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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Defining_the_video_game" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defining_the_video_game"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Defining the video game</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defining_the_video_game-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Initial games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactive_visual_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactive_visual_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Interactive visual games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactive_visual_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_spread_of_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_spread_of_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The spread of games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_spread_of_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_new_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_new_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>A new industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_new_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Game_simulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Game_simulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> 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Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1_%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88" title="التاريخ المبكر لألعاب الفيديو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التاريخ المبكر لألعاب الفيديو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Videospiele_1947%E2%80%931969" title="Geschichte der Videospiele 1947–1969 – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Videospiele 1947–1969" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Πρώιμη ιστορία των βιντεοπαιχνιδιών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρώιμη ιστορία των βιντεοπαιχνιδιών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%AA%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A6%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="تاریخ ابتدایی بازی‌های ویدئویی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ ابتدایی بازی‌های ویدئویی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A8se_du_jeu_vid%C3%A9o" title="Genèse du jeu vidéo – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Genèse du jeu vidéo" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%EB%94%94%EC%98%A4_%EA%B2%8C%EC%9E%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%B4%88%EA%B8%B0_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="비디오 게임의 초기 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비디오 게임의 초기 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videogiochi_negli_anni_cinquanta" title="Videogiochi negli anni cinquanta – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Videogiochi negli anni cinquanta" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prim%C3%B3rdios_dos_jogos_eletr%C3%B4nicos" title="Primórdios dos jogos eletrônicos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Primórdios dos jogos eletrônicos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primul_joc_video" title="Primul joc video – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Primul joc video" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prva_videoigra" title="Prva videoigra – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prva videoigra" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg/80px-Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg/120px-Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg/160px-Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="249" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">History of video games</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early history of video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_mainframe_games" title="Early mainframe games">Early mainframe games</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">Consoles</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles" title="History of video game consoles">History of video game consoles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Console_war" title="Console war">Console war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="First generation of video game consoles">1st generation (1972–1983)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Second generation of video game consoles">2nd generation (1976–1992)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983" title="Video game crash of 1983">Video game crash of 1983</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Third generation of video game consoles">3rd generation (1983–2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Fourth generation of video game consoles">4th generation (1987–2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Fifth generation of video game consoles">5th generation (1993–2005)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Sixth generation of video game consoles">6th generation (1998–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Seventh generation of video game consoles">7th generation (2005–2017)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Eighth generation of video game consoles">8th generation (2012–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Ninth generation of video game consoles">9th generation (2020–present)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_video_game_industry" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry">Impact of COVID-19</a> (<a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_video_game_industry_layoffs" class="mw-redirect" title="2023–2024 video game industry layoffs">2023-25 layoffs</a>)</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arcade_video_game" title="Arcade video game">Arcade video games</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_arcade_video_games" title="History of arcade video games">History of arcade video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games" title="Golden age of arcade video games">Golden age of arcade video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_arcade_video_game_history" title="Timeline of arcade video game history">Timeline of arcade video game history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/PC_game" title="PC game">Personal computer</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/PC_game#History" title="PC game">History of personal computer games</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Mobile_game" title="Mobile game">Mobile games</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_games" title="History of mobile games">History of mobile games</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_game" title="Virtual reality game">Virtual reality</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_game#History" title="Virtual reality game">History of virtual reality games</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cloud_gaming" title="Cloud gaming">Cloud gaming</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_gaming#History" title="Cloud gaming">History of cloud gaming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Other platforms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Browser_game" title="Browser game">Browser game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console_emulator" title="Video game console emulator">Emulation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Video_game_genre" title="Video game genre">Genres</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_video_game_genres" title="List of video game genres">List of genres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games_in_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of video games in East Asia">History of East Asian role-playing video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_role-playing_video_games" title="History of Western role-playing video games">History of Western role-playing video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_online_games" title="History of online games">History of online games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_real-time_strategy_games" class="mw-redirect" title="History of real-time strategy games">History of real-time strategy games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_tactical_role-playing_games" class="mw-redirect" title="History of tactical role-playing games">History of tactical role-playing games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_single-player_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="History of single-player video games">History of single-player video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_multiplayer_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="History of multiplayer video games">History of multiplayer video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_massively_multiplayer_online_games" title="History of massively multiplayer online games">History of massively multiplayer online games</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_video_games_in_development" title="List of video games in development">List of video games in development</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Video_game_history" title="Template:Video game history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Video_game_history" title="Template talk:Video game history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Video_game_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Video game history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">history of video games</a> spans a period of time between the invention of the first <a href="/wiki/Electronic_game" title="Electronic game">electronic games</a> and today, covering many inventions and developments. <a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video gaming</a> reached mainstream popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, when <a href="/wiki/Arcade_game" title="Arcade game">arcade video games</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">gaming consoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/PC_game" title="PC game">home computer games</a> were introduced to the general public. Since then, video gaming has become a popular form of entertainment and a part of <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">modern culture</a> in most parts of the world. The <b>early history of video games</b>, therefore, covers the period of time between the first <a href="/wiki/Interactivity" title="Interactivity">interactive</a> electronic game with an electronic display in 1947, the first true video games in the early 1950s, and the rise of early arcade video games in the 1970s (<i><a href="/wiki/Pong" title="Pong">Pong</a></i> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/First_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="First generation of video game consoles">first generation of video game consoles</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Magnavox_Odyssey" title="Magnavox Odyssey">Magnavox Odyssey</a>, both in 1972). During this time there was a wide range of devices and inventions corresponding with large advances in computing technology, and the actual first video game is dependent on the definition of "video game" used. </p><p>Following the 1947 invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube_amusement_device" title="Cathode-ray tube amusement device">cathode-ray tube amusement device</a>—the earliest known interactive electronic game as well as the first to use an electronic display—the first true video games were created in the early 1950s. Initially created as technology demonstrations, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Bertie_the_Brain" title="Bertie the Brain">Bertie the Brain</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Nimrod_(computer)" title="Nimrod (computer)">Nimrod</a> computers in 1950 and 1951, video games also became the purview of academic research. A series of games, generally simulating real-world board games, were created at various research institutions to explore programming, <a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a>, and computer algorithms. These include <i><a href="/wiki/OXO_(video_game)" title="OXO (video game)">OXO</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Strachey" title="Christopher Strachey">Christopher Strachey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Draughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Draughts">draughts</a> program in 1952, the first software-based games to incorporate a CRT display, and several chess and checkers programs. </p><p>Possibly the first video game created simply for entertainment was 1958's <i><a href="/wiki/Tennis_for_Two" title="Tennis for Two">Tennis for Two</a></i>, featuring moving graphics on an <a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscope</a>. As computing technology improved over time, computers became smaller and faster, and the ability to work on them was opened up to university employees and undergraduate students by the end of the 1950s. These new programmers began to create games for non-academic purposes, leading up to the 1962 release of <i><a href="/wiki/Spacewar!" title="Spacewar!">Spacewar!</a></i> as one of the earliest known digital <a href="/wiki/PC_game" title="PC game">computer games</a> to be available outside a single research institute. </p><p>Throughout the rest of the 1960s increasing numbers of programmers wrote digital computer games, which were sometimes sold commercially in catalogs. As the audience for video games expanded to more than a few dozen research institutions with the falling cost of computers, and programming languages that would run on multiple types of computers were created, a wider variety of games began to be developed. Video games transitioned into a new era in the early 1970s with the launch of the commercial <a href="/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">video game industry</a> in 1971 with the display of the coin-operated arcade game <i><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_Game" title="Galaxy Game">Galaxy Game</a></i> and the release of the first arcade video game <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Space" title="Computer Space">Computer Space</a></i>, and then in 1972 with the release of the immensely successful arcade game <i>Pong</i> and the first home <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game console</a>, the Magnavox Odyssey, which launched the first generation of video-game consoles. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defining_the_video_game">Defining the video game</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Defining the video game"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cathode_ray_tube_amusement_device_-_schematic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Cathode_ray_tube_amusement_device_-_schematic.jpg/220px-Cathode_ray_tube_amusement_device_-_schematic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Cathode_ray_tube_amusement_device_-_schematic.jpg/330px-Cathode_ray_tube_amusement_device_-_schematic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Cathode_ray_tube_amusement_device_-_schematic.jpg/440px-Cathode_ray_tube_amusement_device_-_schematic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3252" data-file-height="2324" /></a><figcaption>Circuitry schematic from the patent for the <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube_amusement_device" title="Cathode-ray tube amusement device">cathode-ray tube amusement device</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The term "video game" has evolved over the decades from a purely technical definition to a general concept defining a new class of interactive entertainment. Technically, for a product to be a video game under early definitions, it needed to transmit a video signal to a display.<sup id="cite_ref-TVGEch1-1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TVGEch1-1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can (but not always) include a <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a> (CRT), <a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid crystal display">liquid crystal display</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vector_graphics" title="Vector graphics">vector-scan</a> monitor, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-TVGEch1-2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TVGEch1-2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This definition would preclude early computer games that outputted results to a printer or <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teletype</a> rather than a display, as well as games that used static LCD graphics, for example Nintendo's <a href="/wiki/Game_%26_Watch" title="Game & Watch">Game & Watch</a>, or most <a href="/wiki/Tiger_Electronics" title="Tiger Electronics">Tiger Electronics</a> handhelds.<sup id="cite_ref-TVGEch1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TVGEch1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a technical standpoint, these would more properly be called "electronic games" or "computer games".<sup id="cite_ref-EVGxv_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EVGxv-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today the term "video game" has completely shed its purely hardware-dependent definition and encompasses a wider range of technology. While still rather ill-defined, the term "video game" now generally encompasses any game played on hardware built with electronic logic circuits that incorporates an element of interactivity and outputs the results of the player's actions to a display. Going by this broader definition, the first video games appeared in the early 1950s; they were tied largely to research projects at universities and large corporations, though, and had little influence on each other due to their primary purpose as academic and promotional devices rather than entertainment games.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancestors to these games include the <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube_amusement_device" title="Cathode-ray tube amusement device">cathode-ray tube amusement device</a>, the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Interactivity" title="Interactivity">interactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Electronic_game" title="Electronic game">electronic game</a> as well as the first to incorporate a cathode-ray tube screen.<sup id="cite_ref-TVGD3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TVGD3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The player simulates an artillery shell trajectory on a CRT screen connected to an <a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscope</a>, with a set of knobs and switches. The device uses purely analog electronics and does not use any digital computer or memory device or execute a program.<sup id="cite_ref-CRTAD_about.com_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRTAD_about.com-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was patented by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_T._Goldsmith_Jr." title="Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr.">Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr.</a> and Estle Ray Mann in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-CRTAD_CRT_game_patent_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRTAD_CRT_game_patent-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the idea behind the game was potentially to use a television set as the display and thus sell the invention to consumers, as Goldsmith and Mann worked at television designer <a href="/wiki/DuMont_Laboratories" title="DuMont Laboratories">DuMont Laboratories</a>, the patent, the first for an electronic game, was never used and the device never manufactured beyond the original handmade prototypes.<sup id="cite_ref-CRTAD_about.com_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRTAD_about.com-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BTC12_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BTC12-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, along with the lack of electronic logic circuits, keeps the device from being considered the first video game. In 1948, shortly after the patenting of this device, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> and <a href="/wiki/D._G._Champernowne" title="D. G. Champernowne">David Champernowne</a> developed the earliest known written computer game—a chess simulation called <a href="/wiki/Turochamp" title="Turochamp">Turochamp</a>—though it was never actually implemented on a computer as the code was too complicated to run on the machines of the time. Turing tested the code in a game in 1952 where he mimicked the operation of the code in a real chess-game against an opponent, but was never able to run the program on a computer.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Initial_games">Initial games</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Initial games"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nimrod_schematic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nimrod_schematic.svg/220px-Nimrod_schematic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nimrod_schematic.svg/330px-Nimrod_schematic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nimrod_schematic.svg/440px-Nimrod_schematic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>A drawing of the <a href="/wiki/Nimrod_(computer)" title="Nimrod (computer)">Nimrod</a> computer</figcaption></figure> <p>The first electronic digital computers, <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a> and <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, were built during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> to aid the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-Aspray_2014_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aspray_2014-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after the war, the promulgation of the first <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">stored program architectures</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> (<a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>), <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> (<a href="/wiki/EDSAC" title="EDSAC">EDSAC</a>), the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> (<a href="/wiki/EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> (<a href="/wiki/IAS_machine" title="IAS machine">IAS machine</a>) allowed computers to be easily reprogrammed to undertake a variety of tasks, which facilitated commercializing computers in the early 1950s by companies like <a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand" title="Remington Rand">Remington Rand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferranti" title="Ferranti">Ferranti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ceruzzi_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceruzzi-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This in turn promoted the adoption of computers by universities, government organizations, and large corporations as the decade progressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Aspray_2014_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aspray_2014-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was in this environment that the first video games were born. </p><p>The computer games of the 1950s can generally be divided into three categories: training and instructional programs, research programs in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, and demonstration programs intended to impress or entertain the public. Because these games were largely developed on unique hardware in a time when porting between systems was difficult and were often dismantled or discarded after serving their limited purposes, they did not generally influence further developments in the industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the same reason, it is impossible to be certain who developed the first computer game or who originally modeled many of the games or play mechanics introduced during the decade, as there are likely several games from this period that were never publicized and are thus unknown today.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest known publicly demonstrated electronic game was created in 1950. <i><a href="/wiki/Bertie_the_Brain" title="Bertie the Brain">Bertie the Brain</a></i> was an arcade game of <a href="/wiki/Tic-tac-toe" title="Tic-tac-toe">tic-tac-toe</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Josef_Kates" title="Josef Kates">Josef Kates</a> for the 1950 <a href="/wiki/Canadian_National_Exhibition" title="Canadian National Exhibition">Canadian National Exhibition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CNE_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNE-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To showcase his new miniature <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Additron_tube" title="Additron tube">additron tube</a>, he designed a specialized computer to use it, which he built with the assistance of engineers from <a href="/wiki/Rogers_Vacuum_Tube_Company" title="Rogers Vacuum Tube Company">Rogers Majestic</a>. The large metal computer, which was four meters tall, could only play tic-tac-toe on a lightbulb-backed display, and was installed in the Engineering Building at the Canadian National Exhibition from August 25 to September 9, 1950.<sup id="cite_ref-Spacing_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spacing-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNEdates_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNEdates-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The game was a success at the two-week exhibition, with attendees lining up to play it as Kates adjusted the difficulty up and down for players. After the exhibition, <i>Bertie</i> was dismantled, and "largely forgotten" as a novelty. Kates has said that he was working on so many projects at the same time that he had no energy to spare for preserving it, despite its significance.<sup id="cite_ref-Spacing_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spacing-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nearly a year later on May 5, 1951, the <a href="/wiki/Nimrod_(computer)" title="Nimrod (computer)">Nimrod</a> computer—created by engineering firm and nascent computer developer Ferranti—was presented at the <a href="/wiki/Festival_of_Britain" title="Festival of Britain">Festival of Britain</a>, and then showcased for three weeks in October at the Berlin Industrial Show before being dismantled.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using a panel of lights for its display, it was designed exclusively to play the game of <a href="/wiki/Nim" title="Nim">Nim</a>; moves were made by players pressing buttons which corresponded with the lights. Nimrod could play either the traditional or "reverse" form of the game.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The machine was twelve feet wide, nine feet deep, and five feet tall.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was based on an earlier Nim-playing machine, "<a href="/wiki/Nimatron" title="Nimatron">Nimatron</a>", designed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a> and built by <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation" title="Westinghouse Electric Corporation">Westinghouse Electric</a> in 1940 for display at the <a href="/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1939 New York World's Fair">New York World's Fair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Nimatron" had been constructed from electromechanical relays and weighed over a ton.<sup id="cite_ref-Nim_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nim-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nimrod was primarily intended to showcase Ferranti's computer design and programming skills rather than entertain, and was not followed up by any future games.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, most of the onlookers at the Festival of Britain were more interested in playing the game than in the programming and engineering logic behind it.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strachey_draughts_ferranti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Strachey_draughts_ferranti.jpg/150px-Strachey_draughts_ferranti.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Strachey_draughts_ferranti.jpg/225px-Strachey_draughts_ferranti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Strachey_draughts_ferranti.jpg/300px-Strachey_draughts_ferranti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Strachey" title="Christopher Strachey">Christopher Strachey</a>'s 1952 <a href="/wiki/Draughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Draughts">draughts</a> program on a <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_1" title="Ferranti Mark 1">Ferranti Mark 1</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Around this time, non-visual games were being developed at various research computer laboratories; for example, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Strachey" title="Christopher Strachey">Christopher Strachey</a> developed a simulation of the game <a href="/wiki/Draughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Draughts">draughts</a>, or checkers, for the <a href="/wiki/Pilot_ACE" title="Pilot ACE">Pilot ACE</a> that he unsuccessfully attempted to run for the first time in July 1951 at the British <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a> and completed in 1952; this is the first known computer game to be created for a general-purpose computer, rather than a machine specifically made for the game like <i>Bertie</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TVGEahl_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TVGEahl-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strachey's program inspired <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Samuel_(computer_scientist)" title="Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)">Arthur Samuel</a> to develop his own checkers game in 1952 for the <a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">IBM 701</a>; successive iterations developed rudimentary <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> by 1955 and a version was shown on television in 1956.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IBM_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IBM-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 1951, Dietrich Prinz wrote the first limited program of chess for the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>'s general-purpose <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_1" title="Ferranti Mark 1">Ferranti Mark 1</a> computer, one of the first commercially available computers. The program was only capable of computing <a href="/wiki/Chess_problem#Types_of_problem" title="Chess problem">"mate-in-two" problems</a> as it was not powerful enough to play a full game, and it had no video output.<sup id="cite_ref-FerChess2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FerChess2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the same time in the early 1950s, military research organizations like the <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a> developed a series of combat simulation games of increasing complexity, such as <a href="/wiki/Carmonette" title="Carmonette">Carmonette</a>, where the player would enter orders to intercept enemy aircraft, or set up their forces to counter an enemy army invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-TVGEahl_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TVGEahl-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These simulations were not yet true video games, as they required human intervention to interpret the player's orders and the final results; the computer only controlled the paths that the enemies would take, and the program was focused on simulating events and probabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactive_visual_games">Interactive visual games</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Interactive visual games"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EDSAC_(19).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg/220px-EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg/330px-EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg/440px-EDSAC_%2819%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/EDSAC" title="EDSAC">Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator</a> (EDSAC) in 1948, which ran <i><a href="/wiki/OXO_(video_game)" title="OXO (video game)">OXO</a></i> in 1952</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1952, <a href="/wiki/Sandy_Douglas" title="Sandy Douglas">Alexander S. Douglas</a> created <i><a href="/wiki/OXO_(video_game)" title="OXO (video game)">OXO</a></i>, a software program for the EDSAC computer, which simulates a game of tic-tac-toe. The EDSAC, completed in 1949, was one of the first <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Stored-program computers">stored-program computers</a>, had memory that could be <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">read from or written to</a>, and filled an entire room. It included three 35×16 dot matrix cathode ray tubes to graphically display the state of the computer's memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OXO_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OXO-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a part of a thesis on <a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a>, Douglas used one of these screens to portray other information to the user; he chose to do so via displaying the current state of a game.<sup id="cite_ref-HCIAS_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCIAS-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The player entered input using a <a href="/wiki/Rotary_dial" title="Rotary dial">rotary telephone</a> controller, selecting which of the nine squares on the board they wished to move next. Their move would appear on the screen, and then the computer's move would follow.<sup id="cite_ref-TCU174_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TCU174-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The game was not available to the general public, and was only available to be played in the University of Cambridge's Mathematical Laboratory, by special permission, as the EDSAC could not be moved.<sup id="cite_ref-OXOabout_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OXOabout-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like other early video games, after serving Douglas's purpose, the game was discarded.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the same time, Strachey expanded his draughts program for another mainframe computer, the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>, culminating in a version for the Ferranti Mark 1 in 1952, which had a CRT display.<sup id="cite_ref-Draughts52_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Draughts52-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like <i>OXO</i>, the display was mostly static, updating only when a move was made.<sup id="cite_ref-52Checkers_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52Checkers-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>OXO</i> and Strachey's draughts program are the earliest known games to display <a href="/wiki/Video_game_graphics" title="Video game graphics">visuals</a> on an electronic screen.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first known game incorporating graphics that updated in real time, rather than only when the player made a move, was a simulation of a bouncing ball created by <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) student Oliver Aberth for the <a href="/wiki/Whirlwind_I" title="Whirlwind I">Whirlwind I</a> computer. He began creating the simulation in February 1951, before the computer was completed in April. It allowed users to adjust the frequency of the bounces with a knob, and sometime between late 1951 and 1953 he made it into a game by adding a hole in the floor for players to aim for. The game was used in classes at MIT by Charles W. Adams, assistant professor of digital computers.<sup id="cite_ref-Whirlwind_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whirlwind-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was followed by a pool game programmed by William Brown and Ted Lewis specifically for a demonstration of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>-developed MIDSAC computer at the university in 1954. The game, developed over six months by the pair, featured a pool stick controlled by a joystick and a knob, and a full rack of 15 balls on a table seen in an overhead view.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The computer calculated the movements of the balls as they collided and moved around the table, disappearing when they reached a pocket, and updated the graphics continuously, forty times a second, so as to show real-time motion.<sup id="cite_ref-MIDSAC_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MIDSAC-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like previous video games, the pool game was intended primarily to showcase the computing power of the MIDSAC computer.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tennis_For_Two_in_1959.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tennis_For_Two_in_1959.jpg/220px-Tennis_For_Two_in_1959.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tennis_For_Two_in_1959.jpg/330px-Tennis_For_Two_in_1959.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tennis_For_Two_in_1959.jpg/440px-Tennis_For_Two_in_1959.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2623" data-file-height="1948" /></a><figcaption>The set-up for <i>Tennis for Two</i> as exhibited in 1959</figcaption></figure> <p>While further games like checkers and chess were developed on research computers, the next milestone in video games came in 1958 with <i><a href="/wiki/Tennis_for_Two" title="Tennis for Two">Tennis for Two</a></i>. Perhaps the first game created solely for entertainment rather than as a technology demonstration or a research tool, the program simulated a game of <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a>. Created by American physicist <a href="/wiki/William_Higinbotham" title="William Higinbotham">William Higinbotham</a> for visitors at the <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> to be more entertaining for visitors on their public day than the usual static exhibits about nuclear power, the game ran on a Donner Model 30 <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a> and displayed a side view of a tennis court on an oscilloscope.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-begin@brookhaven_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-begin@brookhaven-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-1stcomputergame_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1stcomputergame-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The players controlled the angle of their shots with attached controllers, and the game calculated and simulated the trajectory of the ball, including the possibility of hitting the net.<sup id="cite_ref-anatomy_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anatomy-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The game was first shown on October 18, 1958. Hundreds of visitors lined up to play the new game during its debut.<sup id="cite_ref-anatomy_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anatomy-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the game's popularity, an upgraded version was shown the following year, with enhancements including a larger screen and different levels of simulated gravity.<sup id="cite_ref-pioneer_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pioneer-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards, having served its purpose, the game was dismantled for its component parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the game had no innovations in game design or technological development, its status as an entertainment-focused game, rather than an academic project or technological showpiece, has led it to be considered one of the first "real" video games as they are generally thought of today.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the next few years, during 1957–61, various computer games continued to be created in the context of academic computer and programming research, particularly as computer technology improved to include smaller, transistor-based computers on which programs could be created and run in real time, rather than operations run in batches. A few programs, however, while used to showcase the power of the computer they ran on were also intended as entertainment products; these were generally created by undergraduate students, such as at MIT where they were allowed on occasion to develop programs for the <a href="/wiki/TX-0" title="TX-0">TX-0</a> experimental computer.<sup id="cite_ref-Mouse_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mouse-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These interactive graphical games were created by a community of programmers, many of them students affiliated with the <a href="/wiki/Tech_Model_Railroad_Club" title="Tech Model Railroad Club">Tech Model Railroad Club</a> (TMRC) led by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Kotok" title="Alan Kotok">Alan Kotok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Samson" title="Peter Samson">Peter Samson</a>, and Bob Saunders. The games included <i>Tic-Tac-Toe</i>, which used a <a href="/wiki/Light_pen" title="Light pen">light pen</a> to play a simple game of noughts and crosses against the computer, and <i>Mouse in the Maze</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-cc_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cc-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TCMR-V08_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TCMR-V08-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Mouse in the Maze</i> allowed users to use a light pen to set up a maze of walls on the monitor, and spots that represented bits of cheese or glasses of martini. A virtual mouse was then released and would traverse the maze to find the objects.<sup id="cite_ref-Mouse_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mouse-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ComputerChronicles1983_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ComputerChronicles1983-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the wargame simulations from the early 1950s by the RAND Corporation had expanded into more complicated simulations which required little human intervention, and had also sparked the creation of business management simulation games such as <i>The Management Game</i>, which was used in business schools such as at <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University" title="Carnegie Mellon University">Carnegie Mellon University</a> by 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-Priest_5-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PolygonWar_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PolygonWar-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1961, there were over 89 different business simulation games in use, with various graphical capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Businesssimulation_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Businesssimulation-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the decade ended, despite several video games having been developed, there was no such thing as a commercial <a href="/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">video game industry</a>; almost all games had been developed on or as a single machine for specific purposes, and the few simulation games were neither commercial nor for entertainment.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay50s_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay50s-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_spread_of_games">The spread of games</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The spread of games"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_mainframe_games" title="Early mainframe games">Early mainframe games</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spacewar!-PDP-1-20070512.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Spacewar%21-PDP-1-20070512.jpg/200px-Spacewar%21-PDP-1-20070512.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Spacewar%21-PDP-1-20070512.jpg/300px-Spacewar%21-PDP-1-20070512.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Spacewar%21-PDP-1-20070512.jpg/400px-Spacewar%21-PDP-1-20070512.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3916" data-file-height="2634" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Spacewar!" title="Spacewar!">Spacewar!</a></i> running on the <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a>'s <a href="/wiki/PDP-1" title="PDP-1">PDP-1</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By 1961, MIT had acquired the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">DEC</a> <a href="/wiki/PDP-1" title="PDP-1">PDP-1</a> minicomputer, the successor to the TX-0, which also used a vector display system. The system's comparatively small size and processing speed meant that, like with the TX-0, the university allowed its undergraduate students and employees to write programs for the computer which were not directly academically related whenever it was not in use. In 1961–62, Harvard and MIT employees Martin Graetz, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Russell_(computer_scientist)" title="Steve Russell (computer scientist)">Steve Russell</a>, and Wayne Wiitanen created the game <i><a href="/wiki/Spacewar!" title="Spacewar!">Spacewar!</a></i> on the PDP-1, inspired by <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> books such as the <a href="/wiki/Lensman_series" title="Lensman series"><i>Lensman</i> series</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IGD_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IGD-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Space_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Space-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The game was copied to several of the early minicomputer installations in American academic institutions, making it potentially the first video game to be available outside a single research institute.<sup id="cite_ref-UDG22_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UDG22-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two-player game has the players engaged in a dogfight between two spaceships set against the backdrop of a randomly generated background starfield.<sup id="cite_ref-cc_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cc-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Space_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Space-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The game was developed to meet three precepts: to use as much of the computer's resources as possible, to be consistently interesting and therefore have every run be different, and to be entertaining and therefore a game.<sup id="cite_ref-HighScore12_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HighScore12-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The game was a multiplayer game because the computer had no resources left over to handle controlling the other ship. After the game's initial development, members of the TMRC worked to improve the game, adding an accurate starfield and a gravitational body, and spread it to the couple dozen other institutions with a PDP-1, a process which continued over the next few years. As the computer was uncomfortable to use for extended periods of time, Kotok and Saunders created a detached control device, essentially an early <a href="/wiki/Gamepad" title="Gamepad">gamepad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay60s_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay60s-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Spacewar!</i> was reportedly used as a <a href="/wiki/Smoke_testing_(software)" title="Smoke testing (software)">smoke test</a> by DEC technicians on new PDP-1 systems before shipping, since it was the only available program that exercised every aspect of the hardware.<sup id="cite_ref-Hackers_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hackers-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the game was widespread for the era, it was still very limited in its direct reach: the PDP-1 was priced at US$120,000 (equivalent to $1,300,000 in 2024) and only 55 were ever sold, many without a monitor, which prohibited <i>Spacewar!</i> or any game of the time from reaching beyond a narrow, academic audience.<sup id="cite_ref-Space_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Space-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Replay60s_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay60s-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell has been quoted as saying that the aspect of the game that he was most pleased with was the number of other programmers it inspired to write their own games.<sup id="cite_ref-A_Long_Time_Ago_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Long_Time_Ago-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_Travel_Screenshot.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Space_Travel_Screenshot.png/180px-Space_Travel_Screenshot.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Space_Travel_Screenshot.png/270px-Space_Travel_Screenshot.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Space_Travel_Screenshot.png 2x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="220" /></a><figcaption>The development of <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Travel_(video_game)" title="Space Travel (video game)">Space Travel</a></i> in 1969 in part led to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although the market for commercial games—and software in general—was small, due to the cost of computers limiting their spread to research institutions and large corporations, several were still created by programmers and distributed by the computer manufacturers. A number of games could be found in an April 1962 IBM program catalog. These included board games, "BBC Vik The Baseball Demonstrator", and "Three Dimensional Tic-Tack-Toe".<sup id="cite_ref-Catalog_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catalog-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the spread of <i>Spacewar!</i>, further computer games developed by programmers at universities were also developed and distributed over the next few years. These included the Socratic System, a question and answer game designed to teach medical students how to diagnose patients by Wallace Feurzeig in 1962,<sup id="cite_ref-Socratic_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Socratic-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a dice game by Edward Steinberger in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-Dice_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dice-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mainframe games were developed outside of the IBM and DEC communities as well, such as the 1962 Polish <i><a href="/wiki/Marienbad_(video_game)" title="Marienbad (video game)">Marienbad</a></i> for the <a href="/wiki/Odra_(computer)" title="Odra (computer)">Odra 1003</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marienbad_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marienbad-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A joint research project between IBM and the Board of Cooperative Educational Services of <a href="/wiki/Westchester_County,_New_York" title="Westchester County, New York">Westchester County, New York</a> led to the creation of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sumerian_Game" title="The Sumerian Game">The Sumerian Game</a></i>, one of the first <a href="/wiki/Strategy_video_game" title="Strategy video game">strategy video games</a> ever made, the first game with a narrative, and the first <a href="/wiki/Educational_entertainment" title="Educational entertainment">edutainment</a> game; it was also the first known game to be designed by a woman, teacher <a href="/wiki/Mabel_Addis" title="Mabel Addis">Mabel Addis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SumerianRetro_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SumerianRetro-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The creation of general programming languages like <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>, which could be run on different hardware types, allowed for programs to be written for more than one specific computer, in turn letting games written in them to spread to more end players in the programming community than before. These games included a baseball simulation game written in BASIC by <a href="/wiki/John_G._Kemeny" title="John G. Kemeny">John Kemeny</a> in 1965;<sup id="cite_ref-Baseball_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baseball-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a BASIC bingo game by Larry Bethurum in 1966;<sup id="cite_ref-Bingo_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bingo-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a basketball simulation game written in BASIC by Charles R. Bacheller in May 1967;<sup id="cite_ref-Basketball_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basketball-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> another baseball game that simulates the <a href="/wiki/1967_World_Series" title="1967 World Series">1967 World Series</a> written in BASIC by Jacob Bergmann in August 1967;<sup id="cite_ref-Baseball2_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baseball2-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Travel_(video_game)" title="Space Travel (video game)">Space Travel</a></i>, written by <a href="/wiki/Ken_Thompson" title="Ken Thompson">Ken Thompson</a> for a <a href="/wiki/Multics" title="Multics">Multics</a> system in 1969 and which led in part to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-byte198308_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-byte198308-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Hamurabi_(video_game)" title="Hamurabi (video game)">Hamurabi</a></i>, a text-based <a href="/wiki/FOCAL_(programming_language)" title="FOCAL (programming language)">FOCAL</a> game written by Doug Dyment in 1968 based on a description of <i>The Sumerian Game</i> and converted to BASIC by <a href="/wiki/David_H._Ahl" title="David H. Ahl">David H. Ahl</a> in 1969. <i>Hamurabi</i> and <i>Space Travel</i> were among several <a href="/wiki/Early_mainframe_games" title="Early mainframe games">early mainframe games</a> that were written during the time, and spread beyond their initial <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computers</a> to general-purpose languages like BASIC.<sup id="cite_ref-BASIC78_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BASIC78-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="A_new_industry">A new industry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: A new industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">History of video games</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arcade_game" title="Arcade game">Arcade game</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">Video game industry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/First_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="First generation of video game consoles">First generation of video game consoles</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nutting_ComputerSpace-Blue.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Nutting_ComputerSpace-Blue.JPG/150px-Nutting_ComputerSpace-Blue.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Nutting_ComputerSpace-Blue.JPG/225px-Nutting_ComputerSpace-Blue.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Nutting_ComputerSpace-Blue.JPG/300px-Nutting_ComputerSpace-Blue.JPG 2x" data-file-width="509" data-file-height="1008" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Space" title="Computer Space">Computer Space</a></i> (1971), the first commercial <a href="/wiki/Arcade_video_game" title="Arcade video game">arcade video game</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of the 1970s, video games existed almost entirely as novelties passed around by programmers and technicians with access to computers, primarily at research institutions and large companies. The history of video games transitioned into a new era early in the decade, however, with the rise of the commercial video game industry. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Arcade_video_game" title="Arcade video game">arcade video game</a> industry grew out of the pre-existing <a href="/wiki/Arcade_game" title="Arcade game">arcade game</a> industry, which was previously dominated by <a href="/wiki/Electro-mechanical_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Electro-mechanical games">electro-mechanical games</a> (EM games). Following the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Sega" title="Sega">Sega</a>'s EM game <i><a href="/wiki/Periscope_(arcade_game)" title="Periscope (arcade game)">Periscope</a></i> (1966), the arcade industry was experiencing a "technological renaissance" driven by "audio-visual" EM novelty games, establishing the arcades as a healthy environment for the introduction of commercial video games in the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith119191_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith119191-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first commercial arcade video game was <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Space" title="Computer Space">Computer Space</a></i> (1971), which was developed by <a href="/wiki/Nolan_Bushnell" title="Nolan Bushnell">Nolan Bushnell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ted_Dabney" title="Ted Dabney">Ted Dabney</a> and was based on <i>Spacewar!</i>. Bushnell, who had previously worked at an arcade, wanted to recreate <i>Spacewar!</i> as an arcade game.<sup id="cite_ref-NGen23_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NGen23-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had found the <a href="/wiki/Data_General_Nova" title="Data General Nova">Data General Nova</a>, a US$4,000 computer that they thought would be powerful enough to run four games of <i>Spacewar!</i> at once; the computer turned out to not actually be powerful enough for the project. While investigating the concept of replacing some of the computer with purpose-built hardware, however, the pair discovered that making a system explicitly for running such a game, rather than general programs, would be much less expensive: as low as $100.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HighScore16_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HighScore16-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A prototype version had been successfully displayed for a short time in August 1971 in a local bar, the design was nearly finished, and the pair had founded a company around it called Syzygy.<sup id="cite_ref-Atari4044_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atari4044-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bushnell had also found a manufacturer for the game, <a href="/wiki/Nutting_Associates" title="Nutting Associates">Nutting Associates</a>, who would make the final game cabinets and sell them to distributors.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galaxy_Game_1971_first_arcade_game.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Galaxy_Game_1971_first_arcade_game.jpg/220px-Galaxy_Game_1971_first_arcade_game.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Galaxy_Game_1971_first_arcade_game.jpg/330px-Galaxy_Game_1971_first_arcade_game.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Galaxy_Game_1971_first_arcade_game.jpg/440px-Galaxy_Game_1971_first_arcade_game.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_Game" title="Galaxy Game">Galaxy Game</a></i> (1971), one of the first arcade video games.</figcaption></figure> <p>Another early coin-operated arcade video game was <i><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_Game" title="Galaxy Game">Galaxy Game</a></i> (1971), developed by Bill Pitts and Hugh Tuck at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> using a DEC <a href="/wiki/PDP-11" title="PDP-11">PDP-11</a> computer with vector displays.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pair was also inspired to make the game by <i>Spacewar!</i>; Tuck had remarked in 1966 while playing the game that a coin-operated version of the game would be very successful. Such a device was unfeasible in 1966 due to the cost of computers, but in 1969 DEC released the PDP-11 for US$20,000 (equivalent to $170,000 in 2024); while this was still too high for a commercially viable product, as most games in arcades cost around US$1,000 at the time, the pair felt it was low enough to build a prototype to determine interest and optimal per-game pricing.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only prototype units were ever built, though the second prototype was adapted to run up to eight games at once; a few months before the initial installation at Stanford in November 1971, the pair met with Nolan Bushnell, who informed them of his own game he was making for a much lower price.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stanford_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bushnell felt that <i>Galaxy Game</i> was not a real competitor to <i>Computer Space</i>, due to its high price. Pitts and Tuck believed, however, that despite the economic argument their game was superior, as they felt that <i>Galaxy Game</i> was a true expansion of <i>Spacewar!</i>, while <i>Computer Space</i> just a pale imitation.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some players at the time, however, believed <i>Galaxy Game</i> to actually be just a version of <i>Spacewar!</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-HighScore13_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HighScore13-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Galaxy Game</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s prototype installation was very popular, though at a low price-per-game, and the pair developed a second version to display at the same location; they were never able to enter production, though, as they eventually had to abandon the idea after spending US$65,000 developing it due to the high cost and lack of business plan.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signed_Pong_Cabinet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Signed_Pong_Cabinet.jpg/150px-Signed_Pong_Cabinet.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Signed_Pong_Cabinet.jpg/225px-Signed_Pong_Cabinet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Signed_Pong_Cabinet.jpg/300px-Signed_Pong_Cabinet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2990" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Pong" title="Pong">Pong</a></i> (1972) helped usher in a new chapter of video game history.</figcaption></figure> <p>Around the same time as <i>Galaxy Game</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s prototype installation, <i>Computer Space</i> was released. It was the first coin-operated video game to be commercially sold and the first widely available video game of any kind.<sup id="cite_ref-TUH_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TUH-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it did well in its initial locations near college campuses, it performed very poorly in bars and arcades where <a href="/wiki/Pinball" title="Pinball">pinball</a> and other arcade games were typically placed; while it was commercially successful and made over US$1,000,000, it did not meet the high expectations of Nutting, who had expected to sell more than 1,500 units.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Atari4044_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atari4044-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bushnell and Dabney immediately started work on another game, using the same television set design as <i>Computer Space</i>, as well as founding a new company, <a href="/wiki/Atari,_Inc." title="Atari, Inc.">Atari</a>, to back their projects.<sup id="cite_ref-TUH_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TUH-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, this game was intended to be a <a href="/wiki/Driving_video_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Driving video game">driving video game</a> that Bushnell planned to design, influenced by <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Coin" title="Chicago Coin">Chicago Coin</a>'s <i>Speedway</i> (1969).<sup id="cite_ref-BusnhellInt_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BusnhellInt-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, the project was given to Atari's first employee, <a href="/wiki/Allan_Alcorn" title="Allan Alcorn">Allan Alcorn</a>, and as Bushnell believed the driving game would be too complicated as a first project he suggested a prototype <a href="/wiki/Table_tennis" title="Table tennis">ping-pong</a> game. Alcorn expanded the idea, and designed a game the company immediately seized on. They were unable to find a manufacturer, but on the evidence of the success of their prototype installation, decided to produce the game cabinets themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Pong" title="Pong">Pong</a></i> was released in 1972, a year after <i>Computer Space</i>. It was immensely commercially successful, selling over 8,000 units. It inspired copycat games to be sold in America, Europe, and Japan, and led to the popularization of the medium.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TUH_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TUH-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That same year saw the release of the <a href="/wiki/Magnavox_Odyssey" title="Magnavox Odyssey">Magnavox Odyssey</a>, the first home <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game console</a> which could be connected to a television set.<sup id="cite_ref-willaert20180110_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-willaert20180110-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inventor, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Baer" title="Ralph H. Baer">Ralph H. Baer</a>, had initially had the idea in 1951 to make an interactive game on a television set. Unable to do so with the technological constraints at the time, he began work on a device that would attach to a television set and display games in 1966, and the "Brown Box", the last prototype of seven, was licensed to <a href="/wiki/Magnavox" title="Magnavox">Magnavox</a> to adapt and produce. They announced the console in May 1972, and it went on sale that September. The console and its games featured numerous innovations beyond being the first video game device for home consumers: it was the first game to use a raster-scan video display, or television set, directly displayed via modification of a video signal; it was also the first video gaming device to be displayed in a television commercial.<sup id="cite_ref-Videogames_Turn_40_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Videogames_Turn_40-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It sold for US$100 and shipped with several games, including "Table tennis", which Bushnell had seen a demo of and which <i>Pong</i> had been based on.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Odyssey sold over 100,000 units in 1972, and more than 350,000 by the end of 1975, buoyed by the popularity of the table tennis game, in turn driven by the success of <i>Pong</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Odysseysales_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Odysseysales-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Pong</i> and the Odyssey kicked off a new era of video gaming, with numerous other competitors starting up in the video game industry as it grew in popularity.<sup id="cite_ref-Replay70s_58-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-TVGEch1-1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TVGEch1-1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_TVGE">Wolf 2007</a>, pp. 4–5. "By the strictest definition, 'video' refers to the use of an analog intensity/brightness signal displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT), the kind of picture tube used in a television set or computer monitor, to produce raster-based (filled-area images, as opposed to wireframe ones) imagery."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TVGEch1-2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TVGEch1-2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_TVGE">Wolf 2007</a>, p. 5. "Because both vector and raster games used CRTs, vector games became included in the term 'video games', and later [...], popular use of the term came to include games using <i>liquid crystal display</i> (LCD) screens, [...] and even a <i>light-emitting diode</i> (LED)-based screen [...]."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TVGEch1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TVGEch1_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_TVGE">Wolf 2007</a>, pp. 3–8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EVGxv-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EVGxv_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_EVG">Wolf 2012b</a>, p. XV</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Priest-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priest_5-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSmith2014" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Alexander (2014-01-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/2014/01/22/the-priesthood-at-play-computer-games-in-the-1950s/">"The Priesthood At Play: Computer Games in the 1950s"</a>. <i>They Create Worlds</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222172058/https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/2014/01/22/the-priesthood-at-play-computer-games-in-the-1950s/">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-12-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=They+Create+Worlds&rft.atitle=The+Priesthood+At+Play%3A+Computer+Games+in+the+1950s&rft.date=2014-01-22&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvideogamehistorian.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F01%2F22%2Fthe-priesthood-at-play-computer-games-in-the-1950s%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TVGD3-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TVGD3_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_TVGD">Kowert; Quandt</a>, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRTAD_about.com-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CRTAD_about.com_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRTAD_about.com_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen" class="citation web cs1">Cohen, D. 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S. (2014-09-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classicgames.about.com/od/computergames/p/OXOProfile.htm">"OXO aka Noughts and Crosses - The First Video Game"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/About.com" class="mw-redirect" title="About.com">About.com</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/IAC_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="IAC (company)">IAC</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222084801/http://classicgames.about.com/od/computergames/p/OXOProfile.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=They+Create+Worlds&rft.atitle=Worldly+Wednesdays%3A+The+First+Real-Time+Games&rft.date=2021-03-10&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvideogamehistorian.wordpress.com%2F2021%2F03%2F08%2Fworldly-wednesdays-the-first-real-time-games%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MIDSAC-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MIDSAC_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbons1954" class="citation news cs1">Gibbons, Roy (1954-06-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1954/06/27/page/1/article/meet-midac-and-midsac-dice-pool-shooting-fools">"Meet Midac and Midsac: Dice, Pool Shooting Fools"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a></i>. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151223023736/http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1954/06/27/page/1/article/meet-midac-and-midsac-dice-pool-shooting-fools/">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Video+Games%E2%80%94Did+They+Begin+at+Brookhaven%3F&rft.pub=Office+of+Scientific+and+Technical+Information&rft.date=1981&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Faccomplishments%2Fvideogame.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1stcomputergame-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1stcomputergame_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2009" class="citation web cs1">Campbell, Hank (2009-01-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.science20.com/science_20/what_was_first_computer_game-46008">"What Was The First Computer Game?"</a>. <i>Science 2.0</i>. ION Publications. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151121065557/http://www.science20.com/science_20/what_was_first_computer_game-46008">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-11-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+2.0&rft.atitle=What+Was+The+First+Computer+Game%3F&rft.date=2009-01-27&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Hank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.science20.com%2Fscience_20%2Fwhat_was_first_computer_game-46008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anatomy-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anatomy_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anatomy_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalning2008" class="citation web cs1">Kalning, Kristin (2008-10-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151120131805/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27328345/">"The anatomy of the first video game"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Comcast" title="Comcast">Comcast</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Brookhaven+Honors+a+Pioneer+Video+Game&rft.pages=LI1&rft.date=2008-11-07&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F11%2F09%2Fnyregion%2Flong-island%2F09videoli.html%3F_r%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mouse-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mouse_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mouse_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2014" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Alexander (2014-07-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/2014/07/10/people-get-ready-theres-a-train-a-coming/">"People Get Ready, There's a Train A-Coming"</a>. <i>They Create Worlds</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222172451/https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/2014/07/10/people-get-ready-theres-a-train-a-coming/">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Spring 1984. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629180807/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/mit/tx-0/TX-0_history_1984.txt">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-11-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Computer+Museum+Report&rft.atitle=The+TX-0%3A+Its+Past+and+Present&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=8&rft.date=1984&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bitsavers.org%2Fpdf%2Fmit%2Ftx-0%2FTX-0_history_1984.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ComputerChronicles1983-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ComputerChronicles1983_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/MainFram1984">"Mainframes to Minis to Micros"</a>. <i>The Computer Chronicles</i>. Season 1. Episode 1. September 1983. Event occurs at 4:52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Computer+Chronicles&rft.series=Season+1.+Episode+1&rft.date=1983-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FMainFram1984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PolygonWar-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PolygonWar_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2022" class="citation web cs1">Wells, Matthew (2022-07-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.polygon.com/23278536/rand-corporation-nuclear-wargames-computer-lab">"The nuclear war origins behind some of the earliest computer lab games"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Polygon_(website)" title="Polygon (website)">Polygon</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Vox_Media" title="Vox Media">Vox Media</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220728140559/https://www.polygon.com/23278536/rand-corporation-nuclear-wargames-computer-lab">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-07-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-07-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Polygon&rft.atitle=The+nuclear+war+origins+behind+some+of+the+earliest+computer+lab+games&rft.date=2022-07-28&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.polygon.com%2F23278536%2Frand-corporation-nuclear-wargames-computer-lab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Businesssimulation-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Businesssimulation_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_Businesssimulation">Greenlaw, Herron, Rawdon</a>, ch. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-12-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=They+Create+Worlds&rft.atitle=One%2C+Two%2C+Three%2C+Four+I+Declare+a+Space+War&rft.date=2014-08-07&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvideogamehistorian.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F08%2F07%2Fone-two-three-four-i-declare-a-space-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UDG22-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UDG22_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_UDG">Rutter; Bryce</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HighScore12-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HighScore12_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_HighScore">DeMaria; Wilson</a>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Replay60s-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Replay60s_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay60s_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_Replay">Donovan</a>, pp. 10–13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hackers-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hackers_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_Hackers">Levy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Long_Time_Ago-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A_Long_Time_Ago_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkoff2002" class="citation news cs1">Markoff, John (2002-02-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/28/technology/a-long-time-ago-in-a-lab-far-away.html">"A Long Time Ago, in a Lab Far Away..."</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. G9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151125213411/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/28/technology/a-long-time-ago-in-a-lab-far-away.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-11-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222170008/http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/bskbal.gam.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=bskbal.gam&rft.pub=Digital+Equipment+Computer+Users+Society&rft.date=1967-05&rft.aulast=Bacheller&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdp-10.trailing-edge.com%2Fdecuslib10-01%2F01%2F43%2C50110%2Fbskbal.gam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baseball2-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baseball2_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergmann1967" class="citation web cs1">Bergmann, Jacob (August 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/baseba.gam.html">"baseba.gam"</a>. <a href="/wiki/DECUS" title="DECUS">Digital Equipment Computer Users Society</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222084908/http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/baseba.gam.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=baseba.gam&rft.pub=Digital+Equipment+Computer+Users+Society&rft.date=1967-08&rft.aulast=Bergmann&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdp-10.trailing-edge.com%2Fdecuslib10-01%2F01%2F43%2C50110%2Fbaseba.gam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-byte198308-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-byte198308_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link 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November 1996. pp. <span class="nowrap">211–</span>229. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1078-9693">1078-9693</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Next+Generation&rft.atitle=The+Great+Videogame+Swindle%3F&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E211-%3C%2Fspan%3E229&rft.date=1996-11&rft.issn=1078-9693&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FNextGeneration23Nov1996P2%2Fpage%2Fn72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Replay70s-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Replay70s_58-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_Replay">Donovan</a>, pp. 14–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HighScore16-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HighScore16_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_HighScore">DeMaria; Wilson</a>, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Atari4044-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Atari4044_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atari4044_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_AtariInc">Goldberg; Vendel</a>, pp. 40–44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stanford-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stanford_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/voy/museum/pictures/display/5-GG-machine.htm">"Galaxy-Game machine"</a>. <i>Infolab.stanford.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222094141/http://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/voy/museum/pictures/display/5-GG-machine.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infolab.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Galaxy-Game+machine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfolab.stanford.edu%2Fpub%2Fvoy%2Fmuseum%2Fpictures%2Fdisplay%2F5-GG-machine.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HighScore13-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HighScore13_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_HighScore">DeMaria; Wilson</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TUH-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TUH_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TUH_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TUH_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF_TUH">Kent</a>, pp. 38–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BusnhellInt-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BusnhellInt_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBushnellWeaver2017" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nolan_Bushnell" title="Nolan Bushnell">Bushnell, Nolan</a>; Weaver, Christopher (2017-11-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.si.edu/media/NMAH/NMAH-AC1498_Transcript_NolanBushnell.pdf">"Nolan Bushnell: Transcript of an interview conducted by Christopher Weaver"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lemelson_Center_for_the_Study_of_Invention_and_Innovation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation">Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>. p. 33. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210520231453/https://www.si.edu/media/NMAH/NMAH-AC1498_Transcript_NolanBushnell.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lemelson+Center+for+the+Study+of+Invention+and+Innovation&rft.atitle=Nolan+Bushnell%3A+Transcript+of+an+interview+conducted+by+Christopher+Weaver&rft.pages=33&rft.date=2017-11-17&rft.aulast=Bushnell&rft.aufirst=Nolan&rft.au=Weaver%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.si.edu%2Fmedia%2FNMAH%2FNMAH-AC1498_Transcript_NolanBushnell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-willaert20180110-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-willaert20180110_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillaert2018" class="citation web cs1">Willaert, Kate (2018-01-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gamehistory.org/first-video-game-commercial/">"In Search of the First Video Game Commercial"</a>. Video Game History Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180112182723/https://gamehistory.org/first-video-game-commercial/">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-01-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+the+First+Video+Game+Commercial&rft.pub=Video+Game+History+Foundation&rft.date=2018-01-10&rft.aulast=Willaert&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgamehistory.org%2Ffirst-video-game-commercial%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Videogames_Turn_40-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Videogames_Turn_40_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2007" class="citation web cs1">Edwards, Benj (2007-05-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20070927204045/http://www.1up.com/do/feature?pager.offset=0&cId=3159462">"Videogames Turn 40 Years Old"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/1UP.com" class="mw-redirect" title="1UP.com">1UP.com</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Ziff_Davis" title="Ziff Davis">Ziff Davis</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.1up.com/do/feature?pager.offset=0&cId=3159462">the original</a> on 2007-09-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1UP.com&rft.atitle=Videogames+Turn+40+Years+Old&rft.date=2007-05-15&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Benj&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.1up.com%2Fdo%2Ffeature%3Fpager.offset%3D0%26cId%3D3159462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Odysseysales-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Odysseysales_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaer" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Baer" title="Ralph H. Baer">Baer, Ralph</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ralphbaer.com/how_video_games.htm">"Genesis: How the Home Video Games Industry Began"</a>. Ralph H. Baer Consultants. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151016051830/http://www.ralphbaer.com/how_video_games.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-10-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Genesis%3A+How+the+Home+Video+Games+Industry+Began&rft.pub=Ralph+H.+Baer+Consultants&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ralphbaer.com%2Fhow_video_games.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_BASIC" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_H._Ahl" title="David H. Ahl">Ahl, David</a> (November 1978). <a href="/wiki/BASIC_Computer_Games" title="BASIC Computer Games"><i>BASIC Computer Games</i></a> (2nd ed.). Workman Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89480-052-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89480-052-8"><bdi>978-0-89480-052-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=BASIC+Computer+Games&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Workman+Publishing&rft.date=1978-11&rft.isbn=978-0-89480-052-8&rft.aulast=Ahl&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_Computer" class="citation book cs1">Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Aspray, William; Ensmenger, Nathan; Yost, Jeffrey (2014). <i>Computer: A History of the Information Machine</i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-4590-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-4590-1"><bdi>978-0-8133-4590-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer%3A+A+History+of+the+Information+Machine&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-4590-1&rft.aulast=Campbell-Kelly&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Aspray%2C+William&rft.au=Ensmenger%2C+Nathan&rft.au=Yost%2C+Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_HistoryComputing" class="citation book cs1">Ceruzzi, John (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0"><i>A History of Modern Computing</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53203-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53203-7"><bdi>978-0-262-53203-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Computing&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-262-53203-7&rft.aulast=Ceruzzi&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmodernc00ceru_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_HighScore" class="citation book cs1">DeMaria, Rusel; Wilson, Johnny L. (December 2003). <i>High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill Education">McGraw Hill/Osborne</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-223172-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-223172-4"><bdi>978-0-07-223172-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=High+Score%21%3A+The+Illustrated+History+of+Electronic+Games&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill%2FOsborne&rft.date=2003-12&rft.isbn=978-0-07-223172-4&rft.aulast=DeMaria&rft.aufirst=Rusel&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Johnny+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_Replay" class="citation book cs1">Donovan, Tristan (2010-04-20). <a href="/wiki/Replay:_The_History_of_Video_Games" title="Replay: The History of Video Games"><i>Replay: The History of Video Games</i></a>. Yellow Ant. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9565072-0-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9565072-0-4"><bdi>978-0-9565072-0-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Replay%3A+The+History+of+Video+Games&rft.pub=Yellow+Ant&rft.date=2010-04-20&rft.isbn=978-0-9565072-0-4&rft.aulast=Donovan&rft.aufirst=Tristan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_AtariInc" class="citation book cs1">Goldberg, Marty; Vendel, Curt (2012-11-25). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atariincbusiness0000gold"><i>Atari Inc.: Business Is Fun</i></a></span>. Syzygy Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9855974-0-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9855974-0-5"><bdi>978-0-9855974-0-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atari+Inc.%3A+Business+Is+Fun&rft.pub=Syzygy+Press&rft.date=2012-11-25&rft.isbn=978-0-9855974-0-5&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Marty&rft.au=Vendel%2C+Curt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatariincbusiness0000gold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_Businesssimulation" class="citation book cs1">Greenlaw, Paul S.; Herron, Lowell W.; Rawdon, Richard H. (1962). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/businesssimulati00gree"><i>Business simulation in industrial and university education</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+simulation+in+industrial+and+university+education&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Greenlaw&rft.aufirst=Paul+S.&rft.au=Herron%2C+Lowell+W.&rft.au=Rawdon%2C+Richard+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbusinesssimulati00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_TCU" class="citation book cs1">Hey, Tony; Pápay, Gyuri (2014-11-30). <i>The Computing Universe: A Journey through a Revolution</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-15018-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-15018-7"><bdi>978-0-521-15018-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Computing+Universe%3A+A+Journey+through+a+Revolution&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014-11-30&rft.isbn=978-0-521-15018-7&rft.aulast=Hey&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft.au=P%C3%A1pay%2C+Gyuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_TUH" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_L._Kent" title="Steven L. Kent">Kent, Steven L.</a> (2001-09-06). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ultimate_History_of_Video_Games" title="The Ultimate History of Video Games">The Ultimate History of Video Games</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Three_Rivers_Press" title="Three Rivers Press">Three Rivers Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7615-3643-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7615-3643-7"><bdi>978-0-7615-3643-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+History+of+Video+Games&rft.pub=Three+Rivers+Press&rft.date=2001-09-06&rft.isbn=978-0-7615-3643-7&rft.aulast=Kent&rft.aufirst=Steven+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_TVGD" class="citation book cs1">Kowert, Rachel; Quandt, Thorsten (2015-08-27). <i>The Video Game Debate: Unravelling the Physical, Social, and Psychological Effects of Video Games</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-83163-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-83163-6"><bdi>978-1-138-83163-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Video+Game+Debate%3A+Unravelling+the+Physical%2C+Social%2C+and+Psychological+Effects+of+Video+Games&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-08-27&rft.isbn=978-1-138-83163-6&rft.aulast=Kowert&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft.au=Quandt%2C+Thorsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_HCIAS" class="citation book cs1">Kurosu, Masaaki, ed. (2014-06-09). <i>Human-Computer Interaction Applications and Services: 16th International Conference, HCI International 2014, Heraklion, Crete, Greece, June 22-27, 2014, Proceedings, Part 3</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-07227-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-07227-2"><bdi>978-3-319-07227-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human-Computer+Interaction+Applications+and+Services%3A+16th+International+Conference%2C+HCI+International+2014%2C+Heraklion%2C+Crete%2C+Greece%2C+June+22-27%2C+2014%2C+Proceedings%2C+Part+3&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing&rft.date=2014-06-09&rft.isbn=978-3-319-07227-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_Hackers" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Levy" title="Steven Levy">Levy, Steven</a> (1984). <a href="/wiki/Hackers:_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution" title="Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution"><i>Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-19195-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-19195-1"><bdi>978-0-385-19195-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hackers%3A+Heroes+of+the+Computer+Revolution&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-385-19195-1&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_IGD" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steve_Rabin" title="Steve Rabin">Rabin, Steve</a> (2005-06-14). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoga0000unse"><i>Introduction to Game Development</i></a></span>. Charles River Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58450-377-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58450-377-4"><bdi>978-1-58450-377-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Game+Development&rft.pub=Charles+River+Media&rft.date=2005-06-14&rft.isbn=978-1-58450-377-4&rft.aulast=Rabin&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoga0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_UDG" class="citation book cs1">Rutter, Jason; Bryce, Jo (2006-05-09). <i>Understanding Digital Games</i>. SAGE Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0034-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0034-8"><bdi>978-1-4129-0034-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Digital+Games&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2006-05-09&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-0034-8&rft.aulast=Rutter&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft.au=Bryce%2C+Jo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_TCW" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Alexander (2019-11-19). <i>They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971-1982</i>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-75261-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-75261-2"><bdi>978-0-429-75261-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=They+Create+Worlds%3A+The+Story+of+the+People+and+Companies+That+Shaped+the+Video+Game+Industry%2C+Vol.+I%3A+1971-1982&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2019-11-19&rft.isbn=978-0-429-75261-2&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_Varley" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Varley" title="Frederick Varley">Varley, Frederick</a> (2007). <i>F.H. Varley: Portraits Into the Light</i>. Dundurn Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55002-675-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55002-675-7"><bdi>978-1-55002-675-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=F.H.+Varley%3A+Portraits+Into+the+Light&rft.pub=Dundurn+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-55002-675-7&rft.aulast=Varley&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_TVGE" class="citation book cs1">Wolf, Mark J. P. (2007-11-30). <i>The Video Game Explosion: A History from PONG to PlayStation and Beyond</i>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33868-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33868-7"><bdi>978-0-313-33868-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Video+Game+Explosion%3A+A+History+from+PONG+to+PlayStation+and+Beyond&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007-11-30&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33868-7&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Mark+J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_BTC" class="citation book cs1">Wolf, Mark J. P. (2012-06-05). <i>Before the Crash: Early Video Game History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wayne_State_University_Press" title="Wayne State University Press">Wayne State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3450-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3450-8"><bdi>978-0-8143-3450-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+Crash%3A+Early+Video+Game+History&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2012-06-05&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-3450-8&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Mark+J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_EVG" class="citation book cs1">Wolf, Mark J. P. (2012-08-16). <i>Encyclopedia of Video Games: The Culture, Technology, and Art of Gaming</i>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37936-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37936-9"><bdi>978-0-313-37936-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Video+Games%3A+The+Culture%2C+Technology%2C+and+Art+of+Gaming&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft.isbn=978-0-313-37936-9&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Mark+J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+history+of+video+games" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://invention.smithsonian.org/resources/fa_baer_index.aspx">Ralph H. Baer Papers, 1943–1953, 1966–1972, 2006</a> – Ralph Baer's prototypes and documentation housed at the Smithsonian Lemelson Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019170116/http://classicgaming.gamespy.com/View.php?view=Articles.Detail&id=382">Classic Gaming Expo 2000: Baer Describes the Birth of Videogames</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://timeline.computerspielemuseum.de">"History of Video Games" Timeline</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180208094147/http://timeline.computerspielemuseum.de/">Archived</a> 2018-02-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Computerspielemuseum_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Computerspielemuseum Berlin">Computerspielemuseum Berlin</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Game_simulation">Game simulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_history_of_video_games&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Game simulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101124230055/http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/%7Eedsac/">EDSAC simulator to play <i>OXO</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goodeveca.net/nimrod/simulation.html">Nimrod Interactive Simulation for Be OS operating system</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060207030729/http://www.gamersquarter.com/tennisfortwo/"><i>Tennis for Two</i> simulation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spacewar.oversigma.com/"><i>Spacewar!</i> Java simulation</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Early_history_of_video_games_(1947-1971)168" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Early_history_of_video_games" title="Template:Early history of video games"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Early_history_of_video_games" title="Template talk:Early history of video games"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_history_of_video_games" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Early history of video games"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Early_history_of_video_games_(1947-1971)168" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early history of video games</a> (1947-1971)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Analog and lightbulb games</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube_amusement_device" title="Cathode-ray tube amusement device">Cathode-ray tube amusement device</a> (1947)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bertie_the_Brain" title="Bertie the Brain">Bertie the Brain</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_(computer)" title="Nimrod (computer)">Nimrod</a> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carmonette" title="Carmonette">Carmonette</a></i> (1953)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hutspiel" title="Hutspiel">Hutspiel</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tennis_for_Two" title="Tennis for Two">Tennis for Two</a></i> (1958)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_chess#History_2" title="Computer chess">Early Chess programs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Turochamp" title="Turochamp">Turochamp</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_chess" title="Los Alamos chess">Los Alamos Chess</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kotok-McCarthy" title="Kotok-McCarthy">Kotok-McCarthy</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mac_Hack" title="Mac Hack">Mac Hack</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaissa" title="Kaissa">Kaissa</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cray_Blitz" title="Cray Blitz">Blitz</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chess_(Northwestern_University)" title="Chess (Northwestern University)">Chess</a></i> (1970)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_mainframe_games" title="Early mainframe games">Early mainframe games</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/OXO_(video_game)" title="OXO (video game)">OXO</a></i> (1952)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spacewar!" title="Spacewar!">Spacewar!</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marienbad_(video_game)" title="Marienbad (video game)">Marienbad</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Sumerian_Game" title="The Sumerian Game">The Sumerian Game</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamurabi_(video_game)" title="Hamurabi (video game)">Hamurabi</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Space_Travel_(video_game)" title="Space Travel (video game)">Space Travel</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Lander_(video_game_genre)" title="Lunar Lander (video game genre)">Lunar Lander</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Star_Trek_(1971_video_game)" title="Star Trek (1971 video game)">Star Trek</a></i> (1971)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">First arcade games</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Space" title="Computer Space">Computer Space</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_Game" title="Galaxy Game">Galaxy Game</a></i> (1971)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mabel_Addis" title="Mabel Addis">Mabel Addis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_H._Ahl" title="David H. Ahl">David Ahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Baer" title="Ralph H. Baer">Ralph Baer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Makepeace_Bennett" title="John Makepeace Bennett">John Makepeace Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nolan_Bushnell" title="Nolan Bushnell">Nolan Bushnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Champernowne" class="mw-redirect" title="David Champernowne">David Champernowne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Dabney" title="Ted Dabney">Ted Dabney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Douglas" title="Sandy Douglas">Sandy Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_T._Goldsmith_Jr." title="Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr.">Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Higinbotham" title="William Higinbotham">William Higinbotham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Kates" title="Josef Kates">Josef Kates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Russell_(computer_scientist)" title="Steve Russell (computer scientist)">Steve Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Thompson" title="Ken Thompson">Ken Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_video_games92" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="History_of_video_games92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">History of video games</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chronology_of_video_games245" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chronology_of_video_games" title="Template:Chronology of video games"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chronology_of_video_games" title="Template talk:Chronology of video games"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chronology_of_video_games" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chronology of video games"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chronology_of_video_games245" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">Chronology of video games</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1947–1972</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/1970s_in_video_games" title="1970s in video games">1970s</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1970_in_video_games" title="1970 in video games">1970</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_in_video_games" title="1971 in video games">1971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_in_video_games" title="1972 in video games">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_in_video_games" title="1973 in video games">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_in_video_games" title="1974 in video games">1974</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1975_in_video_games" title="1975 in video games">1975</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_in_video_games" title="1976 in video games">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_in_video_games" title="1977 in video games">1977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_in_video_games" title="1978 in video games">1978</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_in_video_games" title="1979 in video games">1979</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/1980s_in_video_games" title="1980s in video games">1980s</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_in_video_games" title="1980 in video games">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_in_video_games" title="1981 in video games">1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_in_video_games" title="1982 in video games">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_in_video_games" title="1983 in video games">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_in_video_games" title="1984 in video games">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_in_video_games" title="1985 in video games">1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_in_video_games" title="1986 in video games">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_in_video_games" title="1987 in video games">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_in_video_games" title="1988 in video games">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_in_video_games" title="1989 in video games">1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/1990s_in_video_games" title="1990s in video games">1990s</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1990_in_video_games" title="1990 in video games">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_in_video_games" title="1991 in video games">1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_in_video_games" title="1992 in video games">1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_in_video_games" title="1993 in video games">1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_in_video_games" title="1994 in video games">1994</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1995_in_video_games" title="1995 in video games">1995</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_in_video_games" title="1996 in video games">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_in_video_games" title="1997 in video games">1997</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_in_video_games" title="1998 in video games">1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_in_video_games" title="1999 in video games">1999</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/2000s_in_video_games" title="2000s in video games">2000s</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000_in_video_games" title="2000 in video games">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2001_in_video_games" title="2001 in video games">2001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_in_video_games" title="2002 in video games">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_in_video_games" title="2003 in video games">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_in_video_games" title="2004 in video games">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_video_games" title="2005 in video games">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_video_games" title="2006 in video games">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_video_games" title="2007 in video games">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_in_video_games" title="2008 in video games">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_in_video_games" title="2009 in video games">2009</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/2010s_in_video_games" title="2010s in video games">2010s</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2010_in_video_games" title="2010 in video games">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_in_video_games" title="2011 in video games">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_in_video_games" title="2012 in video games">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_in_video_games" title="2013 in video games">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_in_video_games" title="2014 in video games">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_in_video_games" title="2015 in video games">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_video_games" title="2016 in video games">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_in_video_games" title="2017 in video games">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_in_video_games" title="2018 in video games">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_video_games" title="2019 in video games">2019</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/2020s_in_video_games" title="2020s in video games">2020s</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_video_games" title="2020 in video games">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_video_games" title="2021 in video games">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_video_games" title="2022 in video games">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_video_games" title="2023 in video games">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_video_games" title="2024 in video games">2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_in_video_games" title="2025 in video games">2025</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_video_games_in_development" title="List of video games in development">Near future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Video_game_history_by_platform89" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Video_game_history_by_platform" title="Template:Video game history by platform"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Video_game_history_by_platform" title="Template talk:Video game history by platform"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Video_game_history_by_platform" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Video game history by platform"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Video_game_history_by_platform89" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">Video game history by platform</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By platform</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_mainframe_games" title="Early mainframe games">Early mainframe games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_arcade_video_games" title="History of arcade video games">History of arcade video games</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games" title="Golden age of arcade video games">Golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_arcade_video_game_history" title="Timeline of arcade video game history">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles" title="History of video game consoles">History of video game consoles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983" title="Video game crash of 1983">Crash of 1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Console_war" title="Console war">Console war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_games" title="History of mobile games">History of mobile games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By console generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="First generation of video game consoles">First (1972–1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Second generation of video game consoles">Second (1976–1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Third generation of video game consoles">Third (1983–2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Fourth generation of video game consoles">Fourth (1987–2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Fifth generation of video game consoles">Fifth (1993–2005)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Sixth generation of video game consoles">Sixth (1998–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Seventh generation of video game consoles">Seventh (2005–2017)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Eighth generation of video game consoles">Eighth (2012–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Ninth generation of video game consoles">Ninth (2020–)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Video_game_genres350" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Video_game_genre" title="Template:Video game genre"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Video_game_genre" title="Template talk:Video game genre"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Video_game_genre" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Video game genre"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Video_game_genres350" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Video_game_genre" title="Video game genre">Video game genres</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_video_game_genres" title="List of video game genres">List of video game genres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Action_game" title="Action game">Action</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platformer" title="Platformer">Platformer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endless_runner" title="Endless runner">Endless runner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platform_fighter" title="Platform fighter">Platform fighter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shooter_game" title="Shooter game">Shooter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arena_shooter" title="Arena shooter">Arena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-person_shooter" title="First-person shooter">First-person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero_shooter" title="Hero shooter">Hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_gun_shooter" class="mw-redirect" title="Light gun shooter">Light gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_%27em_up" title="Shoot 'em up">Shoot 'em up</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bullet_hell" title="Bullet hell">Bullet hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_shooter" title="Rail shooter">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-stick_shooter" title="Twin-stick shooter">Twin-stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_shooter" title="Tactical shooter">Tactical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-person_shooter" title="Third-person shooter">Third-person</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Survival_game" title="Survival game">Survival</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_royale_game" title="Battle royale game">Battle royale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survival_horror" title="Survival horror">Survival horror</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beat_%27em_up" title="Beat 'em up">Beat 'em up</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hack_and_slash" title="Hack and slash">Hack and slash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_game" title="Fighting game">Fighting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platform_fighter" title="Platform fighter">Platform fighter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maze_video_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Maze video game">Maze</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pac-Man_clones" title="List of Pac-Man clones"><i>Pac-Man</i> clone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_(video_game_genre)" title="Snake (video game genre)">Snake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stealth_game" title="Stealth game">Stealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg/60px-Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg/90px-Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg/120px-Video-Game-Controller-Icon-IDV-green-history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="249" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Action-adventure_game" title="Action-adventure game">Action-adventure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto_clone" title="Grand Theft Auto clone"><i>Grand Theft Auto</i> clone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metroidvania" title="Metroidvania">Metroidvania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adventure_game" title="Adventure game">Adventure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Escape_room_video_game" title="Escape room video game">Escape room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_graphic_adventure_games" title="List of graphic adventure games">Graphic adventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_fiction" title="Interactive fiction">Interactive fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_film" title="Interactive film">Interactive film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_novel" title="Visual novel">Visual novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking_simulator" title="Walking simulator">Walking sim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_tabletop_game" title="Digital tabletop game">Digital tabletop</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deck-building_game" title="Deck-building game">Deck-building</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roguelike_deck-building_game" title="Roguelike deck-building game">Roguelike deck-building</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_collectible_card_game" title="Digital collectible card game">Digital collectible card</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Puzzle_video_game" title="Puzzle video game">Puzzle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_object_game" title="Hidden object game">Hidden object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoban" title="Sokoban"><i>Sokoban</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tile-matching_video_game" title="Tile-matching video game">Tile-matching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Role-playing_video_game" title="Role-playing video game">Role-playing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_role-playing_game" title="Action role-playing game">Action role-playing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Looter_shooter" title="Looter shooter">Looter shooter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soulslike" title="Soulslike">Soulslike</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon_crawl" title="Dungeon crawl">Dungeon crawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing_game" title="Massively multiplayer online role-playing game">MMORPG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monster-taming_game" title="Monster-taming game">Monster-taming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roguelike" title="Roguelike">Roguelike</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roguelike_deck-building_game" title="Roguelike deck-building game">Roguelike deck-building</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_role-playing_game" title="Tactical role-playing game">Tactical role-playing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Simulation_video_game" title="Simulation video game">Simulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life_simulation_game" title="Life simulation game">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dating_sim" title="Dating sim">Dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_life_sim" title="Farm life sim">Farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_game" title="God game">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_simulation_game" title="Social simulation game">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_pet" title="Virtual pet">Virtual pet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Construction_and_management_simulation" title="Construction and management simulation">CMS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_simulation_game" title="Business simulation game">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-building_game" title="City-building game">City-building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_simulation_game" title="Government simulation game">Government</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sports_video_game" title="Sports video game">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_video_game" title="Fishing video game">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racing_game" title="Racing game">Racing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kart_racing_game" title="Kart racing game">Kart racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim_racing" title="Sim racing">Sim racing</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_simulation_game" title="Vehicle simulation game">Vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_simulation_video_game" title="Flight simulation video game">Flight simulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combat_flight_simulation_game" title="Combat flight simulation game">Combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Lander_(video_game_genre)" title="Lunar Lander (video game genre)">Lunar Lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_flight_simulation_game" title="Space flight simulation game">Space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_simulator" title="Submarine simulator">Submarine simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Train_simulator" title="Train simulator">Train simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicular_combat_game" title="Vehicular combat game">Vehicular combat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falling-sand_game" title="Falling-sand game">Falling-sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersive_sim" title="Immersive sim">Immersive sim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strategy_video_game" title="Strategy video game">Strategy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4X" title="4X">4X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auto_battler" title="Auto battler">Auto battler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplayer_online_battle_arena" title="Multiplayer online battle arena">MOBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_strategy" title="Real-time strategy">Real-time strategy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Time_management_game" title="Time management game">Time management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_tactics" title="Real-time tactics">Real-time tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_role-playing_game" title="Tactical role-playing game">Tactical role-playing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_defense" title="Tower defense">Tower defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turn-based_strategy" class="mw-redirect" title="Turn-based strategy">Turn-based strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turn-based_tactics" title="Turn-based tactics">Turn-based tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artillery_game" title="Artillery game">Artillery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_wargame" title="Computer wargame">Wargame</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy_wargame" title="Grand strategy wargame">Grand strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cozy_game" title="Cozy game">Cozy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_game" title="Fitness game">Fitness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_game" title="Horror game">Horror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Survival_horror" title="Survival horror">Survival horror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_game" title="Incremental game">Incremental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_video_game" title="Music video game">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_game" title="Rhythm game">Rhythm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-game" title="Non-game">Non-game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_video_game" title="Party video game">Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_game" title="Photography game">Photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_game" title="Programming game">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typing_game" title="Typing game">Typing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advergame" title="Advergame">Advergame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bish%C5%8Djo_game" title="Bishōjo game"><i>Bishōjo</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_video_game" title="Christian video game">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy_in_video_games" title="Comedy in video games">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_video_game" title="Educational video game">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girls%27_video_games" title="Girls' video games">Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licensed_game" title="Licensed game">Licensed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otome_game" title="Otome game"><i>Otome</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_content_in_video_games" title="Sexual content in video games">Sexual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eroge" title="Eroge">Eroge</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_video_game" title="Nonviolent video game">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_video_game" title="Personalized video game">Personalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_video_game" title="Science fiction video game">Sci-fi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serious_game" title="Serious game">Serious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_game" title="Art game">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_video_game" title="Climate change video game">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newsgame" title="Newsgame">News</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Player modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiplayer_video_game" title="Multiplayer video game">Multiplayer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_video_game" title="Cooperative video game">Co-op</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_game" title="Massively multiplayer online game">MMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Player_versus_player" title="Player versus player">PVP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-player_video_game" title="Single-player video game">Single-player</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AAA_(video_game_industry)" title="AAA (video game industry)">AAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indie_game" title="Indie game">Indie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doujin_soft" title="Doujin soft"><i>Doujin</i> soft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_game" title="Fan game">Fan game</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casual_game" title="Casual game">Casual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypercasual_game" title="Hypercasual game">Hypercasual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_gameplay" title="Emergent gameplay">Emergent gameplay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-motion_video" title="Full-motion video">FMV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gacha_game" title="Gacha game"><i>Gacha</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaizo" title="Kaizo"><i>Kaizo</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masocore" title="Masocore">Masocore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_gameplay" title="Nonlinear gameplay">Nonlinear gameplay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open_world" title="Open world">Open world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandbox_game" title="Sandbox game">Sandbox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side-scrolling_video_game" title="Side-scrolling video game">Side-scrolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twitch_gameplay" title="Twitch gameplay">Twitch gameplay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertically_scrolling_video_game" title="Vertically scrolling video game">Vertically scrolling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minigame" title="Minigame">Minigame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys-to-life" title="Toys-to-life">Toys-to-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_clone" title="Video game clone">Video game clone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_modding" title="Video game modding">Video game modding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_remake" title="Video game remake">Video game remake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Video_games_by_country53" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Video_games_by_country" title="Template:Video games by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Video_games_by_country" title="Template talk:Video games by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Video_games_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Video games by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Video_games_by_country53" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Video games by country</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Ghana" title="Video games in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Kenya" title="Video games in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Nigeria" title="Video games in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_South_Africa" title="Video games in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Latin_America" title="Video games in Latin America">Latin America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Brazil" title="Video games in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Colombia" title="Video games in Colombia">Colombia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Canada" title="Video games in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Bangladesh" title="Video games in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_China" title="Video games in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_India" title="Video games in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Indonesia" title="Video games in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Iran" title="Video games in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Japan" title="Video games in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_South_Korea" title="Video games in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Malaysia" title="Video games in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_Philippines" title="Video games in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Russia" title="Video games in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Thailand" title="Video games in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Turkey" title="Video games in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Belgium" title="Video games in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a 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