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class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verb_coercion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_coercion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Verb coercion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_coercion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possessive_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Possessive pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reflexive_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reflexive_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Reflexive pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reflexive_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agglutination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agglutination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Agglutination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agglutination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduplication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduplication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Reduplication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduplication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Karipúna French Creole</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_lanc-patu%C3%A1" title="Lingua lanc-patuá – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua lanc-patuá" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanc-Patu%C3%A1" title="Lanc-Patuá – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lanc-Patuá" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_cr%C3%A9ola_frans%C3%A8isa_karip%C3%BAna" title="Lenga créola fransèisa karipúna – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga créola fransèisa karipúna" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanc-patu%C3%A1" title="Lanc-patuá – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lanc-patuá" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karip%C3%BAna" title="Karipúna – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Karipúna" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2523999#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: tan;">Karipúna French Creole</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: tan;">Amapá French Creole</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: tan;"><span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">Lanc-Patuá</i></span>, <span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">Kheuól</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Uaça Indian Reservation, <a href="/wiki/Amap%C3%A1" title="Amapá">Amapá</a>, Brazil</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">2,400 (2008)<sup id="cite_ref-e21_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e21-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/French-based_creole_languages" title="French-based creole languages">French Creole</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> French Guianese Creole<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Karipúna French Creole</b></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: tan;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/kmv" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:kmv">kmv</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/kari1301">kari1301</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=51-AAC-cdd">51-AAC-cdd</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kartenskizze,_Palikur_und_Uaca.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Kartenskizze%2C_Palikur_und_Uaca.jpg/320px-Kartenskizze%2C_Palikur_und_Uaca.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="818" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Kartenskizze%2C_Palikur_und_Uaca.jpg/480px-Kartenskizze%2C_Palikur_und_Uaca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Kartenskizze%2C_Palikur_und_Uaca.jpg/640px-Kartenskizze%2C_Palikur_und_Uaca.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1270" data-file-height="3248" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">The rivers <a href="/w/index.php?title=Curipi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Curipi (page does not exist)">Curipi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aracaua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aracaua (page does not exist)">Aracaua</a> in 1926</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Karipúna French Creole</b>, also known as <b>Amapá French Creole</b> and <b><span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">Lanc-Patuá</i></span></b>, is a French-based <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole language</a> spoken by the Karipúna community, which lives in the Uaçá Indian Reservation in the Brazilian state of <a href="/wiki/Amap%C3%A1" title="Amapá">Amapá</a>, on the Curipi and <a href="/wiki/Oyapock" title="Oyapock">Oyapock</a> rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is mostly <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">French-lexified</a> except for <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> terms, with a complex mix of substratum languages—most notably the <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a> <a href="/wiki/Palik%C3%BAr_language" title="Palikúr language">Karipúna language</a>. </p><p>Anonby notes that <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> tends to be the mother tongue for speakers under 60 in the Karipúna community, and Karipúna French Creole is the mother tongue primarily only for speakers over 60.<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Karipúna community includes a mix of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnicities</a> to such a degree that at times (such as in the early 1930s) doubt arose as to whether or not the Karipúna should be referred to as <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Indigenous peoples in Brazil">indigenous peoples</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alleyne and Ferreira explain that "today, the Karipúna people are a highly mixed group, comprising not only descendants of Amerindians, but also of Africans, Asians and Europeans, and mixtures thereof."<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John Ladhams offers what is probably the best description of the migration and formation of the current-day Karipúna population. Members of the <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a>, Tupían, and <a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a> linguistic trunks were in contact with <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_Brazil" title="Discovery of Brazil">European explorers</a> since the 16th century, and around 1830 to the 1840s, due to the <a href="/wiki/Cabanagem" title="Cabanagem">Cabanagem</a>, a revolt by a group of indigenous people from the <a href="/wiki/Par%C3%A1" title="Pará">Pará</a> region moved to what is now Amapá and which was claimed by <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>. They joined with existing ethnic groups, thus coming into contact with French or <a href="/wiki/Guianese_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Guianese Creole">Guianese Creole</a> speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Povos_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povos-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moving between French Guiana and Brazil in hotly contested territory from the Ounary to the Oyapock rivers, and finally towards the Curipi, where the Karipúna now live, these groups were joined by "members of the Palikúr and Galibí tribes, as well as Guianan Creoles, Arabs, Chinese, Europeans, and Brazilians" and eventually settled in the Uaçá area.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "These were ‘displaced Brazilians … called Karipúnas’."<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore in 1854, due to a gold rush in <a href="/wiki/Approuague" title="Approuague">Approuague</a>, many "coolies, Blacks, Chinese, Martinicans and French adventurers" moved to the Oyapock and <a href="/wiki/Ua%C3%A7%C3%A1_River" title="Uaçá River">Uaçá</a> rivers, where the Karipúna inhabited, further contributing to the broad ethnic mix.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ladhams explains the adoption of a French creole by the group as a result of the broad ethnic backgrounds of the Karipúna. "Since at least the 1840s," the Karipúna community was "a highly disparate group ... and that there would have been an immediate need for a medium for inter-ethnic communication. A prime candidate for this would have been Guyanais," as it was already used by parts of the Amerindian members and most of the non-Amerindian members of the Karipúna community.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 1900, the Amapá region was ceded to Brazil from France,<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> putting the Karipúna community in Brazilian territory, and in the 1920s, "Brazilian authorities deemed it necessary to implement projects for occupying the formerly contested territory whose ‘frenchified’ populations were seen as a threat to the country's territorial integrity." As a result the Oiapoque Colonization Commission was created in 1920. Later in 1927, an inspection commission commanded by the Ministry of War began to patrol the Oiapoque and report on the groups living there.<sup id="cite_ref-Povos_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povos-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reports were the first to use the term of "Karipúna" for the inhabitants of the Cupiri River, and has been the label employed since.<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ministry of War intended to "incorporate the Indians into society," and from 1934–37, and then from 1945 onwards, non-indigenous teachers were recruited by the government to teach in Karipúna villages. This education "played a fundamental role in formulating the contemporary identity of these groups, in the propagation of the use of Portuguese and in the configuration of the villages."<sup id="cite_ref-Povos_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povos-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1970s "were marked by greater political participation of the Uaçá leaders," including the Karipúna amongst the other three groups in the Uaçá reserve, "who began to act in more organized fashion." Particularly, they opposed the installation of the proposed route for the <a href="/wiki/BR-156" class="mw-redirect" title="BR-156">BR-156</a> highway, and this struggle resulted in further pressure to fight for the demarcation of their land. A new route of the highway was eventually accepted with "the hiring of indigenous heads to assist in the inspection of the borders of the indigenous territory."<sup id="cite_ref-Povos_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povos-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was also during this period that the "Kheuól-to-Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_education" title="Bilingual education">bilingual education</a> programme was instituted, largely through the efforts of CIMI (the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_missions" title="Catholic missions">Catholic mission</a>) and with the approval of <a href="/wiki/Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_do_%C3%8Dndio" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundação Nacional do Índio">FUNAI</a>, and later MEC." Since this period, there has been a stated focus on promoting the maintenance of KFC as a second language and defending Amerindian rights while also providing a "bridge to the outside world," to a varying degree of success, often criticized, both by members of the community and linguistic anthropologists such as Jo-Anne Ferreira.<sup id="cite_ref-ferr_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferr-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only in the 1990s did indigenous teachers, however, begin to receive training first by CIMI, then by the Organization of Indigenous Teachers of Oiapoque established in 2005, and now "many of the teachers are Karipúna or Galibi-Marwono."<sup id="cite_ref-ferr_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferr-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, Karipúna populations are healthily growing after the original migration from Pará that lessened populations drastically. Alleyne and Ferreira note that "the Karipúna population in 2001 is six times larger than it was in 1943."<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, despite the optimistic growth in population, the linguistic vitality of Karipúna French Creole is <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">threatened</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_status">Current status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Current status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Today in the Uaçá Reservation there are three other Amerindian groups: the <a href="/wiki/Galibi_Marwono" class="mw-redirect" title="Galibi Marwono">Galibi Marwono</a>, who also speak a French Creole language incredibly similar to Karipúna, and the Palikúr and Galibi do Oiapoque indigenous groups who speak their own non-creole languages. Members of the latter groups are often bilingual in Amapá French Creole, though only the Karipúna and Galibi-Marwono speak AFC natively. Anonby finds that "the differences between all the French Creoles do not pose a serious problem to intelligibility."<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Karipúna people numbered 1,726 between 16 different villages in 2001. The largest, <a href="/wiki/Manga,_Amap%C3%A1" title="Manga, Amapá">Manga</a>, contained 465 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are far more dispersed as compared to the Galibi-Marwono community in the same reservation, wherein 1,578 out of a total population of 1,787 Galibi-Marwono are concentrated in the <a href="/wiki/Kumaruma" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumaruma">Kumaruma</a> village. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_vitality">Linguistic vitality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Linguistic vitality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ethnologue considers Karipúna French Creole to be "threatened," with a rating of 6b on the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS).<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This designation seems generally due to the waning use of KFC as a mother tongue, and the steadily decreasing transmission rate. Anonby notes that Portuguese tends to be the mother tongue for speakers under 60 in the Karipúna community, and Karipúna French Creole is the mother tongue primarily only for speakers over 60. Anonby paraphrases from interviews with speakers, that "although most people understand KFC," a Karipúna speaker "admitted about half of the people in the village of Manga cannot speak it. He said there were no monolingual Karipúna speakers."<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speakers of KFC tend to speak it as a second language, first learning Portuguese, and only learning KFC via a three-year Kheuól education primary school programme implemented by CIMI.<sup id="cite_ref-ferr_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferr-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anonby notes that "generally, [Karipúna] people feel that the loss of KFC is not a good thing. They feel nostalgia for the time when they all spoke it. At the same time, people feel very positive about speaking Portuguese." Ferreira likewise confirms this, referencing the "discontent felt by many indigenous leaders" who feel as though the state of education in KFC is not of a sufficient standard to be beneficial for the maintenance of KFC.<sup id="cite_ref-ferr_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferr-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This program was implemented in the 1980s by CIMI, the Catholic mission, but recently a new modified version of this program, the <span title="Brazilian Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt-BR">Projeto Político Pedagógico das Escolas Indígenas Karipúna e Galibi-Marworno</i></span>, is in the process of being implemented, although the value of the new program in maintaining KFC is unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-ferr_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferr-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, due to the difficulty in transmitting the language to younger speakers as either a mother tongue or <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a>, KFC is justifiably in a threatened state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistic_origins">Linguistic origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Linguistic origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>French creoles in Brazil form two sub-groups, both in the Amapá regions.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern Amapá consists only of "Amapá French Creole" (or <span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">Lanc-Patúa</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is spoken mainly around Macapá, the capital of Amapá state. Northern Amapá consists of two (relatively mutually intelligible<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) French-lexified creoles, both of which are considered "Amazonian French Creole," also often referred to as <span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">Kheuól</i></span>, <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Crioulo</i></span>, and <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Patuá</i></span>. The two languages are "Karipúna French Creole" (KFC) as well as "Galibi-Marwono French Creole" (GMFC) </p><p>Alleyne and Ferreira, inspired by Ladham's social history generally agree that KFC is a direct descendant of Guyanais, or Guianan French Creole. As noted above, Ladham interprets the language as a tool which the ethnically fragmented early Karipúna communities employed to meet an "immediate need for a medium for inter-ethnic communication."<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This confirms that KFC's superstratum language is primarily French, but the other influences on the language are diverse and numerous. Alleyne and Ferreira suggest that the original "Karipúna" language — that is, that spoken by the original emigrants from Pará — "may or may not" have been a Tupi-Guarani language, and contributed to parts of the lexicon.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chris Corne notes that the indigenous influence is "substantial, particularly in the vocabulary of flora and fauna.<sup id="cite_ref-Corne_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corne-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the contact with African speakers<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that GFC no doubt had in its creolization process, Corne explains that "the African contribution, on present information, is surprisingly small, including only a handful of words from <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwa_languages" title="Kwa languages">Kwa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Senegambian_languages" title="Senegambian languages">Senegambian</a> languages," although the African influences in grammar are more obvious.<sup id="cite_ref-Corne_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corne-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly and unsurprisingly Corne mentions that "Portuguese has contributed basic vocabulary" of KFC for both <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">lexical and functional</a> categories of words. Some Kheuól words are even used in variation with Portuguese contributions to the lexicon, "for example, <span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">stilo</i></span> and <span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">kanét</i></span> (‘pen’), <span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">la nét</i></span> and <span title="Karipúna Creole French-language text"><i lang="kmv">janél</i></span> (‘window’)",<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> generally as a result of increasing sociohistorical pressures from the mid-1900s as the Portuguese education system began to erode the transmission of KFC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karipúna do Amapá is referred to by a wide variety of names colloquially and in linguistic literature, including "Karipúna do Norte (Karipúna French Creole),"<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kheuól, Crioulo, Patoá, Patuá, Patúa, and Amazonian/Amapá/Amerindian French Creole (which all also include the closely related Galibi-Marwono French Creole language).<sup id="cite_ref-ferr_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferr-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethnologue refers to the language as "Karipúna Creole French."<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tolber provided what is apparently the first rigorous descriptive grammar of KFC.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His account includes a <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> with around 300 words, phonetic description of KFC, and analysis of the grammar at <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a>, <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">word</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a>-level. The description is in-depth, categorical, and provides examples for various basic and complex sentence structures and clause types, along with justification of the classifications made. Based on Tobler's description and elicitation test, a phonetic inventory was made available for KFC online.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ladhams also notes that Monserrat & Silva published a <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> of Karipúna in Portuguese in 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also, in the same decade, two Karipúna-Portuguese dictionaries were published by A.W. Tobler (1987)<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1987_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1987-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Montejo (1988).<sup id="cite_ref-Picanco1988_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Picanco1988-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tobler's <span title="Brazilian Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt-BR">Dicionário Crioulo Karipúna</i></span> is published in Portuguese and contains an (approximately) 2100 Karipúna words with their Portuguese translation, and vice versa, and also provides an <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> pronunciation guide for Kheuól orthography. </p><p>Corne criticizes the "lack of serious lexicological research" for Karipúna French Creole and Guyanais in general.<sup id="cite_ref-Corne_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corne-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the relatively large focus on <a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">documentation</a> in the 1980s, little other linguistic documentation appears to be available. Ferreira states that "the Catholic mission, CIMI, has been largely responsible for promoting a three-year Kheuól education primary school programme." According to CIMI statements, the Karipúna and Galibi-Marwono have been working since 1978 to develop this educational process,<sup id="cite_ref-ferr_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferr-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the "materials [for language education]" are not readily available and are most likely used in the community for the three-year language education program. According to Anonby some of the Karipúna French Creole texts have been published and they are "mainly Biblical stories and folk tales," along with language "primers, such as those edited and organized by Fransisca Picanco Montejo (1985)."<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Documentation_projects">Documentation projects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Documentation projects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of rigorous Karipúna linguistic documentation was done in the 1980s, with Tobler (1983), Tobler (1987), Monserrat & Silva (1984) and Picanço (1988). Present-day language documentation agencies (such as Soas, Museu do Índio, Museu Goeldi, and Dobes, amongst others) do not seem to have assisted in the documentation of KFC. </p><p>Anonby's A Report on the Creoles of Amapá<sup id="cite_ref-Anonby_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the result of a joint study between SIL and the University of the West Indies to "investigate sociolinguistic aspects of the French-lexifier Creole languages spoken in the state of Amapá," albeit not funded by a particular major documentation project. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnography">Ethnography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ethnography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A series of anthropological analyses of the Karipúna community have been undertaken, especially in light of the Karipúna identity and schooling system. Tassinari and Cohn in 2009 critically evaluated, just like Ferreira,<sup id="cite_ref-ferr_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferr-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the bilingual education program and demonstrated the caveats in the CIMI-organized three-year educational programme.<sup id="cite_ref-TassCohn_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TassCohn-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ladhams is a well-cited and succinct socio-historical investigation of the Karipúna community's origins, which is generally accepted by anyone writing about KFC ethnography afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karipúna French Creole has 32 phonemes — 22 consonants and 10 vowels. Its phoneme inventory is notably smaller than its lexifier language, French. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karipúna French Creole's 22 phonemic consonants are shown in the table below. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_consonant" title="Palato-alveolar consonant">Palato-alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasals</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosives" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosives">Plosives</a>, <br /><a href="/wiki/Affricates" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricates">Affricates</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t̪</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d̪</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">Fricatives</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">Flap</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximants" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximants">Approximants</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Karipúna French Creole's consonants are relatively similar to French, with some exceptions. The palatal nasal stop, /ɲ/, voiced uvular fricative, /ʁ/, and labialized palatal approximant, /ɥ/, or /jʷ/, all of which are present in French, are not in KFC. Furthermore, /t/ and /d/ from French are dentalized in KFC.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PHOIBLE_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PHOIBLE-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly /h/ is present phonemically in KFC, despite having been lost in French due to historical sound changes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karipúna French Creole has 10 phonemic vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-PHOIBLE_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PHOIBLE-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">plain</span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">plain</span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">plain</span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal</a></span> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɛ̃</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɔ̃</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ã</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Again, compared to French's 17 vowels, KFC is significantly less complicated, losing /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛː</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œ</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">œ̃</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">ø</a></span>/, and /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a></span>/. </p><p>Nonetheless, the French influence is obvious. Like in French, only the open-mid and open vowels have phonemic nasalized variants. Alleyne and Ferreira note that this is consistent with other French creoles, and evidence for the hypothesis that all (or many) Atlantic French creole languages descended from a common creole ancestor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Relative to French and its substratum languages, Karipúna French Creole is more morphologically isolating, as tends to be the case with Caribbean creole languages. Morphemes in Karipúna French Creole are either root forms or derivational affixes, and inflectional affixes are apparently not present. Tobler notes that most words are monomorphemic.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_coercion">Verb coercion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Verb coercion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "verbalizing" suffix /-e/ however can coerce some nouns into a verb class. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">flɛʃ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arrow</p></div><p style="display: none;">flɛʃ</p><p style="display: none;">arrow</p><p style="clear: left;">"Arrow"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The "verbalizing" suffix /-e/ however can coerce some nouns into a verb class. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">flɛʃ-e</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arrow-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">VERB</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">li flɛʃ-e</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ arrow-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">VERB</abbr></p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she shoots an arrow"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Pronouns in KFC form a two-number and three-case system, which is undergoing a regularizing change by analogy.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The /li/ pronoun, and /ka/ tense marker (see below), will elide with an adjacent verb.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The KFC lexicon on the whole is greatly derived from French<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has undergone a process more morphological agglutination and "article reduction." Ladhams suggests that the Karipúna community is historically composed of "French Guinean Blacks, Chinese, Arabs, and Europeans," although the extent of non-European influence, outside of flora and fauna words, appears to be minimal.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladhams_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arab and Chinese lexical influence is virtually nonexistent. Thus the generic open class of nouns involves morphologically reducing "la + noun" or "l’ + noun" to a monomorphemic word.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karipúna French Creole's personal pronouns form a two-number, three-person system as in French, and are shown in the table below.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">Person</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Singular</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">Plural</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal <br />pronouns</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">1st person</a> </th> <td>/mo/ </td> <td>‘I/me’ </td> <td>/no/ </td> <td>‘we/us’ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">2nd person</a> </th> <td>/u/, /to/ </td> <td>‘you’ </td> <td>/zɔt/ </td> <td>‘you/y’all’ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">3rd person</a> </th> <td>/li/, /so/ </td> <td>‘he/she/it/him/her’ </td> <td>/je/ </td> <td>‘they/them’ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive <br />pronouns</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">1st person</a> </th> <td>/mo/, /mo-pa/ </td> <td>‘mine’ </td> <td>/no/, /no-pa/ </td> <td>‘ours’ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">2nd person</a> </th> <td>/u/, /u-pa/ </td> <td>‘yours’ </td> <td>/zɔt/, /zɔt-pa/ </td> <td>‘yours/y’alls’ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">3rd person</a> </th> <td>/so/, /so-pa/, /di-li/ </td> <td>‘his/hers/its’ </td> <td>/je/, /je-pa/ </td> <td>‘theirs’ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><small><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstratives</a></small> </th> <td>/sa/ </td> <td>‘this/that’ </td> <td>/le/ </td> <td>‘these/those’ </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The distinction between subject, direct object, and indirect object pronouns from French is simplified to a set of personal pronouns in KFC, which may occupy both subject and object position.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kupe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cut</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object(ive)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">li kupe li</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ cut 3SG.OBJ</p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she cut it."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pote</p><p style="margin: 0px;">take</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this/that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bay</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object(ive)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">li pote sa bay mo</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ take this/that give 1SG.OBJ</p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she took this/that for me."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>KFC has a no-case system and retained the nominative form, whereas other French creoles retained the oblique form.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tobler, and Alleyne and Ferreira, give slightly different accounts of the pronouns, and the table above generally reflects the more recent account. Tobler does not make note of the /to/ and /so/ variants of the 2nd and 3rd person singular pronouns, which Alleyne and Ferreira explain is not present in other French creoles, (346) and is thus presumably an innovative change, by analogy with the 1st person singular /mo/. Similarly, Tobler cites /nu/ as the 1st person plural pronoun, but Alleyne and Ferreira explain that KFC has "regularized" this to /no/. The 2nd and 3rd person plural pronouns are consistent between accounts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possessive_pronouns">Possessive pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Possessive pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Alleyne and Ferreira, the bare possessive pronouns and the forms with the /-pa/ suffix are taken as equals. However, Tobler refers to the /-pa/ form as "possessive pronouns," and the bare form as "possessive adjectives." The difference appears to be that the pronominal form can occasionally fill a DP (as English "mine") as well as act as a genitive adjunct to a noun phrase (/u-pa liv/, "your book"<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), whereas the bare possessive form must be adjunct to the possessed NP. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reflexive_pronouns">Reflexive pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Reflexive pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alleyne and Ferreira give a simple account of reflexive pronouns by appending the /-kɔ/ suffix,<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Tobler's grammar explains the nuance of KFC reflexives. To indicate a reflexive pronoun, KFC uses the bare possessive form in the object position and appends the word "body" (/kɔ/), or the body part affected, as the possessed NP of the pronoun. position (in bold below). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bat</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hit</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kɔ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">body</p></div><p style="display: none;">mo bat mo kɔ</p><p style="display: none;">1SG.SUBJ hit 1SG.POSS body</p><p style="clear: left;">"I hit myself."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kupe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cut</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dwet</p><p style="margin: 0px;">finger</p></div><p style="display: none;">mo kupe mo dwet</p><p style="display: none;">1SG.SUBJ cut 1SG.POSS finger</p><p style="clear: left;">"I cut my finger."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In the case that no body part is affected, KFC can also use /mɛm/ for the <a href="/wiki/French_personal_pronouns" title="French personal pronouns">emphatic self</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aʃte-l</p><p style="margin: 0px;">buy-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object(ive)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">for</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mɛm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">self</p></div><p style="display: none;">mo aʃte-l pu mo mɛm</p><p style="display: none;">1SG.SUBJ buy-3SG.OBJ for 1SG.POSS self</p><p style="clear: left;">"I bought it for myself."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agglutination">Agglutination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Agglutination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karipúna French Creole both in historical sound shifts and in present variation has agglutinative morphophonemic changes. As in many French Creole languages, many French calques were glossed into KFC and subsequently <a href="/wiki/Rebracketing" title="Rebracketing">agglutinated with a French definite article</a>. Alleyne and Ferreira list four classes, based on the original French <a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th><small>Karipúna French Creole IPA</small> </th> <th>French Orthography </th> <th>French IPA </th> <th>English Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Class I: (la, l’ + noun) </th></tr> <tr> <td>/labu/ </td> <td>(la) boue </td> <td>/la bu/ </td> <td>‘mud’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/lafime/ </td> <td>(la) fumée </td> <td>/la fyme/ </td> <td>‘smoke’ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Class II: (les, des + noun) </th></tr> <tr> <td>/zam/ </td> <td>(les) armes </td> <td>/lez‿aʁm/ </td> <td>‘gun’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/zo/ </td> <td>(les) os </td> <td>/lez‿o/ </td> <td>‘bone’ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Class III: (un, une + noun) </th></tr> <tr> <td>/nak/ </td> <td>(un) arc </td> <td>/œ̃n‿aʁk/ </td> <td>‘arch’, ‘ark’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/nam/ </td> <td>(une) âme </td> <td>/yn‿am/ </td> <td>‘soul’ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Class IV: (du, de l’, des + noun) </th></tr> <tr> <td>/disɛm/ </td> <td>(du) sel </td> <td>/dy sɛl/ </td> <td>‘salt’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/duhi/ </td> <td>(du) riz </td> <td>/dy ʁi/ </td> <td>‘rice’ </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Some of these classes are open, such as class I, which takes new words loaned from French, while the others are not.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The morphological reduction of the French article from these words does not have a consistent result on the syntactic category, despite all being non-proper nouns. Tobler claims that "almost all words are monomorphemic roots" in KFC, and the morphological reanalysis from French loanwords appears to move towards this conformity, as the French article, nor the noun stem, are "never found in isolation."<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Morphophonemic shifts also occur in the 3rd-person singular pronoun and the present progressive marker in KFC. In the pre-verbal subject position, /li/ is often reduced to /i-/, and reduced to a verb suffix /-l/ in the post-verbal object position. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kupe-l</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cut-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object(ive)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">i kupe-l</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ cut-3SG.OBJ</p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she/it cut it."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The present tense marker /ka/, like /li/, also elides with non-back vowels at the beginning of a preceding verb. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">k-ale</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-go</p></div><p style="display: none;">mo k-ale</p><p style="display: none;">1SG.SUBJ PRES-go</p><p style="clear: left;">"I'm going."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Morphophonemic <a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">reanalysis</a> produces agglutination in KFC. Morpheme reanalysis and agglutination of this variety is common in creole languages, especially French-lexified creoles.<sup id="cite_ref-Hage_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hage-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amongst French creole languages some of these categories are shared, but others are not, and Alleyne and Ferreira (amongst others) suggest that this may be an effective area of research for understanding the origins and development of French creole languages.<sup id="cite_ref-AF_4-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AF-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduplication">Reduplication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reduplication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reduplication is often considered a hallmark of creole language morphology, along with morphological conversion and compounding.<sup id="cite_ref-KouLaC_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KouLaC-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compounding, as above, is present in KFC, and as expected so too is reduplication. Tobler (1983) notes the highly productive reduplication possible in KFC. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">maʃe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">walk</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">maʃe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">walk</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">maʃe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">walk</p></div><p style="display: none;">li maʃe li maʃe li maʃe</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ walk 3SG.SUBJ walk 3SG.SUBJ walk</p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she walked for a long time/long way." (CP reduplication)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ka</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kɔlɛ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be.angry</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kɔlɛ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be.angry</p></div><p style="display: none;">li ka kɔlɛ ke kɔlɛ</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ PRES be.angry FUT be.angry</p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she is very angry." (VP reduplication)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">te</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">blã</p><p style="margin: 0px;">white</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">blã</p><p style="margin: 0px;">white</p></div><p style="display: none;">li te blã blã</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ PAST white white</p><p style="clear: left;">"It was very white/white as snow." (AP reduplication)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Tobler shows that reduplication in possible in a large variety of syntactic and morphological contexts. In all cases it tends to "emphasize the degree or quantity of that which is reduplicated,"<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which corresponds to the generalized "more of the same meaning."<sup id="cite_ref-Hage_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hage-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Creole languages tend to be characterized by a lack of "complex inflectional morphology in general," and appropriately syntactically- or morphologically-induced changes in verb valency are generally rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacobs_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobs-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tobler's grammar does however mention a limited passive syntactic construction, as well as a causative transitive construction. No mention of other valency-changing constructions, such as antipassives or comitative case, seem to be present in any investigation of the language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Valency_change">Valency change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Valency change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passives">Passives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Passives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As seems to be the case with the majority of creole languages, Karipúna French Creole lacks a true <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a>. <a href="/wiki/Papiamento" title="Papiamento">Papiamento</a> may be the only Atlantic Creole to possess a full passive.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tobler notes that outside of certain stative clauses, the passive form can’t be used. Utterances are expressed solely in the active form. For example, the phrase "I was bitten by a wasp" must be expressed as "the wasp bit me," as below: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">muʃ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">wasp</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mɔde</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bite</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object(ive)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">muʃ mɔde mo</p><p style="display: none;">wasp bite 1SG.OBJ</p><p style="clear: left;">"The wasp bit me."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>And the expression "all the bananas were eaten" might be expressed in either of the following ways: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nu</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mãdʒe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tut</p><p style="margin: 0px;">all</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bakɔv</p><p style="margin: 0px;">banana</p></div><p style="display: none;">nu mãdʒe tut bakɔv</p><p style="display: none;">1PL.SUBJ eat all banana</p><p style="clear: left;">"We ate all the bananas."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pa</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hete</p><p style="margin: 0px;">stay</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bakɔv</p><p style="margin: 0px;">banana</p></div><p style="display: none;">pa hete bakɔv</p><p style="display: none;">NEG stay banana</p><p style="clear: left;">"There were no bananas left."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>With active (<i>c.f.</i> stative) verbs in Karipúna French Creole, the passive form cannot be used. While in (3) the number of arguments has been reduced to only a subject (‘banana’), /hete/ is an intransitive verb typically. In other words, Karipúna French Creole non-stative verbs do not have a valency-reducing form. </p><p>As stated before, the vast majority of French creoles lack a passive form. While in some French creole communities a passive form can be used, such as in Haitian French Creole, it doesn’t seem to be considered a part of a creole itself, but rather a French borrowing (Mandaly 2011). Jacobs analyzes another potential source for creole passives, however, suggesting that substratum origins and contact with earlier creole languages likely was the result of the oddly-distributed use of the passive in Papiamento,<sup id="cite_ref-Jacobs_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobs-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rather than top-down European-language influence. </p><p>Tobler demonstrates how a pseudo-passive can be formed by coercing the verb into a verbal adjective, turning a monotransitive sentence into an intransitive one. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kaz</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="demonstrative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pẽtʃihe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">paint</p></div><p style="display: none;">kaz la pẽtʃihe</p><p style="display: none;">house DEM paint</p><p style="clear: left;">"The house is painted."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Compared with the active construction: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pẽtʃihe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">paint</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kaz</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><p style="display: none;">i pẽtʃihe kaz</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ paint house</p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she painted the house."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>This kind of construction for the verb is not necessarily a full passive, and can only form strictly stative constructions, using only auxiliary or verb-null copula phrases. Tobler notes "one cannot say, ‘The house was painted by John’; this must be expressed actively as ‘John painted the house’" (Tobler 1983, 54). Clearly in this phrase /pẽtʃihe/ is no longer functioning as a VP in the passive construction, as it cannot take an agentive adjunct (‘by John’). </p><p>Interaction with verb stativity appears to be a common feature of Atlantic creole languages, and Winford (1988) looks to creole passivity to discuss the possible West African origins of the passive form.<sup id="cite_ref-Winford_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winford-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karipúna French Creole's semi-passive verbal adjective form may, rather than the result of a superstratum French influence, be a construction derived from one of Karipúna's many substratum languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Causatives">Causatives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Causatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karipúna French Creole does have a causative construction, using the auxiliary verb "make" (/fɛ/), which appears to be a widely productive, valency-increasing form. The "make" auxiliary changes either an intransitive construction into a transitive one, or a transitive to a ditransitive. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lẽj</p><p style="margin: 0px;">clothes</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">te</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past complete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.COMPL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sɛk</p><p style="margin: 0px;">dry</p></div><p style="display: none;">mo lẽj te sɛk</p><p style="display: none;">1SG.POSS clothes <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past complete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.COMPL</abbr> dry</p><p style="clear: left;">"My clothes (were) dry."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">solej</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sun</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ka</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="progressive aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fɛ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">make</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lẽj</p><p style="margin: 0px;">clothes</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sɛk</p><p style="margin: 0px;">dry</p></div><p style="display: none;">solej ka fɛ mo lẽj sɛk</p><p style="display: none;">sun PRES.PROG make 1SG.POSS clothes dry</p><p style="clear: left;">"The sun is making my clothes dry."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>It is apparent that there is a valency increase with the introduction of the "make" auxiliary, given that the tense marker "te" is no longer present in the /mo lẽj sɛk/ verbal compliment(s). While KFC can, and often does, use a null tense marker to indicate present completeness for "experience and state" verbs, like /sɛk/, the gloss Tobler provides gives no evidence of a present-complete meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, we analyze this not as an embedded CP complement to /fɛ/, but rather as a valency-increase of the VP /sɛk/ from intransitive to monotransitive. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ye</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fãde</p><p style="margin: 0px;">chop</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bwa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">wood</p></div><p style="display: none;">ye fãde bwa</p><p style="display: none;">3PL.SUBJ chop wood</p><p style="clear: left;">"They chopped wood."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fɛ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">make</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ye</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fãde</p><p style="margin: 0px;">chop</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bwa</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">boku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">much</p></div><p style="display: none;">li fɛ ye fãde bwa boku</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.SUBJ make 3SG.SUBJ chop 3SG.SUBJ much</p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she made them chop a lot of wood."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>A similar analysis can be taken to the monotransitive-to-ditransitive use of /fɛ/. Tobler's gloss suggests that the null past complete tense marker that "event and process" verbs take applies to "make," rather than "chop" in the causative construction, and therefore does not represent mere CP-embedding.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tense">Tense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karipúna French Creole's system of tense marking is complex, with "five overt tense markers and another [null] marker."<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However the meaning of the null tense marker is dependent on the class of verb phrase. </p><p>Tobler (1983) distinguishes five classes of verb phrase: Event, Experience, Process, State A, and State B. State A and B are typically copular, comparative, possessive or similar phrases that lack a main verb statement. KFC non-auxiliary verbs fall into the categories of Event, Experience, and Process verbs. Event verbs typically include transitives such as /ale/, "go," and /aʃte/, "buy." Experience and Process verbs, vaguely, characterize intransitive experiences and processes, although Tobler fails to provide specific examples of the distinctions. Tobler does note that Event and Experience verbs take a semantic agent, while Process and State phrases lack one, such that Experience verbs (like /sɔtʃi/, "leave/get out," and /asi/, "sit") could be analyzed as unergatives, and Process verbs (like /bule/, "be burned," and /tõbe/, "fall") as unaccusatives. </p><p>Tense marking for sentences in KFC interacts with the class of verb phrase in the sentence. All classes of VP use the /ke/ future tense marker, and /teke/ conditional tense marker. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">if</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ripe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nu</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mãje-l</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object(ive)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">si li mi nu ke mãje-l</p><p style="display: none;">if 3SG ripe 1PL FUT eat-3SG.OBJ</p><p style="clear: left;">"If it's ripe, then we will eat it."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">if</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">te</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gã</p><p style="margin: 0px;">have</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lajõ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">money</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">teke</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aʃte</p><p style="margin: 0px;">buy</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wun</p><p style="margin: 0px;">one</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hadj</p><p style="margin: 0px;">radio</p></div><p style="display: none;">si mo te gã lajõ mo teke aʃte wun hadj</p><p style="display: none;">if 1SG PRES have money 1SG COND buy one radio</p><p style="clear: left;">"If I had had the money, I would have bought a radio."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Exclusive to Event and Process class VPs is the present progressive /ka/ marker, and the past incomplete tense marker /teka/. For event and process verbs, a null tense marker is analyzed as the past complete tense. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dʒife</p><p style="margin: 0px;">fire</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ka</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="progressive aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fun</p><p style="margin: 0px;">melt</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ghɛs</p><p style="margin: 0px;">lard</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="demonstrative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEM</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">dʒife ka fun ghɛs la</p><p style="display: none;">fire PRES.PROG melt lard DEM</p><p style="clear: left;">"The fire is melting the lard."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ale</p><p style="margin: 0px;">go</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la</p><p style="margin: 0px;">there</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kote</p><p style="margin: 0px;">where</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">je</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">teka</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past incomplete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.INCOMPL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bhiga</p><p style="margin: 0px;">fight</p></div><p style="display: none;">li ale la kote je teka bhiga</p><p style="display: none;">3SG go there where 3PL <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past incomplete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.INCOMPL</abbr> fight</p><p style="clear: left;">"He went where they were fighting."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lapli</p><p style="margin: 0px;">rain</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ø</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past complete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.COMPL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tõbe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">fall</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">all</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nanwit</p><p style="margin: 0px;">in.night</p></div><p style="display: none;">lapli ø tõbe tu nanwit</p><p style="display: none;">rain <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past complete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.COMPL</abbr> fall all in.night</p><p style="clear: left;">"The rain fell all night."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>For Experience and State class VPs, the past complete tense is marked by the tense marker /te/, whereas the null tense marker is understood as the present progressive tense. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">te</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past complete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.COMPL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">malad</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sick</p></div><p style="display: none;">mo te malad</p><p style="display: none;">1SG.SUBJ <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past complete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.COMPL</abbr> sick</p><p style="clear: left;">"I was sick."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kɔ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">body</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ø</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʃɔ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hot</p></div><p style="display: none;">mo kɔ ø ʃɔ</p><p style="display: none;">1SG.POSS body PRES hot</p><p style="clear: left;">"I am hot."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conditionals">Conditionals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Conditionals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "conditional tense marker" /teke/ indicates a strictly hypothetical conditional relation ("if S had been, H would have"). The conditional marker /si/ can also be used with other tense markers than /teke/ however, but requires strict correspondence between the markers used. Tobler distinguishes three kinds of conditional constructions, employing distinct uses of the tense markers.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1983_10-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1983-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first conditional, "authentic" construction is used for genuine, specific, events, that haven’t occurred yet. This construction uses the present progressive tense marker /ka/ in the conditional phrase and the future tense marker /ke/ in the result phrase. For example: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">if</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ka</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="progressive aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hive</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arrive</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">li</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bõ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">good</p></div><p style="display: none;">si li ka hive li ke bõ</p><p style="display: none;">if 3SG PRES.PROG arrive 3SG FUT good</p><p style="clear: left;">"If he arrives it will be good."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The (former) conditional clause in this construction can also drop /ka/, with no apparent semantic change. </p><p>The "generalization" conditional construction applies to general rules and principles about the world, using the null tense marker in the conditional phrase and the present progressive /ka/ in the result phrase, as such: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">if</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">u</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ø</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past incomplete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.INCOMPL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kupe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cut</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vitmã</p><p style="margin: 0px;">quickly</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ka</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="progressive aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fãde</p><p style="margin: 0px;">break</p></div><p style="display: none;">si u ø kupe vitmã ka fãde</p><p style="display: none;">if 2SG <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past incomplete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.INCOMPL</abbr> cut quickly PRES.PROG break</p><p style="clear: left;">"If you cut it quickly it will break."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The hypothetical conditional construction translates roughly to "if S had been, H would have," and uses the past complete /te/ marker for the conditional clause, and the conditional /teke/ marker for the main clause. This construction applies strictly to hypothetical situations that might have happened, rather than ones that have habitually (the generalization construction) or may in the future (the "authentic" construction). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">si-l</p><p style="margin: 0px;">if-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">te</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past complete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.COMPL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hive</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arrive</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">teke</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pale</p><p style="margin: 0px;">talk</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ke-l</p><p style="margin: 0px;">with-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">si-l te hive mo teke pale ke-l</p><p style="display: none;">if-3SG <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="Past complete tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST.COMPL</abbr> arrive 1SG COND talk with-3SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"If he had arrive, I would have talked with him."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Guianese_Creole" title="French Guianese Creole">French Guianese Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antillean_creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Antillean creole">Antillean creole</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e21-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e21_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/21/language/kmv">Karipúna French Creole</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (21st ed., 2018) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ladhams-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladhams_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLadhams1995" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ladhams, I. 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(ed.). <i>From Contact to Creole and Beyond</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Investigating+the+background+of+Karip%C3%BAna+Creole+French&rft.btitle=From+Contact+to+Creole+and+Beyond&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Ladhams&rft.aufirst=I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anonby-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonby_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnonby2007" class="citation cs2">Anonby, Stan (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/53/04/15/53041598869863432280125559389596578768/silesr2007_020.pdf"><i>A Report on the Creoles of Amapá</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, SIL International</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Report+on+the+Creoles+of+Amap%C3%A1&rft.pub=SIL+International&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anonby&rft.aufirst=Stan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Freapdata%2F53%2F04%2F15%2F53041598869863432280125559389596578768%2Fsilesr2007_020.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AF-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AF_4-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlleyneFerreira2007" class="citation journal cs1">Alleyne, Mervyn C.; Ferreira, Jo-Anne S. (2007). "Comparative perspectives on the origins, development and structure of Amazonian (Karipúna) French Creole". <i>Synchronic and diachronic perspectives on contact languages</i>. <b>32</b>: 325.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synchronic+and+diachronic+perspectives+on+contact+languages&rft.atitle=Comparative+perspectives+on+the+origins%2C+development+and+structure+of+Amazonian+%28Karip%C3%BAna%29+French+Creole&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=325&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Alleyne&rft.aufirst=Mervyn+C.&rft.au=Ferreira%2C+Jo-Anne+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Povos-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Povos_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Povos_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Povos_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Povos_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/karipuna-do-amapa/379">"History"</a>. <i>Povos Indígenas No Brasil</i>. 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(2010). "Bilingual education among the Karipúna and Galibi-Marwono: Prospects and possibilities for language preservation". In Migge, Bettina; Léglise, Isabelle; Bartens, Angela (eds.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creoleseducation00migg"><i>Creoles in Education: An appraisal of current programs and projects</i></a></span>. Creole Language Library Volume 36. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamis Publishing Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creoleseducation00migg/page/n219">211</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2139%2F41236">2139/41236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bilingual+education+among+the+Karip%C3%BAna+and+Galibi-Marwono%3A+Prospects+and+possibilities+for+language+preservation&rft.btitle=Creoles+in+Education%3A+An+appraisal+of+current+programs+and+projects&rft.place=Amsterdam%2FPhiladelphia&rft.series=Creole+Language+Library+Volume+36&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=John+Benjamis+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2139%2F41236&rft.aulast=Ferreira&rft.aufirst=Jo-Anne+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreoleseducation00migg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ethnologue-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisSimonsFennig2016" class="citation web cs1">Lewis, Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. 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(1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/51/63/94/51639409348228699887871065871262239111/KADic.pdf"><i>Dicionário Crioulo Karipúna/Português Português/Crioulo Karipúna</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Belem: Edicoes Mensageiro.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Djisone+Kheuol-Portxige%3A+O+Nosso+Dicion%C3%A1rio+Portugu%C3%AAs-Khueol+%28Povos+Karip%C3%BAna+e+Galibi+Marworno%29&rft.place=Belem&rft.pub=Edicoes+Mensageiro&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Montejo&rft.aufirst=Francisca+Pican%C3%A7o&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TassCohn-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TassCohn_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTassinariCohn2009" class="citation journal cs1">Tassinari, Antonella Imperatriz; Cohn, Clarice (2009). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Opening to the Other": Schooling among the Karipúna and Mebengokré‐Xikrin of Brazil". <i>Anthropology & Education Quarterly</i>. 40. <b>2</b>: 150–169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropology+%26+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%22Opening+to+the+Other%22%3A+Schooling+among+the+Karip%C3%BAna+and+Mebengokr%C3%A9%E2%80%90Xikrin+of+Brazil&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=150-169&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Tassinari&rft.aufirst=Antonella+Imperatriz&rft.au=Cohn%2C+Clarice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PHOIBLE-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PHOIBLE_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PHOIBLE_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phoible.org/inventories/view/907">"Inventory Karipuna Creole French (PH)"</a>. <i>PHOIBLE</i>. 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PHOIBLE&rft.atitle=Inventory+Karipuna+Creole+French+%28PH%29&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphoible.org%2Finventories%2Fview%2F907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hage-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hage_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hage_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagemeijer2009" class="citation book cs1">Hagemeijer, Tjerk (2009). "Initial vowel agglutination in the Gulf of Guinea creoles". In Aboh, Enoch O.; Smith, Norval (eds.). <i>Complex Processes in New Languages</i>. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 29–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-5257-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-5257-9"><bdi>978-90-272-5257-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Initial+vowel+agglutination+in+the+Gulf+of+Guinea+creoles&rft.btitle=Complex+Processes+in+New+Languages&rft.place=Amsterdam%2FPhiladelphia&rft.pages=29-50&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-272-5257-9&rft.aulast=Hagemeijer&rft.aufirst=Tjerk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KouLaC-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KouLaC_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKouwenbergLaCharité2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kouwenberg, Silvia; LaCharité, Darlene (2001). "The iconic interpretations of reduplication: Issues in the study of reduplication in Caribbean Creole languages". <i>European Journal of English Studies</i>. 5. <b>1</b>: 59–80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+English+Studies&rft.atitle=The+iconic+interpretations+of+reduplication%3A+Issues+in+the+study+of+reduplication+in+Caribbean+Creole+languages&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=59-80&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Kouwenberg&rft.aufirst=Silvia&rft.au=LaCharit%C3%A9%2C+Darlene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacobs-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobs_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobs_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2011" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs, Bart (2011). "The origin and originality of passivization in Papiamentu". <i>Journal of Portuguese Linguistics</i>. 10. <b>2</b>: 31–56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Portuguese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+origin+and+originality+of+passivization+in+Papiamentu&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=31-56&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckkrammer2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Eckkrammer, Eva Martha (2004). "Passive voice in Papiamento: A corpus-based study on dialectal variability". <i>Creoles, Contact, and Language Change: Linguistic and Social Implications</i>. Amsterdam: Benjamis. pp. 209–219.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Passive+voice+in+Papiamento%3A+A+corpus-based+study+on+dialectal+variability&rft.btitle=Creoles%2C+Contact%2C+and+Language+Change%3A+Linguistic+and+Social+Implications&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=209-219&rft.pub=Benjamis&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Eckkrammer&rft.aufirst=Eva+Martha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winford-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Winford_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinford1988" class="citation journal cs1">Winford, Donald (1988). "Stativity and other aspects of the creole passive". <i>Lingua</i>. 76. <b>4</b>: 271–297.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lingua&rft.atitle=Stativity+and+other+aspects+of+the+creole+passive&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=271-297&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Winford&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarip%C3%BAna+French+Creole" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Andrade, Julieta de. 1984. <i>Cultura Crioula e Lanc-Patuá no Norte do Brasil.</i> Escola de Folclore, S. Paulo.</li> <li>Anonby, Stan. 2007. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/SILESR/abstract.asp?ref=2007-020">A report on the creoles of Amapá</a></i>. SIL Electronic Survey Report. SILESR 2007-020.</li> <li>Nimuendajú, Curt. 1926. <i>Die Palikur-Indianer und ihre Nachbarn</i>. Elanders Boktryckeri Aktiebolag, Göteborg.</li> <li>Tobler, Alfred W. 1987. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/americas/BRASIL/publcns/dictgram/KADic.pdf">Dicionário crioulo karipúna/português português/karipúna</a></i>. Summer Institute of Linguistics, Brasília, DF.</li> <li>Tobler, S. Joy. 1983. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/americas/BRASIL/publcns/dictgram/KAGram.pdf">The grammar of karipúna creole</a></i>. Série Lingüística Nº 10: 1-156. Summer Institute of Linguistics, Brasília.</li> <li>Wittmann, Henri. 1987. "Substrat et superstrat dans le français créole des Indiens Karipouns." Paper, 7th Annual Congress of the Association québécoise de linguistique, University of Ottawa, May 19–22. Abstract in: <i>Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée</i> 6:1.26.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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languages</a> and pidgins by continent</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burundi_Pidgin_French" title="Burundi Pidgin French">Burundi Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouchi">Nouchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Petit Mauresque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ais_Tirailleur" title="Français Tirailleur">Petit nègre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antillean_Creole" title="Antillean Creole">Antillean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Creole_French" title="Dominican Creole French">Dominican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadian_Creole_French" title="Grenadian Creole French">Grenadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Guadeloupe Creole">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinican_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinican Creole">Martinican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucian_Creole" title="Saint Lucian Creole">Saint Lucian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guianese_Creole" title="French Guianese Creole">Guianese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Karipúna French Creole language">Karipúna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanc-Patu%C3%A1_creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanc-Patuá creole">Lanc-Patuá</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labrador_Inuit_Pidgin_French" title="Labrador Inuit Pidgin French">Belle Isle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_B%E1%BB%93i_Pidgin_French" title="Tây Bồi Pidgin French">Tây Bồi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourbonnais_Creole" title="Bourbonnais Creole">Bourbonnais</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agalega_creole" title="Agalega creole">Agalega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagossian_creole" title="Chagossian creole">Chagossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritian_Creole" title="Mauritian Creole">Mauritian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union_Creole" title="Réunion Creole">Réunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodriguan_creole" title="Rodriguan creole">Rodriguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychellois_Creole" title="Seychellois Creole">Seychellois</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tayo_Creole" title="Tayo Creole">Tayo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" title="Template:Gallo-Romance languages and dialects"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" title="Template talk:Gallo-Romance languages and dialects"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gallo-Romance languages and dialects"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance languages</a> and dialects</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areal groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">Canadian French</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Langues d'oïl</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antillean_Creole" title="Antillean Creole">Antillean Creole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Creole_French" title="Dominican Creole French">Dominican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadian_Creole_French" title="Grenadian Creole French">Grenadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucian_Creole" title="Saint Lucian Creole">Saint Lucian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bourbonnais_Creole" title="Bourbonnais Creole">Bourbonnais Creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agalega_creole" title="Agalega creole">Agalega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagossian_creole" title="Chagossian creole">Chagossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritian_Creole" title="Mauritian Creole">Mauritian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union_Creole" title="Réunion Creole">Réunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodriguan_creole" title="Rodriguan creole">Rodriguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychellois_Creole" title="Seychellois Creole">Seychellois</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadian_French" title="Acadian French">Acadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiac" title="Chiac">Chiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Marys_Bay_French" title="St. Marys Bay French">St. Marys Bay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_French" title="African French">African</a>* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_French#Abidjan_French_vocabulary" title="African French">Abidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_French#Kinshasa_French_vocabulary" title="African French">Kinshasa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aostan_French" title="Aostan French">Aostan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_French" title="Belgian French">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_French" title="Métis French">Métis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England_French" title="New England French">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_French" title="Quebec French">Québécois</a>* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joual" title="Joual">Joual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magoua" title="Magoua">Magoua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Cambodia" title="French language in Cambodia">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francien_language" title="Francien language">Francien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenchville_French" title="Frenchville French">Frenchville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_French" title="Haitian French">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houma_people#Modern_era" title="Houma people">Houma French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_people_in_India#Indian_French" title="French people in India">Indian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Legal_French" title="Jersey Legal French">Jersey Legal</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Laos" title="French language in Laos">Laotian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridional_French" title="Meridional French">Meridional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_of_France" title="French of France">Metropolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_French" title="Missouri French">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskrat_French" title="Muskrat French">Muskrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_French" title="Newfoundland French">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontarian_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontarian French">Ontarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Barth%C3%A9lemy_French" title="Saint-Barthélemy French">Saint-Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_French" title="Standard French">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_French" title="Swiss French">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augeron" title="Augeron">Augeron</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Auregnais" title="Auregnais">Auregnais</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchois_dialect" title="Cauchois dialect">Cauchois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotentinais" title="Cotentinais">Cotentinais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais" title="Jèrriais">Jèrriais</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sercquiais" title="Sercquiais">Sercquiais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_dialect" title="Angevin dialect">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berrichon_dialect" title="Berrichon dialect">Berrichon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolze" title="Bolze">Bolze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbonnais_dialects" title="Bourbonnais dialects">Bourbonnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_language_(O%C3%AFl)" title="Burgundian language (Oïl)">Burgundian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundi_Pidgin_French" title="Burundi Pidgin French">Burundi Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camfranglais" title="Camfranglais">Camfranglais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champenois_language" title="Champenois language">Champenois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frainc-Comtou" title="Frainc-Comtou">Frainc-Comtou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guianese_Creole" title="French Guianese Creole">Guianese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a>*</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Karipúna Creole</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Labrador_Inuit_Pidgin_French" title="Labrador Inuit Pidgin French">Labrador Inuit Pidgin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorrain_language" title="Lorrain language">Lorrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welche" title="Welche">Welche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">Louisiana French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Romance" title="Moselle Romance">Moselle Romance</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouchi">Nouchi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anais_dialect" title="Orléanais dialect">Orléanais</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ais_Tirailleur" title="Français Tirailleur">Petit nègre</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poitevin-Saintongeais" class="mw-redirect" title="Poitevin-Saintongeais">Poitevin-Saintongeais</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poitevin_dialect" title="Poitevin dialect">Poitevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saintongeais_dialect" title="Saintongeais dialect">Saintongeais</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayo_Creole" title="Tayo Creole">Tayo</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_B%E1%BB%93i_Pidgin_French" title="Tây Bồi Pidgin French">Tây Bồi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Walloon" title="Wisconsin Walloon">Wisconsin Walloon</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Francoprovencalic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faetar_language" title="Faetar language">Faetar</a>/Faetar-Cigliàje</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Franco-Provençal">Franco-Provençal</a>/Arpitan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_dialect" title="Savoyard dialect">Savoyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vald%C3%B4tain_dialect" title="Valdôtain dialect">Valdôtain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> or dialects</li> <li>A star (*) indicates <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">varieties with more than 5 million speakers</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Brazil" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Brazil" title="Template:Languages of Brazil"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Brazil" title="Template talk:Languages of Brazil"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Brazil" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Brazil"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Brazil" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Brazil" title="Languages of Brazil">Languages of Brazil</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese" title="Brazilian Portuguese">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Sign_Language" title="Brazilian Sign Language">Brazilian Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_German" title="Brazilian German">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian_dialect" title="East Pomeranian dialect">Pomeranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talian_dialect" title="Talian dialect">Talian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%C3%A1ninka_language" title="Asháninka language">Asháninka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atorada_language" title="Atorada language">Atorada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baniwa_language_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Baniwa language (disambiguation)">Baniwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barawana_language" title="Barawana language">Barawana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar%C3%A9_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Baré language">Baré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enawen%C3%AA-Naw%C3%AA_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Enawenê-Nawê language">Enawenê-Nawê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawayana_language" title="Mawayana language">Mapidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehinaku_language" title="Mehinaku language">Mehinaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palik%C3%BAr_language" title="Palikúr language">Palikúr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paresi_language" title="Paresi language">Paresi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariana_language" title="Tariana language">Tariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ter%C3%AAna_language" title="Terêna language">Terêna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wapishana_language" title="Wapishana language">Wapishana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warekena_language" title="Warekena language">Warekena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waur%C3%A1_language" title="Waurá language">Waurá</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arawan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deni_language" title="Deni language">Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mad%C3%AD_language" title="Madí language">Jamamadí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulina_language" title="Kulina language">Kulina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paumar%C3%AD_language" title="Paumarí language">Paumarí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuruah%C3%A1_language" title="Zuruahá language">Zuruahá</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amonap_language" title="Amonap language">Amonap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apala%C3%AD_language" title="Apalaí language">Apalaí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakairi_language" title="Bakairi language">Bakairi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carib_language" title="Carib language">Carib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hixkaryana_language" title="Hixkaryana language">Hixkaryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikpeng_language" title="Ikpeng language">Ikpeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macushi_language" title="Macushi language">Macushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Par%C3%A1_Ar%C3%A1ra_language" title="Pará Arára language">Pará Arára</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salum%C3%A1_language" title="Salumá language">Salumá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikiana_language" title="Sikiana language">Sikiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye%27kuana_language" title="Ye'kuana language">Ye'kuana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waiwai_language" title="Waiwai language">Waiwai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Panoan_languages" title="Panoan languages">Panoan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amawaka_language" title="Amawaka language">Amawaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashinawa_language" title="Kashinawa language">Kashinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipibo_language" title="Shipibo language">Shipibo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaminawa_language" title="Yaminawa language">Yaminawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xer%C3%A9nte_language" title="Xerénte language">Akwẽ-Xerénte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apinay%C3%A9_language" title="Apinayé language">Apinajé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikap%C3%BA_language" title="Arikapú language">Arikapú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bororo_language" title="Bororo language">Bororo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djeoromitx%C3%AD_language" title="Djeoromitxí language">Djeoromitxí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaingang_language" title="Kaingang language">Kaingang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaj%C3%A1_language" title="Karajá language">Karajá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%A9s%C3%AAdj%C3%AA_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kĩsêdjê language">Kĩsêdjê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krenak_language" title="Krenak language">Krenak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xokleng_language" title="Xokleng language">Laklãnõ (Xokléng)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxakal%C3%AD_language" title="Maxakalí language">Maxakalí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayap%C3%B3_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayapó language">Mẽbêngôkre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ofay%C3%A9_language" title="Ofayé language">Ofayé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panar%C3%A1_language" title="Panará language">Panará</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rikbaktsa_language" title="Rikbaktsa language">Rikbaktsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapayuna_language" title="Tapayuna language">Tapayúna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timbira_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timbira languages">Timbira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xavante_language" title="Xavante language">Xavante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A2w_language" title="Dâw language">Dâw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hup_language" title="Hup language">Hup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakwa_language" title="Kakwa language">Kakwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nad%C3%ABb_language" title="Nadëb language">Nadëb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akw%C3%A1wa_language" title="Akwáwa language">Akwáwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gavi%C3%A3o_of_Jiparan%C3%A1" title="Gavião of Jiparaná">Gavião of Jiparaná</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juruna_language" title="Juruna language">Juruna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagwahiva_language" title="Kagwahiva language">Kagwahiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiw%C3%A1_language" title="Kaiwá language">Kaiwá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munduruku_language" title="Munduruku language">Munduruku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nheengatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nheengatu">Nheengatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omagua_language" title="Omagua language">Omagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapirap%C3%A9_language" title="Tapirapé language">Tapirapé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenetehara_language" title="Tenetehara language">Tenetehara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeta_language" title="Xeta language">Xeta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xipaya_language" title="Xipaya language">Xipaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zo%27%C3%A9_language" title="Zo'é language">Zo'é</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oro_Win_language" title="Oro Win language">Oro Win</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari%CA%BC_language" title="Wariʼ language">Wariʼ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tukanoan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukanoan languages">Tukanoan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cubeo_language" title="Cubeo language">Cubeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucano_language" title="Tucano language">Tukano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuyuca_language" title="Tuyuca language">Tuyuca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanano_language" title="Wanano language">Wanano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamaind%C3%AA_language" title="Mamaindê language">Mamaindê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_language" title="Nambikwara language">Nambikwara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saban%C3%AA_language" title="Sabanê language">Sabanê</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadiw%C3%A9u_language" title="Kadiwéu language">Kadiwéu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanamar%C3%AD_language" title="Kanamarí language">Kanamarí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katawixi_language" title="Katawixi language">Katawixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninam_language" title="Ninam language">Ninam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language" title="Pirahã language">Pirahã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna_language" title="Ticuna language">Ticuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xukuru_language" title="Xukuru language">Xukuru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interlanguages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cafund%C3%B3_language" title="Cafundó language">Cafundó</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lanc-Patuá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Paulista" title="Italo-Paulista">Macarrônico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulista_General_Language" title="Paulista General Language">Paulista General Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_Portuguese" title="Uruguayan Portuguese">Portunhol fronteiriço</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Sign_Language" title="Brazilian Sign Language">Brazilian Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%27apor_Sign_Language" title="Ka'apor Sign Language">Ka'apor Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terena_Sign_Language" title="Terena Sign Language">Terena Sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Vlax Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a 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