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and the Manhattan Project</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_II_and_the_Manhattan_Project-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War II and the Manhattan Project subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_Manhattan_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radiation_Laboratory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_Laboratory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Radiation Laboratory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_Laboratory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oak_Ridge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oak_Ridge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Oak Ridge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oak_Ridge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Post-war career</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-war_career-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post-war career subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post-war_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Big_Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Big_Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Big Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Big_Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermonuclear_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermonuclear_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Thermonuclear weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermonuclear_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Death and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 89 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-89" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">89 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3" title="إرنست لورنس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إرنست لورنس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lourens" title="Ernest Orlando Lourens – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lourens" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ارنست لارنس – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ارنست لارنس" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8" title="আর্নেস্ট লরেন্স – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আর্নেস্ট লরেন্স" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%9E%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Эрнест Арланда Лоўрэнс – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эрнест Арланда Лоўрэнс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AA%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Ърнест Лорънс – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ърнест Лорънс" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%83%CF%84_%CE%9F%CF%81%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF_%CE%9B%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%82" title="Έρνεστ Ορλάντο Λόρενς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Έρνεστ Ορλάντο Λόρενς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ارنست لارنس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارنست لارنس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B4%EB%8B%88%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8_%EB%A1%9C%EB%9F%B0%EC%8A%A4" title="어니스트 로런스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="어니스트 로런스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%BF_%D4%BC%D5%B8%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD" title="Էռնեստ Լոուրենս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էռնեստ Լոուրենս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="अर्नेस्ट लारेन्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अर्नेस्ट लारेन्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%98_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A1" title="ארנסט לורנס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ארנסט לורנס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ერნესტ ლოურენსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ერნესტ ლოურენსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Эрнест Орландо Лоуренс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эрнест Орландо Лоуренс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernestus_Lawrence" title="Ernestus Lawrence – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ernestus Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernests_Lorenss" title="Ernests Lorenss – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ernests Lorenss" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Ернест Лоренс – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ернест Лоренс" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8F%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ഏണസ്റ്റ് ലോറൻസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഏണസ്റ്റ് ലോറൻസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="अर्नेस्ट लॉरेन्स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अर्नेस्ट लॉरेन्स" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ერნესტ ლოურენსი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ერნესტ ლოურენსი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ارنست اورلاندو لورنس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ارنست اورلاندو لورنس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ارنست ارلاندو لارنس – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ارنست ارلاندو لارنس" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA" title="အန်းနက် လောရင့် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အန်းနက် လောရင့်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="अर्नेस्ट लरेन्स – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अर्नेस्ट लरेन्स" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8D%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AC%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9" title="アーネスト・ローレンス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アーネスト・ローレンス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8" title="ਅਰਨੈਸਟ ਲਾਵਰੈਂਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਰਨੈਸਟ ਲਾਵਰੈਂਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%B9_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ارنسٹ لارنس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ارنسٹ لارنس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ارنست لورنس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ارنست لورنس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81,_%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Лоуренс, Эрнест Орландо – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лоуренс, Эрнест Орландо" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="अर्नेस्ट लारेन्स – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="अर्नेस्ट लारेन्स" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D9%84%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ئێرنست لۆرەنس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئێرنست لۆرەنس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Ернест Лоренс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ернест Лоренс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="எர்னஸ்ட் லாரன்சு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எர்னஸ்ட் லாரன்சு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Эрнест Лоуренс – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Эрнест Лоуренс" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%8C" title="เออร์เนสต์ ลอว์เรนซ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เออร์เนสต์ ลอว์เรนซ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Ернест Орландо Лоуренс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ернест Орландо Лоуренс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%B9_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ارنسٹ لاورنس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ارنسٹ لاورنس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%8A%B3%E4%BC%A6%E6%96%AF" title="欧内斯特·劳伦斯 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="欧内斯特·劳伦斯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ernest Lawrence" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Ernest Lawrence</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.1A.007_(12662186395).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Head and shoulders of a man wearing rimless glasses, and a dark suit and tie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/HD.1A.007_%2812662186395%29.jpg/220px-HD.1A.007_%2812662186395%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/HD.1A.007_%2812662186395%29.jpg/330px-HD.1A.007_%2812662186395%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/HD.1A.007_%2812662186395%29.jpg/440px-HD.1A.007_%2812662186395%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2497" data-file-height="3200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Ernest Orlando Lawrence</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1901-08-08</span>)</span>August 8, 1901<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Canton,_South_Dakota" title="Canton, South Dakota">Canton, South Dakota</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">August 27, 1958<span style="display:none">(1958-08-27)</span> (aged 57)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Palo_Alto,_California" title="Palo Alto, California">Palo Alto, California</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/St._Olaf_College" title="St. Olaf College">St. Olaf College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Dakota" title="University of South Dakota">University of South Dakota</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">Cyclotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Calutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatron" title="Chromatron">Chromatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Mary K. Blumer</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1932)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">6</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_H._Lawrence" title="John H. Lawrence">John H. Lawrence</a> (brother)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><i>See list</i></span></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Member of the National Academy of Sciences">Member of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (1934) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Medal" title="Hughes Medal">Hughes Medal</a> (1937) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal" title="Elliott Cresson Medal">Elliott Cresson Medal</a> (1937) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Comstock_Prize_in_Physics" title="Comstock Prize in Physics">Comstock Prize in Physics</a> (1938) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> (1939) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Duddell_Medal_and_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Duddell Medal and Prize">Duddell Medal and Prize</a> (1940) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Holley_Medal" title="Holley Medal">Holley Medal</a> (1942) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> (1946) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Officer de la <a href="/wiki/Legion_d%27Honneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Legion d'Honneur">Legion d'Honneur</a> (1948) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/William_Procter_Prize_for_Scientific_Achievement" title="William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement">William Procter Prize</a> (1951) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Faraday_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday Medal">Faraday Medal</a> (1952) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> (1957) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sylvanus_Thayer_Award" title="Sylvanus Thayer Award">Sylvanus Thayer Award</a> (1958) </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i> The Photoelectric Effect in Potassium Vapor as a Function of the Frequency of the Light </i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1924)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Gray_Swann" title="William Francis Gray Swann">William Francis Gray Swann</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold"><i>See list</i></span></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Milton_S._Livingston" class="mw-redirect" title="Milton S. Livingston">Milton S. Livingston</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Ross_MacKenzie" title="Kenneth Ross MacKenzie">Kenneth Ross MacKenzie</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/John_Reginald_Richardson" title="John Reginald Richardson">John Reginald Richardson</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sam_Ruben" title="Sam Ruben">Sam Ruben</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert R. Wilson</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernest_O_Lawrence_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ernest_O_Lawrence_signature.svg/150px-Ernest_O_Lawrence_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ernest_O_Lawrence_signature.svg/225px-Ernest_O_Lawrence_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ernest_O_Lawrence_signature.svg/300px-Ernest_O_Lawrence_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="135" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ernest Orlando Lawrence</b> (August 8, 1901 – August 27, 1958) was an American <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physicist</a> and laureate of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1939 for his invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is known for his work on <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium#Enrichment_methods" title="Enriched uranium">uranium-isotope separation</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, as well as for founding the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a>. </p><p>A graduate of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Dakota" title="University of South Dakota">University of South Dakota</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a>, Lawrence obtained a PhD in physics at <a href="/wiki/Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale">Yale</a> in 1925. In 1928, he was hired as an associate professor of physics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, becoming the youngest full professor there two years later. In its library one evening, Lawrence was intrigued by a diagram of an accelerator that produced <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">high-energy particles</a>. He contemplated how it could be made compact, and came up with an idea for a circular accelerating chamber between the poles of an <a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">electromagnet</a>. The result was the first cyclotron. </p><p>Lawrence went on to build a series of ever larger and more expensive cyclotrons. His Radiation Laboratory became an official department of the University of California in 1936, with Lawrence as its director. In addition to the use of the cyclotron for physics, Lawrence also supported its use in research into medical uses of radioisotopes. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Lawrence developed electromagnetic <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">isotope separation</a> at the Radiation Laboratory. It used devices known as <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a>, a hybrid of the standard laboratory <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometer</a> and cyclotron. A huge electromagnetic separation plant was built at <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>, which came to be called <a href="/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" title="Y-12 National Security Complex">Y-12</a>. The process was inefficient, but it worked. </p><p>After the war, Lawrence campaigned extensively for government sponsorship of large scientific programs, and was a forceful advocate of "<a href="/wiki/Big_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Science">Big Science</a>", with its requirements for big machines and big money. Lawrence strongly backed <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>'s campaign for a second nuclear weapons laboratory, which Lawrence located in <a href="/wiki/Livermore,_California" title="Livermore, California">Livermore, California</a>. After his death, the <a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California" title="Regents of the University of California">Regents of the University of California</a> renamed the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory after him. Chemical element number 103 was named <a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">lawrencium</a> in his honor after its discovery at Berkeley in 1961. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ernest Orlando Lawrence was born in <a href="/wiki/Canton,_South_Dakota" title="Canton, South Dakota">Canton, South Dakota</a>, on August 8, 1901. His parents, Carl Gustavus (1871–1954) and Gunda Regina (née Jacobson) Lawrence (1874–1959), were both the offspring of Norwegian immigrants who had met while teaching at the high school in Canton, where his father was also the superintendent of schools. He had a younger brother, <a href="/wiki/John_H._Lawrence" title="John H. Lawrence">John H. Lawrence</a>, who would become a <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a>, and was a pioneer in the field of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a>. Growing up, his best friend was <a href="/wiki/Merle_Tuve" title="Merle Tuve">Merle Tuve</a>, who would also go on to become a highly accomplished physicist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196823–30,_476–477_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196823–30,_476–477-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lawrence attended the public schools of Canton and <a href="/wiki/Pierre,_South_Dakota" title="Pierre, South Dakota">Pierre</a>, then enrolled at <a href="/wiki/St._Olaf_College" title="St. Olaf College">St. Olaf College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northfield,_Minnesota" title="Northfield, Minnesota">Northfield, Minnesota</a>, but transferred after a year to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Dakota" title="University of South Dakota">University of South Dakota</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vermillion,_South_Dakota" title="Vermillion, South Dakota">Vermillion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196847–49_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196847–49-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He completed his bachelor's degree in chemistry in 1922,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196861_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196861-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a> (M.A.) degree in physics from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> in 1923 under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Gray_Swann" title="William Francis Gray Swann">William Francis Gray Swann</a>. For his master's thesis, Lawrence built an experimental apparatus that rotated an <a href="/wiki/Ellipsoid" title="Ellipsoid">ellipsoid</a> through a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196863–68_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196863–68-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eugregag58_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eugregag58-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-thllegdc1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thllegdc1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lawrence followed Swann to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, and then to <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>, where Lawrence completed his <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (PhD) degree in physics in 1925 as a National Research Fellow,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253–254_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253–254-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> writing his doctoral thesis on the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> in potassium vapor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970288_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970288-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected a member of <a href="/wiki/Sigma_Xi" title="Sigma Xi">Sigma Xi</a>, and, on Swann's recommendation, received a <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council</a> fellowship. Instead of using it to travel to Europe, as was customary at the time, he remained at Yale University with Swann as a researcher.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196893_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196893-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a>, Lawrence continued to research the photoelectric effect. They showed that photoelectrons appeared within 2 x 10<sup>−9</sup> seconds of the photons striking the photoelectric surface—close to the limit of measurement at the time. Reducing the emission time by switching the light source on and off rapidly made the spectrum of energy emitted broader, in conformance with <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970256_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970256-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_career">Early career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1926 and 1927, Lawrence received offers of <a href="/wiki/Assistant_professor" title="Assistant professor">assistant professorships</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_at_Berkeley" class="mw-redirect" title="University of California at Berkeley">University of California</a> at a salary of $3,500 per annum (equivalent to $61,400 in 2023). Yale promptly matched the offer of the assistant professorship, but at a salary of $3,000. Lawrence chose to stay at the more prestigious Yale,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968107–108_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968107–108-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but because he had never been an instructor, the appointment was resented by some of his fellow faculty, and in the eyes of many it still did not compensate for his South Dakota immigrant background.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968120–121_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968120–121-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lawrence was hired as an <a href="/wiki/Associate_professor" title="Associate professor">associate professor</a> of physics at the University of California in 1928. He became a full professor two years later, becoming the university's youngest professor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253–254_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253–254-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a>'s 1934 published work on <a href="/wiki/Induced_radioactivity" title="Induced radioactivity">artificial radioactivity</a>, Lawrence discovered the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-13" title="Nitrogen-13">nitrogen-13</a> isotope by firing high-energy protons into a <a href="/wiki/Carbon-13" title="Carbon-13">carbon-13</a> element in his laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He and his team including <a href="/wiki/Martin_Kamen" title="Martin Kamen">Martin Kamen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sam_Ruben" title="Sam Ruben">Samuel Ruben</a> accidentally discovered the <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a> isotope by bombarding <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> with high-energy protons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970271_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970271-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gordon_Sproul" title="Robert Gordon Sproul">Robert Gordon Sproul</a>, who became university president the day after Lawrence became a professor,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968256_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968256-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Club" title="Bohemian Club">Bohemian Club</a>, and he sponsored Lawrence's membership in 1932. Through this club, Lawrence met <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Crocker" title="William Henry Crocker">William Henry Crocker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Pauley" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Pauley">Edwin Pauley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Francis_Neylan" title="John Francis Neylan">John Francis Neylan</a>. They were influential men who helped him obtain money for his energetic nuclear particle investigations. There was great hope for medical uses to come from the development of particle physics, and this led to much of the early funding that Lawrence was able to obtain for research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrechin1999312_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrechin1999312-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While at Yale, Lawrence met Mary Kimberly (Molly) Blumer, the eldest of four daughters of George Blumer, the dean of the <a href="/wiki/Yale_School_of_Medicine" title="Yale School of Medicine">Yale School of Medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lmdowml_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lmdowml-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bklyobitml_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bklyobitml-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They first met in 1926 and became engaged in 1931,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970259_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970259-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were married on May 14, 1932, at <a href="/wiki/Trinity_Church_on_the_Green" title="Trinity Church on the Green">Trinity Church on the Green</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968182_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968182-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had six children: Eric, Margaret, Mary, Robert, Barbara, and Susan.<sup id="cite_ref-lmdowml_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lmdowml-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cfdmd_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cfdmd-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawrence named his son Robert after <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical physicist">theoretical physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, his closest friend in Berkeley.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968309_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968309-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken200211–15_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken200211–15-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eghhufr_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eghhufr-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941, Molly's sister Elsie married <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970259_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970259-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who would go on to win the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1951 with <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_the_cyclotron">Development of the cyclotron</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development of the cyclotron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invention">Invention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Invention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The invention that brought Lawrence to international fame started out as a sketch on a scrap of a paper napkin. While sitting in the library one evening in 1929, Lawrence glanced over a journal article by <a href="/wiki/Rolf_Wider%C3%B8e" title="Rolf Widerøe">Rolf Widerøe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was intrigued by one of the diagrams.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This depicted a device that produced <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">high-energy particles</a> by means of a succession of small "pushes". The device depicted was laid out in a straight line using increasingly longer electrodes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198975–82_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198975–82-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, physicists were beginning to explore the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>. In 1919, the New Zealand physicist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> had fired alpha particles into <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and had succeeded in knocking <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> out of some of the nuclei. But nuclei have a positive charge that repels other positively charged nuclei, and they are bound together tightly by a force that physicists were only just beginning to understand. To break them up, to disintegrate them, would require much higher energies, of the order of millions of volts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198946–49_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198946–49-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyclotron_patent.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Strange-looking schematic diagaram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Cyclotron_patent.png/220px-Cyclotron_patent.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Cyclotron_patent.png/330px-Cyclotron_patent.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Cyclotron_patent.png/440px-Cyclotron_patent.png 2x" data-file-width="1598" data-file-height="862" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of cyclotron operation from Lawrence's 1934 patent</figcaption></figure> <p>Lawrence saw that such a <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a> would soon become too long and unwieldy for his university laboratory. In pondering a way to make the accelerator more compact, Lawrence decided to set a circular accelerating chamber between the poles of an electromagnet. The magnetic field would hold the charged protons in a spiral path as they were accelerated between just two semicircular electrodes connected to an alternating potential. After a hundred turns or so, the protons would impact the target as a beam of high-energy particles. Lawrence excitedly told his colleagues that he had discovered a method for obtaining particles of very high energy without the use of any high voltage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198983–88_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198983–88-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He initially worked with Niels Edlefsen. Their first <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> was made out of brass, wire, and sealing wax and was only four inches (10 cm) in diameter—it could be held in one hand, and probably cost a total of $25 (equivalent to $600 in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-cfdmd_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cfdmd-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stroc01_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stroc01-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>What Lawrence needed to develop the idea was capable graduate students to do the work. Edlefsen left to take up an assistant professorship in September 1930, and Lawrence replaced him with David H. Sloan and <a href="/wiki/M._Stanley_Livingston" title="M. Stanley Livingston">M. Stanley Livingston</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-eghhufr_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eghhufr-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whom he set to work on developing Widerøe's accelerator and Edlefsen's cyclotron, respectively. Both had their own financial support. Both designs proved practical, and by May 1931, Sloan's <a href="/wiki/Linear_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear accelerator">linear accelerator</a> was able to accelerate ions to 1 MeV.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198989–95_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198989–95-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Livingston had a greater technical challenge, but when he applied 1,800 V to his 11-inch cyclotron on January 2, 1931, he got 80,000-<a href="/wiki/Electron_volt" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron volt">electron volt</a> protons spinning around. A week later, he had 1.22 MeV with 3,000 V, more than enough for his PhD thesis on its construction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198995–100_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198995–100-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Six men in suits sitting on chairs, smiling and laughing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG/220px-Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG/330px-Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG/440px-Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="2344" /></a><figcaption>Meeting at Berkeley in 1940 concerning the planned 184-inch (4.67 m) <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> (<i>seen on the blackboard</i>): Lawrence, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_T._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl T. Compton">Karl T. Compton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis" title="Alfred Lee Loomis">Alfred Lee Loomis</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In what would become a recurring pattern, as soon as there was the first sign of success, Lawrence started planning a new, bigger machine. Lawrence and Livingston drew up a design for a 27-inch (69 cm) cyclotron in early 1932. The magnet for the $800 11-inch cyclotron weighed 2 tons, but Lawrence found a massive 80-ton magnet rusting in a junkyard in Palo Alto for the 27-inch that had originally been built during World War I to power a transatlantic radio link.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken20025–7_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken20025–7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the cyclotron, he had a powerful scientific instrument, but this did not translate into scientific discovery. In April 1932, <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Ernest Walton</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> in England announced that they had bombarded <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> with <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and succeeded in transmuting it into <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>. The energy required turned out to be quite low—well within the capability of the 11-inch cyclotron. On learning about it, Lawrence sent a wire to Berkeley and asked for Cockcroft and Walton's results to be verified. It took the team until September to do so, mainly due to lack of adequate detection apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989137–141_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989137–141-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although important discoveries continued to elude Lawrence's <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</a>, mainly due to its focus on the development of the cyclotron rather than its scientific use, through his increasingly larger machines, Lawrence was able to provide crucial equipment needed for experiments in <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">high energy physics</a>. Around this device, he built what became the world's foremost laboratory for the new field of nuclear physics research in the 1930s. He received a <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> for the cyclotron in 1934,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he assigned to the <a href="/wiki/Research_Corporation" title="Research Corporation">Research Corporation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989192–193_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989192–193-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Private_foundation_(United_States)" title="Private foundation (United States)">private foundation</a> that funded much of Lawrence's early work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198927–28_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel198927–28-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 1936, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>'s president, <a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a>, made attractive offers to Lawrence and Oppenheimer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968235–237_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968235–237-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The University of California's president, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gordon_Sproul" title="Robert Gordon Sproul">Robert Gordon Sproul</a>, responded by improving conditions. The Radiation Laboratory became an official department of the University of California on July 1, 1936, with Lawrence formally appointed its director, with a full-time assistant director, and the university agreed to make $20,000 a year available for its research activities (equivalent to $350,000 in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968240–241,_248_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968240–241,_248-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawrence employed a simple business model: "He staffed his laboratory with graduate students and junior faculty of the physics department, with fresh Ph.D.s willing to work for anything, and with fellowship holders and wealthy guests able to serve for nothing."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reception">Reception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using the new 27-inch cyclotron, the team at Berkeley discovered that every element that they bombarded with recently discovered <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> emitted energy, and in the same range. They, therefore, postulated the existence of a new and hitherto unknown particle that was a possible source of limitless energy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989153–157_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989153–157-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Laurence" class="mw-redirect" title="William Laurence">William Laurence</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> described Lawrence as "a new miracle worker of science".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989156_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989156-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Cockcroft's invitation, Lawrence attended the 1933 <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a> in Belgium. This was a regular gathering of the world's top physicists. Nearly all were from Europe, but occasionally an outstanding American scientist like <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Millikan">Robert A. Millikan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> would be invited to attend. Lawrence was asked to give a presentation on the cyclotron.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968197–208_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968197–208-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawrence's claims of limitless energy met a very different reception in Solvay. He ran into withering skepticism from the Cavendish Laboratory's <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>, the physicist who had discovered the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> in 1932, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935. In a British accent that sounded condescending to Lawrence's ears, Chadwick suggested that what Lawrence's team was observing was contamination of their apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken20029–10_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken20029–10-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:60-inch_cyclotron,_c_1930s._This_shows_the_(9660569583).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Six men in suits and ties stand in front of gigantic machinery. Two more are sitting on top of it." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/60-inch_cyclotron%2C_c_1930s._This_shows_the_%289660569583%29.jpg/220px-60-inch_cyclotron%2C_c_1930s._This_shows_the_%289660569583%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/60-inch_cyclotron%2C_c_1930s._This_shows_the_%289660569583%29.jpg/330px-60-inch_cyclotron%2C_c_1930s._This_shows_the_%289660569583%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/60-inch_cyclotron%2C_c_1930s._This_shows_the_%289660569583%29.jpg/440px-60-inch_cyclotron%2C_c_1930s._This_shows_the_%289660569583%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="940" /></a><figcaption>The 60-inch (1.52 m) cyclotron soon after completion in 1939. The key figures in its development and use are shown, standing, left to right: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Cooksey" title="Donald Cooksey">Donald Cooksey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dale_R._Corson" title="Dale R. Corson">Dale R. Corson</a>, Ernest Lawrence, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lyster_Thornton" title="Robert Lyster Thornton">Robert L. Thornton</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Backus_(acoustician)" title="John Backus (acoustician)">John Backus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Salisbury" title="Winfield Salisbury">Winfield Salisbury</a>. In the background are <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>When he returned to Berkeley, Lawrence mobilized his team to go painstakingly over the results to gather enough evidence to convince Chadwick. Meanwhile, at the Cavendish laboratory, Rutherford and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a> found that deuterium <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fuses</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a>, which causes the effect that the cyclotroneers had observed. Not only was Chadwick correct in that they had been observing contamination, but they had overlooked yet another important discovery, that of nuclear fusion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989169–171_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989169–171-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawrence's response was to press on with the creation of still larger cyclotrons. The 27-inch cyclotron was superseded by a 37-inch cyclotron in June 1937,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989277_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989277-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in turn was superseded by a 60-inch cyclotron in May 1939. It was used to bombard iron and produced its first radioactive isotopes in June.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968288_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968288-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As it was easier to raise money for medical purposes, particularly cancer treatment, than for nuclear physics, Lawrence encouraged the use of the cyclotron for medical research. Working with his brother John and Israel Lyon Chaikoff from the University of California's physiology department, Lawrence supported research into the use of radioactive isotopes for therapeutic purposes. <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-32" title="Phosphorus-32">Phosphorus-32</a> was easily produced in the cyclotron, and John used it to cure a woman afflicted with <a href="/wiki/Polycythemia_vera" title="Polycythemia vera">polycythemia vera</a>, a blood disease. John used phosphorus-32 created in the 37-inch cyclotron in 1938 in tests on mice with <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>. He found that the radioactive phosphorus concentrated in the fast-growing cancer cells. This then led to clinical trials on human patients. A 1948 evaluation of the therapy showed that remissions occurred under certain circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989399–404_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989399–404-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawrence also had hoped for the medical use of neutrons. The first cancer patient received <a href="/wiki/Neutron_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron therapy">neutron therapy</a> from the 60-inch cyclotron on November 20.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968288_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968288-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chaikoff conducted trials on the use of radioactive isotopes as <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_tracer" title="Radioactive tracer">radioactive tracers</a> to explore the mechanism of biochemical reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989405–414_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989405–414-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:University_of_California_Radiation_Laboratory_staff_on_the_magnet_yoke_for_the_60-inch_cyclotron,_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/University_of_California_Radiation_Laboratory_staff_on_the_magnet_yoke_for_the_60-inch_cyclotron%2C_1938.jpg/280px-University_of_California_Radiation_Laboratory_staff_on_the_magnet_yoke_for_the_60-inch_cyclotron%2C_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/University_of_California_Radiation_Laboratory_staff_on_the_magnet_yoke_for_the_60-inch_cyclotron%2C_1938.jpg/420px-University_of_California_Radiation_Laboratory_staff_on_the_magnet_yoke_for_the_60-inch_cyclotron%2C_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/University_of_California_Radiation_Laboratory_staff_on_the_magnet_yoke_for_the_60-inch_cyclotron%2C_1938.jpg/560px-University_of_California_Radiation_Laboratory_staff_on_the_magnet_yoke_for_the_60-inch_cyclotron%2C_1938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5668" data-file-height="4472" /></a><figcaption>University of California Radiation Laboratory staff framed by the magnet for the 60-inch cyclotron, 1938; Nobel prize winners Ernest Lawrence, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a> are shown, in addition to <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert R. Wilson</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Lawrence was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in November 1939 "for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the first at Berkeley as well as the first South Dakotan to become a Nobel Laureate, and the first to be so honored while at a state-supported university. The Nobel award ceremony was held on February 29, 1940, in <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley, California</a>, due to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, in the auditorium of <a href="/wiki/Wheeler_Hall" title="Wheeler Hall">Wheeler Hall</a> on the campus of the university. Lawrence received his medal from Carl E. Wallerstedt, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Consul_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Consul General">Consul General</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968294–296_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968294–296-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Wood" title="Robert W. Wood">Robert W. Wood</a> wrote to Lawrence and presciently noted "As you are laying the foundations for the cataclysmic explosion of uranium ... I'm sure old Nobel would approve."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken200227_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken200227-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 1940, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_T._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl T. Compton">Karl T. Compton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis" title="Alfred Lee Loomis">Alfred Lee Loomis</a> traveled to Berkeley to discuss Lawrence's proposal for a 184-inch cyclotron with a 4,500-ton magnet that was estimated to cost $2.65 million (equivalent to $45,000,000 in 2023). The <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> provided $1.15 million to get the project started.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968299_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968299-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II_and_the_Manhattan_Project">World War II and the Manhattan Project</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: World War II and the Manhattan Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Radiation Laboratory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> in Europe, Lawrence became drawn into military projects. He helped recruit staff for the <a href="/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory" title="MIT Radiation Laboratory">MIT Radiation Laboratory</a>, where American physicists developed the <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">cavity magnetron</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a>'s team in Britain. The name of the new laboratory was deliberately copied from Lawrence's laboratory in Berkeley for security reasons. He also became involved in recruiting staff for underwater sound laboratories to develop techniques for detecting German submarines. Meanwhile, work continued at Berkeley with cyclotrons. In December 1940, <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a> used the 60-inch (150 cm) cyclotron to bombard <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> with <a href="/wiki/Deuterons" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterons">deuterons</a> producing a new element, <a href="/wiki/Neptunium-238" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-238">neptunium-238</a>, which decayed by <a href="/wiki/Beta_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta emission">beta emission</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">plutonium-238</a>. One of its isotopes, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>, could undergo nuclear fission, which provided another way to make an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970274_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970274-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968306–308_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968306–308-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lawrence offered Segrè a job as a research assistant—a relatively lowly position for someone who had discovered an element—for US$300 a month for six months. However, when Lawrence learned that Segrè was legally trapped in California, he reduced Segrè's salary further to US$116 a month.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegrè1993147–148_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegrè1993147–148-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the regents of the University of California wanted to terminate Segrè's employment owing to his foreign nationality, Lawrence managed to retain Segrè by hiring him as a part-time lecturer paid by the Rockefeller Foundation. Similar arrangements were made to retain his doctoral students <a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a> (a Chinese national) and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Ross_MacKenzie" title="Kenneth Ross MacKenzie">Kenneth Ross MacKenzie</a> (a Canadian national) when they graduated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989521–522_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbronSeidel1989521–522-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_uranium_isotope_separation_in_the_calutron.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Another weird diagram. This one shows atoms being deflected by a magnet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Diagram_of_uranium_isotope_separation_in_the_calutron.png/220px-Diagram_of_uranium_isotope_separation_in_the_calutron.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Diagram_of_uranium_isotope_separation_in_the_calutron.png/330px-Diagram_of_uranium_isotope_separation_in_the_calutron.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Diagram_of_uranium_isotope_separation_in_the_calutron.png/440px-Diagram_of_uranium_isotope_separation_in_the_calutron.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram of uranium isotope separation in a <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutron</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In September 1941, Oliphant met with Lawrence and Oppenheimer at Berkeley, where they showed him the site for the new 184-inch (4.7 m) cyclotron. Oliphant, in turn, took the Americans to task for not following up the recommendations of the British <a href="/wiki/MAUD_Committee" title="MAUD Committee">MAUD Committee</a>, which advocated a program to develop an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken200238–41_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken200238–41-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawrence had already thought about the problem of separating the fissile isotope <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> from <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a>, a process known today as <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a>. Separating uranium isotopes was difficult because the two isotopes have very nearly identical chemical properties, and could only be separated gradually using their small mass differences. Separating isotopes with a <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometer</a> was a technique Oliphant had pioneered with <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-Electromagnetic_separation_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Electromagnetic_separation-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lawrence began converting his old 37-inch cyclotron into a giant mass spectrometer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196243–44_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196243–44-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On his recommendation, the director of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brigadier_General_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigadier General (United States)">Brigadier General</a> <a href="/wiki/Leslie_R._Groves_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie R. Groves Jr.">Leslie R. Groves Jr.</a>, appointed Oppenheimer as head of its <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>. While the Radiation laboratory developed the electromagnetic uranium enrichment process, the Los Alamos Laboratory designed and constructed the atomic bombs. Like the Radiation Laboratory, it was run by the University of California.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968337–339_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968337–339-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electromagnetic isotope separation used devices known as <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a>, a hybrid of two laboratory instruments, the mass spectrometer and cyclotron. The name was derived from "California university cyclotrons".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985117–119_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985117–119-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 1943, Lawrence's team at Berkeley was bolstered by 29 British scientists, including Oliphant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968347_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968347-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985124_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985124-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the electromagnetic process, a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968312_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968312-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFineRemington1972684_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFineRemington1972684-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared with a <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a> plant or a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>, an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials, require more manpower to operate, and cost more to build. Nonetheless, the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk. Moreover, it could be built in stages, and would rapidly reach industrial capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985117–119_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985117–119-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oak_Ridge">Oak Ridge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Oak Ridge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant at <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>, which came to be called <a href="/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" title="Y-12 National Security Complex">Y-12</a>, was assigned to <a href="/wiki/Stone_%26_Webster" title="Stone & Webster">Stone & Webster</a>. The calutrons, using 14,700 tons of silver, were manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Allis-Chalmers" title="Allis-Chalmers">Allis-Chalmers</a> in Milwaukee and shipped to Oak Ridge. The design called for five first-stage processing units, known as Alpha racetracks, and two units for final processing, known as Beta racetracks. In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks, known as Alpha II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985126–132_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985126–132-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the plant was started up for testing on schedule in October 1943, the 14-ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment because of the power of the magnets and had to be fastened more securely. A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out. In December Groves ordered a magnet to be broken open, and handfuls of rust were found inside. Groves then ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned. A <a href="/wiki/Pickling_(metal)" title="Pickling (metal)">pickling</a> plant was established on-site to clean the pipes and fittings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFineRemington1972684_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFineRemington1972684-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alpha_1_racetrack,_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant,_Manhattan_Project,_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large oval-shaped structure." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg/300px-Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg/450px-Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg/600px-Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Giant electromagnet Alpha I racetrack for uranium enrichment at Y-12 plant, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, circa 1944–45. The <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a> Lawrence developed are located around the ring.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Eastman" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennessee Eastman">Tennessee Eastman</a> was hired to manage Y-12.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985140_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985140-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Y-12 initially enriched the uranium-235 content to between 13% and 15%, and shipped the first few hundred grams of it to Los Alamos laboratory in March 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985143–148_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985143–148-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only 1 part in 5,825 of the uranium feed emerged as final product. The rest was splattered over equipment in the process. Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10% of the uranium-235 feed by January 1945. In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched (1.4%) feed from the new <a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 thermal diffusion plant</a>. The next month it received enhanced (5%) feed from the <a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25</a> gaseous diffusion plant. By April 1945 K-25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985143–148_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985143–148-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 16, 1945, Lawrence observed the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity nuclear test">Trinity nuclear test</a> of the first atomic bomb with Chadwick and <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Thomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles A. Thomas">Charles A. Thomas</a>. Few were more excited at its success than Lawrence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968358–359_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968358–359-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The question of how to use the now functional weapon on Japan became an issue for the scientists. While Oppenheimer favored no demonstration of the power of the new weapon to Japanese leaders, Lawrence felt strongly that a demonstration would be wise. When a uranium bomb was used without warning in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima">atomic bombing of Hiroshima</a>, Lawrence felt great pride in his accomplishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968360–365_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968360–365-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lawrence hoped that the Manhattan Project would develop improved calutrons and construct Alpha III racetracks, but they were judged to be uneconomical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002128_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002128-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Alpha tracks were closed down in September 1945. Although performing better than ever,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they could not compete with K-25 and the new K-27, which commenced operation in January 1946. In December, the Y-12 plant was closed, thereby cutting the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8,600 to 1,500 and saving $2 million a month.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962630,_646_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962630,_646-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Staff numbers at the Radiation laboratory fell from 1,086 in May 1945 to 424 by the end of the year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968370_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968370-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war_career">Post-war career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Post-war career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Big_Science">Big Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Big Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the war, Lawrence campaigned extensively for government sponsorship of large scientific programs. He was a forceful advocate of Big Science with its requirements for big machines and big money, and in 1946 he asked the Manhattan Project for over $2 million for research at the Radiation Laboratory (equivalent to $24,000,000 in 2023). Groves approved the money, but cut a number of programs, including Seaborg's proposal for a "hot" radiation laboratory in densely populated Berkeley, and John Lawrence's for production of medical isotopes, because this need could now be better met from nuclear reactors. One obstacle was the University of California, which was eager to divest its wartime military obligations. Lawrence and Groves managed to persuade Sproul to accept a contract extension.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002168_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002168-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1946, the Manhattan Project spent $7 on physics at the University of California for every dollar spent by the university.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeidel1983398_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeidel1983398-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>To most of his colleagues, Lawrence appeared to have almost an aversion to mathematical thought. He had a most unusual intuitive approach to involved physical problems, and when explaining new ideas to him, one quickly learned not to befog the issue by writing down the differential equation that might appear to clarify the situation. Lawrence would say something to the effect that he didn't want to be bothered by the mathematical details, but "explain the physics of the problem to me." One could live close to him for years, and think of him as being almost mathematically illiterate, but then be brought up sharply to see how completely he retained his skill in the mathematics of classical electricity and magnetism. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Luis Alvarez<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>The 184-inch cyclotron was completed with wartime dollars from the Manhattan Project. It incorporated new ideas by Ed McMillan, and was completed as a <a href="/wiki/Synchrocyclotron" title="Synchrocyclotron">synchrocyclotron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It commenced operation on November 13, 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968387_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968387-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time since 1935, Lawrence actively participated in the experiments, working with <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Gardner" title="Eugene Gardner">Eugene Gardner</a> in an unsuccessful attempt to create recently discovered <a href="/wiki/Pi_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Pi meson">pi mesons</a> with the synchrotron. <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Lattes" title="César Lattes">César Lattes</a> then used the apparatus they had created to find negative pi mesons in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970277–279_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970277–279-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Responsibility for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy_national_laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Department of Energy national laboratories">national laboratories</a> passed to the newly created <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC) on January 1, 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002170_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002170-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That year, Lawrence asked for $15 million for his projects (equivalent to $161,000,000 in 2023), which included a new linear accelerator and a new gigaelectronvolt synchrotron which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Bevatron" title="Bevatron">bevatron</a>. The University of California's contract to run the Los Alamos laboratory was due to expire on July 1, 1948, and some board members wished to divest the university of the responsibility for running a site outside California. After some negotiation, the university agreed to extend the contract for what was now the Los Alamos National Laboratory for four more years and to appoint <a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a>, who had replaced Oppenheimer as its director in October 1945, as a professor. Soon after, Lawrence received all the funds he had requested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002176,_182–183_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002176,_182–183-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.4G.019_(10409853774).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/HD.4G.019_%2810409853774%29.jpg/170px-HD.4G.019_%2810409853774%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/HD.4G.019_%2810409853774%29.jpg/255px-HD.4G.019_%2810409853774%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/HD.4G.019_%2810409853774%29.jpg/340px-HD.4G.019_%2810409853774%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1764" data-file-height="3200" /></a><figcaption>Lawrence (right) with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> at the 184-inch cyclotron, circa 1946</figcaption></figure> <p>Notwithstanding the fact that he voted for <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a>, Lawrence was a <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968186_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968186-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who had strongly disapproved of Oppenheimer's efforts before the war to unionize the Radiation Laboratory workers, which Lawrence considered "leftwandering activities".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968319–320_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968319–320-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawrence considered political activity to be a waste of time better spent in scientific research, and preferred that it be kept out of the Radiation Laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-Distillations_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Distillations-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the chilly <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> climate of the post-war University of California, Lawrence accepted the <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a>'s actions as legitimate, and did not see them as indicative of a systemic problem involving <a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">academic freedom</a> or <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>. He was protective of individuals in his laboratory, but even more protective of the reputation of the laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-Distillations_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Distillations-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was forced to defend Radiation Laboratory staff members like <a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a> who were investigated by the university's Personnel Security Board. In several cases, he issued character references in support of staff. However, Lawrence barred Robert Oppenheimer's brother <a href="/wiki/Frank_Oppenheimer" title="Frank Oppenheimer">Frank</a> from the Radiation Laboratory, damaging his relationship with Robert.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002190–192_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002190–192-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An acrimonious loyalty oath campaign at the University of California also drove away faculty members.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002220–222_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002220–222-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When hearings were held to revoke Robert Oppenheimer's security clearance, Lawrence declined to attend on account of illness, but a transcript in which he was critical of Oppenheimer was presented in his absence. Lawrence's success in building a creative, collaborative laboratory was undermined by the ill-feeling and distrust resulting from political tensions.<sup id="cite_ref-Distillations_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Distillations-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermonuclear_weapons">Thermonuclear weapons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Thermonuclear weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lawrence was alarmed by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/RDS-1" title="RDS-1">first nuclear test</a> in August 1949. The proper response, he concluded, was an all-out effort to build a bigger nuclear weapon: the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002200–202_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002200–202-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed to use accelerators instead of nuclear reactors to produce the neutrons needed to create the <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> the bomb required, as well as plutonium, which was more difficult, as much higher energies would be required.<sup id="cite_ref-Lbl1981_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lbl1981-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He first proposed the construction of Mark I, a prototype $7 million, 25 MeV <a href="/wiki/Linear_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear accelerator">linear accelerator</a>, codenamed Materials Test Accelerator (MTA).<sup id="cite_ref-Lbl1981_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lbl1981-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002220_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002220-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was soon talking about a new, even larger MTA known as the Mark II, which could produce <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> from depleted uranium-238. Serber and Segrè attempted in vain to explain the technical problems that made it impractical, but Lawrence felt that they were being unpatriotic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002234–235_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002234–235-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lawrence strongly backed <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>'s campaign for a second nuclear weapons laboratory, which Lawrence proposed to locate with the MTA Mark I at <a href="/wiki/Livermore,_California" title="Livermore, California">Livermore, California</a>. Lawrence and Teller had to argue their case not only with the Atomic Energy Commission, which did not want it, and the Los Alamos National Laboratory, which was implacably opposed but with proponents who felt that Chicago was the more obvious site for it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002244–247_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002244–247-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new laboratory at Livermore was finally approved on July 17, 1952, but the Mark II MTA was canceled. By this time, the Atomic Energy Commission had spent $45 million on the Mark I, which had commenced operation, but was mainly used to produce <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a> for the nuclear weapons program. Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cosmotron" title="Cosmotron">Cosmotron</a> had generated a 1 GeV beam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002256_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002256-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_and_legacy">Death and legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Death and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the Nobel Prize, Lawrence received the <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal" title="Elliott Cresson Medal">Elliott Cresson Medal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Medal" title="Hughes Medal">Hughes Medal</a> in 1937, the <a href="/wiki/Comstock_Prize_in_Physics" title="Comstock Prize in Physics">Comstock Prize in Physics</a> in 1938, the <a href="/wiki/Duddell_Medal_and_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Duddell Medal and Prize">Duddell Medal and Prize</a> in 1940, the <a href="/wiki/Holley_Medal" title="Holley Medal">Holley Medal</a> in 1942, the <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> in 1946, the <a href="/wiki/William_Procter_Prize_for_Scientific_Achievement" title="William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement">William Procter Prize</a> in 1951, <a href="/wiki/Faraday_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday Medal">Faraday Medal</a> in 1952,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970285–286_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970285–286-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> from the Atomic Energy Commission in 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968508–510_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968508–510-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected a member of the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1934,<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and both the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was made an <a href="/wiki/Legion_d%27Honneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Legion d'Honneur">Officer of the Legion d'Honneur</a> in 1948,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970285–286_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970285–286-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was the first recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Sylvanus_Thayer_Award" title="Sylvanus Thayer Award">Sylvanus Thayer Award</a> by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">US Military Academy</a> in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968517–518_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968517–518-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 1958, President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> asked Lawrence to travel to <a href="/wiki/Geneva,_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva, Switzerland">Geneva, Switzerland</a>, to help negotiate a proposed <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. AEC Chairman <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a> had pressed for Lawrence's inclusion. The two men had argued the case for the development of the hydrogen bomb, and Strauss had helped raise funds for Lawrence's cyclotron in 1939. Strauss was keen to have Lawrence as part of the Geneva delegation because Lawrence was known to favor continued nuclear testing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene2007156–158,_289_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene2007156–158,_289-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite suffering from a serious flare-up of his chronic <a href="/wiki/Ulcerative_colitis" title="Ulcerative colitis">ulcerative colitis</a>, Lawrence decided to go, but he became ill while in Geneva, and was rushed back to the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Medical_Center" title="Stanford University Medical Center">hospital</a> at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerken2002325–325_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002325–325-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surgeons <a href="/wiki/Ileostomy" title="Ileostomy">removed much of his large intestine</a>, but found other problems, including severe <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> in one of his arteries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968532–534_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968532–534-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He died in <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Medical_Center" title="Stanford University Medical Center">Palo Alto Hospital</a> on August 27, 1958,<sup id="cite_ref-eugregag58_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eugregag58-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oxupiobt_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxupiobt-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nineteen days after his 57th birthday.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970283_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970283-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molly did not want a public funeral but agreed to a memorial service at the First Congregational Church in Berkeley. University of California President <a href="/wiki/Clark_Kerr" title="Clark Kerr">Clark Kerr</a> delivered the <a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">eulogy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968532–534_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968532–534-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost immediately after Lawrence's death, the <a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California" title="Regents of the University of California">Regents of the University of California</a> voted to rename two of the university's nuclear research labs after Lawrence: the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence_Award" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award">Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award</a> was established in his memory in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical element number 103, discovered at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1961, was named <a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">lawrencium</a> after him.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1968 the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Hall_of_Science" title="Lawrence Hall of Science">Lawrence Hall of Science</a> public science education center was established in his honor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970284_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970284-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His papers are in the <a href="/wiki/Bancroft_Library" title="Bancroft Library">Bancroft Library</a> at the University of California, Berkeley.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1980s, Lawrence's widow petitioned the University of California Board of Regents on several occasions to remove her husband's name from the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, due to its focus on nuclear weapons Lawrence helped build, but was denied each time.<sup id="cite_ref-urwr_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urwr-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-phywid85_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phywid85-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sciexc_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciexc-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-namech87_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-namech87-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She outlived her husband by more than 44 years and died in <a href="/wiki/Walnut_Creek,_California" title="Walnut Creek, California">Walnut Creek, California</a>, at the age of 92 on January 6, 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-lmdowml_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lmdowml-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bklyobitml_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bklyobitml-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <p><a href="/wiki/George_Kauffman" title="George Kauffman">George B. Kauffman</a> wrote that: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Before him, "little science" was carried out largely by lone individuals working with modest means on a small scale. After him, massive industrial, and especially governmental, expenditures of manpower and monetary funding made "big science," carried out by large-scale research teams, a major segment of the national economy.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Lawrence is portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Josh_Hartnett" title="Josh Hartnett">Josh Hartnett</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" title="Christopher Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a>'s 2023 film <i><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)" title="Oppenheimer (film)">Oppenheimer</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/nobel-laureates-by-age">"Nobel Prize laureates by age"</a>. <i>NobelPrize.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 8,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NobelPrize.org&rft.atitle=Nobel+Prize+laureates+by+age&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Flists%2Fnobel-laureates-by-age&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196823–30,_476–477-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196823–30,_476–477_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilds1968">Childs 1968</a>, pp. 23–30, 476–477.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196847–49-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196847–49_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilds1968">Childs 1968</a>, pp. 47–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196861-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196861_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilds1968">Childs 1968</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196863–68-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196863–68_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilds1968">Childs 1968</a>, pp. 63–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eugregag58-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eugregag58_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eugregag58_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=DvZVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6783%2C4575920">"Inventor of cyclotron dies after surgery"</a>. <i>Eugene Register-Guard</i>. (Oregon). Associated Press. August 28, 1958. p. 5B<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eugene+Register-Guard&rft.atitle=Inventor+of+cyclotron+dies+after+surgery&rft.pages=5B&rft.date=1958-08-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DDvZVAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D6783%252C4575920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thllegdc1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thllegdc1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerdahl2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Berdahl" title="Robert M. Berdahl">Berdahl, Robert M.</a> (December 10, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chancellor.berkeley.edu/chancellors/berdahl/speeches/the-lawrence-legacy">"The Lawrence Legacy"</a>. Vermillion, South Dakota: University of California, Berkeley. Office of the Chancellor<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Lawrence+Legacy&rft.place=Vermillion%2C+South+Dakota&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.date=2001-12-10&rft.aulast=Berdahl&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchancellor.berkeley.edu%2Fchancellors%2Fberdahl%2Fspeeches%2Fthe-lawrence-legacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253–254-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253–254_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970253–254_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlvarez1970">Alvarez 1970</a>, pp. 253–254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970288-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970288_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlvarez1970">Alvarez 1970</a>, p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence1925" class="citation journal cs1">Lawrence, Ernest Orlando (August 1925). "The photoelectric effect in potassium vapour as a function of the frequency of the light". <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Magazine" title="Philosophical Magazine">Philosophical Magazine</a></i>. <b>50</b> (296): <span class="nowrap">345–</span>359. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925PhDT.........1L">1925PhDT.........1L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786442508634745">10.1080/14786442508634745</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+photoelectric+effect+in+potassium+vapour+as+a+function+of+the+frequency+of+the+light&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=296&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E345-%3C%2Fspan%3E359&rft.date=1925-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786442508634745&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1925PhDT.........1L&rft.aulast=Lawrence&rft.aufirst=Ernest+Orlando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds196893-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds196893_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilds1968">Childs 1968</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970256-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvarez1970256_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlvarez1970">Alvarez 1970</a>, p. 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968107–108-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968107–108_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilds1968">Childs 1968</a>, pp. 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds1968120–121-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChilds1968120–121_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilds1968">Childs 1968</a>, pp. 120–121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonolis2014" class="citation web cs1">Bonolis, Luisa (May 27, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mediatheque.lindau-nobel.org/laureates/joliot-curie/research-profile">"Prof. Dr. Irène Joliot-Curie Research Profile"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientist&rft.atitle=So+they+say&rft.date=1986-10&rft.aulast=Lawrence&rft.aufirst=Mary+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-scientist.com%2F%3Farticles.view%2FarticleNo%2F8256%2Ftitle%2FSo-They-Say%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-namech87-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-namech87_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=3V8aAAAAIBAJ&pg=1704%2C6781839">"Name change"</a>. <i>Milwaukee Journal</i>. Associated Press. June 8, 1987. p. 2A<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Milwaukee+Journal&rft.atitle=Name+change&rft.pages=2A&rft.date=1987-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3D3V8aAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D1704%252C6781839&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKauffman2000" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_B._Kauffman" class="mw-redirect" title="George B. Kauffman">Kauffman, George B.</a> (February 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anb.org/articles/13/13-00960.html">"Lawrence, Ernest Orlando"</a>. <i>American National Biography Online</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 22,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+National+Biography+Online&rft.atitle=Lawrence%2C+Ernest+Orlando&rft.date=2000-02&rft.aulast=Kauffman&rft.aufirst=George+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anb.org%2Farticles%2F13%2F13-00960.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZacharek2023" class="citation news cs1">Zacharek, Stephanie (July 19, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/6295742/oppenheimer-review/">"<i>Oppenheimer</i> Dazzles With Its Epic Story of a Complicated Patriot"</a>. <i>Time</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20230720143848/https://time.com/6295742/oppenheimer-review/">Archived</a> from the original on July 20, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Oppenheimer+Dazzles+With+Its+Epic+Story+of+a+Complicated+Patriot&rft.date=2023-07-19&rft.aulast=Zacharek&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F6295742%2Foppenheimer-review%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlvarez1970" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez, Luis</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/lawrence-ernest.pdf">"Ernest Orlando Lawrence 1901–1958"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Ernest+Orlando+Lawrence+1901%E2%80%931958&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Alvarez&rft.aufirst=Luis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fpublications%2Fbiographical-memoirs%2Fmemoir-pdfs%2Flawrence-ernest.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrechin1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gray_Brechin" title="Gray Brechin">Brechin, Gray A.</a> (1999). <i>Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21568-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21568-9"><bdi>978-0-520-21568-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40331167">40331167</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+San+Francisco%3A+Urban+Power%2C+Earthly+Ruin&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40331167&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21568-9&rft.aulast=Brechin&rft.aufirst=Gray+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChilds1968" class="citation book cs1">Childs, Herbert (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americangeniusl00chil"><i>An American Genius: The Life of Ernest Orlando Lawrence, Father of the Cyclotron</i></a></span>. New York, New York: E. P. Dutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-05443-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-525-05443-6"><bdi>978-0-525-05443-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/273351">273351</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+American+Genius%3A+The+Life+of+Ernest+Orlando+Lawrence%2C+Father+of+the+Cyclotron&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=E.+P.+Dutton&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F273351&rft.isbn=978-0-525-05443-6&rft.aulast=Childs&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericangeniusl00chil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFineRemington1972" class="citation book cs1">Fine, Lenore; Remington, Jesse A. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170201142645/https://history.army.mil/html/books/010/10-5/CMH_Pub_10-5.pdf"><i>The Corps of Engineers: Construction in the United States</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/834187">834187</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/010/10-5/CMH_Pub_10-5.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 1, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 25,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Corps+of+Engineers%3A+Construction+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F834187&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=Lenore&rft.au=Remington%2C+Jesse+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F010%2F10-5%2FCMH_Pub_10-5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2007" class="citation book cs1">Greene, Benjamin P. (2007). <i>Eisenhower, Science Advice, and the Nuclear Test-Ban Debate, 1945–1963</i>. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804754453" title="Special:BookSources/9780804754453"><bdi>9780804754453</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/65204949">65204949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower%2C+Science+Advice%2C+and+the+Nuclear+Test-Ban+Debate%2C+1945%E2%80%931963&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F65204949&rft.isbn=9780804754453&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbronSeidel1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J.L._Heilbron" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Heilbron">Heilbron, J. L.</a>; Seidel, Robert W. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lawrencehislabor00heil"><i>Lawrence and his Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory</i></a>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06426-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06426-3"><bdi>978-0-520-06426-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19455957">19455957</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lawrence+and+his+Laboratory%3A+A+History+of+the+Lawrence+Berkeley+Laboratory&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F19455957&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06426-3&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rft.au=Seidel%2C+Robert+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flawrencehislabor00heil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerken2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gregg_Herken" title="Gregg Herken">Herken, Gregg</a> (2002). <i>Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller</i>. New York, New York: Holt Paperbacks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6589-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6589-3"><bdi>978-0-8050-6589-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48941348">48941348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brotherhood+of+the+Bomb%3A+The+Tangled+Lives+and+Loyalties+of+Robert+Oppenheimer%2C+Ernest+Lawrence%2C+and+Edward+Teller&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Holt+Paperbacks&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48941348&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-6589-3&rft.aulast=Herken&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf"><i>The New World, 1939–1946</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Vol. 15. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962PhT....15l..62H">1962PhT....15l..62H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3057919">10.1063/1.3057919</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07186-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07186-5"><bdi>978-0-520-07186-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 9, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3057919&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1962PhT....15l..62H&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07186-5&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governmentattic.org%2F5docs%2FTheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1985" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Vincent (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141007074359/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf"><i>Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10913875">10913875</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on October 7, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 25,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manhattan%3A+The+Army+and+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10913875&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F011%2F11-10%2FCMH_Pub_11-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegrè1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè, Emilio</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mindalwaysinmoti00segr"><i>A Mind Always in Motion: the Autobiography of Emilio Segrè</i></a>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07627-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07627-3"><bdi>978-0-520-07627-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25629433">25629433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Mind+Always+in+Motion%3A+the+Autobiography+of+Emilio+Segr%C3%A8&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25629433&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07627-3&rft.aulast=Segr%C3%A8&rft.aufirst=Emilio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmindalwaysinmoti00segr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeidel1983" class="citation journal cs1">Seidel, Robert W. (1983). "Accelerating Science: The Postwar Transformation of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory". <i>Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences</i>. <b>13</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">375–</span>400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27757520">10.2307/27757520</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1811">1939-1811</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757520">27757520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Studies+in+the+Physical+Sciences&rft.atitle=Accelerating+Science%3A+The+Postwar+Transformation+of+the+Lawrence+Radiation+Laboratory&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E375-%3C%2Fspan%3E400&rft.date=1983&rft.issn=1939-1811&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27757520%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F27757520&rft.aulast=Seidel&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Lawrence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bird, Kai, and Martin J. Sherwin. <i>American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer</i> (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanpromethe0000bird">online</a></li> <li>Bernstein, Barton J. "Four Physicists and the Bomb: The Early Years, 1945-1950" <i>Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences</i> (1988) 18#2; covers Oppenheimer, Fermi, Lawrence and Compton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757603">online</a></li> <li>Galison, Peter, and Barton Bernstein. "In any light: Scientists and the decision to build the Superbomb, 1952-1954." <i>Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences</i> 19.2 (1989): 267–347. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://galison.scholar.harvard.edu/sites/projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/andrewhsmith/files/27757627.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Hiltzik, Michael. <i>Big Science: Ernest Lawrence and the Invention that Launched the Military-Industrial Complex</i> (Simon and Schuster, 2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bigscienceernest0000hilt">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lawrence&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="extiw" title="commons:Ernest O. Lawrence"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Ernest O. Lawrence</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060828130026/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FLawrence%2C+Ernest+O.">Ernest O. Lawrence Annotated Bibliography for Ernest Lawrence from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060220135256/http://www.aip.org/history/lawrence/">Lawrence and the Cyclotron: AIP History Center Web Exhibit</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/lawrence-legacy.html">Ernest Orlando Lawrence – The Man, His Lab, His Legacy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032715/http://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/lawrence-legacy.html">Archived</a> November 17, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1981/"><i>Lawrence and His Laboratory: A Historian's View of the Lawrence Years</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180118111506/http://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1981/">Archived</a> January 18, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Lawrence Livermore Lab: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130615150500/https://www.llnl.gov/str/October01/Lawrence.html">Remembering E. O. Lawrence</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/47">Ernest Lawrence</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169577#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li>Nobel-Winners.com: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/ernest_orlando_lawrence.html">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/2218">Ernest Lawrence</a> at <a href="/wiki/Find_a_Grave" title="Find a Grave">Find a Grave</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFF179;">Awards </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><i>none</i></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Sylvanus_Thayer_Award" title="Sylvanus Thayer Award">Sylvanus Thayer Award</a> </b><br />1958 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a></div> </td></tr> 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navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gist_(graphics_software)" title="Gist (graphics software)">Gist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LLNL_RISE_process" title="LLNL RISE process">LLNL RISE process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LX-14" title="LX-14">LX-14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micropower_impulse_radar" title="Micropower impulse radar">Micropower impulse radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliable_Replacement_Warhead" title="Reliable Replacement Warhead">Reliable Replacement Warhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROSE_(compiler_framework)" title="ROSE (compiler framework)">ROSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCALD" title="SCALD">SCALD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silo_(library)" title="Silo (library)">Silo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slapper_detonator" title="Slapper detonator">Slapper detonator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W47" title="W47">W47</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W70" title="W70">W70</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W71" title="W71">W71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorick_(programming_language)" title="Yorick (programming language)">Yorick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IBM_Blue_Gene" title="IBM Blue Gene">IBM Blue Gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial confinement fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_Inertial_Fusion_Energy" title="Laser Inertial Fusion Energy">Laser Inertial Fusion Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockpile_stewardship" title="Stockpile stewardship">Stockpile stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustained_Spheromak_Physics_Experiment" title="Sustained Spheromak Physics Experiment">Sustained Spheromak Physics Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-Division" title="Z-Division">Z-Division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics145" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics145" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">P. Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">M. Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann" title="Gabriel Lippmann">Lippmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dal%C3%A9n" title="Gustaf Dalén">Dalén</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Kamerlingh Onnes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1915: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">W. L. Bragg</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1917: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Glover_Barkla" title="Charles Glover Barkla">Barkla</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1918: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1919: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Stark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Guillaume</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1921: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1924: <a href="/wiki/Manne_Siegbahn" title="Manne Siegbahn">M. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">Franck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Hertz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">C. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Willans Richardson">O. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">De Broglie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1931</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1933: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1934</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">C. D. Anderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">G. P. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lawrence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Stern</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Bridgman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Victor_Appleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Victor Appleton">Appleton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Bothe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Lamb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Kusch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Brattain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">C. N. Yang</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">T. D. Lee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Cherenkov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Tamm</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Glaser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_M%C3%B6ssbauer" title="Rudolf Mössbauer">Mössbauer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Goeppert Mayer</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Basov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov" title="Alexander Prokhorov">Prokhorov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Kastler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Néel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Gabor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Ryle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Hewish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Roy_Mottelson" title="Ben Roy Mottelson">Mottelson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">Rainwater</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Richter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._C._Ting" title="Samuel C. C. Ting">Ting</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Mott</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">R. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Bloembergen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Schawlow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kai_Siegbahn" title="Kai Siegbahn">K. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">K. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Van der Meer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ruska</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> / <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Steinberger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt" title="Hans Georg Dehmelt">Dehmelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul" title="Wolfgang Paul">Paul</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">R. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">J. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Brockhouse" title="Bertram Brockhouse">Brockhouse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shull" title="Clifford Shull">Shull</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist)" title="David Lee (physicist)">D. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff" title="Douglas Osheroff">Osheroff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson" title="Robert Coleman Richardson">R. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Chu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Claude_Cohen-Tannoudji" title="Claude Cohen-Tannoudji">Cohen-Tannoudji</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips" title="William Daniel Phillips">Phillips</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Alferov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Kroemer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–<br />present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell" title="Eric Allin Cornell">Cornell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ketterle" title="Wolfgang Ketterle">Ketterle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Wieman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Koshiba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Giacconi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Abrikosov (physicist)">Abrikosov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_L._Hall" title="John L. Hall">Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._H%C3%A4nsch" title="Theodor W. Hänsch">Hänsch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Grünberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Kao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Boyle</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Geim</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Novoselov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Perlmutter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Riess</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">Wineland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serge_Haroche" title="Serge Haroche">Haroche</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Akasaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Amano</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Nakamura</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Kajita</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">McDonald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Thouless">Thouless</a> / <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Haldane" title="Duncan Haldane">Haldane</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Kosterlitz" title="J. Michael Kosterlitz">Kosterlitz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Ashkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Mourou</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Strickland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Queloz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Genzel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Ghez" title="Andrea M. Ghez">Ghez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hasselmann" title="Klaus Hasselmann">Hasselmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syukuro_Manabe" title="Syukuro Manabe">Manabe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2022: <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2023: <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Agostini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Krausz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">L'Huillier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">Hopfield</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Hinton</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1939_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1939_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1939 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1939_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1939 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1939_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1939 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1939_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1939 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Butenandt" title="Adolf Butenandt">Adolf Butenandt</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_Ru%C5%BEi%C4%8Dka" title="Leopold Ružička">Leopold Ružička</a> (Switzerland)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1939_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1939 Nobel Prize in Literature">1939</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frans_Eemil_Sillanp%C3%A4%C3%A4" title="Frans Eemil Sillanpää">Frans Eemil Sillanpää</a> (Finland)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>None</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ernest Lawrence</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1934_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1934 Nobel Prize winners">1934</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1935_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1935 Nobel Prize winners">1935</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1936_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1936 Nobel Prize winners">1936</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1937_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1937 Nobel Prize winners">1937</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1938_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1938 Nobel Prize winners">1938</a></dd> <dd><b>1939 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1940_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1940 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1940</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1941_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1941 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1941</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1942_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1942 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1942</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1943_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1943 Nobel Prize winners">1943</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1944_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1944 Nobel Prize winners">1944</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project245" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project245" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169577#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2490" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169577#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000116764986">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/77110875">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/74979/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmP7fMF8wmQTpbq8G67pP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118726846">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81071818">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12319265g">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12319265g">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00620980">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20030912009&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p151741301">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90401316">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007264332805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=266467">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=22988698400">Scopus</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:lawrence.ernest-orlando">zbMATH</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/e3158070-93e4-4f62-8f78-ea1d5eb3eccd">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118726846.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118726846">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/032096453">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10570320">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6ns0wbw">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: 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