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<span>Usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Educational_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Educational_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Educational approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Educational_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology_and_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology_and_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Terminology and types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Terminology_and_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Terminology and types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Terminology_and_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English_outside_English-speaking_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_outside_English-speaking_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>English outside English-speaking countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_outside_English-speaking_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English_within_English-speaking_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_within_English-speaking_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>English within English-speaking countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_within_English-speaking_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umbrella_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umbrella_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Umbrella terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umbrella_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difficulties_for_learners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficulties_for_learners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Difficulties for learners</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Difficulties_for_learners-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Difficulties for learners subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Difficulties_for_learners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pronunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Pronunciation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First-language_literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First-language_literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>First-language literacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First-language_literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second-language_literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second-language_literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Second-language literacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second-language_literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_academic_language_acquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_academic_language_acquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Social and academic language acquisition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_academic_language_acquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance_of_reading_in_ESL_instruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance_of_reading_in_ESL_instruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Importance of reading in ESL instruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance_of_reading_in_ESL_instruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_between_spoken_and_written_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_between_spoken_and_written_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Differences between spoken and written English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_between_spoken_and_written_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.9</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Varieties_of_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varieties_of_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.10</span> <span>Varieties of English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Varieties_of_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_challenges_and_benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_challenges_and_benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Social challenges and benefits</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_challenges_and_benefits-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Social challenges and benefits subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Social_challenges_and_benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Class_placement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Class_placement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Class placement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Class_placement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dropout_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dropout_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Dropout rates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dropout_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Access_to_higher_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Access_to_higher_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Access to higher education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Access_to_higher_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_with_native_speakers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_with_native_speakers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Interaction with native speakers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction_with_native_speakers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Social benefits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy_over_ethical_administration_of_ESL_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy_over_ethical_administration_of_ESL_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Controversy over ethical administration of ESL programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy_over_ethical_administration_of_ESL_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_and_Technical_Communication_Advocacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_and_Technical_Communication_Advocacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Professional and Technical Communication Advocacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_and_Technical_Communication_Advocacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peer_tutoring_for_ESL_students" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peer_tutoring_for_ESL_students"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Peer tutoring for ESL students</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Peer_tutoring_for_ESL_students-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Peer tutoring for ESL students subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Peer_tutoring_for_ESL_students-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Importance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Benefits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_on_peer_English_immersion_tutoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_on_peer_English_immersion_tutoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Research on peer English immersion tutoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_on_peer_English_immersion_tutoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ESL_teachers'_training" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ESL_teachers'_training"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>ESL teachers' training</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ESL_teachers'_training-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_peer_tutoring_on_the_achievement_gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_peer_tutoring_on_the_achievement_gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Effects of peer tutoring on the achievement gap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_peer_tutoring_on_the_achievement_gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exams_for_learners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exams_for_learners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Exams for learners</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Exams_for_learners-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Exams for learners subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Exams_for_learners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Common_European_Framework" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Common_European_Framework"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>The Common European Framework</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Common_European_Framework-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualifications_for_teachers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualifications_for_teachers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Qualifications for teachers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Qualifications_for_teachers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Qualifications for teachers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Qualifications_for_teachers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-native_speakers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-native_speakers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Non-native speakers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-native_speakers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australian_qualifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australian_qualifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Australian qualifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australian_qualifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_qualifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_qualifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>British qualifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_qualifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canadian_qualifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canadian_qualifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Canadian qualifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canadian_qualifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_qualifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_qualifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5</span> <span>United States qualifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_qualifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chile_qualifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chile_qualifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.6</span> <span>Chile qualifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chile_qualifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Arab_Emirates_qualifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Arab_Emirates_qualifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.7</span> <span>United Arab Emirates qualifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Arab_Emirates_qualifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_associations_and_unions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_associations_and_unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Professional associations and unions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_associations_and_unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acronyms_and_abbreviations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acronyms_and_abbreviations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Acronyms and abbreviations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Acronyms_and_abbreviations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Acronyms and abbreviations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Acronyms_and_abbreviations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_of_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Types of English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_abbreviations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_abbreviations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Other abbreviations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_abbreviations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language_terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Language terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_language_teaching_and_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_language_teaching_and_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>General language teaching and learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_language_teaching_and_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English_language_teaching_and_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_language_teaching_and_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>English language teaching and learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_language_teaching_and_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Contemporary English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionaries_and_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries_and_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5</span> <span>Dictionaries and resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries_and_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.6</span> <span>Statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References_and_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References_and_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References and notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References_and_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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<div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">English as a second or foreign language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإنجليزية لغة ثانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإنجليزية لغة ثانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englisch_als_Zweitsprache" title="Englisch als Zweitsprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Englisch als Zweitsprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A9s_como_segunda_lengua" title="Inglés como segunda lengua – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Inglés como segunda lengua" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="انگلیسی به عنوان زبان دوم یا خارجی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انگلیسی به عنوان زبان دوم یا خارجی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C2%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EB%A1%9C%EC%84%9C%EC%9D%98_%EC%98%81%EC%96%B4" title="제2언어로서의 영어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제2언어로서의 영어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_as_a_second_language" title="English as a second language – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="English as a second language" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rn mw-list-item"><a href="https://rn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icongereza_ka_rurimi_rwa_kabiri" title="Icongereza ka rurimi rwa kabiri – Rundi" lang="rn" hreflang="rn" data-title="Icongereza ka rurimi rwa kabiri" data-language-autonym="Ikirundi" data-language-local-name="Rundi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikirundi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_as_a_second_language" title="English as a second language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="English as a second language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englannin_kielen_opetus_vieraana_kielen%C3%A4" title="Englannin kielen opetus vieraana kielenä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Englannin kielen opetus vieraana kielenä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இரண்டாம் மொழியாக ஆங்கிலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இரண்டாம் மொழியாக ஆங்கிலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yabanc%C4%B1_dil_olarak_%C4%B0ngilizce_e%C4%9Fitimi" title="Yabancı dil olarak İngilizce eğitimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yabancı dil olarak İngilizce eğitimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E%E7%82%BA%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E6%88%96%E5%A4%96%E8%AA%9E" title="以英語為第二語言或外語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="以英語為第二語言或外語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q130192#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/ESL_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="ESL (disambiguation)">ESL (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Community episode, see <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_Second_Language_(Community)" title="English as a Second Language (Community)">English as a Second Language (Community)</a>. For the podcast, see <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_Second_Language_Podcast" title="English as a Second Language Podcast">English as a Second Language Podcast</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-lead_rewrite" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may need to be rewritten</b>. The reason given is: <b>Most of this lead is an irrelevant technicality related to a different article.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit">improve the lead</a> and read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead layout guide</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:English_classes_in_Moscow_school,_1964_46.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/English_classes_in_Moscow_school%2C_1964_46.jpg/220px-English_classes_in_Moscow_school%2C_1964_46.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/English_classes_in_Moscow_school%2C_1964_46.jpg/330px-English_classes_in_Moscow_school%2C_1964_46.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/English_classes_in_Moscow_school%2C_1964_46.jpg/440px-English_classes_in_Moscow_school%2C_1964_46.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3599" data-file-height="2230" /></a><figcaption>English classes in Moscow in 1964</figcaption></figure> <p><b>English as a second or foreign language</b> refers to the use of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> by individuals whose native language is different, commonly among students learning to speak and write English. Variably known as English as a foreign language (EFL), English as a second language (ESL), English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), English as an additional language (EAL), or English as a new language (ENL), these terms denote the study of English in environments where it is not the dominant language. Programs such as ESL are designed as academic courses to instruct non-native speakers in English proficiency, encompassing both learning in English-speaking nations and abroad. </p><p>Teaching methodologies include <a href="/wiki/Teaching_English_as_a_foreign_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching English as a foreign language">teaching English as a foreign language</a> (TEFL) in non-English-speaking countries, <a href="/wiki/Teaching_English_as_a_second_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching English as a second language">teaching English as a second language</a> (TESL) in <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking nations</a>, and teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) worldwide. These terms, while distinct in scope, are often used interchangeably, reflecting the global spread and diversity of English language education. Critically, recent developments in terminology, such as <a href="/wiki/English-language_learner" title="English-language learner">English-language learner</a> (ELL) and English Learners (EL), emphasize the cultural and linguistic diversity of students, promoting inclusive educational practices across different contexts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Methods for teaching English encompass a broad spectrum, from traditional <a href="/wiki/Classroom" title="Classroom">classroom</a> settings to innovative self-directed study programs, integrating approaches that enhance language acquisition and cultural understanding. The efficacy of these methods hinges on adapting teaching strategies to students' proficiency levels and contextual needs, ensuring comprehensive language learning in today's interconnected world. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_purposes">Definition and purposes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and purposes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The aspect in which EFL is taught is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Teaching_English_as_a_foreign_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching English as a foreign language">teaching English as a foreign language</a> (<a href="/wiki/TEFL" class="mw-redirect" title="TEFL">TEFL</a>), teaching English as a second language (TESL) or teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). Technically, TEFL refers to English language teaching in a country where English is not the official language, TESL refers to teaching English to non-native English speakers in a native English-speaking country and TESOL covers both. In practice, however, each of these terms tends to be used more generically across the full field. TEFL is more widely used in the United Kingdom and TESL or TESOL in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "ESL" has been seen by some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2023)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> to indicate that English would be of subordinate importance; for example, where English is used as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> in a multilingual country. The term can be a misnomer for some students who have learned several languages before learning English. The terms "English language learners" (ELL), and, more recently, "English learners" (EL), have been used instead, and the students' native languages and cultures are considered important.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Educational_approach">Educational approach</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Educational approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:English_lesson_in_Thai_school_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/English_lesson_in_Thai_school_3.jpg/220px-English_lesson_in_Thai_school_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/English_lesson_in_Thai_school_3.jpg/330px-English_lesson_in_Thai_school_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/English_lesson_in_Thai_school_3.jpg/440px-English_lesson_in_Thai_school_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1659" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption>Learning English in a primary school in rural Thailand</figcaption></figure> <p>Methods of learning English are highly variable, depending on the student's level of English proficiency and the manner and setting in which they are taught, which can range from required classes in school to self-directed study at home, or a blended combination of both. Teaching technique plays an important role in the performance of English language acquisition as a foreign language.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some programs, educational materials (including spoken lectures and written assignments) are provided in a mixture of English, and the student's native language. In other programs, educational materials are always in English, but the vocabulary, grammar, and context clues may be modified to be more easily understood by students with varying levels of comprehension. Adapting comprehension, insight-oriented repetitions, and recasts are some of the methods used in training. However, without proper cultural immersion (social learning grounds) the associated language habits and reference points (internal mechanisms) of the host country are not completely transferred through these programs.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major engines that influence the language are the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and they both have assimilated the language differently so they differ in expressions and usage. This is found to a great extent primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary. Variants of the English language also exist in both of these countries (e.g. <a href="/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English" class="mw-redirect" title="African American Vernacular English">African American Vernacular English</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The English language has a great reach and influence, and English is taught all over the world. In countries where English is not usually a native language, there are two distinct models for teaching English: educational programs for students who want to move to English-speaking countries, and other programs for students who do not intend to move but who want to understand English content for the purposes of education, entertainment, employment or conducting international business. The differences between these two models of English language education have grown larger over time, and teachers focusing on each model have used different <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">terminology</a>, received different training, and formed separate <a href="/wiki/Professional_associations" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional associations">professional associations</a>. English is also taught as a second language for recent immigrants to English-speaking countries, which faces separate challenges because the students in one class may speak many different native languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_and_types">Terminology and types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Terminology and types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The many <a href="/wiki/Acronym_and_initialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Acronym and initialism">acronyms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbreviation" title="Abbreviation">abbreviations</a> used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing and the following technical definitions may have their currency contested upon various grounds. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English as a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a>, but they may also be used in relation to demographic information.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>English language teaching (ELT) is a widely used teacher-centered term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. <a href="/wiki/Teaching_English_as_a_second_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching English as a second language">Teaching English as a second language</a> (TESL), teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), and <a href="/wiki/Teaching_English_as_a_foreign_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching English as a foreign language">teaching English as a foreign language</a> (TEFL) are also used.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Other terms used in this field include <a href="/wiki/International_English" title="International English">English as an international language</a> (EIL), <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_lingua_franca" title="English as a lingua franca">English as a lingua franca</a> (ELF), English for special purposes and <a href="/wiki/English_for_specific_purposes" title="English for specific purposes">English for specific purposes</a> (ESP), and <a href="/wiki/English_for_academic_purposes" class="mw-redirect" title="English for academic purposes">English for academic purposes</a> (EAP). Those who are learning English are often referred to as <a href="/wiki/English_language_learner" class="mw-redirect" title="English language learner">English language learners</a> (ELL). The learners of the English language are of two main groups. The first group includes the learners learning English as their second language i.e. the second language of their country and the second group includes those who learn English as a totally foreign language i.e. a language that is not spoken in any part of their county. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_outside_English-speaking_countries">English outside English-speaking countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: English outside English-speaking countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>EFL</i>, English as a foreign language, indicates the teaching of English in a non–English-speaking region. The study can occur either in the student's home country, as part of the normal school curriculum or otherwise, or, for the more privileged minority, in an anglophone country that they visit as a sort of educational tourist, particularly immediately before or after graduating from university. <i>TEFL</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Teaching_English_as_a_foreign_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching English as a foreign language">teaching of English as a foreign language</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country, English-speaking or not. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one's education or for career progression while one works for an organization or business with an international focus. EFL may be part of the state school <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a> in countries where English has no special status (what <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> theorist <a href="/wiki/Braj_Kachru" title="Braj Kachru">Braj Kachru</a> calls the "expanding circle countries"); it may also be supplemented by lessons paid for privately. Teachers of EFL generally assume that students are <a href="/wiki/Literate" class="mw-redirect" title="Literate">literate</a> in their <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">mother tongue</a>. The <i>Chinese EFL Journal</i><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Iranian EFL Journal</i><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_within_English-speaking_countries">English within English-speaking countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: English within English-speaking countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The other broad grouping is the use of English within the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>. In what <a href="/wiki/Braj_Kachru" title="Braj Kachru">Braj Kachru</a> calls "the inner circle", i.e., countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immigrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrant">immigrants</a>, and their children. It also includes the use of English in "outer circle" countries, often <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">former British colonies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, where English is an <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> even if it is not spoken as a <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a> by a majority of the population. </p><p>In the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand this use of English is called <i>ESL</i> (English as a second language). This term has been criticized on the grounds that many learners already speak more than one language. A counter-argument says that the word "a" in the phrase "a second language" means there is no presumption that English is <i>the</i> second acquired language (see also <i><a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">Second language</a></i>). <i>TESL</i> is the teaching of English as a second language. There are also other terms that it may be referred to in the US including ELL (English Language Learner) and CLD (Culturally and Linguistically Diverse). </p><p>In the UK and Ireland, the term ESL has been replaced by <i>ESOL</i> (English for speakers of other languages). In these countries <i>TESOL</i> (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is normally used to refer to teaching English only to this group. In the UK and Ireland, the term <i>EAL</i> (English as an additional language) is used, rather than ESOL, when talking about primary and secondary schools, in order to clarify that English is not the students' first language, but their second or third. The term ESOL is used to describe English language learners who are above statutory school age. </p><p>Other acronyms were created to describe the person rather than the language to be learned. The term <a href="/wiki/Limited_English_proficiency" title="Limited English proficiency">Limited English proficiency</a> (LEP) was first used in 1975 by the Lau Remedies following a decision of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a>. ELL (English Language Learner),<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> used by United States governments and school systems, was created by James Crawford of the Institute for Language and Education Policy in an effort to label learners positively, rather than ascribing a deficiency to them. Recently, some educators have shortened this to EL – English Learner. </p><p>Typically, a student learns this sort of English to function in the new host country, e.g., within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), or to perform the necessities of daily life (cooking, taking a cab/public transportation, or eating in a restaurant, etc.). The teaching of it does not presuppose literacy in the <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a>. It is usually paid for by the host government to help newcomers settle into their adopted country, sometimes as part of an explicit <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a> program. It is technically possible for ESL to be taught not in the host country, but in, for example, a refugee camp, as part of a pre-departure program sponsored by the government soon to receive new potential citizens. In practice, however, this is extremely rare. Particularly in Canada and Australia, the term <i>ESD</i> (English as a second <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>) is used alongside ESL, usually in reference to programs for <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal peoples">Aboriginal peoples</a> in Canada or <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Australians</a>. The term refers to the use of standard English by speakers of a <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole</a> or non-standard variety. It is often grouped with ESL as <i>ESL/ESD</i>. the </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umbrella_terms">Umbrella terms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Umbrella terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All these ways of denoting the teaching of English can be bundled together into an <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella term">umbrella term</a>. Unfortunately, not all of the English teachers in the world would agree on just only a simple single term(s). The term <i>TESOL</i> (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is used in <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a> to include both TEFL and TESL. This is also the case in Canada as well as in Australia and New Zealand. <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a> uses <i>ELT</i> (English language teaching), because TESOL has a different, more specific meaning; see above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difficulties_for_learners">Difficulties for learners</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Difficulties for learners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia,_Maharaja_of_Gwalior,_studying_English_(6125060402).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia%2C_Maharaja_of_Gwalior%2C_studying_English_%286125060402%29.jpg/220px-Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia%2C_Maharaja_of_Gwalior%2C_studying_English_%286125060402%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia%2C_Maharaja_of_Gwalior%2C_studying_English_%286125060402%29.jpg/330px-Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia%2C_Maharaja_of_Gwalior%2C_studying_English_%286125060402%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia%2C_Maharaja_of_Gwalior%2C_studying_English_%286125060402%29.jpg/440px-Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia%2C_Maharaja_of_Gwalior%2C_studying_English_%286125060402%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="949" data-file-height="719" /></a><figcaption><i>Young <a href="/wiki/Jayajirao_Scindia" title="Jayajirao Scindia">Jayaji Rao Sindhia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharaja_of_Gwalior" class="mw-redirect" title="Maharaja of Gwalior">Maharaja of Gwalior</a>, studying English</i>, 1846</figcaption></figure> <p>Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> are the consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a <a href="/wiki/Contrastive_analysis" title="Contrastive analysis">contrastive analysis</a> approach). A native speaker of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, because German is more closely related to English than Chinese. This may be true for anyone of any <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a> (also called the first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">target language</a>, second language or L2). See also <a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">second-language acquisition</a> (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research. </p><p>Language learners often produce errors of <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a> thought to result from the influence of their L1, such as mapping its grammatical patterns inappropriately onto the L2, pronouncing certain sounds incorrectly or with difficulty, and confusing items of vocabulary known as <a href="/wiki/False_friend" title="False friend">false friends</a>. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">L1 transfer</a> or "language interference". However, these <a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition#Language_transfer" title="Second-language acquisition">transfer effects</a> are typically stronger for beginners' language production, and SLA research has highlighted many errors which cannot be attributed to the L1, as they are attested in learners of many language backgrounds (for example, failure to apply 3rd <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a> present singular -s to verbs, as in 'he make' not 'he make<i>s'</i>). </p><p>Some students may have problems due to certain words being usable, unchanged, as different <a href="/wiki/Parts_of_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts of speech">parts of speech</a>. For example, the word "suffering" in "I am suffering terribly" is a verb, but in "My suffering is terrible" is a <span class="nowrap">noun<span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>—</span><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>and confounding matters is the fact that both of these sentences express the same idea, using the same words. Other students might have problems due to the prescribing and proscribing nature of rules in the language formulated by amateur grammarians rather than ascribing to the functional and descriptive nature of languages evidenced from distribution. For example, a cleric, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lowth" title="Robert Lowth">Robert Lowth</a>, introduced the rule to never end a sentence with a preposition, inspired by Latin grammar, through his book <i>A Short Introduction to English Grammar</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inconsistencies brought from Latin language standardization of English language led to classifying and sub-classifying an otherwise simple language structure. Like many alphabetic writing systems, English also has incorporated the principle that <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemic</a> units should correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> units; however, the fidelity to the principle is compromised, compared to an exemplar language like the <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish language</a>. This is evident in the Oxford English Dictionary; for many years it experimented with various spellings of 'SIGN' to attain a fidelity with the said principle, among which were SINE, SEGN, and SYNE, and through the diachronic mutations eventually settled on <i>SIGN</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural differences in communication styles and preferences are also significant. For example, a study among Chinese ESL students revealed that preference for not using the tense marking on verb present in the morphology of their mother tongue made it difficult for them to express time-related sentences in English.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study looked at Chinese ESL students and British teachers and found that the Chinese learners did not see classroom 'discussion and interaction' type of communication for learning as important but placed a heavy emphasis on teacher-directed lectures.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronunciation">Pronunciation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pronunciation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This section contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Non-native_pronunciations_of_English" title="Non-native pronunciations of English">Non-native pronunciations of English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accent_reduction" title="Accent reduction">Accent reduction</a></div> <p>English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. These sounds can include vowels and consonants, as well as <a href="/wiki/Diphthongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongs">diphthongs</a> and other morphemes. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and pronouncing them. For example: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Interdentals" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdentals">interdentals</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> ('three') and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> ('thee'), both written as <i>th</i>, are relatively rare in other languages.</li> <li>Phonemic contrast of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span> (<i>b<b>ea</b>t</i> vs <i>b<b>i</b>t</i> vowels), of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> (<i>f<b>oo</b>l</i> vs <i>f<b>u</b>ll</i> vowels), and of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span> (<i>b<b>e</b>t</i> vs <i>b<b>a</b>t</i> vowels) is rare outside northwestern Europe, so unusual mergers or exotic pronunciations such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bet]</span> for <i>b<b>i</b>t</i> may arise. Note that [bɪt] is a pronunciation often used in England and Wales for <i>b<b>e</b>t</i>, and also in some dialects of American English.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See <a href="/wiki/Northern_cities_vowel_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern cities vowel shift">Northern cities vowel shift</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pin-pen_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pin-pen merger">Pin-pen merger</a>.</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_Daiso_product_misspelling_frat_for_flat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Japanese_Daiso_product_misspelling_frat_for_flat.jpg/220px-Japanese_Daiso_product_misspelling_frat_for_flat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Japanese_Daiso_product_misspelling_frat_for_flat.jpg/330px-Japanese_Daiso_product_misspelling_frat_for_flat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Japanese_Daiso_product_misspelling_frat_for_flat.jpg/440px-Japanese_Daiso_product_misspelling_frat_for_flat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2143" data-file-height="2951" /></a><figcaption>Japanese-speakers have trouble telling /l/ and /r/ sounds apart, as is shown in this Japanese product packaging</figcaption></figure>Native speakers of Japanese, Korean, and most Chinese dialects <a href="/wiki/Japanese_speakers_learning_r_and_l" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese speakers learning r and l">have difficulty distinguishing</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, as do speakers of certain Caribbean Spanish dialects when these sounds are at the ends of syllables, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Lambdacism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambdacism">lambdacism</a>, which is one form of lallation.</li> <li>Native speakers of Brazilian Portuguese, Spanish or Galician, and Ukrainian may pronounce <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span>-like sounds where a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span>, respectively, would be expected, as those sounds often or almost always follow this process in their native languages, what is known as <a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">debuccalization</a>.</li> <li>Native speakers of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, and important dialects of all current <a href="/wiki/Ibero-Romance_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibero-Romance languages">Iberian Romance languages</a> (including most of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>) have difficulty distinguishing <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span>, what is known as <a href="/wiki/Betacism" title="Betacism">betacism</a>.</li> <li>Native speakers of almost all of Brazilian Portuguese, of some African Portuguese registers, of Portuguese-derived creole languages, some dialects of Swiss German, and several pontual processes in several Slavic languages, such as Bulgarian and Ukrainian, and many dialects of other languages, have instances of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɫ/</span> always becoming <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span> at the end of a syllable in a given context, so that <i>milk</i> may be variously pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɪu̯k],<span class="wrap"> </span>[mɪʊ̯k],<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>[mɪo̯k]</span>. This is present in some English <span class="nowrap">registers<span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>—</span><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>known as <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">l-vocalization</a><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>—</span><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>but may be shunned as substandard or bring confusion in others.</li> <li>Native speakers of many widely spoken languages (including Dutch and all the Romance ones) distinguish voiceless stop pairs <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/t/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/k/</span> from their voiced counterparts <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/d/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/ɡ/</span> merely by their sound (and in Iberian Romance languages, the latter trio does not even need to be stopped, so its native speakers unconsciously pronounce them as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span>, and <span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ɰ]</span><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>—</span><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>voiced <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricatives</a> or <a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">approximants</a> in the very same mouth <span class="nowrap">positions<span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>—</span><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>instead much or most of the time, that native English speakers may erroneously interpret as the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> of their language). In English, German, Danish, and some other languages, though, the main distinguishing feature in the case of initial or stressed stopped voiceless consonants from their voiced counterparts is that they are aspirated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰ<span class="wrap"> </span>tʰ<span class="wrap"> </span>kʰ]</span> (unless if immediately preceded or followed by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>), while the voiced ones are not. As a result, much of the non-English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> will sound to native English ears as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/d/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> instead (i.e. <i><b>p</b></i>⁠<i>arking</i> may sound more like <i><b>b</b></i>⁠<i>arking</i>).</li> <li>Ukrainian, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azeri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri language">Azeri</a> speakers may have trouble distinguishing between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> as both pronunciations are used interchangeably for the letter <i>v</i> in those languages.</li></ul> <p>Languages may also differ in <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable structure</a>; English allows for a <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">cluster of up to three consonants</a> before the vowel and five after it (e.g. <i>strengths</i>, <i>straw</i>, <i>desks</i>, <i>glimpsed</i>, <i>sixths</i>). <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese" title="Brazilian Portuguese">Brazilian Portuguese</a>, for example, broadly alternate consonant and vowel sounds so learners from Japan and Brazil often force vowels between the consonants (e.g. <i>desks</i> becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[desukusu]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɛskis]</span>, and <i>milk shake</i> becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[miɽukuɕeːku]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[miwki<span class="wrap"> </span>ɕejki]</span>, respectively). Similarly, in most Iberian dialects, while a word can begin with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span>, and within a word <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> can be followed by a consonant, a word can never both begin with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> and be immediately followed by a consonant, so learners whose mother tongue is in this language family often have a vowel in front of the word (e.g. <i>school</i> becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[eskul]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iskuɫ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>iskuw]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯskuɫ]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əskuɫ]</span> for native speakers of Spanish, Brazilian and European Portuguese, and Catalan, respectively). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar">Grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>International students typically exhibit a positive attitude toward learning English. This positive outlook persists across genders. Education in non-English-speaking countries usually focuses on grammar. English is introduced as a compulsory subject beginning in the first grades in these countries. However, despite the widespread implementation of English education, disparities exist in the quality of instruction across different types of schools. Consequently, these variations in educational quality have resulted in a gap in English proficiency among students from various regions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Tense, aspect, and mood</b> – English has a relatively large number of <a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">tense–aspect–mood</a> forms with some quite subtle differences, such as the difference between the simple past "I ate" and the present perfect "I have eaten". Progressive and perfect progressive forms add complexity. (See <a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English verbs</a>.)</li> <li><b>Functions of auxiliaries</b> – Learners of English tend to find it difficult to manipulate the various ways in which English uses <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a>. These include negation (e.g. "He hasn't been drinking."), inversion with the subject to form a question (e.g. <i>Has he been drinking?</i>), short answers (e.g. <i>Yes, he has.</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Tag_questions" class="mw-redirect" title="Tag questions">tag questions</a> (<i>has he?</i>). A further complication is that the dummy auxiliary verb <i>do</i>/<i>does</i>/<i>did</i> is added to fulfil these functions in the simple present and simple past, but not to replace the verb <i>to be</i> (<i>He drinks too much.</i>/<i>Does he?</i> but <i>He is an addict</i>/<i>Is he?</i>).</li> <li><b>Modal verbs</b> – English has several <a href="/wiki/Modal_auxiliary_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Modal auxiliary verb">modal auxiliary verbs</a>, each with a number of uses. These verbs convey a special sense or mood such as obligation, necessity, ability, probability, permission, possibility, prohibition, or intention. These include "must", "can", "have to", "need to", "will", "shall", "ought to", "will have to", "may", and "might".</li></ul> <dl><dd>For example, the opposite of "You must be here at 8" (obligation) is usually "You don't have to be here at 8" (lack of obligation, choice). "Must" in "You must not drink the water" (prohibition) has a different meaning from "must" in "You must have eaten the chocolate" (deduction). This complexity takes considerable work for most English language learners to master.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>All these modal verbs or "modals" take the first form of the verb after them. These modals (most of them) do not have past or future inflection, i.e. they do not have past or future tense (exceptions being <i>have to</i> and <i>need to</i>).</dd></dl> <ul><li><b>Idiomatic usage</b> – English is reputed to have a relatively high degree of <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idiomatic</a> usage.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the use of different main verb forms in such apparently parallel constructions as "try to learn", "help learn", and "avoid learning" poses difficulty for learners. Another example is the idiomatic distinction between "make" and "do": "make a mistake", not "do a mistake"; and "do a favor", not "make a favor".</li> <li><b>Articles</b> – English has two forms of <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">article</a>: <i>the</i> (the <a href="/wiki/The" title="The">definite article</a>) and <i>a</i> and <i>an</i> (the <a href="/wiki/A,_an" class="mw-redirect" title="A, an">indefinite article</a>). In addition, at times English nouns can or indeed must be used without an article; this is called the <a href="/wiki/Zero-marking_in_English" title="Zero-marking in English">zero article</a>. Some of the differences between definite, indefinite, and zero articles are fairly easy to learn, but others are not, particularly since a learner's native language may lack articles, have only one form, or use them differently from English. Although the information conveyed by articles is rarely essential for communication, English uses them frequently (several times in the average sentence) so that they require some effort from the learner.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Phrasal verbs</b> – <a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal verbs</a> (also known as multiple-word verbs) in English can cause difficulties for many learners because of their syntactic pattern and because they often have several meanings. There are also a number of phrasal verb differences between American and British English.</li> <li><b> Prepositions </b> – As with many other languages, the correct use of <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a> in the English language is difficult to learn, and it can turn out to be quite a frustrating learning experience for ESL/EFL learners. For example, the prepositions <i>on</i> (rely on, fall on), <i>of</i> (think of, because of, in the vicinity of), and <i>at</i> (turn at, meet at, start at) are used in so many different ways and contexts, it is very difficult to remember the exact meaning for each one. Furthermore, the same words are often used as adverbs (come in, press on, listen in, step in) as part of a compound verb (make up, give up, get up, give in, turn in, put on), or in more than one way with different functions and meanings (look up, look on, give in) (<i>He looked up her skirt</i>/<i>He looked up the spelling</i>/<i>Things are looking up</i>/<i>When you're in town, look me up!</i>; <i>He gave in his homework</i>/<i>First he refused but then he gave in</i>; <i>He got up at 6 o'clock</i>/<i>He got up the hill</i>/<i>He got up a nativity play</i>). Also, for some languages, such as Spanish, there is/are one/some prepositions that can mean multiple English prepositions (i.e. <i>en</i> in Spanish can mean on, in, or at). When translating back to the ESL learners' respective L1, a particular preposition's translation may be correct in one instance, but when using the preposition in another sense, the meaning is sometimes quite different. "One <b>of</b> my friends" translates to (transliterated) <i>wahed <b>min</b> isdiqa'i</i> in Arabic. <i>Min</i> is the Arabic word for "from", so it means one "from" my friends. "I am <b>on</b> page 5" translates to <i>ich bin <b>auf</b> Seite 5</i> in German just fine, but in Arabic it is <i>Ana <b>fee</b> safha raqm 5</i> (I am "in" page 5).</li> <li><b> Word formation </b> – <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">Word formation</a> in English requires much <a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">rote learning</a>. For example, an adjective can be negated by using the <a href="/wiki/Prefix_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefix (linguistics)">prefixes</a> <i>un-</i> (e.g. <i>unable</i>), <i>in-</i> (e.g. <i>inappropriate</i>), <i>dis-</i> (e.g. <i>dishonest</i>), <i>non-</i> (non-standard) or <i>a-</i> (e.g. <i>amoral</i>), as well as several rarer prefixes.</li> <li><b>Size of lexicon</b> – The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the English language">history of English</a> has resulted in a very large vocabulary, including one stream from <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> and one from the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> infusion of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>-derived terms. (Schmitt & Marsden claim that English has one of the largest vocabularies of any known language.) One estimate of the lexicon puts English at around 250,000 unique words. This requires more work for a learner to master the language.</li> <li><b>Collocations</b> – <a href="/wiki/Collocations" class="mw-redirect" title="Collocations">Collocation</a> in English is the tendency for words to occur together with others. For example, nouns and verbs that go together ("ride a bike" or "drive a car"). Native speakers tend to use chunks<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of collocations and ESL learners make mistakes with collocations.</li> <li><b>Slang and colloquialisms</b> – In most native English-speaking countries, many slang and colloquial terms are used in everyday speech. Many learners may find that classroom based English is significantly different from how English is usually spoken in practice. This can often be difficult and confusing for learners with little experience of using English in Anglophone countries. Also, slang terms differ greatly between different regions and can change quickly in response to popular culture. Some phrases can become unintentionally rude if misused.</li> <li><b>Silent letters</b> - Within English, almost every letter has the 'opportunity' to be silent in a word, except <i>F, J, Q, R, V</i>, and <i>Y</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common is <i>e</i>, usually at the end of the word and used to elongate the previous vowel(s). The common usage of silent letters can throw off how ESL learners interpret the language (especially those who are fluent in a Germanic language), since a common step to learning words in most languages is to pronounce them phonetically. Words such as <i>queue</i>, <i>Colonel</i>, <i>knight</i> and <i>Wednesday</i> tend to throw off the learner, since they contain large amounts of silent letters.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First-language_literacy">First-language literacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: First-language literacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Learners who have had less than eight years of formal education in their first language are sometimes called <i>adult ESL literacy learners</i>. Usually, these learners have had their first-language education interrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-Johansson_2000_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johansson_2000-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these learners require a different level of support, teaching approaches and strategies, and a different curriculum from mainstream adult ESL learners. For example, these learners may lack study skills and transferable language skills,<sup id="cite_ref-Johansson_2000_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johansson_2000-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and these learners may avoid reading or writing.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often these learners do not start classroom tasks immediately, do not ask for help, and often assume the novice role when working with peers.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, these learners may lack self-confidence.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For some, prior schooling is equated with status, cultured, civilized, high class, and they may experience shame among peers in their new ESL classes.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bigelow,_M._2010_p._13_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bigelow,_M._2010_p._13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second-language_literacy">Second-language literacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Second-language literacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Learners who have not had extensive exposure to reading and writing in a second language, despite having acceptable spoken proficiency, may have difficulties with the reading and writing in their L2. Joann Crandall (1993)<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has pointed out that most teacher training programs for TESOL instructors do not include sufficient, in most cases "no", training for the instruction in literacy. This is a gap that many scholars feel needs to be addressed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_academic_language_acquisition">Social and academic language acquisition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Social and academic language acquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) are language skills needed in social situations. These language skills usually develop within six months to two years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) refers to the language associated with formal content material and academic learning. These skills usually take from five to seven years to develop.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Importance_of_reading_in_ESL_instruction">Importance of reading in ESL instruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Importance of reading in ESL instruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to some English professionals, reading for pleasure is an important component in the teaching of both native and foreign languages:<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Studies that sought to improve writing by providing reading experiences in place of grammar study or additional writing practice found that these experiences were as beneficial as, or more beneficial than, grammar study or extra writing practice."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_between_spoken_and_written_English">Differences between spoken and written English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Differences between spoken and written English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For further discussion of English spelling patterns and rules, see <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a>.</div> <p>As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a> than <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a>. </p> <ul><li><i>Spelling and pronunciation</i>: probably the biggest difficulty for non-native speakers, since the relation between English <a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a> and pronunciation does not follow the <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">alphabetic principle</a> consistently. Because of the many changes in pronunciation which have occurred since a written standard developed, the retention of many historical idiosyncrasies in spelling, and the large influx of foreign words (mainly from <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>) with different and overlapping spelling patterns,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English spelling and pronunciation are difficult even for native speakers to master. This difficulty is shown in such activities as <a href="/wiki/Spelling_bee" title="Spelling bee">spelling bees</a>. The generalizations that exist are quite complex and there are many exceptions, leading to a considerable amount of <a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">rote learning</a>. The spelling and pronunciation system causes problems in both directions: a learner may know a word by sound but be unable to write it correctly (or indeed find it in a dictionary) or they may see a word written but not know how to pronounce it or mislearn the pronunciation. However, despite the variety of spelling patterns in English, there are dozens of rules that are 75% or more reliable.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>There is also debate about "meaning-focused" learning and "correction-focused" learning. Supporters for the former think that using speech as the way to explain <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (linguistics)">meaning</a> is more important. However, supporters of the latter do not agree with that and instead think that grammar and correct habit is more important.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Technology plays an integral part in our lives and has become a major instrument in the field of education. <a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technologies</a> make learning and teaching of English language more convenient and enable new opportunities. The video talks about the history of technology in education and its current integration in learning. Computers have made an entry into education in the past decades and have brought significant benefits to teachers and students alike. Computers help learners by making them more responsible for their own learning. Studies have shown that one of the best ways of improving one's learning ability is to use a computer where all the information one might need can be found. In today's <a href="/wiki/Developed_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed world">developed world</a>, a computer is one of a number of systems that help learners to improve their language. <a href="/wiki/Computer_Assisted_Language_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Assisted Language Learning">Computer Assisted Language Learning</a> (CALL) is a system which aids learners to improve and practice language skills. It provides a stress-free environment for learners and makes them more responsible. Computers can provide help to ESL learners in many different ways such as teaching students to learn a new language. The computer can be used to test students about the language they already learn. It can assist them in practicing certain tasks. The computer permits students to communicate easily with other students in different places. In recent years the increasing use of mobile technology, such as smartphones and tablet computers, has led to a growing usage application created to facilitate language learning, such as The Phrasal Verbs Machine from Cambridge. In terms of online materials, there are many forms of online materials such as blogs, wikis, <a href="/wiki/Webquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Webquest">webquests</a>. For instance, blogs can allow English learners to voice their opinions, sharpen their writing skills, and build their confidence. However, some who are introverted may not feel comfortable sharing their ideas on the blog. Class wikis can be used to promote collaborative learning through sharing and co-constructing knowledge. On-line materials are still just materials and thus need to be subject to the same scrutiny of evaluation as any other language material or source.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality (AR)</a> is another emerging technology that has an important place in language education. It allows for merging of the virtual objects into the real world, as if they co-exist in the same time and place.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The research has shown 8 benefits of AR in the educational setting: 1. Collaboration; 2. Connectivity; 3. Student centred; 4.Community; 5. Exploration; 6. Shared knowledge; 7. Multisensory experience; 8. Authenticity.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Learners have mentioned that AR increased classroom engagement and student motivation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two applications that have been tested in the ESL setting are QuiverVision and JigSpace.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  QuiverVision offers colouring pages that can be brought to life using Android or iOS devices. JigSpace can be a helpful resource in learning complex scientific, technical and historical concepts for ESL students.</li> <li>Increasing social nature of internet opened up new opportunities for language learners and educators.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Videos, memes and chats are all sources of authentic language that are easily accessible via mobile devices or computers.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional benefit for English language learners is that non-textual representation can be more beneficial for students with various learning preferences.</li> <li>Integration of games and gaming in language learning has recently received a surge of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are games that have been specifically designed for English language learning while there are others that can be adapted to this context. Games to Learn English includes multiple games that can be played to develop language skills. Trace Effects is a game developed by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. Department of State</a> which helps learners not only increase their language knowledge but also explore American culture. The most important features of gaming are their collaborative and interactive nature<sup id="cite_ref-:1_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which makes learning engaging for learners.</li> <li>The learning ability of language learners can be more reliable with the influence of a <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a>. Learners tend to carry or are required to have a dictionary which allows them to learn independently and become more responsible for their own work. In these modern days, education has upgraded its methods of teaching and learning with dictionaries where digital materials are being applied as tools. Electronic dictionaries are increasingly a more common choice for ESL students. Most of them contain native-language equivalents and explanations, as well as definitions and example sentences in English. They can speak the English word to the learner, and they are easy to carry around. However, they are expensive and easy to lose, so students are often instructed to put their names on them.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varieties_of_English">Varieties of English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Varieties of English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">English language in England</a> (and other parts of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>) exhibits significant differences by region and class, noticeable in structure (vocabulary and grammar), <a href="/wiki/Accent_(sociolinguistics)" title="Accent (sociolinguistics)">accent</a> (pronunciation) and in <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>.</li> <li>The numerous communities of English native speakers in <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">countries all over the world</a> also have some <a href="/wiki/Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">noticeable differences</a> like <a href="/wiki/Irish_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish English">Irish English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canadian English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_English" title="Newfoundland English">Newfoundland English</a>, etc. For instance, the following are words that only make meaning in originating culture: <a href="/wiki/Toad_in_the_hole" title="Toad in the hole">Toad in the hole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gulab_jamun" title="Gulab jamun">Gulab jamun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spotted_Dick" class="mw-redirect" title="Spotted Dick">Spotted Dick</a>, etc.</li> <li>Attempts have been made to regulate English to an inclination of a class or to a specific style of a community by <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> and others. Auspiciously, English as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> is not <a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">racialized</a> and has no proscribing organization that controls any <a href="/wiki/Prestige_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige dialect">prestige dialect</a> for the language – unlike the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> <i><a href="/wiki/French_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="French Academy">Academie de la langue française</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spain</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1ola" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Academia Española">Real Academia Española</a></i>, or <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Akademio_de_Esperanto" title="Akademio de Esperanto">Akademio</a></i>.</li></ul> <p>Teaching English, therefore, involves not only helping the student to use the form of English most suitable for their purposes, but also exposure to regional forms and cultural styles so that the student will be able to discern meaning even when the words, grammar, or pronunciation are different from the form of English they are being taught to speak. Some professionals in the field have recommended incorporating information about non-standard forms of English in ESL programs. For example, in advocating for classroom-based instruction in <a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> (also known as Ebonics), linguist Richard McDorman has argued, "Simply put, the ESL syllabus must break free of the longstanding intellectual imperiousness of the standard to embrace instruction that encompasses the many "Englishes" that learners will encounter and thereby achieve the culturally responsive pedagogy so often advocated by leaders in the field."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_challenges_and_benefits">Social challenges and benefits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Social challenges and benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Class_placement">Class placement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Class placement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>ESL students often suffer from the effects of <a href="/wiki/Tracking_(education)" title="Tracking (education)">tracking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ability_grouping" title="Ability grouping">ability grouping</a>. Students are often placed into low ability groups based on scores on <a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">standardized tests</a> in English and math.<sup id="cite_ref-Providing_Support_or_Denying_Access?_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Providing_Support_or_Denying_Access?-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also low mobility among these students from low to high performing groups, which can prevent them from achieving the same academic progress as <a href="/wiki/Native_speaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Native speaker">native speakers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Providing_Support_or_Denying_Access?_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Providing_Support_or_Denying_Access?-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar tests are also used to place ESL students in college-level courses. Students have voiced frustration that only non-native students have to prove their language skills, when being a native speaker in no way guarantees college-level academic literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Access_to_Higher_Education_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Access_to_Higher_Education-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have shown that these tests can cause different passing rates among linguistic groups regardless of high school preparation.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dropout_rates">Dropout rates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Dropout rates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dropping_out" title="Dropping out">Dropout</a> rates for ESL students in multiple countries are much higher than dropout rates for native speakers. The <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Education_Statistics" title="National Center for Education Statistics">National Center for Education Statistics</a> (NCES) in the United States reported that the percentage of dropouts in the non-native born <a href="/wiki/Hispanic" title="Hispanic">Hispanic</a> youth population between the ages of 16 and 24 years old is 43.4%.<sup id="cite_ref-DelliCarpini_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DelliCarpini-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> found that the high school dropout rate for all ESL students was 74%.<sup id="cite_ref-Canada_dropout_rates_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canada_dropout_rates-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High dropout rates are thought to be due to difficulties ESL students have in keeping up in mainstream classes, the increasing number of ESL students who enter middle or high school with interrupted prior formal education, and accountability systems.<sup id="cite_ref-DelliCarpini_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DelliCarpini-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The accountability system in the US is due to the <a href="/wiki/No_Child_Left_Behind_Act" title="No Child Left Behind Act">No Child Left Behind Act</a>. Schools that risk losing funding, closing, or having their principals fired if test scores are not high enough begin to view students that do not perform well on standardized tests as liabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-NCLB_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCLB-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because dropouts actually increase a school's performance, critics claim that administrators let poor performing students slip through the cracks. A study of <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> schools operating under No Child Left Behind found that 80% of ESL students did not graduate from high school in five years.<sup id="cite_ref-NCLB_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCLB-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Access_to_higher_education">Access to higher education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Access to higher education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>ESL students face several barriers to <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a>. Most <a href="/wiki/College" title="College">colleges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> require four years of English in high school. In addition, most colleges and universities only accept one year of ESL English.<sup id="cite_ref-Access_to_Higher_Education_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Access_to_Higher_Education-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is difficult for ESL students that arrive in the United States relatively late to finish this requirement because they must spend a longer time in ESL English classes in high school, or they might not arrive early enough to complete four years of English in high school. This results in many ESL students not having the correct <a href="/wiki/Course_credit" title="Course credit">credits</a> to apply for college, or enrolling in <a href="/wiki/Summer_school" title="Summer school">summer school</a> to finish the required courses.<sup id="cite_ref-Access_to_Higher_Education_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Access_to_Higher_Education-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ESL students can also face additional financial barriers to higher education because of their language skills. Those that don't place high enough on college placement exams often have to enroll in ESL courses at their universities. These courses can cost up to $1,000 extra, and can be offered without credit towards graduation.<sup id="cite_ref-Access_to_Higher_Education_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Access_to_Higher_Education-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This adds additional financial stress on ESL students that often come from families of lower <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a>. The latest statistics show that the <a href="/wiki/Median_household_income" class="mw-redirect" title="Median household income">median household income</a> for school-age ESL students is $36,691 while that of non-ESL students is $60,280.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (February 2013)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> College tuition has risen sharply in the last decade, while family income has fallen. In addition, while many ESL students receive a <a href="/wiki/Pell_Grant" title="Pell Grant">Pell Grant</a>, the maximum grant for the year 2011–2012 covered only about a third of the cost of college.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interaction_with_native_speakers">Interaction with native speakers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Interaction with native speakers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>ESL students often have difficulty interacting with native speakers in school. Some ESL students avoid interactions with native speakers because of their frustration or embarrassment at their poor English. <a href="/wiki/Immigrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrant">Immigrant</a> students often also lack knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>, which limits their conversations with native speakers to academic topics.<sup id="cite_ref-ESL_vs._Mainstream_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESL_vs._Mainstream-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In classroom group activities with native speakers, ESL students often do not participate, again because of embarrassment about their English, but also because of cultural differences: their native cultures may value silence and individual work at school in preference to social interaction and talking in class.<sup id="cite_ref-Providing_Support_or_Denying_Access?_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Providing_Support_or_Denying_Access?-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These interactions have been found to extend to teacher-student interactions as well. In most mainstream classrooms, a teacher-led discussion is the most common form of lesson. In this setting, some ESL students will fail to participate, and often have difficulty understanding teachers because they talk too fast, do not use visual aids, or use native <a href="/wiki/Colloquialisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloquialisms">colloquialisms</a>. ESL students also have trouble getting involved with <a href="/wiki/Extracurricular_activities" class="mw-redirect" title="Extracurricular activities">extracurricular activities</a> with native speakers for similar reasons. Students fail to join extra-curricular activities because of the <a href="/wiki/Language_barrier" title="Language barrier">language barrier</a>, the cultural emphasis of academics over other activities, or failure to understand traditional pastimes in their new country.<sup id="cite_ref-ESL_vs._Mainstream_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESL_vs._Mainstream-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_benefits">Social benefits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Social benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Supporters of ESL programs claim they play an important role in the formation of peer networks and adjustment to school and society in their new homes. Having class among other students learning English as a second language relieves the pressure of making mistakes when speaking in class or to <a href="/wiki/Peer_group" title="Peer group">peers</a>. ESL programs also allow students to be among others who appreciate their native language and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, the expression of which is often not supported or encouraged in mainstream settings. ESL programs also allow students to meet and form friendships with other non-native speakers from different cultures, promoting racial <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">tolerance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ESL_vs._Mainstream_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESL_vs._Mainstream-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversy_over_ethical_administration_of_ESL_programs">Controversy over ethical administration of ESL programs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Controversy over ethical administration of ESL programs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>ESL programs have been critiqued for focusing more on revenue-generation than on educating students.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has led to controversy over how ESL programs can be managed in an ethical manner. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professional_and_Technical_Communication_Advocacy">Professional and Technical Communication Advocacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Professional and Technical Communication Advocacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The field of technical and professional communication has the potential to disrupt barriers that hinder ESL learners from entering the field, although it can just as easily perpetuate these issues. One study by Matsuda & Matsuda sought to evaluate introductory-level textbooks on the subject of technical communication. Among their research, they found that these textbooks perpetuated the "myth of linguistic homogeneity—the tacit and widespread acceptance of the dominant image of composition students as native speakers of a privileged variety of English."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the textbooks were successful in referencing global and international perspectives, the portrayal of the intended audience, the you of the text, ultimately alienated any individual not belonging to a predominantly white background and culture. In constructing this guise, prospective ESL learners are collectively lumped into an "other" group that isolates and undermines their capacity to enter the field. </p><p>Furthermore, this alienation is exacerbated by the emergence of English as the pinnacle language for business and many professional realms. In Kwon & Klassen's research, they also identified and criticized a "single native-speaker recipe for linguistic success,"<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which contributed to anxieties about entering the professional field for ESL technical communicators. These concerns about an English-dominated professional field indicate an affective filter that provides a further barrier to social justice for these ESL individuals. These misconceptions and anxieties point towards an issue of exclusivity that technical and professional communicators must address. This social justice concern becomes an ethical concern as well, with all individuals deserving usable, accessible, and inclusive information. </p><p>There is a major concern about the lack of accessibility to translation services and the amount of time and attention their English proficiency is given throughout their educational experiences. If a student lacks an understanding of the English language and still needs to participate in their coursework, they will turn to translations in order to aid their efforts. The issue is that many of these translations rarely carry the same meaning as the original text. The students in this study said that a translated text is "pretty outdated, covers only the basics or is terribly translated," and that "The technical vocabulary linked to programming can be complicated to assimilate, especially in the middle of explanatory sentences if you don't know the equivalent word in your native language."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Students can't be proficient in their given subjects if the language barrier is complicating the message. Researchers found that syntax, semantics, style, etc., scramble up the original messages.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This disorientation of the text fogs up the message and makes it difficult for the student to decipher what they are supposed to be learning. This is where additional time and attention are needed to bridge the gap between native English speakers and ESL students. ESL students face difficulties in areas concerning lexico-grammatical aspects of technical writing., overall textual organization and comprehension, differentiation between genres of technical communication and the social hierarchies that concern the subject matter.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This inhibits their ability to comprehend complex messages from English texts, and it would be more beneficial for them to tackle these subjects individually. The primary issue with this is the accessibility to more instruction. ESL students need an individual analysis of their needs and this needs to revolve around the student's ability to communicate and interpret information in English.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the civil rights decision of Lauv v. Nichols<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> school districts are required to provide this additional instruction based on the needs of students, but this requirement still needs to be acted on. </p><p>Many ESL students have issues in higher-level courses that hinder their academic performances due to the complicated language used in these courses being at a more complex level than what many ESL students were taught.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases of ESL students learning Computer Programming, they struggle with the language used in instructional manuals. Writing media centers have caused ESL students issues with universities unable to provide proofreading in their writing media center programs. This causes many ESL students to have difficulties writing papers for high-level courses that require a more complex lexicon than what many of them were taught.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fortunately, university tutors have had successes with teaching ESL students how to write a more technically complex language that ESL students need to know for their courses, but it raises the question of if ESL learners need to know a more complex version of the English language to succeed in their professional careers.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peer_tutoring_for_ESL_students">Peer tutoring for ESL students</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Peer tutoring for ESL students"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peer tutoring refers to an instructional method that pairs up low-achieving English readers, with ESL students that know minimal English and who are also approximately the same age and same grade level. The goal of this dynamic is to help both the tutor, in this case, the English speaker, and the tutee, the ESL student. <a href="/wiki/Monolingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolingual">Monolingual</a> tutors are given the class material in order to provide tutoring to their assigned ESL tutee. Once the tutor has had the chance to help the student, classmates get to switch roles in order to give both peers an opportunity to learn from each other. In a study, which conducted a similar research, their results indicated that low-achieving readers that were chosen as tutors, made a lot of progress by using this procedure. In addition, ESL students were also able to improve their grades due to the fact that they increased their approach in reading acquisition skills.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Importance">Importance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Importance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since there is not enough funding to afford tutors, and teachers find it hard to educate all students who have different learning abilities, it is highly important to implement peer-tutoring programs in schools. Students placed in ESL program learn together along with other non-English speakers; however, by using peer tutoring in a classroom it will avoid the separation between regular English classes and ESL classes. These programs will promote community between students that will be helping each other grow academically.<sup id="cite_ref-Simmons,_D._1995_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons,_D._1995-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To further support this statement, a study researched the effectiveness of peer tutoring and explicit teaching in classrooms. It was found that students with <a href="/wiki/Learning_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning disabilities">learning disabilities</a> and low performing students who are exposed to the explicit teaching and peer tutoring treatment in the classroom, have better academic performance than those students who do not receive this type of assistance. It was proven that peer tutoring is the most effective and no cost form of teaching<sup id="cite_ref-Simmons,_D._1995_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons,_D._1995-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benefits">Benefits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been proven that peer-mediated tutoring is an effective tool to help ESL students succeed academically. Peer tutoring has been utilized across many different academic courses and the outcomes for those students that have different learning abilities are outstanding. Classmates who were actively involved with other peers in tutoring had better academic standing than those students who were not part of the tutoring program.<sup id="cite_ref-Peer_Tutoring_Systems:_Applications_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peer_Tutoring_Systems:_Applications-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on their results, researchers found that all English student learners were able to maintain a high percentage of English academic words on weekly tests taught during a tutoring session. It was also found that the literature on the efficacy of peer tutoring service combined with regular classroom teaching, is the best methodology practice that is effective, that benefits students, teachers, and parents involved.<sup id="cite_ref-Peer_Tutoring_Systems:_Applications_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peer_Tutoring_Systems:_Applications-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_on_peer_English_immersion_tutoring">Research on peer English immersion tutoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Research on peer English immersion tutoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Similarly, a longitudinal study was conducted to examine the effects of the paired bilingual program and an English-only reading program with Spanish speaking English learners in order to increase students' English reading outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker,_D._L._2012_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker,_D._L._2012-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Students whose primary language was Spanish and were part of the ESL program were participants of this study. Three different approaches were the focus in which immersing students in English from the very beginning and teaching them reading only in that language; teaching students in Spanish first, followed by English; and teaching students to read in Spanish and English simultaneously. This occurs through a strategic approach such as structured English immersion or sheltered instruction. </p><p>Findings showed that the paired bilingual reading approach appeared to work as well as, or better than, the English-only reading approach in terms of reading growth and results. Researchers found differences in results, but they also varied based on several outcomes depending on the student's learning abilities and academic performance.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker,_D._L._2012_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker,_D._L._2012-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ESL_teachers'_training"><span id="ESL_teachers.27_training"></span>ESL teachers' training</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: ESL teachers' training"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Teachers in an ESL class are specifically trained in particular techniques and tools to help students learn English. Research says that the quality of their teaching methods is what matters the most when it comes to educating English learners. It was also mentioned<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2018)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> how it is highly important for teachers to have the drive to help these students succeed and "feel personal responsibility."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to highlight the idea that the school system needs to focus on school-wide interventions in order to make an impact and be able to help all English learners. There is a high need for comprehensive professional development for teachers in the ESL program.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_peer_tutoring_on_the_achievement_gap">Effects of peer tutoring on the achievement gap</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Effects of peer tutoring on the achievement gap"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although peer tutoring has been proven to be an effective way of learning that engages and promotes <a href="/wiki/Academic_achievement" title="Academic achievement">academic achievement</a> in students, does it have an effect on the <a href="/wiki/Achievement_gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Achievement gap">achievement gap</a>? It is an obvious fact that there is a large academic performance disparity between White, Black, and Latino students, and it continues to be an issue that has to be targeted.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an article, it was mentioned that no one has been able to identify the true factors that cause this discrepancy. However it was mentioned that by developing effective peer tutoring programs in schools could be a factor that can potentially decrease the <a href="/wiki/Achievement_gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Achievement gap">achievement gap</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exams_for_learners">Exams for learners</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Exams for learners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:English_language_tests" title="Category:English language tests">Category:English language tests</a></div> <p>Learners of English are often eager to get accreditation and a number of exams are known internationally:<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IELTS" class="mw-redirect" title="IELTS">IELTS</a> (International English Language Testing System) is the world's most popular English test for higher education and immigration. It is managed by the <a href="/wiki/British_Council" title="British Council">British Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Assessment_English" title="Cambridge Assessment English">Cambridge Assessment English</a> and <a href="/wiki/IDP_Education" title="IDP Education">IDP Education</a>. It is offered in Academic, General and Life Skills versions. IELTS Academic is the normal test of English proficiency for entry into universities in the UK, Australia, Canada, and other <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a> countries. IELTS General is required for immigration into Australia and New Zealand. Both versions of IELTS are accepted for all classes of UK visa and immigration applications. IELTS Life Skills, was introduced in 2015 specifically to meet the requirements for some classes of UK visa application.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CaMLA" class="mw-redirect" title="CaMLA">CaMLA</a>, a collaboration between the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_English_Language_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge English Language Assessment">Cambridge English Language Assessment</a> offer a suite of American English tests, including the MET (Michigan English Test), the <a href="/wiki/MTELP" class="mw-redirect" title="MTELP">MTELP Series</a> (Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency), <a href="/wiki/MELAB" title="MELAB">MELAB</a> (Michigan English Language Assessment Battery), CaMLA EPT (English Placement Test), YLTE (Young Learners Test of English), ECCE and ECPE.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TOEFL" class="mw-redirect" title="TOEFL">TOEFL</a> (Test of English as a Foreign Language), an <a href="/wiki/Educational_Testing_Service" title="Educational Testing Service">Educational Testing Service</a> product, developed and used primarily for academic institutions in the US, and now widely accepted in tertiary institutions in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, the UK, Japan, South Korea, and Ireland. The current test is an Internet-based test and is thus known as the TOEFL iBT. Used as a proxy for <a href="/wiki/English_for_Academic_Purposes" class="mw-redirect" title="English for Academic Purposes">English for Academic Purposes</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Test_of_English_Proficiency" title="International Test of English Proficiency">iTEP</a> (International Test of English Proficiency), developed by former <a href="/w/index.php?title=ELS_Language_Centers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ELS Language Centers (page does not exist)">ELS Language Centers</a> President Perry Akins' Boston Educational Services, and used by colleges and universities such as the <a href="/wiki/California_State_University" title="California State University">California State University</a> system. iTEP Business is used by companies, organizations, and governments, and iTEP SLATE (Secondary Level Assessment Test of English) is designed for middle and high school-age students.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_Test_of_English_Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson Test of English Academic">PTE Academic</a> (Pearson Test of English Academic), a <a href="/wiki/Pearson_PLC" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson PLC">Pearson</a> product, measures reading, writing, speaking and listening as well as grammar, oral fluency, pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary and written discourse. The test is computer-based and is designed to reflect international English for academic admission into any university requiring English proficiency.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TOEIC" title="TOEIC">TOEIC</a> (Test of English for International Communication), an Educational Testing Service product for <a href="/wiki/Business_English" title="Business English">Business English</a> used by 10,000 organizations in 120 countries. Includes a listening and reading test as well as a speaking and writing test introduced in selected countries beginning in 2006.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College_London_ESOL" title="Trinity College London ESOL">Trinity College London ESOL</a> offers the Integrated Skills in English (ISE) series of 5 exams which assesses reading, writing, speaking and listening and is accepted by academic institutions in the UK. They also offer Graded Examinations in Spoken English (GESE), a series of 12 exams, which assesses speaking and listening, and ESOL Skills for Life and ESOL for Work exams in the UK only.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Assessment_English" title="Cambridge Assessment English">Cambridge Assessment English</a> offers a suite of globally available examinations including General English: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_English:_Key_(KET)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge English: Key (KET)">Key English Test</a> (KET), <a href="/wiki/Preliminary_English_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Preliminary English Test">Preliminary English Test</a> (PET), <a href="/wiki/First_Certificate_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="First Certificate in English">First Certificate in English</a> (FCE), <a href="/wiki/Certificate_in_Advanced_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate in Advanced English">Certificate in Advanced English</a> (CAE) and <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_Proficiency_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate of Proficiency in English">Certificate of Proficiency in English</a> (CPE).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Tests_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="London Tests of English">London Tests of English</a> from <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Language_Tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson Language Tests">Pearson Language Tests</a>, a series of six exams each mapped to a level from the <a href="#The_Common_European_Framework">Common European Framework (CEFR) – see below</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_Level_English_Proficiency_test" title="Secondary Level English Proficiency test">Secondary Level English Proficiency test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MTELP" class="mw-redirect" title="MTELP">MTELP</a> (Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency), is a language certificate measuring a student's English ability as a second or foreign language. Its primary purpose is to assess a learner's English language ability at an academic or advanced business level.</li></ul> <p>Many countries also have their own exams. ESOL learners in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland usually take the national <a href="/wiki/Skills_for_Life" title="Skills for Life">Skills for Life</a> qualifications, which are offered by several <a href="/wiki/Exam_boards" class="mw-redirect" title="Exam boards">exam boards</a>. EFL learners in <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">China</a> may take the <a href="/wiki/College_English_Test" title="College English Test">College English Test</a>, the Test for English Majors (TEM), and/or the <a href="/wiki/Public_English_Test_System" title="Public English Test System">Public English Test System</a> (PETS). People in Taiwan often take the <a href="/wiki/General_English_Proficiency_Test" title="General English Proficiency Test">General English Proficiency Test</a> (GEPT). In Greece, English students may take the PALSO (PanHellenic Association of Language School Owners) exams. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Common_European_Framework">The Common European Framework</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: The Common European Framework"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Common_European_Framework_of_Reference_for_Languages" title="Common European Framework of Reference for Languages">Common European Framework of Reference for Languages</a></div> <p>Between 1998 and 2000, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Language_policy" title="Language policy">language policy</a> division developed its <a href="/wiki/Common_European_Framework_of_Reference_for_Languages" title="Common European Framework of Reference for Languages">Common European Framework of Reference for Languages</a>. The aim of this framework was to have a common system for foreign language testing and certification, to cover all European languages and countries. </p><p>The Common European Framework (CEF) divides language learners into three levels: </p> <ul><li>A. Basic User</li> <li>B. Independent User</li> <li>C. Proficient User</li></ul> <p>Each of these levels is divided into two sections, resulting in a total of six levels for testing (A1, A2, B1, etc.). </p><p>This table compares ELT exams according to the CEF levels: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>CEF Level </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Language_Testers_in_Europe" title="Association of Language Testers in Europe">ALTE</a> Level </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Regulated_Qualifications_Framework" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulated Qualifications Framework">RQF</a> Level </th> <th><a href="/wiki/PTE_General" class="mw-redirect" title="PTE General">PTE General</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College_London_ESOL" title="Trinity College London ESOL">Trinity College London ESOL</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Graded_Examinations_in_Spoken_English&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Graded Examinations in Spoken English (page does not exist)">GESE</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College_London_ESOL" title="Trinity College London ESOL">Trinity College London ESOL</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Integrated_Skills_in_English&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Integrated Skills in English (page does not exist)">ISE</a> </th> <th><a href="/w/index.php?title=UBELT&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UBELT (page does not exist)">UBELT</a> exam </th> <th><a href="/wiki/IELTS" class="mw-redirect" title="IELTS">IELTS</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_English_Language_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge English Language Assessment">Cambridge English Language Assessment</a> <a href="/wiki/BULATS" class="mw-redirect" title="BULATS">BULATS</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_English_Language_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge English Language Assessment">Cambridge English Language Assessment</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_English_Certificate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Business English Certificate (page does not exist)">BEC</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_English_Language_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge English Language Assessment">Cambridge English Language Assessment</a> General </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_English_Language_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge English Language Assessment">Cambridge English Language Assessment</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Young_Learners%27_English_Tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Young Learners' English Tests">YLE</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_English_Language_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge English Language Assessment">Cambridge English Language Assessment</a> Skills for Life<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/CaMLA" class="mw-redirect" title="CaMLA">CaMLA</a><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>C2 </th> <td>Level 5 </td> <td>Level 3 </td> <td>Level 5 </td> <td>Grade 12 </td> <td>ISE IV </td> <td>4.0–5.0 </td> <td>8.5–9.0 </td> <td>90–100 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>CPE </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>ECPE </td></tr> <tr> <th>C1 </th> <td>Level 4 </td> <td>Level 2 </td> <td>Level 4 </td> <td>Grade 10, 11 </td> <td>ISE III </td> <td>3.0–3.5 </td> <td>7.0–8.0 </td> <td>75–89 </td> <td>Higher </td> <td>CAE </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>Level 2 </td> <td>MET, <a href="/wiki/MELAB" title="MELAB">MELAB</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>B2 </th> <td>Level 3 </td> <td>Level 1 </td> <td>Level 3 </td> <td>Grade 7, 8, 9 </td> <td>ISE II </td> <td>2.0–2.5 </td> <td>5.5–6.5 </td> <td>60–74 </td> <td>Vantage </td> <td>FCE </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>Level 1 </td> <td>MET, <a href="/wiki/MELAB" title="MELAB">MELAB</a>, ECCE </td></tr> <tr> <th>B1 </th> <td>Level 2 </td> <td>Entry 3 </td> <td>Level 2 </td> <td>Grade 5, 6 </td> <td>ISE I </td> <td>1.5 </td> <td>4.0–5.0 </td> <td>40–59 </td> <td>Preliminary </td> <td>PET </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>Entry 3 </td> <td>MET, <a href="/wiki/MELAB" title="MELAB">MELAB</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>A2 </th> <td>Level 1 </td> <td>Entry 2 </td> <td>Level 1 </td> <td>Grades 3, 4 </td> <td>ISE 0 </td> <td>1.0 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>20–39 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>KET </td> <td>Flyers </td> <td>Entry 2 </td> <td>MET, YLTE </td></tr> <tr> <th>A1 </th> <td>Breakthrough </td> <td>Entry 1 </td> <td>Level A1 </td> <td>Grade 2 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td><1.0 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>0-19 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>Movers </td> <td>Entry 1 </td> <td>YLTE </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Qualifications_for_teachers">Qualifications for teachers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Qualifications for teachers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualifications vary from one region or jurisdiction to the next. There are also different qualifications for those who manage or direct TESOL programs<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-native_speakers">Non-native speakers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Non-native speakers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most people who teach English are in fact not native speakers<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. They are <a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">state school</a> teachers in countries around the world, and as such, they hold the relevant <a href="/wiki/Teaching_qualification" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching qualification">teaching qualification</a> of their country, usually with a specialization in teaching English. For example, teachers in <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> hold the <a href="/wiki/Language_Proficiency_Assessment_for_Teachers" title="Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers">Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers</a>. Those who work in private <a href="/wiki/Language_school" title="Language school">language schools</a> may, from commercial pressures, have the same qualifications as native speakers (see below). Widespread problems exist of minimal qualifications and poor quality providers of training, and as the industry becomes more professional, it is trying to self-regulate to eliminate these.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australian_qualifications">Australian qualifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Australian qualifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Australian Skills Quality Authority<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accredits vocational TESOL qualifications such as the 10695NAT Certificate IV in TESOL and the 10688NAT Diploma in TESOL. As ASQA is an <a href="/wiki/Australian_Government" title="Australian Government">Australian Government</a> accreditation authority, these qualifications rank within the Australian Qualifications Framework.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And most graduates work in vocational colleges in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. These TESOL qualifications are also accepted internationally and recognized in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_qualifications">British qualifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: British qualifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common, respected qualifications for teachers within the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>'s sphere of influence include certificates and diplomas issued by <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College_London_ESOL" title="Trinity College London ESOL">Trinity College London ESOL</a> and <a href="/wiki/UCLES" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLES">Cambridge English Language Assessment</a> (henceforth Trinity and Cambridge). </p><p>A certificate course is usually undertaken before starting to teach. This is sufficient for most EFL jobs and for some ESOL ones. <a href="/wiki/CertTESOL" title="CertTESOL">CertTESOL</a> (Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), issued by Trinity, and <a href="/wiki/CELTA" class="mw-redirect" title="CELTA">CELTA</a> (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults), issued by Cambridge, are the most widely taken and accepted qualifications for new teacher trainees. Courses are offered in the UK and in many countries around the world. It is usually taught full-time over a one-month period or part-time over a period of up to a year. </p><p>Teachers with two or more years of teaching experience who want to stay in the profession and advance their career prospects (including school management and teacher training) can take a diploma course. Trinity offers the Trinity Licentiate Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (<a href="/wiki/LTCL_DipTESOL" title="LTCL DipTESOL">DipTESOL</a>) and Cambridge offers the Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults (<a href="/wiki/DELTA_(ELT)" class="mw-redirect" title="DELTA (ELT)">DELTA</a>). These diplomas are considered to be equivalent and are both accredited at level 7 of the revised <a href="/wiki/National_Qualifications_Framework" class="mw-redirect" title="National Qualifications Framework">National Qualifications Framework</a>. Some teachers who stay in the profession go on to do an <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a> in a relevant discipline such as <a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">applied linguistics</a> or ELT. Many UK <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Master's degrees">master's degrees</a> require considerable experience in the field before a candidate is accepted onto the course. </p><p>The above qualifications are well-respected within the UK EFL sector, including private <a href="/wiki/Language_school" title="Language school">language schools</a> and <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a> language provision. However, in England and Wales, in order to meet the government's criteria for being a qualified teacher of ESOL in the Learning and Skills Sector (i.e. post-compulsory or <a href="/wiki/Further_education" title="Further education">further education</a>), teachers need to have the Certificate in Further Education Teaching Stage 3 at level 5 (of the revised NQF) and the Certificate for ESOL Subject Specialists at level 4. Recognised qualifications which confer one or both of these include a <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_Certificate_in_Education" title="Postgraduate Certificate in Education">Postgraduate Certificate in Education</a> (PGCE) in ESOL, the CELTA module 2, and <a href="/wiki/City_and_Guilds_of_London_Institute" title="City and Guilds of London Institute">City & Guilds</a> 9488. Teachers of any subject <a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">within the British state sector</a> are normally expected to hold a PGCE and may choose to specialise in ELT. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canadian_qualifications">Canadian qualifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Canadian qualifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Teachers teaching adult ESL in Canada in the federally funded Language Instruction to Newcomers (LINC) program must be TESL certified. Most employers in Ontario encourage certification by TESL Ontario. Often this requires completing an eight-month graduate certificate program at an accredited university or college. See the TESL Ontario or TESL Canada websites for more information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_qualifications">United States qualifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: United States qualifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some U.S. instructors at <a href="/wiki/Community_college" title="Community college">community colleges</a>, private language schools and <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> qualify to teach English to adult non-native speakers by completing a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a> (MA) in TESOL. Other degrees may be a Master in Adult Education and Training or Applied Linguistics.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This degree also qualifies them to teach in most EFL contexts. There are also a growing number of online programs offering TESOL degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, "the growth of Online Language Teacher Education (OLTE) programs from the mid-1990s to 2009 was from 20 to more than 120".<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many areas of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, a growing number of K–12 public school teachers are involved in teaching ELLs (English Language Learners, that is, children who come to school speaking a home language other than English). The qualifications for these classroom teachers vary from state to state but always include a state-issued teaching certificate for public instruction. This state licensing requires substantial practical experience as well as course work. In some states, an additional specialization in ESL/ELL is required. This may be called an "endorsement". Endorsement programs may be part of a graduate program or maybe completed independently to add the endorsement to the initial teaching certificate </p><p>An MA in TESOL may or may not meet individual state requirements for K–12 public school teachers. It is important to determine if a graduate program is designed to prepare teachers for adult education or K–12 education. </p><p>The MA in TESOL typically includes second-language acquisition theory, linguistics, pedagogy, and an internship. A program will also likely have specific classes on skills such as reading, writing, pronunciation, and grammar. Admission requirements vary and may or may not require a background in education and/or language. Many graduate students also participate in teaching practica or clinicals, which provide the opportunity to gain experience in classrooms.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to traditional classroom teaching methods, speech pathologists, linguists, actors, and voice professionals are actively involved in teaching pronunciation of American English—called accent improvement, accent modification, and accent reduction—and serve as resources for other aspects of spoken English, such as word choice. </p><p>It is important to note that the issuance of a teaching certificate or license for K–12 teachers is not automatic following completion of degree requirements. All teachers must complete a battery of exams (typically the <a href="/wiki/Praxis_test" title="Praxis test">Praxis test</a> or a specific state test subject and method exams or similar, state-sponsored exams) as well as supervised instruction as <a href="/wiki/Student_teacher" title="Student teacher">student teachers</a>. Often, ESL certification can be obtained through extra college coursework. ESL certifications are usually only valid when paired with an already existing teaching certificate. Certification requirements for ESL teachers vary greatly from state to state; out-of-state teaching certificates are recognized if the two states have a reciprocity agreement. </p><p>The following document states the qualifications for an ESL certificate in the state of Pennsylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chile_qualifications">Chile qualifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Chile qualifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Native speakers will often be able to find work as an English teacher in Chile without an ESL teaching certificate. However, many private institutes give preference to teachers with a TEFL, CELTA, or TESOL certificate. The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Chile)" title="Ministry of Education (Chile)">Chilean Ministry of Education</a> also sponsors the <a href="/wiki/English_Opens_Doors" title="English Opens Doors">English Opens Doors</a> program, which recruits native English speakers to come work as teaching assistants in Chilean public schools. English Opens Doors requires only a bachelor's degree in order to be considered for acceptance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Arab_Emirates_qualifications">United Arab Emirates qualifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: United Arab Emirates qualifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Native speakers must possess teacher certification in their home country in order to teach English as a foreign language in most institutions and schools in United Arab Emirates (UAE). Otherwise, CELTA/TESOL/TEFL/ Certificate or the like is required along with prior teaching experience. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_associations_and_unions">Professional associations and unions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Professional associations and unions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>TESOL International Association (<a href="/wiki/Teachers_of_English_to_Speakers_of_Other_Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages">TESOL</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Professional_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional body">professional organization</a> based in the United States. In addition, TESOL International Association has more than 100 statewide and regional affiliates in the United States and around the world, see below.</li> <li>The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (<a href="/wiki/IATEFL" class="mw-redirect" title="IATEFL">IATEFL</a>) is a professional organization based in the United Kingdom.</li> <li>Professional organizations for teachers of English exist at national levels. Many contain phrases in their title such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT), TESOL Greece in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Pakistan_English_Language_Teachers" title="Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers">Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers</a> (SPELT). Some of these organizations may be bigger in structure (supra-national, such as TESOL Arabia in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Arab states of the Persian Gulf">Gulf states</a>), or smaller (limited to one city, state, or province, such as <a href="/wiki/CATESOL" class="mw-redirect" title="CATESOL">CATESOL</a> in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>). Some are affiliated with TESOL or IATEFL.</li> <li>The National Association for Teaching English and other Community Languages to Adults (<a href="/wiki/NATECLA" class="mw-redirect" title="NATECLA">NATECLA</a>) which focuses on teaching ESOL in the United Kingdom.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_General_Workers_(Zenrokyo)" title="National Union of General Workers (Zenrokyo)">National Union of General Workers</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_Japan" title="Labor unions in Japan">Japanese union</a> which includes English teachers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_and_College_Union" title="University and College Union">University and College Union</a> is a British <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade union</a> which includes lecturers of ELT.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Acronyms_and_abbreviations">Acronyms and abbreviations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Acronyms and abbreviations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language education</a></div> <p>Note that some of the terms below may be restricted to one or more countries, or may be used with different meanings in different countries, particularly the US and UK. See further discussion is <a href="#Terminology_and_types">Terminology, and types</a> above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_English">Types of English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Types of English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>1-to-1</b> - <a href="/w/index.php?title=One_to_one_lesson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="One to one lesson (page does not exist)">One to one lesson</a></li> <li><b>BE</b> – <a href="/wiki/Business_English" title="Business English">Business English</a></li> <li><b>EAL</b> – English as an additional language</li> <li><b>EAP</b> – <a href="/wiki/English_for_Academic_Purposes" class="mw-redirect" title="English for Academic Purposes">English for academic purposes</a></li> <li><b>EFL</b> – English as a foreign language</li> <li><b>EE</b> - <a href="/wiki/Extramural_English" title="Extramural English">Extramural English</a></li> <li><b>EIL</b> – English as an <a href="/wiki/World_language" title="World language">international language</a> (see main article at <a href="/wiki/International_English" title="International English">International English</a>)</li> <li><b>ELF</b> – English as a <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i>, a common language that is not the mother tongue of any of the participants in a discussion</li> <li><b>ELL</b> – English language learner</li> <li><b>ELT</b> – English language teaching</li> <li><b>ESL</b> – English as a second language</li> <li><b>ESOL</b> – English for speakers of other languages</li> <li><b>ESP</b> – <a href="/wiki/English_for_specific_purposes" title="English for specific purposes">English for specific purposes</a>, or English for special purposes (e.g. technical English, scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters)</li> <li><b>EST</b> – English for science and technology (e.g. technical English, scientific English)</li> <li><b>TEFL</b> – <a href="/wiki/Teaching_English_as_a_foreign_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching English as a foreign language">Teaching English as a foreign language</a>. This link is to a page about a subset of TEFL, namely travel-teaching. More generally, see the discussion in <a href="#Terminology_and_types">Terminology and types</a>.</li> <li><b>TESL</b> – Teaching English as a second language</li> <li><b>TESOL</b> – Teaching English to speakers of other languages, or Teaching English as a second or other languages. Also the short name for TESOL International Association.</li> <li><b>TYLE</b> – Teaching Young Learners English. Note that "Young Learners" can mean under 18, or much younger.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_abbreviations">Other abbreviations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Other abbreviations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>BULATS</b> – Business Language Testing Services, a computer-based test of business English, produced by CambridgeEsol. The test also exists for French, German, and Spanish.</li> <li><b>CELT</b> – Certificate in English Language Teaching, certified by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (ACELS).</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/CELTA" class="mw-redirect" title="CELTA">CELTA</a></b> – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=CELTYL&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CELTYL (page does not exist)">CELTYL</a></b> – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Young Learners</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Delta_(ELT)" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta (ELT)">Delta</a></b> – Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Examination_for_the_Certificate_of_Proficiency_in_English" title="Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English">ECPE</a></b> – Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/IELTS" class="mw-redirect" title="IELTS">IELTS</a></b> – International English Language Testing System</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/London_Tests_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="London Tests of English">LTE</a></b> – London Tests of English by <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Language_Tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson Language Tests">Pearson Language Tests</a></li> <li><b>OLTE</b> – Online Language Teacher Education</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/TOEFL" class="mw-redirect" title="TOEFL">TOEFL</a></b> – Test of English as a Foreign Language</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/TOEIC" title="TOEIC">TOEIC</a></b> – Test of English for International Communication</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/UCLES" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLES">UCLES</a></b> – <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> Local Examinations Syndicate, an exam board</li> <li>ELICOS – English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students, commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References_and_notes">References and notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: References and notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/xw42nj018">"Effective Instruction for English Learners"</a>. <i>The Future of Children</i>. <b>21</b> (1): 103–127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ffoc.2011.0007">10.1353/foc.2011.0007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21465857">21465857</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22399319">22399319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Future+of+Children&rft.atitle=Effective+Instruction+for+English+Learners&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=103-127&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22399319%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21465857&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ffoc.2011.0007&rft.aulast=Calder%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Slavin&rft.au=S%C3%A1nchez%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdr.lib.unc.edu%2Fdownloads%2Fxw42nj018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/read/5286/chapter/10"><i>Read "Improving Schooling for Language-Minority Children: A Research Agenda" at NAP.edu</i></a>. 1997. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F5286">10.17226/5286</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-14167-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-14167-3"><bdi>978-0-309-14167-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Read+%22Improving+Schooling+for+Language-Minority+Children%3A+A+Research+Agenda%22+at+NAP.edu&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F5286&rft.isbn=978-0-309-14167-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fread%2F5286%2Fchapter%2F10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, A. 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Given that there are thousands of tertiary institutions that accept one or more of these for entrance requirements, they simply can not be footnoted individually here</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/check-uk-visa#21980509">"Check if you need a UK visa"</a>. <i>gov.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gov.uk&rft.atitle=Check+if+you+need+a+UK+visa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fcheck-uk-visa%2321980509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/guidance-on-applying-for-uk-visa-approved-english-language-tests">"Applying for a UK visa: approved English language tests"</a>. <i>gov.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"The new frontier: A case study in applying instructional design for distance teacher education". <i>Journal of Technology and Teacher Education</i>. <b>9</b> (3): 391–405.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Technology+and+Teacher+Education&rft.atitle=The+new+frontier%3A+A+case+study+in+applying+instructional+design+for+distance+teacher+education&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=391-405&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Egbert&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Thomas%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2013" class="citation web cs1">Murray, D. 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OnlineU.com. 2013-07-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Accredited+Online+ESL+Teaching+Programs&rft.pub=OnlineU.com&rft.date=2013-07-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onlineu.com%2Fdegrees%2Fesl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.education.pa.gov/Documents/Teachers-Administrators/Certification%20Preparation%20Programs/Specific%20Program%20Guidelines/English%20as%20a%20Second%20Language%20Program%20Specialist%20Guidelines.pdf">"Error"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Error&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.education.pa.gov%2FDocuments%2FTeachers-Administrators%2FCertification%2520Preparation%2520Programs%2FSpecific%2520Program%2520Guidelines%2FEnglish%2520as%2520a%2520Second%2520Language%2520Program%2520Specialist%2520Guidelines.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarianne_Celce-MurciaMarguerite_Ann_Snow2014" class="citation book cs1">Marianne Celce-Murcia; Marguerite Ann Snow (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_kJ4MQEACAAJ"><i>Teaching English as a Second Or Foreign Language</i></a>. Cengage Heinle. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-35169-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-35169-4"><bdi>978-1-111-35169-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teaching+English+as+a+Second+Or+Foreign+Language&rft.pub=Cengage+Heinle&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-111-35169-4&rft.au=Marianne+Celce-Murcia&rft.au=Marguerite+Ann+Snow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_kJ4MQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdrienne_L._HerrellMichael_Jordan2016" class="citation book cs1">Adrienne L. Herrell; Michael Jordan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QwLPoQEACAAJ"><i>50 Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners</i></a>. Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-380245-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-380245-0"><bdi>978-0-13-380245-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=50+Strategies+for+Teaching+English+Language+Learners&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-13-380245-0&rft.au=Adrienne+L.+Herrell&rft.au=Michael+Jordan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQwLPoQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNancie_Atwell2014" class="citation book cs1">Nancie Atwell (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ntHjoAEACAAJ"><i>In the Middle: A Lifetime of Learning about Writing, Reading, and Adolescents</i></a>. Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-325-02813-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-325-02813-2"><bdi>978-0-325-02813-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Middle%3A+A+Lifetime+of+Learning+about+Writing%2C+Reading%2C+and+Adolescents&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-325-02813-2&rft.au=Nancie+Atwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DntHjoAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Grace Hui Chin Lin & Paul Shih Chieh Chien (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.lib.ntu.edu.tw/1_file/author_provided/20110725/04.pdf"><i>An Introduction to English Teaching</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210810122505/http://ebooks.lib.ntu.edu.tw/1_file/author_provided/20110725/04.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-08-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Germany.</li> <li>Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English (new edition). Essex, UK: Pearson Longman.</li> <li>Betty Schrampfer Azar & Stacy A. Hagen. Fundamentals of English Grammar, 4th edition, Allyn & Bacon.</li> <li>Understanding and Using English Grammar, 5th Edition by Azar and Hagen.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanet_LaneEllen_Lange2012" class="citation book cs1">Janet Lane; Ellen Lange (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OwekuAAACAAJ"><i>Writing Clearly: Grammar for Editing</i></a>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-35197-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-35197-7"><bdi>978-1-111-35197-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Clearly%3A+Grammar+for+Editing&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-111-35197-7&rft.au=Janet+Lane&rft.au=Ellen+Lange&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOwekuAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith_S._Folse2016" class="citation book cs1">Keith S. Folse (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iU_cjwEACAAJ"><i>Keys to Teaching Grammar to English Language Learners: A Practical Handbook</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03667-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03667-7"><bdi>978-0-472-03667-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keys+to+Teaching+Grammar+to+English+Language+Learners%3A+A+Practical+Handbook&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-472-03667-7&rft.au=Keith+S.+Folse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiU_cjwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Swan2005" class="citation book cs1">Michael Swan (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ5AAQAAIAAJ"><i>Practical English usage</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-442098-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-442098-3"><bdi>978-0-19-442098-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+English+usage&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-442098-3&rft.au=Michael+Swan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeJ5AAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lightbown, P.M., & Spada, N. (2006); How Languages Are Learned (4th ed.); Oxford: Oxford University Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Michael_O'MalleyLorraine_Valdez_Pierce1996" class="citation book cs1">J. Michael O'Malley; Lorraine Valdez Pierce (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cEViQgAACAAJ"><i>Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners: Practical Approaches for Teachers</i></a>. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-59151-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-59151-4"><bdi>978-0-201-59151-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Authentic+Assessment+for+English+Language+Learners%3A+Practical+Approaches+for+Teachers&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-201-59151-4&rft.au=J.+Michael+O%27Malley&rft.au=Lorraine+Valdez+Pierce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcEViQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Brown, H. D., & Abeywickrama, P. (2010); Language Assessment (2nd ed.); Pearson Longman.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly_Gallagher2004" class="citation book cs1">Kelly Gallagher (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_XB7FAXjDj0C"><i>Deeper Reading: Comprehending Challenging Texts, 4-12</i></a>. Stenhouse Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57110-384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57110-384-0"><bdi>978-1-57110-384-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deeper+Reading%3A+Comprehending+Challenging+Texts%2C+4-12&rft.pub=Stenhouse+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-57110-384-0&rft.au=Kelly+Gallagher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_XB7FAXjDj0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Eric Henderson, The Active Reader: Strategies for Academic Reading and Writing, Third Edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199012459" title="Special:BookSources/9780199012459">9780199012459</a></li> <li>Advanced Reading Power 4 2nd edition by Mikulecky and Jeffries, Pearson Longman, 2014.</li> <li>Marina Rozenberg, Perspectives: Academic Reading Skills and Practice, OUP. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199009541" title="Special:BookSources/9780199009541">9780199009541</a></li> <li>Spack, Ruth. Guidelines: A Cross-Cultural Reading/Writing Text, New York: St. Martin's Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_J._Ruszkiewicz2013" class="citation book cs1">John J. Ruszkiewicz (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qMLZCQAAQBAJ"><i>A Reader's Guide to College Writing</i></a>. Bedford/St. Martin's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4576-6893-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4576-6893-7"><bdi>978-1-4576-6893-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Reader%27s+Guide+to+College+Writing&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4576-6893-7&rft.au=John+J.+Ruszkiewicz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqMLZCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Clear Speech from the Start, 2nd Edition by Judy B. Gilbert</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSue_F._Miller2007" class="citation book cs1">Sue F. Miller (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L0DlAQAACAAJ"><i>Targeting Pronunciation: Communicating Clearly in English</i></a>. Heinle/Cengage Learing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-55496-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-55496-6"><bdi>978-0-618-55496-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Targeting+Pronunciation%3A+Communicating+Clearly+in+English&rft.pub=Heinle%2FCengage+Learing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-618-55496-6&rft.au=Sue+F.+Miller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL0DlAQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Skillful Listening & Speaking. Student's Book 3 by Mike Boyle & Ellen Kisslinger</li> <li>Leap High Intermediate Listening and Speaking by Dr. Ken Beatty.</li> <li>Pathways Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking by MacIntyre.</li> <li>Douglas, Scott R. Academic Inquiry: Writing for Post-Secondary Success. Don Mills, Ont: Oxford University Press, 2014.</li> <li>Joy M. Reid. The Process of Composition, Pearson Education.</li> <li>Leki, Ilona. Academic Writing: Exploring Processes and Strategies (2nd ed). New York: Cambridge University Press. 1998.</li> <li>Easy Writer – A Pocket Reference, 4th edition by Andrea A. Lunsford.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJane_StrausLester_KaufmanTom_Stern2014" class="citation book cs1">Jane Straus; Lester Kaufman; Tom Stern (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GflvAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-78556-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-78556-0"><bdi>978-1-118-78556-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blue+Book+of+Grammar+and+Punctuation&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-118-78556-0&rft.au=Jane+Straus&rft.au=Lester+Kaufman&rft.au=Tom+Stern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGflvAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stoynoff, S. & Chapelle, C. A. (2005). ESOL tests and testing: A resource for teachers and administrators. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amy_S._Thompson" title="Amy S. Thompson">Thompson, Amy S.</a> (2021). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Role_of_Context_in_Language_Teachers%27_Self_Development_and_Motivation:_Perspectives_from_Multilingual_Settings" class="mw-redirect" title="The Role of Context in Language Teachers' Self Development and Motivation: Perspectives from Multilingual Settings">The Role of Context in Language Teachers' Self Development and Motivation: Perspectives from Multilingual Settings</a></i>. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781800411173" title="Special:BookSources/9781800411173"><bdi>9781800411173</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Role+of+Context+in+Language+Teachers%27+Self+Development+and+Motivation%3A+Perspectives+from+Multilingual+Settings&rft.place=Bristol&rft.pub=Multilingual+Matters&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781800411173&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Amy+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+as+a+second+or+foreign+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eal.britishcouncil.org">EAL Nexus – Free teaching resources</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141111122801/https://eal.britishcouncil.org/">Archived</a> 2014-11-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lep.gov/">Limited English Proficiency</a> - Interagency site of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Government_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Government of the United States">Federal Government of the United States</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/about-academic-phrasebank/">Academic Phrasebank</a> - University of Manchester</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040310164800/http://www.studentservices.canterbury.ac.nz/elsp/ENGR110/">Notes on grammar and academic writing</a>—special series by <a href="/wiki/University_of_Canterbury" title="University of Canterbury">University of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esl.wiki">ESL.Wiki: English as a Second Language Wikibook</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Language_education" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_education" title="Template:Language education"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_education" title="Template talk:Language education"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_education" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language education"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Language_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language education</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language-teaching_methodology" class="mw-redirect" title="Language-teaching methodology">Methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio-lingual_method" title="Audio-lingual method">Audio-lingual method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_Language_Growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic Language Growth">Automatic Language Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communicative_language_teaching" title="Communicative language teaching">Communicative language teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehension_approach" title="Comprehension approach">Comprehension approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_language_learning" title="Community language learning">Community language learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_language_learning" title="Computer-assisted language learning">Computer-assisted language learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content-based_instruction" title="Content-based instruction">Content-based instruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_method_(education)" title="Direct method (education)">Direct Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogme_language_teaching" title="Dogme language teaching">Dogme language teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensive_reading" title="Extensive reading">Extensive reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_Skills" title="Focal Skills">Focal Skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammar%E2%80%93translation_method" title="Grammar–translation method">Grammar–translation method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_immersion" title="Language immersion">Language immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_approach" title="Lexical approach">Lexical approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Thomas" title="Michel Thomas">Michel Thomas Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_approach" title="Natural approach">Natural approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_way" class="mw-redirect" title="Silent way">Silent way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suggestopedia" title="Suggestopedia">Suggestopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task-based_language_learning" title="Task-based language learning">Task-based language learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_physical_response" title="Total physical response">Total physical response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPR_Storytelling" title="TPR Storytelling">TPR Storytelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_development" title="Vocabulary development">Vocabulary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">Whole language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Teaching techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue_mirroring" title="Mother tongue mirroring">Mother tongue mirroring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandwich_technique" title="Sandwich technique">Sandwich technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-chaining" title="Back-chaining">Back-chaining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictogloss" title="Dictogloss">Dictogloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_gap_task" title="Information gap task">Information gap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_dictionary" title="Bilingual dictionary">Bilingual dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_period_hypothesis" title="Critical period hypothesis">Critical period hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_as_a_lingua_franca" title="English as a lingua franca">English as a lingua franca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlanguage" title="Interlanguage">Interlanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">Language transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Englishes" title="World Englishes">World Englishes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Assessment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_assessment" title="Language assessment">Language assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washback_effect" title="Washback effect">Washback effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_feedback" title="Corrective feedback">Corrective feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competency_evaluation_(language)" title="Competency evaluation (language)">Competency evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIALANG" title="DIALANG">DIALANG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IELTS" class="mw-redirect" title="IELTS">IELTS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TOEFL" class="mw-redirect" title="TOEFL">TOEFL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TOEIC" title="TOEIC">TOEIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UCLES" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLES">UCLES</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Programs and organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English as a second or foreign language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_for_specific_purposes" title="English for specific purposes">English for specific purposes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teachers_of_English_to_Speakers_of_Other_Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages">TESOL</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betty_Azar" title="Betty Azar">Betty Azar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Douglas_Brown" title="H. Douglas Brown">H. Douglas Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_Corder" title="Pit Corder">Pit Corder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Cummins_(professor)" title="Jim Cummins (professor)">Jim Cummins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Ellis" title="Rod Ellis">Rod Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Krashen" title="Stephen Krashen">Stephen Krashen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Thornbury" title="Scott Thornbury">Scott Thornbury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_where_English_is_an_official_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries where English is an official language">List of countries where English is an official language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_English-speaking_population" title="List of countries by English-speaking population">List of countries by English-speaking population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_commonly_learned_foreign_languages_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of most commonly learned foreign languages in the United States">Most commonly learned foreign languages in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EF_English_Proficiency_Index" title="EF English Proficiency Index">EF English Proficiency Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Education" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Education" title="Template:Education"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Education" title="Template talk:Education"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Education" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Education"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Education" title="Category:Education">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_education_terms" title="Glossary of education terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_education_articles" title="Index of education articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_education" title="Outline of education">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By perspective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_aims_and_objectives" title="Educational aims and objectives">Aims and objectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_anthropology" title="Educational anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">Assessment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_evaluation" title="Educational evaluation">Evaluation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Course_evaluation" title="Course evaluation">Course evaluation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standards-based_assessment" title="Standards-based assessment">Standards-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Standardized test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_quality_assessment" title="Teacher quality assessment">Teacher quality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_sciences" title="Education sciences">Education sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusion_(education)" title="Inclusion (education)">Inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_leadership" title="Educational leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_policy" title="Education policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_in_education" title="Politics in education">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_education" title="Right to education">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_theory" title="Instructional theory">Instructional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_design" title="Instructional design">Instructional design</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_education_by_subject" title="List of education by subject">By subject</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_education" title="Agricultural education">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Art education">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_education" title="Bilingual education">Bilingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_education" title="Business education">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_education" title="Death education">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_education" title="Design education">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_education" title="Economics education">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_education" title="Music education">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_education" title="Peace education">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts_education" title="Performing arts education">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_education" title="Philosophy education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_education" title="Physical education">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_education" title="Teacher education">Teacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_education" title="Alternative education">Alternative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adult_education" title="Adult education">Adult education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">Autodidacticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">Education reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifted_education" title="Gifted education">Gifted education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">Special education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_skills" title="21st century skills">21st century skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy" title="Bloom's taxonomy">Bloom's taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">Cognitive load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_arrangement" title="Class arrangement">Class arrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">Curriculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_studies" title="Curriculum studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_theory" title="Curriculum theory">Theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)" title="Learning theory (education)">Learning theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">Lesson plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogical_pattern" title="Pedagogical pattern">Pedagogical pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_look" title="Teacher look">Teacher look</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_retention" title="Teacher retention">Teacher retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blended_learning" title="Blended learning">Blended learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstration_(teaching)" title="Demonstration (teaching)">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogic_learning" title="Dialogic learning">Dialogic learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiential_learning" title="Experiential learning">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_feedback" title="Corrective feedback">Feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_learning" title="Passive learning">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_instruction" title="Peer instruction">Peer instruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalized learning">Personalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenon-based_learning" title="Phenomenon-based learning">Phenomenon-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem-based_learning" title="Problem-based learning">Problem-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project-based_learning" title="Project-based learning">Project-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student-centered_learning" title="Student-centered learning">Student-centered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">Socratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_philosophy" title="Teaching philosophy">Teaching philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wikimedia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Education" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Education">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/education" class="extiw" title="wikt:education">Definitions</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Education" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Education">Images</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="v:Education">Learning resources</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Portal:Education" class="extiw" title="n:Portal:Education">News</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="q:Education">Quotes</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="s:Education">Texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Stages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Educational_stage" title="Educational stage">Stages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">Early childhood education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary education</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Preschool" title="Preschool">Preschool</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">Kindergarten</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_school" title="Primary school">Primary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Infant<br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Junior<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">Secondary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_school" title="Middle school">Middle school</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">High school<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:40%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">Higher education</a><br /> </td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Further_education" title="Further education">Further</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">Continuing</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_education" title="Undergraduate education">Undergraduate</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a><br /> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Education_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education in Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Algeria" title="Education in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Angola" title="Education in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Benin" title="Education in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Botswana" title="Education in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Education in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burundi" title="Education in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cameroon" title="Education in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cape_Verde" title="Education in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Education in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chad" title="Education in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Comoros" title="Education in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Djibouti" title="Education in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Education in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eritrea" title="Education in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eswatini" title="Education in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ethiopia" title="Education in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gabon" title="Education in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Gambia" title="Education in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ghana" title="Education in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea" title="Education in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Education in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Education in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kenya" title="Education in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lesotho" title="Education in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liberia" title="Education in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Libya" title="Education in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malawi" title="Education in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mali" title="Education in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritania" title="Education in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritius" title="Education in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Morocco" title="Education in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mozambique" title="Education in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Namibia" title="Education in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niger" title="Education in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nigeria" title="Education in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Rwanda" title="Education in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Senegal" title="Education in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Seychelles" title="Education in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Education in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Africa" title="Education in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Sudan" title="Education in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sudan" title="Education in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tanzania" title="Education in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Togo" title="Education in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tunisia" title="Education in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uganda" title="Education in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zambia" title="Education in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zimbabwe" title="Education in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somaliland" title="Education in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Asia" title="Education in Asia">Education in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bahrain" title="Education in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bangladesh" title="Education in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bhutan" title="Education in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brunei" title="Education in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cambodia" title="Education in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Israel" title="Education in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Japan" title="Education in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jordan" title="Education in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Korea" title="Education in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Korea" title="Education in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kuwait" title="Education in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Education in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Laos" title="Education in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lebanon" title="Education in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Maldives" title="Education in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mongolia" title="Education in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Myanmar" title="Education in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nepal" title="Education in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Oman" title="Education in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Pakistan" title="Education in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Philippines" title="Education in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Qatar" title="Education in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Education in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Singapore" title="Education in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Education in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tajikistan" title="Education in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Thailand" title="Education in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkmenistan" title="Education in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Education in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uzbekistan" title="Education in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vietnam" title="Education in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Yemen" title="Education in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Education in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hong_Kong" title="Education in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Macau" title="Education in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Europe">Education in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Albania" title="Education in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Austria" title="Education in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belarus" title="Education in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belgium" title="Education in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bulgaria" title="Education in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Croatia" title="Education in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Education in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Denmark" title="Education in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Estonia" title="Education in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Finland" title="Education in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greece" title="Education in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hungary" title="Education in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iceland" title="Education in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Education in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Latvia" title="Education in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liechtenstein" title="Education in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lithuania" title="Education in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Luxembourg" title="Education in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malta" title="Education in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Moldova" title="Education in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montenegro" title="Education in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Macedonia" title="Education in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Norway" title="Education in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Poland" title="Education in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Portugal" title="Education in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_San_Marino" title="Education in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Serbia" title="Education in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovakia" title="Education in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovenia" title="Education in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Spain" title="Education in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sweden" title="Education in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Switzerland" title="Education in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kosovo" title="Education in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_%C3%85land" title="Education in Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Education in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gibraltar" title="Education in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guernsey" title="Education in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Education in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jersey" title="Education in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Education in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Bahamas" title="Education in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Barbados" title="Education in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belize" title="Education in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Costa_Rica" title="Education in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cuba" title="Education in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Dominica" title="Education in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Education in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_El_Salvador" title="Education in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Grenada" title="Education in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guatemala" title="Education in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Haiti" title="Education in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Honduras" title="Education in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jamaica" title="Education in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mexico" title="Education in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nicaragua" title="Education in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Panama" title="Education in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Education in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Education in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Education in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Education in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Anguilla" title="Education in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Aruba" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bermuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Education in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Education in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greenland" title="Education in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guadeloupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montserrat" title="Education in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Education in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Australia" title="Education in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Education in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Fiji" title="Education in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kiribati" title="Education in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nauru" title="Education in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_New_Zealand" title="Education in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Education in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Solomon Islands (page does not exist)">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tonga" title="Education in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Education in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niue" title="Education in Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_New_Caledonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in New Caledonia (page does not exist)">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Education in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tokelau" title="Education in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in South America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Argentina" title="Education in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bolivia" title="Education in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brazil" title="Education in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chile" title="Education in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Colombia" title="Education in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ecuador" title="Education in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guyana" title="Education in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Paraguay" title="Education in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Peru" title="Education in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Suriname" title="Education in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uruguay" title="Education in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Venezuela" title="Education in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Education in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/16px-School.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/24px-School.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/32px-School.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Schools" title="Portal:Schools">Schools portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Education" title="Category:Education">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Education" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Education">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Language_schools" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_school" title="Template:Language school"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_school" title="Template talk:Language school"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_school" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language school"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Language_schools" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Language_school" title="Language school">Language schools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_school" title="Arabic language school">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_school" title="Chinese school">Chinese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ais_langue_%C3%A9trang%C3%A8re" title="Français langue étrangère">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_school" title="Hebrew school">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language_school" title="Hindi language school">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_as_a_second_or_foreign_language" title="Spanish as a second or foreign language">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="English-speaking_world" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English_official_language_clickable_map" title="Template:English official language clickable map"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English_official_language_clickable_map" title="Template talk:English official language clickable map"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English_official_language_clickable_map" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English official language clickable map"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="English-speaking_world" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/English_language#Geographical_distribution" title="English language">English-speaking world</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-center noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File"><span title="English speaking countries"><img alt="English speaking countries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Anglophone_World.svg/600px-Anglophone_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Anglophone_World.svg/900px-Anglophone_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Anglophone_World.svg/1200px-Anglophone_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="974" resource="/wiki/File:Anglophone_World.svg" /></span><figcaption>English speaking countries</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_links" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further links</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the English language">History of the English language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="English in the Commonwealth of Nations">English in the Commonwealth of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;text-align:left;color:darkblue;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_English-speaking_population" title="List of countries by English-speaking population">List of countries by English-speaking population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_where_English_is_an_official_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries where English is an official language">List of countries where English is an official language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:blue;"><span style="padding-left:1.0em;"> </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Countries_and_territories_where_English_is_the_national_language_or_the_native_language_of_the_majority"> <ul><li><b>Countries and territories where English is the national language or the native language of the majority</b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-America" title="Anglo-America">Americas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands" title="British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saba_(island)" title="Saba (island)">Saba</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sint_Eustatius" title="Sint Eustatius">Sint Eustatius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sint_Maarten" title="Sint Maarten">Sint Maarten</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Europe" title="English language in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightblue;"><span style="padding-left:1.0em;"> </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language,_but_not_the_majority_first_language"> <ul><li><b>Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority first language</b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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