriation disorder">Dermatillomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptomania" title="Kleptomania">Kleptomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyromania" title="Pyromania">Pyromania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichotillomania" title="Trichotillomania">Trichotillomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">Personality disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Childhood_and_learning" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_diagnosed_in_childhood" title="Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood">Childhood and learning</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional and behavioral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">ADHD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">Conduct disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">ODD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional and behavioral disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_anxiety_disorder" title="Separation anxiety disorder">Separation anxiety disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement disorders">Movement disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypic_movement_disorder" title="Stereotypic movement disorder">Stereotypic</a></li></ul></li> <li>Social functioning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinhibited_attachment_disorder" title="Disinhibited attachment disorder">DAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactive_attachment_disorder" title="Reactive attachment disorder">RAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_mutism" title="Selective mutism">Selective mutism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_disorder" title="Speech disorder">Speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluttering" title="Cluttering">Cluttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuttering" title="Stuttering">Stuttering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tic_disorder" title="Tic disorder">Tic disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourette_syndrome" title="Tourette syndrome">Tourette syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">Intellectual disability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-linked_intellectual_disability" title="X-linked intellectual disability">X-linked intellectual disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lujan%E2%80%93Fryns_syndrome" title="Lujan–Fryns syndrome">Lujan–Fryns syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Psychological development (<a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">developmental disabilities</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder" title="Pervasive developmental disorder">Pervasive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_developmental_disorder" title="Specific developmental disorder">Specific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mood_(affective)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">Mood</a> (affective)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_I_disorder" title="Bipolar I disorder">Bipolar I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_II_disorder" title="Bipolar II disorder">Bipolar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified">Bipolar NOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclothymia" title="Cyclothymia">Cyclothymia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atypical_depression" title="Atypical depression">Atypical depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysthymia" title="Dysthymia">Dysthymia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melancholic_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Melancholic depression">Melancholic depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_affective_disorder" title="Seasonal affective disorder">Seasonal affective disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">Mania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neurological_and_symptomatic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Neurological and symptomatic</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">Autism spectrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-functioning_autism" title="High-functioning autism">High-functioning autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">PDD-NOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savant_syndrome" title="Savant syndrome">Savant syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_neurocognitive_disorder" title="HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder">AIDS dementia complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">Frontotemporal dementia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild_cognitive_impairment" title="Mild cognitive impairment">Mild cognitive impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pick%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pick's disease">Pick's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundowning" title="Sundowning">Sundowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_dementia" title="Vascular dementia">Vascular dementia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wandering_(dementia)" title="Wandering (dementia)">Wandering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">Delirium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_brain_syndrome" title="Organic brain syndrome">Organic brain syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-concussion_syndrome" title="Post-concussion syndrome">Post-concussion syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neurotic,_stress-related_and_somatoform" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neurosis" title="Neurosis">Neurotic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>-related and <a href="/wiki/Somatic_symptom_disorder" title="Somatic symptom disorder">somatoform</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjustment_disorder" title="Adjustment disorder">Adjustment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjustment_disorder" title="Adjustment disorder">Adjustment disorder</a> with depressed mood</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">Anxiety</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">Phobia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agoraphobia" title="Agoraphobia">Agoraphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_phobia" title="Childhood phobia">Childhood phobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety" title="Social anxiety">Social anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">Social phobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropophobia">Anthropophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_social_phobia" title="Specific social phobia">Specific social phobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_phobia" title="Specific phobia">Specific phobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claustrophobia" title="Claustrophobia">Claustrophobia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">Generalized anxiety disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">OCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">Panic attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">Panic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress" title="Psychological stress">Stress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction" title="Acute stress reaction">Acute stress reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">PTSD</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissociative disorder">Dissociative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depersonalization-derealization_disorder" title="Depersonalization-derealization disorder">Depersonalization-derealization disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder" title="Dissociative identity disorder">Dissociative identity disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">Dissociative amnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_fugue" title="Dissociative fugue">Dissociative fugue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified">Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_specified_dissociative_disorder" title="Other specified dissociative disorder">Other specified dissociative disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatic_symptom_disorder" title="Somatic symptom disorder">Somatic symptom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder" title="Body dysmorphic disorder">Body dysmorphic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_disorder" title="Conversion disorder">Conversion disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganser_syndrome" title="Ganser syndrome">Ganser syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globus_pharyngis" title="Globus pharyngis">Globus pharyngis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_non-epileptic_seizure" title="Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure">Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_pregnancy" title="False pregnancy">False pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochondriasis" title="Hypochondriasis">Hypochondriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness" title="Mass psychogenic illness">Mass psychogenic illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nosophobia" title="Nosophobia">Nosophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_pain" title="Psychogenic pain">Psychogenic pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatization_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatization disorder">Somatization disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physiological_and_physical_behavior" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physiological and physical behavior</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">Eating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa" title="Anorexia nervosa">Anorexia nervosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa" title="Bulimia nervosa">Bulimia nervosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumination_syndrome" title="Rumination syndrome">Rumination syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_specified_feeding_or_eating_disorder" title="Other specified feeding or eating disorder">Other specified feeding or eating disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nonorganic <a href="/wiki/Sleep_disorder" title="Sleep disorder">sleep</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersomnia" title="Hypersomnia">Hypersomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">Insomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasomnia" title="Parasomnia">Parasomnia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Night_terror" title="Night terror">Night terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightmare" title="Nightmare">Nightmare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep_behavior_disorder" title="Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder">REM sleep behavior disorder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Postnatal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">Postpartum depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_psychosis" title="Postpartum psychosis">Postpartum psychosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction#Sexual_desire_disorders" title="Sexual dysfunction">Sexual desire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersexuality" title="Hypersexuality">Hypersexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoactive_sexual_desire_disorder" title="Hypoactive sexual desire disorder">Hypoactive sexual desire disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Psychoactive_substances,_substance_abuse_and_substance-related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">Psychoactive</a> substances, <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a> and substance-related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Drug overdose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_intoxication" title="Substance intoxication">Intoxication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">Physical dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebound_effect" title="Rebound effect">Rebound effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis" title="Stimulant psychosis">Stimulant psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">Substance dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">Withdrawal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Schizophrenia,_schizotypal_and_delusional" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizotypal_personality_disorder" title="Schizotypal personality disorder">schizotypal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">delusional</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delusional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">Delusional disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folie_%C3%A0_deux" title="Folie à deux">Folie à deux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">Psychosis</a> and schizophrenia-like</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brief_reactive_psychosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Brief reactive psychosis">Brief reactive psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">Schizoaffective disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizophreniform_disorder" title="Schizophreniform disorder">Schizophreniform disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schizophrenia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia" title="Childhood schizophrenia">Childhood schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disorganized_schizophrenia" title="Disorganized schizophrenia">Disorganized (hebephrenic) schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoneurotic_schizophrenia" title="Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia">Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple-type_schizophrenia" title="Simple-type schizophrenia">Simple-type schizophrenia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catatonia" title="Catatonia">Catatonia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Symptoms_and_uncategorized" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Symptoms and uncategorized</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impulse-control_disorder" title="Impulse-control disorder">Impulse-control disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kl%C3%BCver%E2%80%93Bucy_syndrome" title="Klüver–Bucy syndrome">Klüver–Bucy syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">Psychomotor agitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypy" title="Stereotypy">Stereotypy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_Disease_groups" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Disease_groups" title="Template:Disease groups"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disease" title="Endocrine disease">Endocrine disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">Metabolic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_disorder" title="Immune disorder">Immune disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematologic_disease" title="Hematologic disease">Hematologic disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mental disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">Neurological disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Eye disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ear disease">Ear disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_disease" title="Lymphatic disease">Lymphatic disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">Respiratory disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxillofacial_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxillofacial disorder">Maxillofacial disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_disease" title="Gastrointestinal disease">Gastrointestinal disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urologic_disease" title="Urologic disease">Urologic disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_disease" title="Female genital disease">Female genital disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_disease" title="Breast disease">Breast disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_genital_disease" title="Male genital disease">Male genital disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_labor_complication" title="Obstetric labor complication">Obstetric labor complication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_disorder" title="Postpartum disorder">Postpartum disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skin_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin disease">Skin disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal_disorder" title="Musculoskeletal disorder">Musculoskeletal disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_tissue_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft tissue disorder">Soft tissue disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue_disease" title="Connective tissue disease">Connective tissue disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_disease" title="Bone disease">Bone disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chondropathy" title="Chondropathy">Chondropathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">Congenital disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal disease">Fetal disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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