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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origin of the name Qing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_the_name_Qing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_name_China_for_the_Qing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_name_China_for_the_Qing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The name China for the Qing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_name_China_for_the_Qing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_names_in_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_names_in_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>List of names in English</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_names_in_English-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of names in English subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_names_in_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alternative_names_in_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_names_in_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Alternative names in English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_names_in_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_names_or_romanizations_officially_used_during_the_Qing_dynasty_in_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_names_or_romanizations_officially_used_during_the_Qing_dynasty_in_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Historical names or romanizations officially used during the Qing dynasty in English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_names_or_romanizations_officially_used_during_the_Qing_dynasty_in_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_(unofficial)_historical_names_in_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_(unofficial)_historical_names_in_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Other (unofficial) historical names in English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_(unofficial)_historical_names_in_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_language_names_within_the_Qing_dynasty_and_contexts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_language_names_within_the_Qing_dynasty_and_contexts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Native language names within the Qing dynasty and contexts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_language_names_within_the_Qing_dynasty_and_contexts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Names_in_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Names_in_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Names in other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Names_in_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Names for the Qing dynasty</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg/220px-2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg/330px-2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg/440px-2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4752" /></a><figcaption>The “Daqing Gate” in <a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a>, used Manchu and Chinese characters</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">English: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/tʃ/: 'ch' in 'China'">tʃ</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span></span>/</a></span></span>) was an imperial <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Chinese dynasty</a> ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a> clan of <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> ethnicity. Officially known as the Great Qing, the dynastic empire was also widely known in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> as <b>China</b> and the <b>Chinese Empire</b> both during its existence, especially internationally, and after the fall of the dynasty. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">special characters</a>.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a>.</div></div> </div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earlier_names">Earlier names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Earlier names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Later Jin</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BE%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:後">後</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%87%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:金">金</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%8E" class="extiw" title="wikt:后">后</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%87%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:金">金</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:国">国</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Later Gold State</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Hòu Jīn Guó</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Hou<sup>4</sup> Chin<sup>1</sup> Kuo<sup>2</sup></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">hau<sup>6</sup> gam<sup>1</sup> gwok<sup>3</sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Manchu name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu script</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237794275">.mw-parser-output .font-mong{font-family:"Menk Hawang Tig","Menk Qagan Tig","Menk Garqag Tig","Menk Har_a Tig","Menk Scnin Tig","Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig","Oyun Qagan Tig","Oyun Garqag Tig","Oyun Har_a Tig","Oyun Scnin Tig","Oyun Agula Tig","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White","Mongol Usug","Mongolian White","MongolianScript","Code2000","Menksoft Qagan"}.mw-parser-output .font-mong-mnc,.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(mnc-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(dta-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(sjo-Mong){font-family:"Abkai Xanyan","Abkai Xanyan LA","Abkai Xanyan VT","Abkai Xanyan XX","Abkai Xanyan SC","Abkai Buleku","Daicing White","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White"}</style><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', sans-serif; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amaga_aisin_gurun1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Amaga Aisin Gurun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Amaga_aisin_gurun1.png/50px-Amaga_aisin_gurun1.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Amaga_aisin_gurun1.png/75px-Amaga_aisin_gurun1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Amaga_aisin_gurun1.png/100px-Amaga_aisin_gurun1.png 2x" data-file-width="388" data-file-height="222" /></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Amaga Aisin Gurun</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1616 <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> declared himself the "Bright Khan" of the <i>Later Jin</i> state (Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BE%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:後">後</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%87%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:金">金</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a></span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Hòu Jīn Guó</span></i>; <abbr title="Literal translation"><small>lit.</small></abbr> 'Later Gold State'; Jurchen/Manchu: <i>Amaga Aisin gurun</i>) in honor both of the 12–13th century <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> and of his <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a> clan (<i>Aisin</i> being <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> for the Chinese <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%87%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:金">金</a> (<i>jīn</i>, "gold")). <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_qtgoTIAiKUC_56]_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_qtgoTIAiKUC_56]-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dynasty became known as the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin dynasty</a> by historians.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His son <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> renamed the dynasty <i>Great Qing</i> in 1636, sometimes referred to as the Predynastic Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1644 the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> established the dynastic capital in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> and was enthroned in the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shortly after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644). The Qing dynasty completely conquered the Ming dynasty's <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">rump regimes</a> (collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a>) by 1662. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_the_name_Qing">Origin of the name Qing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin of the name Qing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Great Qing</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:淸">淸</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:清">清</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Dà Qīng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Ta<sup>2</sup> Ch'ing<sup>1</sup></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">daai<sup>6</sup> cing<sup>1</sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Manchu name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu script</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', sans-serif; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Daicing Gurun</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The name <i>Great Qing</i> first appeared in 1636. Since there was no official explanation from the Qing government about the origin of the name, there are competing explanations on the meaning of <i>Qīng</i> (lit. "clear" or "pure"). The name may have been selected in reaction to the name of the Ming dynasty (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E" class="extiw" title="wikt:明">明</a> or <i>Great Ming</i>), whereas the character <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E" class="extiw" title="wikt:明">明</a> is composed of elements "sun" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:日">日</a>) and "moon" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%88" class="extiw" title="wikt:月">月</a>), both associated with the fire element of the <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Chinese zodiacal system</a>. The character <i>Qīng</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:清">清</a>) is composed of "water" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:氵">氵</a>) and "azure" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9D%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:青">青</a>), both associated with the water element. This association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water. The water imagery of the new name may also have had Buddhist overtones of perspicacity and enlightenment and connections with the Bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Manjusri" class="mw-redirect" title="Manjusri">Manjusri</a>. Alternatively, <i>Great Qing</i> may come from ancient Chinese text <i><a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a></i>, which included clauses like "鏡大清者，視乎大明" and "鑑於大清，視於大明", whereas "Great Qing" (大清) referred to the sky and "Great Ming" (大明) referred to the Sun and Moon, with the sky covering the Sun and Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Qing" is also the name of several rivers in Manchuria, at one of which Nurhaci won a key battle in 1619.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1997212–213_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1997212–213-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, in its <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> pronunciation, <i>Daicing</i> is a near <a href="/wiki/Homonym" title="Homonym">homonym</a> with the Mongol word <i>daicin</i>, meaning "militant" or "warlike".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliottChia2004p._98_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliottChia2004p._98-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_name_China_for_the_Qing">The name China for the Qing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The name China for the Qing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Central State</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:中">中</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:中">中</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:国">国</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Zhōngguó</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Chung<sup>1</sup>-kuo<sup>2</sup></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">zung<sup>1</sup> gwok<sup>3</sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Manchu name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu script</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', sans-serif; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_in_Manchu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dulimbai Gurun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/China_in_Manchu.svg/45px-China_in_Manchu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/China_in_Manchu.svg/68px-China_in_Manchu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/China_in_Manchu.svg/90px-China_in_Manchu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="334" data-file-height="331" /></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dulimbai Gurun</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg/220px-Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg/330px-Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg/440px-Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="265" /></a><figcaption>Qing postal stamps released in 1878</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qing dynasty was not founded by the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han people</a>, but by the Manchus. Since its time the Qing became widely known internationally in English as "China"<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the "<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese Empire</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <i>China</i> being the standard English translation of <i>Zhongguo</i> or <i>Dulimbai Gurun</i>. They were commonly used in for instance international communications and treaties in addition to English-language <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a> etc. during the Qing period. </p><p>While orthodox historians tend to emphasize the power of the Han people to "<a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicize</a>" their conquerors in their thought and institutions, scholars of the <a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a> tend to deconstruct the concept of "sinicization" and attempt to approach the Qing as an <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asian</a> rather than Chinese empire,<sup id="cite_ref-dialog_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dialog-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arguing that the Qing drew on both Chinese and Inner Asian political traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, scholar Zhang Jian pointed out the various ways in which the word "sinicization" can be understood.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholar Yuanchong Wang emphasized that instead of focusing on the Manchu ethnic identity for the concept of "sinicization", he used the term "sinicization" in a different sense, in the hope to show how the Manchu regime, instead of the ethnic Manchus, promoted itself as the exclusively civilized <a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Middle Kingdom</a> or <i>Zhongguo</i>. He wrote that the Qing's depiction of itself as a Chinese empire was not hindered by the imperial house's Manchu ethnicity, especially after 1644, when the name "Chinese" took on a multiethnic meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholar Hui Wang noted that the recognition of the Qing dynasty as China by neighbouring dynasties and European states was also accompanied by the Qing's conscious effort to position itself as a Chinese dynasty and to inherit Chinese dynasties' role in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholar Zhao Gang pointed out that the Qing emperors accepted their own Chinese identity, but it was not passive assimilation, as they actively changed old China from a Han-centered cultural notion to a multi-ethnic political entity; in other words, Manchu rulers gave a new meaning to the word "China" while becoming Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-dialog2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dialog2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After conquering <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>, the Manchus commonly called their state <i>Zhongguo</i> (Chinese: <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:中">中</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a></span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōngguó</span></i>, lit. "middle state", the name for China), and referred to it as <i>Dulimbai Gurun</i> in Manchu (lit. "central state", from Chinese <i>Zhongguo</i>). The emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including present day <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and other areas) as <i>Zhongguo</i> (<i>Dulimbai Gurun</i>) in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, and rejecting the idea that <i>Zhongguo</i> only meant Han areas. The Qing emperors proclaimed that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of <i>Zhongguo</i>. They used both "Zhongguo" and "Great Qing" to refer to their state in official documents. "Chinese language" (<i>Dulimbai gurun i bithe</i>) included Chinese, Manchu, and Mongolian languages, and "Chinese people" (Chinese: <span lang="zh">中國之人</span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōngguó zhī rén</span></i>; Manchu: <i>Dulimbai gurun i niyalma</i>) referred to all subjects of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhao2006n_[httpswebarchiveorgweb20140325231543httpswebspaceutexaseduhl4958perspectivesZhao20-20reinventing20chinapdf_4,_7–10,_and_12–14]_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao2006n_[httpswebarchiveorgweb20140325231543httpswebspaceutexaseduhl4958perspectivesZhao20-20reinventing20chinapdf_4,_7–10,_and_12–14]-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Qing <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns#Three_campaigns_against_the_Dzungars_and_the_pacification_of_Xinjiang_(1755–1759)" title="Ten Great Campaigns">conquered Dzungaria in 1759</a>, they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into "China" (<i>Dulimbai Gurun</i>) in a Manchu-language memorial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliottChia200477,_83_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliottChia200477,_83-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_qtgoTIAiKUCpgPA503_503]_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_qtgoTIAiKUCpgPA503_503]-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Manchu-language version of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)#Convention_of_Kyakhta_(1768)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Convention of Kyakhta</a> (1768), a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits, referred to people from the Qing as "people from the Central Kingdom" (<i>Dulimbai gurun i niyalma</i>, i.e. "Chinese people" in Manchu).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECassel201244_and_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqlJpAgAAQBAJpgPA205_205]_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECassel201244_and_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqlJpAgAAQBAJpgPA205_205]-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing also established <a href="/wiki/Legation" title="Legation">legations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consulate" title="Consulate">consulates</a> known as the "Chinese Legation", "Imperial Consulate of China", "Imperial Chinese Consulate (General)" or similar names in <a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">various countries with diplomatic relations</a>, such as in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> (or <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Both English and Chinese terms such as "China" and "Zhongguo" were frequently used by Qing consulates and legations there to refer to the Qing state during their diplomatic correspondences with foreign states.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English name "China" was also used domestically by the Qing, such as in its officially released stamps since Qing set up a modern postal system in 1878. The <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamp" title="Postage stamp">postal stamps</a> (known as 大龍郵票 in Chinese) had a design of a large dragon in the centre, surrounded by a boxed frame with a bilingual inscription of "CHINA" (corresponding to the Great Qing Empire in Chinese) and the local denomination "CANDARINS".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the early 20th century, various textbooks with the names "Chinese geography" (中國地理) and "Chinese history" (中國歷史) as approved by the Qing's Board of Education had emerged for educational purposes. For example, Chinese geography textbooks published in the period gave detailed descriptions of China's regional position and territorial space.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing dynasty created the first <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationality_law" title="Chinese nationality law">Chinese nationality law</a> in 1909, which defined a Chinese national (Chinese: <span lang="zh">中國國籍</span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōngguó Guójí</span></i>) as any person born to a Chinese father. Children born to a Chinese mother inherited her nationality only if the father was <a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">stateless</a> or had unknown nationality status.<sup id="cite_ref-Shao5_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shao5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Jus_sanguinis" title="Jus sanguinis">Jus sanguinis</a></i> was chosen to define Chinese nationality so that the Qing could counter foreign claims on <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">overseas Chinese</a> populations and maintain the perpetual <a href="/wiki/Allegiance" title="Allegiance">allegiance</a> of its subjects living abroad through paternal lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Chinese word called <i>xuètǒng</i> (血統), which means "bloodline" as a literal translation, is used to explain the descent relationship that would characterize someone as being of Chinese descent, and therefore, eligible under the Qing laws and beyond, for Chinese citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_names_in_English">List of names in English</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: List of names in English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_names_in_English">Alternative names in English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Alternative names in English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>China</dt> <dd>As a general term for the country. Applied to the Qing dynasty since the early Qing period.</dd> <dt>Chinese Empire</dt> <dd>As a general term for the imperial state. Applied to the Qing dynasty since the early Qing period.</dd> <dt>Central State, or Middle Kingdom</dt> <dd>Translation of Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:中">中</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a>, as a general term for the country. Applied to the Qing dynasty since the early Qing period.</dd> <dt>Qing Empire,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ching Empire, or Ch'ing Empire</dt> <dd>Mostly used when specifically referring to the empire. The three spellings (Qing, Ching, Ch'ing) are various <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">romanizations</a> for the same sound (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">English: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/tʃ/: 'ch' in 'China'">tʃ</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span></span>/</a></span></span>).</dd> <dt>Empire of the Great Qing<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Translation of Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:清">清</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B8%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:帝">帝</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a>.</dd> <dt>Great Qing<sup id="cite_ref-ourgameqing_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ourgameqing-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Translation of Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:清">清</a>, the "official name" in Chinese.</dd> <dt>Great Qing state<sup id="cite_ref-ourgameqing_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ourgameqing-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Translation of Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:清">清</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a> or Manchu:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ</span></dd> <dt>Manchu dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Used by some westerners, similar to the name "Mongol dynasty" for the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. Sometimes written as "Manchu Dynasty of China".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Manchu empire<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Used by some westerners (including some <a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a> scholars). Alternatively (and historically) rendered as "Manchoo empire"<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "Mantchoo empire"<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 19th century. Also written as "Manchu empire of China".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional names such as "Manchu Qing dynasty" or "Manchu Qing empire" are used for emphasizing the Manchuness of the Qing dynasty.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_names_or_romanizations_officially_used_during_the_Qing_dynasty_in_English">Historical names or romanizations officially used during the Qing dynasty in English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Historical names or romanizations officially used during the Qing dynasty in English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Ta Ching</dt> <dd>The transliteration of Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:清">清</a> as appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">banknotes of the Ta Ching Government Bank</a> during the late Qing dynasty, based on the <a href="/wiki/Wade-Giles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wade-Giles">Wade-Giles</a> romanisation <i>Ta<sup>4</sup>-ch'ing<sup>1</sup></i>.</dd> <dt>Tai Ching Ti Kuo<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>The transliteration of Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:清">清</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B8%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:帝">帝</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a> as appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a> during the late Qing dynasty, based on the Wade-Giles romanisation <i>Ta<sup>4</sup>-ch'ing<sup>1</sup>-ti<sup>4</sup>-kuo<sup>2</sup></i>.</dd> <dt>Ta Tsing Empire<sup id="cite_ref-Burlingame_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burlingame-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in certain treaties in English (signed with the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>) during the late Qing dynasty, using a transliteration based on the <a href="/wiki/Postal_romanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal romanisation">Postal romanisation</a> system for the Chinese part.</dd> <dt>China<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nanking_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanking-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burlingame_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burlingame-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in most treaties, official documents, postal stamps etc.</dd> <dt>Chinese Empire<sup id="cite_ref-Nanking_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanking-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in international treaties in English.</dd> <dt>Empire of China<sup id="cite_ref-Burlingame_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burlingame-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in certain treaties in English.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_(unofficial)_historical_names_in_English"><span id="Other_.28unofficial.29_historical_names_in_English"></span>Other (unofficial) historical names in English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other (unofficial) historical names in English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cathay" title="Cathay">Cathay</a></dt> <dd>An <a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">alternative name for China</a> as appeared in some English-language publications. The term was used in <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s book on his <a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo" title="The Travels of Marco Polo">travels</a> in the 13th century (during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>), and it took a while for most Europeans to be convinced that Cathay referred to China or <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North China</a>. This English term was sometimes used, although increasingly only in a poetic sense, until the 19th century, when it was completely replaced by "China".</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Celestial_Empire" title="Celestial Empire">Celestial Empire</a></dt> <dd>The translation of Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:天">天</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:朝">朝</a> (a name for <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>) as appeared in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North American</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australian</a> mass media in the 19th century, in reference to the status of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a>.</dd> <dt><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Flowery_Kingdom" class="extiw" title="wikt:Flowery Kingdom">Flowery Kingdom</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>The (literal) translation of Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8F%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:華">華</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as appeared in certain English publications in the 19th century. Also translated from Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:中">中</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8F%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:華">華</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as "Middle Flowery Kingdom",<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Central Flowery Kingdom",<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "Central Flowery State"<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the period. Some have since argued that the translation "flowery" from Chinese: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8F%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:華">華</a> might be incorrect.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Tartar Chinese Empire<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century. Also rendered as "Chinese-Tartar empire"<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or simply "Chinese empire".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Tartar Chinese dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century, or simply "Tartar dynasty (of China)"<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "Chinese dynasty".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Manchu Tartar dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century. Also rendered as "Manchoo Tartar dynasty",<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>"Mantchoo Tartar dynasty",<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Tartar-Manchu dynasty",<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Tartar-Mantchoo dynasty",<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or simply "Manchu dynasty",<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Manchoo dynasty"<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "Mantchoo dynasty".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Tsing dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century, using a transliteration based on the Postal romanisation system. Sometimes rendered as "Ching dynasty" or "Ch'ing dynasty", based on the Wade-Giles romanisation for 清, <i>Ch'ing<sup>1</sup></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Ta-tsing dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century, using a transliteration based on the Postal romanisation system. Also referred to as the "Tai-tsing dynasty",<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Great Tsing dynasty",<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or as the "Ta Ching dynasty" or "Ta Ch'ing dynasty", from the Wade-Giles romanisation of 大清, <i>Ta<sup>4</sup>-ch'ing<sup>1</sup></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Great Pure dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt> <dd>Appeared in certain English publications in the 19th century, with "Great Pure" being a translation of the Chinese:<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:清">清</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native_language_names_within_the_Qing_dynasty_and_contexts">Native language names within the Qing dynasty and contexts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Native language names within the Qing dynasty and contexts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_(%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png/500px-%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png/750px-%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png/1000px-%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1691" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Chapter <i>China</i> (中國) of "The <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchurian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Han Chinese</a> Trilingual Textbook" <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">(滿蒙漢三語合璧教科書)</span></span> published in Qing dynasty: "Our country China is located in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>... For 5000 years, culture flourished (in the land of China)... Since we are Chinese, how can we not love China."</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png/400px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png/600px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png/800px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Official map of the empire published by the Qing dynasty in 1905.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qing dynasty was founded by the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_peoples" title="Tungusic peoples">Tungusic people</a> who conquered the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, and by the 18th century it had <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">extended its control</a> into <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a>. During the Qing period languages like <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lhasa_Tibetan" title="Lhasa Tibetan">Tibetan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_language" title="Chagatai language">Turki</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a>) were often used in the Qing realm. </p><p>The Qing dynasty was established in Chinese as "Da Qing" (大清, "Great Qing") in 1636, but other Chinese names containing the name "Qing" had appeared in official documents such as treaties, including <i>Da Qing Guo</i> (大清國, "Great Qing State"), <i>Da Qing Di Guo</i> (大清帝國, "Empire of the Great Qing"), and <i>Zhong Hua Da Qing Guo</i> (中華大清國, "Chinese Great Qing State"), in addition to the name <i>Zhongguo</i> (中國, "China"). In the Chinese-language versions of its treaties and its maps of the world, the Qing government used "Great Qing" and "<i>Zhongguo</i>" interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of the earlier Ming idea of an ethnic <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> state, this new Qing China was a self-consciously <a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">multi-ethnic state</a>. Han Chinese literati had some time to adapt this, but by the 19th century the notion of China as a multinational state had become the standard terminology for Han Chinese writers.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from <i>Zhongguo</i>, the Qing court routinely used other terms as well in referring to its state in Chinese, such as <i>guochao</i> (國朝, lit. "state dynasty"), <i>wojie </i>(我界, "our territory"), and <i>wochao</i> (我朝) or <i>benchao</i> (本朝, lit. "our dynasty"). But it treated these titles and <i>Zhongguo</i> (China) as interchangeable. For example, the Chinese version of the 1689 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> as inscribed in the border markers used <i>Zhongguo</i> as the state title: "All of the land to the south of the Xing’an mountains and all branches of the <a href="/wiki/Heilong_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Heilong River">Heilong River</a> belong to <i>Zhongguo</i>" (China), but in a different version of the same treaty, it was replaced by the term "our territory" (<i>wojie</i>): "All of the land ... belong to our territory" (<i>wojie</i>). The Manchu term <i>Dulimbai Gurun</i> is the standard translation for the Chinese terms <i>Zhongguo</i>, <i>Zhongyuan</i>, and <i>Hua</i> and appeared in official documents produced by the Qing court beginning in 1689, if not earlier. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhao2006n_[httpswebarchiveorgweb20140325231543httpswebspaceutexaseduhl4958perspectivesZhao20-20reinventing20chinapdf_8]_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao2006n_[httpswebarchiveorgweb20140325231543httpswebspaceutexaseduhl4958perspectivesZhao20-20reinventing20chinapdf_8]-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Manchu name for the state was <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', sans-serif; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ<br />ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ</span> (<i>Daicing Gurun</i>). While the Manchu term <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', sans-serif; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ</span> (<i>Daicing</i>) sounds like a phonetic rendering of Chinese <i>Dà Qīng</i> or <i>Dai Ching</i>, may in fact have been derived from a Mongolian word "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠳᠠᠢᠢᠴᠢᠨ</span>, дайчин" (<i>daicin</i>) that means "warrior". <i>Daicing Gurun</i> may therefore have meant "warrior state", a pun that was only intelligible to Manchu and Mongol people. In the later part of the dynasty, however, even the Manchus themselves had forgotten this possible meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001p._402,_note_118_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001p._402,_note_118-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar to in the Chinese language, <i>Dulimbai Gurun</i> (the Manchu term for "Zhongguo" or "China") is used alongside <i>Daicing Gurun</i> to refer to the Qing dynasty during the Qing. From a Manchu perspective, the concept of "China" (Chinese: <i>Zhongguo</i>; Manchu: <i>Dulimbai Gurun</i>) embraced the entire empire, including <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian language</a>, the state was usually known as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠴᠢᠨ<br />ᠤᠯᠤᠰ</span> (<i>Чин Улс</i> or <i>Chin uls</i>, i.e. "Qing state") or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠶᠡᠬᠡ<br />ᠴᠢᠨ<br />ᠤᠯᠤᠰ</span> (<i>Их Чин Улс</i> or <i>Dai Chin uls</i>, i.e. "Great Qing state"), along with other variation terms for the empire like "<i>man-u Dai Chin (uls)</i>" ("Our Great Qing [state]"), "<i>Manj (Chin) uls</i>" (Manchu [Qing] State), "the state of our Manchu Emperor", or "Emperor's state", which were traditionally used by some Mongol subjects under the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-conquestdynasty_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conquestdynasty-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, unlike in Chinese and Manchu languages, the counterpart in Mongolian language for the name "<i>Zhongguo</i>" or "<i>Dulimbai Gurun</i>" (China) did not appear to be commonly used among Mongol writers in such sense during the Qing period. The traditional Mongolian name for China is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠬᠢᠲᠠᠳ</span> (<i>Хятад</i> or <i>Khyatad</i>), which only refers to the areas of native (Han) Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-conquestdynasty_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conquestdynasty-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas the counterpart for the name "<i>Zhongguo</i>" or "<i>Dulimbai Gurun</i>" in Mongolian appeared as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠦ<br />ᠤᠯᠤᠰ</span> (<i>Dumdadu ulus</i> or initially <i>Dumdadu gürün</i>, literally "central state"), which was used by the Qing government (such as the <a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kiakhta" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Kiakhta">Treaty of Kiakhta</a> in 1727<sup id="cite_ref-zhong_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and late Qing textbooks) to refer to the whole empire, including usages like "the Mongolian Kalun of China" (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ<br />ᠤᠯᠤᠰ<br />ᠤᠨ<br />ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ<br />ᠬᠠᠷᠠᠭᠤᠯ</span>, <i>dumdadu ulus un mongγol qaraγul</i>, or initially <i>dumdadu gürün-ü mongγol qaraγul</i> as appeared in the 1727 Treaty of Kiakhta),<sup id="cite_ref-zhong_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when the term "<i>Dumdadu ulus</i>" started to be used among Mongol nobility themselves it seemed to be limited to the area south of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a> (essentially the same as the word "<i>Khyatad</i>" in meaning<sup id="cite_ref-conquestdynasty_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conquestdynasty-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), such as in the works of the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight-Banner</a> bannerman Lomi and Injannashi since 1735.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, while early Mongol historians presented the idea of the Mongols as a distinct entity under the Qing, in the 19th century Mongol historians began to focus on the entire Qing, of which the Mongols, along with the Manchus, Han Chinese, and Tibetans, were only one part.<sup id="cite_ref-conquestdynasty_76-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conquestdynasty-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Lhasa_Tibetan" title="Lhasa Tibetan">Tibetan language</a>, the Qing dynasty is known as <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1106655535">.mw-parser-output .uchen{font-family:"Jomolhari","Uchen","Noto Serif Tibetan Medium","Noto Serif Tibetan","BabelStone Tibetan Slim","Yagpo Tibetan Uni","Noto Sans Tibetan","Microsoft Himalaya","Kailash","DDC Uchen","TCRC Youtso Unicode","Tibetan Machine Uni","Qomolangma-Uchen Sarchen","Qomolangma-Uchen Sarchung","Qomolangma-Uchen Suring","Qomolangma-Uchen Sutung","Qomolangma-Title","Qomolangma-Subtitle","DDC Rinzin","Qomolangma-Woodblock","Qomolangma-Dunhuang"}.mw-parser-output .ume{font-family:"Qomolangma-Betsu","Qomolangma-Chuyig","Qomolangma-Drutsa","Qomolangma-Edict","Qomolangma-Tsumachu","Qomolangma-Tsuring","Qomolangma-Tsutong","TibetanSambhotaYigchung","TibetanTsugRing","TibetanYigchung"}</style><span class="uchen" style="font-size:1.25em; vertical-align:middle; word-wrap:break-word;">ཆིང་རྒྱལ་རབས།</span> (<i>Ching rgyal rabs</i>), and the Qing emperors were referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> (or "Chinese Emperor", in Tibetan: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1106655535"><span class="uchen" style="font-size:1.25em; vertical-align:middle; word-wrap:break-word;">རྒྱ་ནག་གོང་མ་</span>, <i>rgya nag gong ma</i>) and "the Great Emperor" (or "Great <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Manjushri" title="Emperor Manjushri">Emperor Manjushri</a>", in Tibetan: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1106655535"><span class="uchen" style="font-size:1.25em; vertical-align:middle; word-wrap:break-word;">འཇམ་དབྱངས་གོང་མ་ཆེན་པོ</span>, <i>vjam dbyangs gong ma chen po</i>) during the Qing era.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Thapathali" title="Treaty of Thapathali">Treaty of Thapathali</a> of 1856 both Tibetans and Nepalese agreed to "regard the Chinese Emperor as heretofore with respect, in accordance with what has been written".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The traditional Tibetan term for "China", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1106655535"><span class="uchen" style="font-size:1.25em; vertical-align:middle; word-wrap:break-word;">རྒྱ་ནག</span>་ (<i>rgya nag</i>, literally "vast black") was commonly used among Tibetans at the time, which generally referred to the areas of Han Chinese and Manchus in the east, and the term itself did not indicate any specific connection between Tibet and China (proper),<sup id="cite_ref-conquestdynasty_76-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conquestdynasty-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though Tibet was <a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">subordinated to the Qing dynasty</a> since the 18th century. However, the counterpart for the name "<i>Zhongguo</i>" or "<i>Dulimbai Gurun</i>" (i.e. "China" in Chinese and Manchu languages) did appear in the Tibetan language as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1106655535"><span class="uchen" style="font-size:1.25em; vertical-align:middle; word-wrap:break-word;">ཡུལ་དབུས།</span> (<i>yul dbus</i>, literally "central land") which was used by Qing rulers like <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> in for example the Tibetan translation of the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Sūtra</a> he compiled in 1763 and the Tibetan-language inscription of his 1792 article <a href="/wiki/The_Discourse_of_Lama" title="The Discourse of Lama">The Discourse of Lama</a> to refer to China (in the same sense as the Chinese term <i>Zhongguo</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur language</a>, the Qing dynasty is known as <span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug-Arab" dir="rtl">چىڭ سۇلالىسى</span></span> (<i>Ching sulalisi</i>), and the Qing emperors were referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Khagan#Chinese_khagans" title="Khagan">Chinese khagan</a>" (<i>Khāqān-i Chīn</i>, "Khagan of China") during the Qing era, where "khāqān" is a Persianized form of the traditional title used by the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> to refer to a ruler (similar to Mongolian "<a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a>", sometimes also rendered as "<a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a>"), and <i>Chīn</i> is a traditional <a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> word for China (or the people from the Chinese heartland) and was used by the Turki subjects in Xinjiang (now known as the <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a>) to refer to the country or area ruled by the Qing emperors during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms <i>Khiṭāy</i> (a traditional Turki name for China) and <i>Bijīn</i> (<a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>) were sometimes also used by the Turki subjects to refer to the Qing dynasty (or China in general) at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name "Chinese khagan" (Khāqān-i Chīn) referring to the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> as a symbol of power<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> appeared in medieval <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian literature</a> works like the great 11th-century epic poem <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a> which were circulated widely in Xinjiang, and during the Qing dynasty the Turkic Muslim subjects in Xinjiang (and surrounding Muslim khanates like the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kokand" title="Khanate of Kokand">Khanate of Kokand</a>) associated the Qing rulers with this name and commonly referred to the Qing emperors as such.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">derogatory</a> names in some languages (mostly in Chinese and Mongolian) for the Qing, such as Mǎn Qīng (滿清/满清 or манж Чин, lit. "Manchu Qing") and Dá Qīng (韃清/鞑清, lit. "Tartar Qing"), used by <a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">anti-Qing</a> revolutionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. On the other hand, before the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_Friendship_and_Trade_Treaty" title="Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty">Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty</a> in 1871, the first treaty between Qing China and the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>, Japanese representatives once raised objections to China's use of the term "中國" (<i>Zhongguo</i>) in the treaty (partly in response to China's earlier objections for the term "天皇" (<i>Tennō</i>) or <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Emperor of Japan</a> to be used in the treaty), declaring that the term <i>Zhongguo</i> was "meant to compare with the frontier areas of the country" and insisted that only "Great Qing" be used for the Qing in the Chinese version of the treaty. However, this was firmly rejected by the Qing representatives: "Our country China has been called <i>Zhongguo</i> for a long time since ancient times. We have signed treaties with various countries, and while <i>Great Qing</i> did appear in the first lines of such treaties, in the body of the treaties <i>Zhongguo</i> was always being used. There has never been a precedent for changing the country name" (我中華之稱中國，自上古迄今，由來已久。即與各國立約，首書寫大清國字樣，其條款內皆稱中國，從無寫改國號之例). The Chinese representatives believed that <i>Zhongguo</i> (China) as a country name equivalent to "Great Qing" could naturally be used internationally, which could not be changed. In the end, both sides agreed that while in the first lines "Great Qing" would be used, whether the Chinese text in the body of the treaty would use the term <i>Zhongguo</i> in the same manner as "Great Qing" would be up to China's discretion.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names_in_other_languages">Names in other languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Names in other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Apart from the English name of "China" or the "Chinese Empire", it is also known in similar names in other western languages such as <i>Chine</i> in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <i>Китай</i> in <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, and <i>Sinici Imperii</i> in <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>, which are the standard translations for "China" or "Chinese Empire" in these languages. For example, in the Sino-Russian <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> of 1689, the first international treaty signed by the Qing, the term "Китайский" meaning "Chinese" was used to refer to the Qing side in the Russian version of the treaty,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the term "Imperium Sinicum" meaning "Chinese Empire" was used to refer to the Qing empire in the Latin version of the treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes the names for "Great Qing" also appeared in such treaties. For example, the term "Imperii Tai-tscim" meaning "Empire of the Great Qing" appeared in the first paragraph of the Latin version of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a> along with "Sinenses" appearing in the body of the treaty meaning "Chinese".<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Qing treaties of the 19th-20th centuries with all European states (other than Russia), only variations of "China" and "Chinese Empire" were indicated.<sup id="cite_ref-conquestdynasty_76-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conquestdynasty-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese-language</a> version of some treaties during the Qing dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a> for the <i>Qing state</i> (淸國, <i>Shinkoku</i>) was also used,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it is not found in Chinese-language version of treaties during the Qing dynasty (in Chinese version of the treaties the word for Great (大) always appeared before the word for Qing (淸), along with the term <i>Zhongguo</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_qtgoTIAiKUC_56]-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_qtgoTIAiKUC_56]_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott (2001)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC">56</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400-1800" by José Rabasa, Masayuki Sato, Edoardo Tortarolo, Daniel Woolf, p30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSin-wai_Chan2019" class="citation book cs1">Sin-wai Chan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gkPBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT57"><i>The Routledge Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Culture</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315453477" title="Special:BookSources/9781315453477"><bdi>9781315453477</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Traditional+Chinese+Culture&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781315453477&rft.au=Sin-wai+Chan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgkPBDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2012" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Noelle (2012). <i>Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 744. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136639791" title="Special:BookSources/9781136639791"><bdi>9781136639791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+and+Oceania%3A+International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places&rft.pages=744&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781136639791&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Noelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQian_Guo2020" class="citation book cs1">Qian Guo (2020). <i>Beijing: Geography, History, and Culture</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781440868054" title="Special:BookSources/9781440868054"><bdi>9781440868054</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beijing%3A+Geography%2C+History%2C+and+Culture&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781440868054&rft.au=Qian+Guo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF李勤璞陳明朱漢民2017" class="citation journal cs1">李勤璞; 陳明; 朱漢民, eds. (2017). 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"<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/William_McKinley%27s_Second_State_of_the_Union_Address" class="extiw" title="s:William McKinley's Second State of the Union Address">Second State of the Union Address</a>". 5 Dec. 1898.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dialog-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dialog_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2016" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Guo (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1547402X.2016.1168180">"New Qing History: Dispute, Dialog, and Influence"</a>. <i>The Chinese Historical Review</i>. <b>23</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">47–</span>50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1547402X.2016.1168180">10.1080/1547402X.2016.1168180</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Princeton University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691235196" title="Special:BookSources/9780691235196"><bdi>9780691235196</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Asia%3A+A+New+History+from+the+Imperial+Conquests+to+the+Present&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780691235196&rft.au=Adeeb+Khalid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10971467.2016.1215094#abstract">"Recent Additions to the New Qing History Debate"</a>. <i>Taylor & Francis Online</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Taylor+%26+Francis+Online&rft.atitle=Recent+Additions+to+the+New+Qing+History+Debate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F10971467.2016.1215094%23abstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2018" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Yuanchong (2018). <i>Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911</i>. Brighton: Cornell University Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781501730511" title="Special:BookSources/9781501730511"><bdi>9781501730511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remaking+the+Chinese+Empire%3A+Manchu-Korean+Relations%2C+1616%E2%80%931911&rft.place=Brighton&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781501730511&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Yuanchong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2023" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Hui (2023). <i>The Rise of Modern Chinese Thought</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">xx–</span>xxi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674046764" title="Special:BookSources/9780674046764"><bdi>9780674046764</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Modern+Chinese+Thought&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Exx-%3C%2Fspan%3Exxi&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780674046764&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Hui&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dialog2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dialog2_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2016" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Guo (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1547402X.2016.1168180">"New Qing History: Dispute, Dialog, and Influence"</a>. <i>The Chinese Historical Review</i>. <b>23</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">59–</span>64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1547402X.2016.1168180">10.1080/1547402X.2016.1168180</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sohu&rft.atitle=%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E4%B9%A6%E5%86%99%E4%B8%8E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E8%AE%A4%E5%90%8C%EF%BC%9A%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%AB%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E4%B9%A6%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E8%AF%9D%E8%AF%AD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sohu.com%2Fa%2F127415152_488316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chinanews.com.cn/m/ll/2018/01-22/8429793.shtml">"清朝时期"中国"作为国家名称从传统到现代的发展"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-06-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%22%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%22%E4%BD%9C%E4%B8%BA%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%90%8D%E7%A7%B0%E4%BB%8E%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E5%88%B0%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinanews.com.cn%2Fm%2Fll%2F2018%2F01-22%2F8429793.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shao5-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shao5_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShao2009">Shao 2009</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShao2009">Shao 2009</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton2010" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Cathryn H. 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Illustrated by 70 Stylographic Maps, and 700 Engravings, Volume 1, Samuel Griswold Goodrich, p405</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern, by Karl Friedrich August Gützlaff, p24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Origins of the Russo-Japanese War, by Ian Nish, Professor Ian Nish, Professor, p12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coinquest.com/cgi-bin/cq/coins?main_coin=7191">China (Empire) Tai Ching Ti Kuo Copper Coin (10 and 20 Cash) 1903 to 1911</a>></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burlingame-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burlingame_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burlingame_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burlingame_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" class="extiw" title="s:Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" class="extiw" title="s:Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" class="extiw" title="s:Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nanking-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nanking_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nanking_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" class="extiw" title="s:Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">New England Stamp Monthly, Volumes 1-2, p67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_B._Bessac2006" class="citation book cs1">Frank B. 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University of Montana Printing & Graphic Services. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780977341825" title="Special:BookSources/9780977341825"><bdi>9780977341825</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+on+the+Chang+Tang+-+Tibet%2C+1950+%3A+the+Education+of+an+Anthropologist&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=University+of+Montana+Printing+%26+Graphic+Services&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780977341825&rft.au=Frank+B.+Bessac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm59OAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522flowery%2Bkingdom%2522%2Bhuaguo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXi'an,_Shaanxi_Sheng,_China1994" class="citation book cs1">Xi'an, Shaanxi Sheng, China (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dWdGAAAAMAAJ&q=%22flowery+kingdom%22"><i>Shaanxi Teachers University journal - Philosophy and Social sciences</i></a>. 陕西师范大学. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780977341825" title="Special:BookSources/9780977341825"><bdi>9780977341825</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaanxi+Teachers+University+journal+-+Philosophy+and+Social+sciences&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=%E9%99%95%E8%A5%BF%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780977341825&rft.au=Xi%27an%2C+Shaanxi+Sheng%2C+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdWdGAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522flowery%2Bkingdom%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant2014" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CfGPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT631"><i>The Complete Story of Civilization</i></a>. 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Hong Kong University Press. p. 345. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789888208135" title="Special:BookSources/9789888208135"><bdi>9789888208135</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minority+Education+in+China%3A+Balancing+Unity+and+Diversity+in+an+Era+of+Critical+Pluralism&rft.pages=345&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789888208135&rft.aulast=Leibold&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DybAaAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SZD9--xYamkC&dq=sikkim+1888&pg=PA212">p212</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Santa Barbara, "A Union of Religion and Politics: The Tibetan Regency of Ngawang Tsültrim", Page 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunnell2004" class="citation book cs1">Dunnell, Ruth (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC"><i>New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134362226" title="Special:BookSources/9781134362226"><bdi>9781134362226</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Qing+Imperial+History%3A+The+Making+of+Inner+Asian+Empire+at+Qing+Chengde&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781134362226&rft.aulast=Dunnell&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6qFH-53_VnEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHusain2023" class="citation book cs1">Husain, Asad (2023). <i>British India's Relations with the Kingdom of Nepal, 1857–1947</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 380. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000855562" title="Special:BookSources/9781000855562"><bdi>9781000855562</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+India%27s+Relations+with+the+Kingdom+of+Nepal%2C+1857%E2%80%931947&rft.pages=380&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781000855562&rft.aulast=Husain&rft.aufirst=Asad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archieve.claudearpi.net/maintenance/uploaded_pics/1856TreatybetweenTibetandNepal.pdf">Treaty between Tibet and Nepal, 1856 (translation)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell1992" class="citation book cs1">Bell, Charles (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=diQwEAAAQBAJ"><i>Tibet Past and Present</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 278. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120810679" title="Special:BookSources/9788120810679"><bdi>9788120810679</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tibet+Past+and+Present&rft.pages=278&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9788120810679&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdiQwEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF黄兴涛2023" class="citation book cs1">黄兴涛 (2023). <i>重塑中华</i>. 大象出版社. p. 20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%87%8D%E5%A1%91%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=%E5%A4%A7%E8%B1%A1%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2023&rft.au=%E9%BB%84%E5%85%B4%E6%B6%9B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOidtmann2018" class="citation book cs1">Oidtmann, Max (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j0pBDwAAQBAJ"><i>Forging the Golden Urn: The Qing Empire and the Politics of Reincarnation in Tibet</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54530-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54530-3"><bdi>978-0-231-54530-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forging+the+Golden+Urn%3A+The+Qing+Empire+and+the+Politics+of+Reincarnation+in+Tibet&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-231-54530-3&rft.aulast=Oidtmann&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj0pBDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOnuma2014" class="citation journal cs1">Onuma, Takahiro (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/s/saksaha/13401746.0012.004/--qing-dynasty-and-its-central-asian-neighbors?rgn=main;view=fulltext">"The Qing Dynasty and Its Central Asian Neighbors"</a>. <i>Saksaha: A Journal of Manchu Studies</i>. <b>12</b> (20220303). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fsaksaha.13401746.0012.004">10.3998/saksaha.13401746.0012.004</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saksaha%3A+A+Journal+of+Manchu+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Qing+Dynasty+and+Its+Central+Asian+Neighbors&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=20220303&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fsaksaha.13401746.0012.004&rft.aulast=Onuma&rft.aufirst=Takahiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fs%2Fsaksaha%2F13401746.0012.004%2F--qing-dynasty-and-its-central-asian-neighbors%3Frgn%3Dmain%3Bview%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt0k9948g3/qt0k9948g3.pdf">"China in Islam: Turki Views from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 21,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China+in+Islam%3A+Turki+Views+from+the+Nineteenth+and+Twentieth+Centuries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fcontent%2Fqt0k9948g3%2Fqt0k9948g3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pathofscience.org/index.php/ps/article/download/1229/1031">"Tendencies of Change of Socio-Political Lexicon in Persian and Azerbaijani Languages"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 21,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tendencies+of+Change+of+Socio-Political+Lexicon+in+Persian+and+Azerbaijani+Languages&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpathofscience.org%2Findex.php%2Fps%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F1229%2F1031&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchluessel2016" class="citation book cs1">Schluessel, Eric (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/33493602/SCHLUESSEL-DISSERTATION-2016.pdf"><i>The Muslim Emperor of China: Everyday Politics in Colonial Xinjiang, 1877-1933</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Harvard University. p. 320.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Emperor+of+China%3A+Everyday+Politics+in+Colonial+Xinjiang%2C+1877-1933&rft.pages=320&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Schluessel&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F33493602%2FSCHLUESSEL-DISSERTATION-2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chinanews.com.cn/m/ll/2018/01-22/8429793.shtml">"清朝时期"中国"作为国家名称从传统到现代的发展"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%22%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%22%E4%BD%9C%E4%B8%BA%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%90%8D%E7%A7%B0%E4%BB%8E%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E5%88%B0%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinanews.com.cn%2Fm%2Fll%2F2018%2F01-22%2F8429793.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF黄兴涛2023" class="citation book cs1">黄兴涛 (2023). <i>重塑中华</i>. 大象出版社. p. 48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%87%8D%E5%A1%91%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=%E5%A4%A7%E8%B1%A1%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2023&rft.au=%E9%BB%84%E5%85%B4%E6%B6%9B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80_(1689)">Нерчинский договор (1689)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://ja.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%A1%E7%B4%84">下関条約</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassel2012" class="citation book cs1">Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5jDXWg1HhLsC"><i>Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979205-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979205-4"><bdi>978-0-19-979205-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grounds+of+Judgment%3A+Extraterritoriality+and+Imperial+Power+in+Nineteenth-Century+China+and+Japan&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979205-4&rft.aulast=Cassel&rft.aufirst=Par+Kristoffer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5jDXWg1HhLsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley1997" class="citation book cs1">Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manchus00cros"><i>The Manchus</i></a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-560-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-560-1"><bdi>978-1-55786-560-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchus&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-55786-560-1&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanchus00cros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Elliott_(historian)" title="Mark Elliott (historian)">Elliott, Mark C.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC"><i>The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China</i></a>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804746847" title="Special:BookSources/9780804746847"><bdi>9780804746847</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780804746847&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliottChia2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Elliott_(historian)" title="Mark Elliott (historian)">Elliott, Mark C.</a>; Chia, Ning (2004). "The Qing hunt at Mulan". In Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Forêt, Philippe; et al. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC"><i>New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415320061" title="Special:BookSources/9780415320061"><bdi>9780415320061</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Qing+hunt+at+Mulan&rft.btitle=New+Qing+Imperial+History%3A+The+Making+of+Inner+Asian+Empire+at+Qing+Chengde&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780415320061&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft.au=Chia%2C+Ning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6qFH-53_VnEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2006" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Gang (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf">"Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Modern China</i>. <b>32</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700405282349">10.1177/0097700405282349</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062627">20062627</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144587815">144587815</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2014-03-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Reinventing+China+Imperial+Qing+Ideology+and+the+Rise+of+Modern+Chinese+National+Identity+in+the+Early+Twentieth+Century&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144587815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20062627%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700405282349&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Gang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwebspace.utexas.edu%2Fhl4958%2Fperspectives%2FZhao%2520-%2520reinventing%2520china.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShao2009" class="citation journal cs1">Shao, Dan (2009). "Chinese by Definition: Nationality Law, Jus Sanguinis, and State Succession, 1909–1980". <i>Twentieth-Century China</i>. <b>35</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">4–</span>28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftcc.0.0019">10.1353/tcc.0.0019</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201771890">201771890</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Twentieth-Century+China&rft.atitle=Chinese+by+Definition%3A+Nationality+Law%2C+Jus+Sanguinis%2C+and+State+Succession%2C+1909%E2%80%931980&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftcc.0.0019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201771890%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shao&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANames+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics313" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1616–1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1683–1799)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1801–1900)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1901–1912)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces &<br />mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society &<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao">Annotated Bibliography</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_China_before_the_People%27s_Republic#Qing_dynasty" title="List of treaties of China before the People's Republic">Treaties</a><br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Chuang Guandong</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qing_(People%27s_Republic)" title="History of Qing (People's Republic)">History of Qing (People's Republic)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Names of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_late_anti-Qing_rebellions" title="Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions">Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">Treaty ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&oldid=1276714857">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty&oldid=1276714857</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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