ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire - Encyclopædia Universalis

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="fr-FR" xml:lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8">  <title>ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire - Encyclopædia Universalis</title> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1" /> <meta name="generator" content="TYPO3 CMS" /> <meta name="description" content="Pendant plusieurs siècles, l'Empire romain a assuré la paix et l'unité du monde méditerranéen et façonné dans ses provinces la majeure partie de..." /> <meta name="robots" content="index, all, follow" /> <meta name="viewport" content="viewport-fit=cover, width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, minimum-scale=1.0" /> <meta name="author" content="Encyclopædia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:title" content="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Pendant plusieurs siècles, l'Empire romain a assuré la paix et l'unité du monde méditerranéen et façonné dans ses provinces la majeure partie de l'Europe. Les Romains n'avaient certes pas que des qualités et leur domination résulte partout de l'emploi judicieux de la force. Mais, une fois..." /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="fr_FR" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopædia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.universalis.fr/_web/static/icons/favicon.png" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="256" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="252" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Pendant plusieurs siècles, l'Empire romain a assuré la paix et l'unité du monde méditerranéen et façonné dans ses provinces la majeure partie de l'Europe. Les Romains n'avaient certes pas que des qualités et leur domination résulte partout de l'emploi judicieux de la force. Mais, une fois..." /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@universalisfr" /> <meta name="location" content="France" /> <meta name="rating" content="General" /> <meta name="distribution" content="Global" /> <meta name="resource-type" content="document" /> <meta name="copyright" content="© Copyright 2024 - Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="default" /> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no,date=no,address=no,email=no,url=no" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_shared/pub/pub.css?1737972863" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/home.css?1737986363" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/classification.css?1737986363" media="all"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/" /> <link rel="next" href="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/2-le-ier-siecle-apres-j-c/" /> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire","headline":"ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire","description":"Pendant plusieurs si\u00e8cles, l'Empire romain a assur\u00e9 la paix et l'unit\u00e9 du monde m\u00e9diterran\u00e9en et fa\u00e7onn\u00e9 dans ses provinces la majeure partie de l'Europe. Les Romains n'avaient certes pas que des qualit\u00e9s et leur domination r\u00e9sulte partout de l'emploi judicieux de la force. Mais, une fois \u00e9tablie, cette domination s'est maintenue gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 la diffusion d'une civilisation en partie h\u00e9rit\u00e9e des Grecs, et par la participation des \u00e9lites indig\u00e8nes au gouvernement et \u00e0 l'administration. Le droit romain a fait progresser le respect de la personne humaine et des contrats qui sont \u00e0 la base de toute soci\u00e9t\u00e9. La concession de plus en plus large du droit de cit\u00e9, pratiquement obtenu en 212 (\u00e9dit de Caracalla) par tous les ...","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/encyclopedie\/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire\/","wordCount":"35272","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/_web\/static\/icons\/favicon.png"},"isPartOf":{"@type":"WebPage","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/encyclopedie\/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire\/","name":"ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire"},"dateModified":"2025-01-29T00:00:00+00:00","author":[{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Yann LE BOHEC","familyName":"LE BOHEC","givenName":"Yann","description":"Professeur \u00e0 l'universit\u00e9 de Grenoble.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/yann-le-bohec\/"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Paul PETIT","familyName":"PETIT","givenName":"Paul","description":"Professeur \u00e0 la facult\u00e9 des lettres et sciences humaines de Grenoble.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/paul-petit\/"}],"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Encyclop\u00e6dia Universalis","alternateName":"Universalis","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/_web\/assets\/img\/banniere-fr.png"},"sameAs":["https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/EncyclopedieUniversalis\/","https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/encyclopaedia-universalis","https:\/\/www.twitter.com\/universalisfr","https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow"],"slogan":"Passeur de savoir"}}</script> <script type="application/ld+json">[{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Histoire","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Histoire : chronologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Antiquit\u00e9","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/antiquite\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Europe, Antiquit\u00e9","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/antiquite\/europe-antiquite\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":6,"name":"Rome antique, histoire","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/antiquite\/europe-antiquite\/rome-antique-histoire\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":7,"name":"Empire romain","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/antiquite\/europe-antiquite\/rome-antique-histoire\/empire-romain\/"}],"numberOfItems":7,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Empire romain"}]</script> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="black"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#526D78"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://statistiques.universalis.fr" /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cmp.inmobi.com" /> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Universalis FR" href="/_web/static/search-fr.xml" /> <link rel="manifest" href="/_web/static/manifest.json"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="/_web/static/icons/favicon.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-57x57.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-72x72.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-76x76.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-114x114.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-120x120.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-144x144.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-152x152.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-180x180.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <script>!function(a,b,c){if(c in b&&b[c]){var d,e=a.location,f=/^(a|html)$/i;a.addEventListener("click",function(a){for(d=a.target;!f.test(d.nodeName);)d=d.parentNode;"href"in d&&(d.href.indexOf("http")||~d.href.indexOf(e.host))&&(a.preventDefault(),e.href=d.href)},!1),a.querySelector("html").classList.add("standalone")}}(document,window.navigator,"standalone")</script> <style> body{ padding-bottom: 2em; } .cta{ display: block; } .folio-block { width: 100%; max-width: 550px; margin: 1em auto; border: .25em solid var(--eu-color-rgb-cta); border-radius: .375em; background: #f5f5f5; padding: .5em 1em; } .folio-block-title { font-size: 1.25em; } @media(max-width: 767px) { .folio-block-title { font-size: 1.1em; } } .folio-block ul { width: 100%; max-width: 300px; margin: 1em auto; } .folio-block ul li { font-size: .95em; } .btn-cta { background: var(--eu-color-rgb-cta) !important; color: #fff !important; font-weight: bold !important; font-size: 1.15em !important; } .btn-cta:hover { background: var(--eu-color-hover-rgb-cta) !important; color: #fff !important; text-decoration: underline; } #bandeau-footer{ display: block !important; position: fixed; bottom: 0; width: 100%; background: rgb(108,51,131); padding: .25em; z-index: 900; border-top: 1px solid rgba(166, 143, 22, 0.72); } #bandeau-footer p{ font-size: 1.375em; margin: 0; background: url('/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-57x57.png') no-repeat left center; background-size: 28px 28px; padding-left: 1.75em; } @media(max-width: 768px){ #bandeau-footer p{ font-size: 1.2em; margin-left: .5em; } body:not(#page_12) .login-link-container{ display: block !important; text-align: center; margin-top: -1em; } } #bandeau-footer a{ color: #fff; } .pub-container{ margin: 1em auto; display: block !important; } .pub-container .pub-placeholder{ display: flex; align-content: center; justify-content: center; align-items: center; background: #eee; color: #aaa; width: 100%; min-height: 100px; } .pub-container .pub-placeholder:before{ content: "contenu sponsorisé"; text-shadow: 0 0 1px #fff; } #ad_rightslot .pub-placeholder{ min-height: 600px; } #ad_rightslot2 .pub-placeholder{ min-height: 250px; } @media (max-width: 768px){ .pub-container{ display: none !important } } </style> <script> const getCookieValue = (name) => ( document.cookie.match('(^|;)\\s*' + name + '\\s*=\\s*([^;]+)')?.pop() || '' ); var userprofile = 'anonymous'; if (getCookieValue('user_data')) { userprofile = 'subscriber'; } var _paq = window._paq = window._paq || []; _paq.push(['setCustomDimension', 1,userprofile]); /* tracker methods like "setCustomDimension" should be called before "trackPageView" */ _paq.push(['trackPageView']); _paq.push(['enableLinkTracking']); (function() { var u="//statistiques.universalis.fr/"; _paq.push(['setTrackerUrl', u+'matomo.php']); _paq.push(['setSiteId', '1']); var d=document, g=d.createElement('script'), s=d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; g.async=true; g.src=u+'matomo.js'; s.parentNode.insertBefore(g,s); })(); </script> <style>.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide{display:none}.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide:first-child{display:block}img{max-width:100%;height:auto;max-height:250px}img.d-formule{max-height:none}strong{font-weight:bold !important}.dark-mode body{background:#29363a !important}.loader{display:none;height:100vh}.loader:after{display:block;margin:auto;content:"";background:url(/_web/assets/img/banniere-fr.png) no-repeat center;background-size:contain;width:50%;height:50%;position:absolute;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%, -50%);opacity:.25}#page_3 #ad_topslot{display:none !important}#skip{padding:5px 15px;position:absolute;background:rgba(0,0,0,.85);color:#fff;left:10%;transform:translateY(-100%);transition:transform .3s;border-bottom-left-radius:6px;border-bottom-right-radius:6px;z-index:100;text-decoration:none}#skip:focus{transform:translateY(0%);box-shadow:0 0 10px #333}.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:none}.site-fr .article-quote{display:none !important}@media(max-width: 768px){.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:block;text-align:center;margin-top:-1em;margin-bottom:1em}}body.loading{overflow:hidden}body.loading>*{display:none}body.loading .loader{display:block}.dropdown-menu,.d-none,#podcast audio{display:none}.list-inline-item{display:inline-block}.offcanvas{visibility:hidden}.main-navbar-wrapper .btn-universalis{background-color:#e8eced;color:#000;font-weight:normal}.offcanvas{display:none !important;height:0 !important}.offcanvas[data-loaded=true]{display:inherit !important;height:inherit !important}.clearfix{clear:both}.fr .is-edu{display:none !important}#podcast{min-height:90px}#article-medias-strip-junior{min-height:255px}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}.edu #callSommaire{bottom:60px}#qc-cmp2-ui{padding:10px !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons{justify-content:space-around !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button[mode=secondary],.qc-cmp2-footer button[mode=secondary]{border:none;box-shadow:none}.eCBsvP.eCBsvP{height:auto !important}.qc-cmp-cleanslate{background-color:rgba(33,41,52,.95) !important}.fill-universalis{fill:#1c3479}.fill-universalis-up{fill:#526c78}@media(min-width: 768px){.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container{text-align:center}.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container figure img{display:block !important}}#page_14 .filter-article-container{display:none}#newsletter_subscription .text-light{color:#fff !important}#bandeau-footer{display:none}</style> <link rel="stylesheet" id="typo-css" href="/_web/assets/css/typo.css?t=20240418-1" /><script>let cssLoaded=!1,bodyLoaded=!1;const loadedTO=setTimeout((()=>{cssLoaded=!0,bodyLoaded=!0,loaded()}),5e3),loaded=function(){cssLoaded&&bodyLoaded&&document.body.classList.contains("loading")&&(document.body.className=document.body.className.replace("loading","").trim(),clearTimeout(loadedTO))};</script> <link rel="preload" href="/_web/assets/css/lazy.css?t=20240418-1" as="style" media="all" crossorigin onload="this.rel=`stylesheet`; cssLoaded = true; loaded()" /><style>.breadcrumb{--bs-breadcrumb-padding-x: 0;--bs-breadcrumb-padding-y: 0;--bs-breadcrumb-margin-bottom: 1rem;--bs-breadcrumb-bg: ;--bs-breadcrumb-border-radius: ;--bs-breadcrumb-divider-color: #6c757d;--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-breadcrumb-item-active-color: #6c757d;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;padding:var(--bs-breadcrumb-padding-y) var(--bs-breadcrumb-padding-x);margin-bottom:var(--bs-breadcrumb-margin-bottom);font-size:var(--bs-breadcrumb-font-size);list-style:none;background-color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-bg);border-radius:var(--bs-breadcrumb-border-radius)}.breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item{padding-left:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x)}.breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item::before{float:left;padding-right:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x);color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider-color);content:var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider, "/") /* rtl: var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider, "/") */}.breadcrumb-item.active{color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-active-color)}.breadcrumb{padding:.5rem 1rem !important;background-color:#f5f5f5 !important;border-radius:.375rem !important}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item i.label-sub{font-size:.85em;font-weight:normal}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item a{text-decoration:none}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item.active{font-weight:bold}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item::before{background-image:url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8, <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" data-prefix="far" data-icon="chevron-double-right" role="img" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 448 512" class="svg-inline--fa fa-chevron-double-right fa-w-14 fa-7x"><path style="fill: rgb(97, 104, 118);" d="M57.7 38.1l209.4 209.4c4.7 4.7 4.7 12.3 0 17L57.7 473.9c-4.7 4.7-12.3 4.7-17 0l-19.8-19.8c-4.7-4.7-4.7-12.3 0-17L201.6 256 20.9 74.9c-4.7-4.7-4.7-12.3 0-17l19.8-19.8c4.7-4.7 12.3-4.7 17 0zm143 0l-19.8 19.8c-4.7 4.7-4.7 12.3 0 17L361.6 256 180.9 437.1c-4.7 4.7-4.7 12.3 0 17l19.8 19.8c4.7 4.7 12.3 4.7 17 0l209.4-209.4c4.7-4.7 4.7-12.3 0-17L217.7 38.1c-4.7-4.7-12.3-4.7-17 0z" class=""></path></svg>');background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;content:"";width:.5rem;height:100%;margin-right:.5rem}.list-group{--bs-list-group-color: #212529;--bs-list-group-bg: #fff;--bs-list-group-border-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.125);--bs-list-group-border-width: 1px;--bs-list-group-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-list-group-item-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-list-group-item-padding-y: 0.5rem;--bs-list-group-action-color: #495057;--bs-list-group-action-hover-color: #495057;--bs-list-group-action-hover-bg: #f8f9fa;--bs-list-group-action-active-color: #212529;--bs-list-group-action-active-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-list-group-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-list-group-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-list-group-active-color: #fff;--bs-list-group-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-list-group-active-border-color: #526c78;display:flex;flex-direction:column;padding-left:0;margin-bottom:0;border-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius)}.list-group-numbered{list-style-type:none;counter-reset:section}.list-group-numbered>.list-group-item::before{content:counters(section, ".") ". ";counter-increment:section}.list-group-item-action{width:100%;color:var(--bs-list-group-action-color);text-align:inherit}.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-action:focus{z-index:1;color:var(--bs-list-group-action-hover-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-action-hover-bg)}.list-group-item-action:active{color:var(--bs-list-group-action-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-list-group-action-active-bg)}.list-group-item{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-list-group-item-padding-y) var(--bs-list-group-item-padding-x);color:var(--bs-list-group-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-bg);border:var(--bs-list-group-border-width) solid var(--bs-list-group-border-color)}.list-group-item:first-child{border-top-left-radius:inherit;border-top-right-radius:inherit}.list-group-item:last-child{border-bottom-right-radius:inherit;border-bottom-left-radius:inherit}.list-group-item.disabled,.list-group-item:disabled{color:var(--bs-list-group-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-disabled-bg)}.list-group-item.active{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-list-group-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-list-group-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-list-group-active-border-color)}.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:0}.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-top:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}.list-group-horizontal{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}@media(min-width: 576px){.list-group-horizontal-sm{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 768px){.list-group-horizontal-md{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 992px){.list-group-horizontal-lg{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.list-group-horizontal-xl{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 1400px){.list-group-horizontal-xxl{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}.list-group-flush{border-radius:0}.list-group-flush>.list-group-item{border-width:0 0 var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}.list-group-flush>.list-group-item:last-child{border-bottom-width:0}.list-group-item-primary{color:#314148;background-color:#dce2e4}.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#314148;background-color:#c6cbcd}.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#314148;border-color:#314148}.list-group-item-secondary{color:#192023;background-color:#d4d7d8}.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#192023;background-color:#bfc2c2}.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#192023;border-color:#192023}.list-group-item-success{color:#0f5132;background-color:#d1e7dd}.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#0f5132;background-color:#bcd0c7}.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#0f5132;border-color:#0f5132}.list-group-item-info{color:#055160;background-color:#cff4fc}.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#055160;background-color:#badce3}.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#055160;border-color:#055160}.list-group-item-warning{color:#664d03;background-color:#fff3cd}.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#664d03;background-color:#e6dbb9}.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#664d03;border-color:#664d03}.list-group-item-danger{color:#851a31;background-color:#f8d5dc}.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#851a31;background-color:#dfc0c6}.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#851a31;border-color:#851a31}.list-group-item-light{color:#5d5e5f;background-color:#fafbfb}.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#5d5e5f;background-color:#e1e2e2}.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#5d5e5f;border-color:#5d5e5f}.list-group-item-dark{color:#192023;background-color:#d4d7d8}.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#192023;background-color:#bfc2c2}.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#192023;border-color:#192023}.badge{--bs-badge-padding-x: 0.65em;--bs-badge-padding-y: 0.35em;--bs-badge-font-size:0.75em;--bs-badge-font-weight: 700;--bs-badge-color: #fff;--bs-badge-border-radius: 0.375rem;display:inline-block;padding:var(--bs-badge-padding-y) var(--bs-badge-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-badge-font-size);font-weight:var(--bs-badge-font-weight);line-height:1;color:var(--bs-badge-color);text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;vertical-align:baseline;border-radius:var(--bs-badge-border-radius)}.badge:empty{display:none}.btn .badge{position:relative;top:-1px}.btn-group,.btn-group-vertical{position:relative;display:inline-flex;vertical-align:middle}.btn-group>.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn{position:relative;flex:1 1 auto}.btn-group>.btn-check:checked+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-check:focus+.btn,.btn-group>.btn:hover,.btn-group>.btn:focus,.btn-group>.btn:active,.btn-group>.btn.active,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-check:checked+.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-check:focus+.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:hover,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:focus,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:active,.btn-group-vertical>.btn.active{z-index:1}.btn-toolbar{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:flex-start}.btn-toolbar .input-group{width:auto}.btn-group{border-radius:.375rem}.btn-group>:not(.btn-check:first-child)+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:first-child){margin-left:-1px}.btn-group>.btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),.btn-group>.btn.dropdown-toggle-split:first-child,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:last-child)>.btn{border-top-right-radius:0;border-bottom-right-radius:0}.btn-group>.btn:nth-child(n+3),.btn-group>:not(.btn-check)+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:first-child)>.btn{border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.5625rem;padding-left:.5625rem}.dropdown-toggle-split::after,.dropup .dropdown-toggle-split::after,.dropend .dropdown-toggle-split::after{margin-left:0}.dropstart .dropdown-toggle-split::before{margin-right:0}.btn-sm+.dropdown-toggle-split,.btn-group-sm>.btn+.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.375rem;padding-left:.375rem}.btn-lg+.dropdown-toggle-split,.btn-group-lg>.btn+.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.75rem;padding-left:.75rem}.btn-group-vertical{flex-direction:column;align-items:flex-start;justify-content:center}.btn-group-vertical>.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group{width:100%}.btn-group-vertical>.btn:not(:first-child),.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:first-child){margin-top:-1px}.btn-group-vertical>.btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:last-child)>.btn{border-bottom-right-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.btn-group-vertical>.btn~.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:first-child)>.btn{border-top-left-radius:0;border-top-right-radius:0}.pagination{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.95rem;--bs-pagination-color: var(--bs-link-color);--bs-pagination-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-border-width: 1px;--bs-pagination-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-hover-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-hover-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-hover-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-focus-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-focus-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow: 0 0 0 0.25rem rgba(82, 108, 120, 0.25);--bs-pagination-active-color: #fff;--bs-pagination-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-pagination-active-border-color: #526c78;--bs-pagination-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-pagination-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color: #dee2e6;display:flex;padding-left:0;list-style:none}.page-link{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-pagination-padding-y) var(--bs-pagination-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-pagination-font-size);color:var(--bs-pagination-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-bg);border:var(--bs-pagination-border-width) solid var(--bs-pagination-border-color);transition:color .15s ease-in-out,background-color .15s ease-in-out,border-color .15s ease-in-out,box-shadow .15s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.page-link{transition:none}}.page-link:hover{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-border-color)}.page-link:focus{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-bg);outline:0;box-shadow:var(--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow)}.page-link.active,.active>.page-link{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-border-color)}.page-link.disabled,.disabled>.page-link{color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color)}.page-item:not(:first-child) .page-link{margin-left:-1px}.page-item:first-child .page-link{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.page-item:last-child .page-link{border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.pagination-lg{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 1.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:1.1875rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.5rem}.pagination-sm{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.25rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.83125rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.25rem}.list-group a.list-group-item{border-color:#f8fafc}.list-group a.list-group-item.active{background-color:#526c78}.list-group a.list-group-item h3{margin:0;line-height:1.5;font-size:.95rem;font-family:system-ui,-apple-system,"Segoe UI",Roboto,"Helvetica Neue","Noto Sans","Liberation Sans",Arial,sans-serif,"Apple Color Emoji","Segoe UI Emoji","Segoe UI Symbol","Noto Color Emoji";padding-bottom:0}.list-group a.list-group-item h3:hover{color:#fff}.list-group a.list-group-item h3 .badge{line-height:1.25}.list-group a.list-group-item:hover{background-color:#526c78;color:#fff}.list-group a.list-group-item:hover h3{color:inherit}i.anchor{display:block;position:relative;visibility:hidden;top:calc(-25vh + 15px)}.article__props{font-size:.8rem;color:#000;font-style:italic;padding:.2rem 0;margin:0 auto;display:block}.content h6,.h6,h5,.h5,h4,.h4,h3,.h3,h2,.h2,h1,.h1{margin-bottom:0;padding-bottom:.5rem}titre_main+titre_subs{margin-left:.25em}pc,.pc{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:.8em}h2 .pc,h3 .pc,h4 .pc,h5 .pc,h6 .pc{font-size:inherit !important}.sup-sub{position:relative;margin-right:1rem}.sup-sub sup,.sup-sub sub,.sup-sub inf{position:absolute;display:block;left:0}.sup-sub sup{top:.25rem}.sup-sub sub,.sup-sub inf{bottom:.25rem}p:empty{display:none !important}.content.whole .read-more{display:none}blockquote{position:relative;text-align:center;padding:1rem 1.4rem;width:80%;margin:1rem auto 2rem;font-family:Times;font-style:italic;box-shadow:0 .5rem 1rem rgba(0,0,0,.15);border-radius:.375rem}blockquote:before{position:absolute;color:#526c78;font-size:3rem;content:"«";top:-22px;margin-right:-28px;right:100%}blockquote:after{position:absolute;color:#526c78;font-size:3rem;content:"»";margin-left:-28px;left:100%;top:auto;bottom:-12px}.offcanvas,.offcanvas-xxl,.offcanvas-xl,.offcanvas-lg,.offcanvas-md,.offcanvas-sm{--bs-offcanvas-zindex: 1045;--bs-offcanvas-width: 400px;--bs-offcanvas-height: 30vh;--bs-offcanvas-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-offcanvas-padding-y: 1rem;--bs-offcanvas-color: ;--bs-offcanvas-bg: #fff;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 1px;--bs-offcanvas-border-color: var(--bs-border-color-translucent);--bs-offcanvas-box-shadow: 0 0.125rem 0.25rem rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.075)}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 575.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-sm{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.showing,.offcanvas-sm.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.showing,.offcanvas-sm.hiding,.offcanvas-sm.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 576px){.offcanvas-sm{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-sm .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-sm .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 767.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-md{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.showing,.offcanvas-md.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.showing,.offcanvas-md.hiding,.offcanvas-md.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 768px){.offcanvas-md{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-md .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-md .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 991.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-lg{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.showing,.offcanvas-lg.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.showing,.offcanvas-lg.hiding,.offcanvas-lg.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 992px){.offcanvas-lg{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-lg .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-lg .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-xl{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.showing,.offcanvas-xl.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.showing,.offcanvas-xl.hiding,.offcanvas-xl.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.offcanvas-xl{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-xl .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-xl .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-xxl{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.showing,.offcanvas-xxl.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.showing,.offcanvas-xxl.hiding,.offcanvas-xxl.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 1400px){.offcanvas-xxl{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-xxl .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-xxl .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}.offcanvas{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas{transition:none}}.offcanvas.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}.offcanvas.showing,.offcanvas.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}.offcanvas.showing,.offcanvas.hiding,.offcanvas.show{visibility:visible}.offcanvas-backdrop{position:fixed;top:0;left:0;z-index:1040;width:100vw;height:100vh;background-color:#000}.offcanvas-backdrop.fade{opacity:0}.offcanvas-backdrop.show{opacity:.5}.offcanvas-header{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;padding:var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x)}.offcanvas-header .btn-close{padding:calc(var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) * .5) calc(var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x) * .5);margin-top:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y));margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x));margin-bottom:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y))}.offcanvas-title{margin-bottom:0;line-height:1.5}.offcanvas-body{flex-grow:1;padding:var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x);overflow-y:auto}.article__single__toc .float-end{float:right !important}.article__single__toc .list-group-item{border:none;border-radius:0}.article__single__toc .list-group-item i{transition:transform .2s;position:absolute;left:.25rem;margin-top:.25rem}.article__single__toc .list-group-item.expanded i{transform:rotateZ(90deg)}.article__single__toc>.list-group{background:transparent}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group{margin-left:.5em}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group{margin-left:.75em;border-left:1px solid #ccc}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group-item{padding:.5em}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}.free-toc-container{position:fixed;bottom:3em;left:.5em;max-width:300px;z-index:10}@media(max-width: 768px){.free-toc-container{bottom:5em}}#free-toc{max-height:calc(100vh - 275px);overflow:auto}.free-toc-container .list-group a{text-decoration:none}.free-toc-container .list-group li:not(.active):hover{background-color:#f5f5f5;color:#fff}.free-toc-container .list-group .active a{color:#fff;pointer-events:none;font-weight:bold}.pagination{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.95rem;--bs-pagination-color: var(--bs-link-color);--bs-pagination-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-border-width: 1px;--bs-pagination-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-hover-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-hover-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-hover-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-focus-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-focus-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow: 0 0 0 0.25rem rgba(82, 108, 120, 0.25);--bs-pagination-active-color: #fff;--bs-pagination-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-pagination-active-border-color: #526c78;--bs-pagination-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-pagination-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color: #dee2e6;display:flex;padding-left:0;list-style:none}.page-link{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-pagination-padding-y) var(--bs-pagination-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-pagination-font-size);color:var(--bs-pagination-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-bg);border:var(--bs-pagination-border-width) solid var(--bs-pagination-border-color);transition:color .15s ease-in-out,background-color .15s ease-in-out,border-color .15s ease-in-out,box-shadow .15s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.page-link{transition:none}}.page-link:hover{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-border-color)}.page-link:focus{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-bg);outline:0;box-shadow:var(--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow)}.page-link.active,.active>.page-link{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-border-color)}.page-link.disabled,.disabled>.page-link{color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color)}.page-item:not(:first-child) .page-link{margin-left:-1px}.page-item:first-child .page-link{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.page-item:last-child .page-link{border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.pagination-lg{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 1.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:1.1875rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.5rem}.pagination-sm{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.25rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.83125rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.25rem}.table{--bs-table-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-bg: transparent;--bs-table-border-color: var(--bs-border-color);--bs-table-accent-bg: transparent;--bs-table-striped-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-striped-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);--bs-table-active-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-active-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);--bs-table-hover-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-hover-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.075);width:100%;margin-bottom:1rem;color:var(--bs-table-color);vertical-align:top;border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table>:not(caption)>*>*{padding:.5rem .5rem;background-color:var(--bs-table-bg);border-bottom-width:1px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 0 9999px var(--bs-table-accent-bg)}.table>tbody{vertical-align:inherit}.table>thead{vertical-align:bottom}.table-group-divider{border-top:2px solid currentcolor}.caption-top{caption-side:top}.table-sm>:not(caption)>*>*{padding:.25rem .25rem}.table-bordered>:not(caption)>*{border-width:1px 0}.table-bordered>:not(caption)>*>*{border-width:0 1px}.table-borderless>:not(caption)>*>*{border-bottom-width:0}.table-borderless>:not(:first-child){border-top-width:0}.table-striped>tbody>tr:nth-of-type(odd)>*{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-striped-bg);color:var(--bs-table-striped-color)}.table-striped-columns>:not(caption)>tr>:nth-child(even){--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-striped-bg);color:var(--bs-table-striped-color)}.table-active{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-active-bg);color:var(--bs-table-active-color)}.table-hover>tbody>tr:hover>*{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-hover-bg);color:var(--bs-table-hover-color)}.table-primary{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #dce2e4;--bs-table-border-color: #c6cbcd;--bs-table-striped-bg: #d1d7d9;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #c6cbcd;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #ccd1d3;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-secondary{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #e2e3e5;--bs-table-border-color: #cbccce;--bs-table-striped-bg: #d7d8da;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #cbccce;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #d1d2d4;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-success{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #d1e7dd;--bs-table-border-color: #bcd0c7;--bs-table-striped-bg: #c7dbd2;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #bcd0c7;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #c1d6cc;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-info{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #cff4fc;--bs-table-border-color: #badce3;--bs-table-striped-bg: #c5e8ef;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #badce3;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #bfe2e9;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-warning{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #fff3cd;--bs-table-border-color: #e6dbb9;--bs-table-striped-bg: #f2e7c3;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #e6dbb9;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #ece1be;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-danger{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #f8d5dc;--bs-table-border-color: #dfc0c6;--bs-table-striped-bg: #eccad1;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #dfc0c6;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #e5c5cc;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-light{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #e8eced;--bs-table-border-color: #d1d4d5;--bs-table-striped-bg: #dce0e1;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #d1d4d5;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #d7dadb;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-dark{--bs-table-color: #fff;--bs-table-bg: #29363a;--bs-table-border-color: #3e4a4e;--bs-table-striped-bg: #344044;--bs-table-striped-color: #fff;--bs-table-active-bg: #3e4a4e;--bs-table-active-color: #fff;--bs-table-hover-bg: #394549;--bs-table-hover-color: #fff;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-responsive{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.table-responsive-sm{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.table-responsive-md{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.table-responsive-lg{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.table-responsive-xl{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.table-responsive-xxl{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}span.rg{font-weight:bold}.lined-bg{background:repeating-linear-gradient(45deg, #606dbc, #606dbc 10px, #465298 10px, #465298 20px)}@media(min-width: 768px){.geography-list-group{grid-template-columns:repeat(2, 1fr);display:grid;grid-gap:.5rem}.geography-list-group .list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:1px}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.geography-list-group{grid-template-columns:repeat(3, 1fr);display:grid;grid-gap:.5rem}.geography-list-group .list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:1px}}table .note{font-size:.8rem;line-height:1.1;position:relative;padding-left:.8rem;display:block;margin-bottom:.5rem;font-style:italic}table .note b{position:absolute;font-style:normal;left:0;top:0}h1 em.label-sub{font-style:normal}.event-date{font-size:1rem;font-style:italic;color:#526c78}.event-label{font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0}.event-label .event-date{font-size:.8em}.badge{background-color:#e8eced !important;border-radius:0;color:#526c78}.badge.text-bg-primary{color:#fff !important;background-color:#0d6efd !important}.badge.text-bg-success{color:#fff !important;background-color:#198754 !important}.badge .bad a{text-decoration:underline}.event-single .badge{font-size:.85rem;font-weight:normal;margin-top:-0.25rem;padding-left:1rem !important;padding-right:1rem !important}.figure{display:flex;flex-direction:column;justify-content:center}@media(max-width: 768px){.figure{background:#f5f5f5;box-shadow:0 .125rem .25rem rgba(0,0,0,.075);margin-bottom:1em !important;padding-top:.5em !important}.figure .popover{background:transparent}.figure .popover .popover-header{color:#222}}img.media_resized{max-width:100%;height:auto;width:auto;margin:0 auto;max-height:200px}.protected{position:relative}.protected:after{position:absolute;content:"";width:100%;height:100%;top:0;left:0;background:transparent}@media(min-width: 992px){.inline-media-group{display:flex;justify-content:space-around}}@media screen and (max-width: 480px){.nav.nav-tabs{display:block}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-item{display:block !important}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-link{border:none;width:100%;margin:0}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-link.active{background-color:#e8eced;margin:0}}.index-list{border:1px solid #dfdfdf;background-color:#fafafa;border-radius:.375em;box-shadow:0 .125rem .25rem rgba(0,0,0,.075) !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important;margin-right:.25rem !important;margin-left:.25rem !important;padding:1rem}.index-list a{padding:.125em .25em;border-radius:.375em;display:inline-block}.index-list a.active{background:#526c78;color:#fff;text-decoration:none}.index-list a.text-muted{color:#a4a9ae !important}.card{--bs-card-spacer-y: 1rem;--bs-card-spacer-x: 1rem;--bs-card-title-spacer-y: 0.5rem;--bs-card-border-width: 1px;--bs-card-border-color: var(--bs-border-color-translucent);--bs-card-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-card-box-shadow: ;--bs-card-inner-border-radius: calc(0.375rem - 1px);--bs-card-cap-padding-y: 0.5rem;--bs-card-cap-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-card-cap-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.03);--bs-card-cap-color: ;--bs-card-height: ;--bs-card-color: ;--bs-card-bg: #fff;--bs-card-img-overlay-padding: 1rem;--bs-card-group-margin: 0.75rem;position:relative;display:flex;flex-direction:column;min-width:0;height:var(--bs-card-height);word-wrap:break-word;background-color:var(--bs-card-bg);background-clip:border-box;border:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color);border-radius:var(--bs-card-border-radius)}.card>hr{margin-right:0;margin-left:0}.card>.list-group{border-top:inherit;border-bottom:inherit}.card>.list-group:first-child{border-top-width:0;border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card>.list-group:last-child{border-bottom-width:0;border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card>.card-header+.list-group,.card>.list-group+.card-footer{border-top:0}.card-body{flex:1 1 auto;padding:var(--bs-card-spacer-y) var(--bs-card-spacer-x);color:var(--bs-card-color)}.card-title{margin-bottom:var(--bs-card-title-spacer-y)}.card-subtitle{margin-top:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-title-spacer-y));margin-bottom:0}.card-text:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.card-link+.card-link{margin-left:var(--bs-card-spacer-x)}.card-header{padding:var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y) var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x);margin-bottom:0;color:var(--bs-card-cap-color);background-color:var(--bs-card-cap-bg);border-bottom:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color)}.card-header:first-child{border-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) 0 0}.card-footer{padding:var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y) var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x);color:var(--bs-card-cap-color);background-color:var(--bs-card-cap-bg);border-top:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color)}.card-footer:last-child{border-radius:0 0 var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-header-tabs{margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));margin-bottom:calc(-1 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y));margin-left:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));border-bottom:0}.card-header-tabs .nav-link.active{background-color:var(--bs-card-bg);border-bottom-color:var(--bs-card-bg)}.card-header-pills{margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));margin-left:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x))}.card-img-overlay{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;left:0;padding:var(--bs-card-img-overlay-padding);border-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-img,.card-img-top,.card-img-bottom{width:100%}.card-img,.card-img-top{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-img,.card-img-bottom{border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-group>.card{margin-bottom:var(--bs-card-group-margin)}@media(min-width: 576px){.card-group{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap}.card-group>.card{flex:1 0 0%;margin-bottom:0}.card-group>.card+.card{margin-left:0;border-left:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child){border-top-right-radius:0;border-bottom-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-img-top,.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-header{border-top-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-img-bottom,.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-footer{border-bottom-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child){border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-img-top,.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-header{border-top-left-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-img-bottom,.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-footer{border-bottom-left-radius:0}}.alert{--bs-alert-bg: transparent;--bs-alert-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-alert-padding-y: 1rem;--bs-alert-margin-bottom: 1rem;--bs-alert-color: inherit;--bs-alert-border-color: transparent;--bs-alert-border: 1px solid var(--bs-alert-border-color);--bs-alert-border-radius: 0.375rem;position:relative;padding:var(--bs-alert-padding-y) var(--bs-alert-padding-x);margin-bottom:var(--bs-alert-margin-bottom);color:var(--bs-alert-color);background-color:var(--bs-alert-bg);border:var(--bs-alert-border);border-radius:var(--bs-alert-border-radius)}.alert-heading{color:inherit}.alert-link{font-weight:700}.alert-dismissible{padding-right:3rem}.alert-dismissible .btn-close{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;z-index:2;padding:1.25rem 1rem}.alert-primary{--bs-alert-color: #314148;--bs-alert-bg: #dce2e4;--bs-alert-border-color: #cbd3d7}.alert-primary .alert-link{color:#27343a}.alert-secondary{--bs-alert-color: #192023;--bs-alert-bg: #d4d7d8;--bs-alert-border-color: #bfc3c4}.alert-secondary .alert-link{color:#141a1c}.alert-success{--bs-alert-color: #0f5132;--bs-alert-bg: #d1e7dd;--bs-alert-border-color: #badbcc}.alert-success .alert-link{color:#0c4128}.alert-info{--bs-alert-color: #055160;--bs-alert-bg: #cff4fc;--bs-alert-border-color: #b6effb}.alert-info .alert-link{color:#04414d}.alert-warning{--bs-alert-color: #664d03;--bs-alert-bg: #fff3cd;--bs-alert-border-color: #ffecb5}.alert-warning .alert-link{color:#523e02}.alert-danger{--bs-alert-color: #851a31;--bs-alert-bg: #f8d5dc;--bs-alert-border-color: #f5bfcb}.alert-danger .alert-link{color:#6a1527}.alert-light{--bs-alert-color: #5d5e5f;--bs-alert-bg: #fafbfb;--bs-alert-border-color: #f8f9fa}.alert-light .alert-link{color:#4a4b4c}.alert-dark{--bs-alert-color: #192023;--bs-alert-bg: #d4d7d8;--bs-alert-border-color: #bfc3c4}.alert-dark .alert-link{color:#141a1c}.media-landing .media-reference-copy{display:block;position:relative !important;top:auto;left:auto;width:auto;height:auto}.media-landing .media-reference-copy:after{content:"Afficher le média";background:rgba(255,255,255,.1);position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;color:#222;font-size:2em;font-weight:bold;text-shadow:0 0 5px #fff;backdrop-filter:blur(5px)}.media-landing .media-reference-copy img{width:auto !important;height:auto !important}</style><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "WebSite", "name": "Encyclopædia Universalis", "alternateName": "Universalis", "url": "https://www.universalis.fr", "sameAs": [ "https://www.facebook.com/EncyclopedieUniversalis/", "https://www.linkedin.com/company/encyclopaedia-universalis", "https://www.twitter.com/universalisfr", "https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow" ] } </script> </head> <body id="page_3" class="edu SENIOR loading" > <div class="loader"></div> <a href="#main-content" id="skip"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-arrow-down"></i> Accéder au contenu </a> <header class="d-none d-md-block d-print-none"> <div class="container row-between"> <a class="header-logo mr-3" title="Retour à la page d'accueil" href="/"> <svg viewBox="0 0 370 76.44" height="70" width="277" id="logo-main"> <text class="fill-universalis text-darkblue" transform="translate(74.25 37.1)" font-family="Arial" font-size="43.37"> <tspan x="0" y="0">UNIVERSALIS</tspan> </text> <text class="text-darkblue subtitle" transform="translate(76.75 66.74)" font-family="Arial" font-size="35.8"> <tspan class="fill-universalis-up" x="0" y="0" font-size=".85em">.fr</tspan> </text> <g> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M57,6.36H4.25C1.9,6.36,0,8.27,0,10.62V62.51c0,2.35,1.9,4.25,4.25,4.25H57c2.35,0,4.25-1.9,4.25-4.25V10.62c0-2.35-1.9-4.25-4.25-4.25ZM29.63,31.87h7.33v8.06c-.77-1.77-1.61-2.99-2.96-4.38-1.41-1.44-2.42-2.35-4.36-3.29v-.39Zm2.37,29.2c-.85,.68-1.75,1.28-2.71,1.75-.11,.05-.22,.1-.33,.15H13.39c-1.67-.77-3.19-1.8-4.53-3.14-3.13-3.13-4.69-7.06-4.69-11.77s1.56-8.84,4.67-12.04c3.12-3.19,7.02-4.79,11.72-4.79,2.71,0,5.14,.49,7.3,1.43,1.81,.79,3.44,1.9,4.87,3.36,1.35,1.38,2.4,2.97,3.17,4.74,1,2.31,1.52,4.94,1.52,7.9l-.03,1.51H11.86c.37,2.25,1.36,4.04,2.95,5.37,1.6,1.33,3.64,1.99,6.13,1.99,2.79,0,4.96-.67,6.99-2.49l6.74,3.26c-.84,1.12-1.61,1.9-2.67,2.75Zm24.74-15.61c0,5.53-.44,9.31-1.31,11.35-1.07,2.49-2.64,4.39-4.72,5.72-.24,.15-.49,.3-.75,.44h-14.33c-.44-.23-.87-.49-1.26-.77-.26-.18-.43-.29-.66-.49,.29-.3,2.13-2.54,3.11-3.92,0,0-7.13-3.32-7.3-3.39-.22-1.04-.28-1.34-.44-2.83h7.98c.1,1.11,.27,1.26,.5,1.93,.41,1.15,1.07,2.05,1.97,2.69,.9,.64,2.02,.96,3.34,.96s2.45-.32,3.37-.95c.92-.63,1.61-1.55,2.06-2.78,.33-.91,.5-2.86,.5-5.85v-15.51h7.95v13.42Z"/> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M29.44,43.92c-.32-1.09-.87-2.04-1.58-2.88-.44-.52-.93-1-1.52-1.43-1.54-1.11-3.34-1.66-5.38-1.66-2.22,0-4.16,.62-5.83,1.86-1.05,.78-2.02,2.14-2.92,4.11H29.44Z"/> </g> </svg> </a> <div class="p-1 d-flex justify-content-end flex-column" style="height: 80px"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper" style="align-items: flex-end; display: flex; flex-direction: column" data-identification_uri="/identification/"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div id="toast-manager"></div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="d-print-none sticky-top"> <div role="navigation" aria-label="Navigation mobile" class="main-navbar-wrapper shadow"> <a class="navbar-brand-md d-none d-md-block" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_f21479e1ae.webp " width="32" height="32" alt=""> </a> <div class="container"> <nav class="navbar navbar-expand-lg navbar-dark"> <a class="navbar-brand d-md-none" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_f21479e1ae.webp " width="36" height="36" alt=""> </a> <div id="navbar-collapse-grid" class="navbar-collapse collapse pt-2 pt-md-0"> <ul class="navbar-nav me-auto"> <li><a href="/" title="Niveaux" class="nav-link">Accueil</a></li> <li><a href="/atlas/" title="Atlas" class="nav-link">Atlas</a></li><li><a href="/datapays/" title="DataPays" class="nav-link">DataPays</a></li><li><a href="/classification/" title="Classification" class="nav-link">Classification</a></li><li><a href="/dictionnaire/" title="Dictionnaire français Universalis : retrouvez toutes les définitions, étymologies, expressions, synonymes, exemples, et flexions de plus de 120 000 mots de la langue française." class="nav-link">Dictionnaire</a></li><li><a href="https://boutique.universalis.fr" title="Boutique" class="nav-link">Boutique</a></li> </ul> </div> <form method="get" name="searchQuery" class="flex-grow-1 my-1" id="search-form" autocomplete="off" action="/recherche/redirect/"> <div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@extension]" value="SolrData" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@controller]" value="SearchForm" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@action]" value="showFr" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][arguments]" value="YTowOnt9789d077876a7a0adeb4a9a4c4853f315af9bb201" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@request]" value="{"@extension":"SolrData","@controller":"SearchForm","@action":"showFr"}db953a457671272659a1e7710096726899d321a7" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__trustedProperties]" value="{"data-action":1,"searchQuery":{"resultType":1,"searchedString":1}}36e15bfcc110b23d6ba91a6810381c8ec6b87146" /> </div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[data-action]" value="https://www.universalis.fr/recherche/___searchedString___/article/1/" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][resultType]" value="ARTICLE" /> <div class="input-wrapper input-group"> <input placeholder="Rechercher sur Universalis" class="form-control" id="searchedString" autocomplete="off" type="text" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][searchedString]" value="" /> <button type="submit" class="btn btn-sm btn-light"> <span class="d-none d-md-block">Recherche</span> <span class="visually-hidden">Recherche</span> <span class="d-md-none"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-magnifying-glass"></i></span> </button> </div> </form> <button title="Afficher / masquer le menu du site" class="navbar-toggler ms-1" type="button" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#navbar-collapse-grid"> <span class="navbar-toggler-icon"></span> </button> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <main class="site-fr container main rounded-bottom shadow mb-3"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper-mobile"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-lg-none text-center mb-3"> <a href="/abonnement" title="Je m'abonne" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Top (mobile)"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/6/csm_banner-cta_534716667b.webp" width="728" height="90" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" class="img-max shadow-sm"/> </a> </div> <div class="row"> <div id="main-content" class="col-lg-8 col-xl-9 pb-4"> <div class="free-toc-container"> <ul id="free-toc" class="collapse list-group shadow-sm mb-1" style="overflow: hidden"> <li class="list-group-item active"> <a class="d-block" title="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire, Auguste et son temps" href="/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/"> 1. Auguste et son temps </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire, Le Ier siècle après J.-C." href="/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/2-le-ier-siecle-apres-j-c/"> 2. Le Ier siècle après J.-C. </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire, Le siècle des Antonins (96-192 apr. J.-C.)" href="/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/3-le-siecle-des-antonins-96-192-apr-j-c/"> 3. Le siècle des Antonins (96-192 apr. J.-C.) </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire, La civilisation : l'équilibre du Haut-Empire" href="/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/4-la-civilisation-l-equilibre-du-haut-empire/"> 4. La civilisation : l'équilibre du Haut-Empire </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire, La dynastie des Sévères (193-235)" href="/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/5-la-dynastie-des-severes-193-235/"> 5. La dynastie des Sévères (193-235) </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire, Le temps de la crise (235-268)" href="/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/6-le-temps-de-la-crise-235-268/"> 6. Le temps de la crise (235-268) </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/7-bibliographie/"> 7. Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN</strong><span class="label-sub"> Le Haut-Empire</span> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><p class="text-sm text-muted mb-1">Article modifié le <time datetime="2025-01-29"> 29/01/2025 </time></p><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yQ160291_0"><i class="anchor" id="yQ160291_0"></i><div class="clearfix"></div><div class="media-container float-md-start me-3 col-md-3 text-center"><figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"><a data-ucode="CH000005" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : -200 à 200 apr. J.-C. La loi romaine" href="/media/200-a-200-apr-j-c-la-loi-romaine-ch000005/"><img id="CH000005" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/7/csm_ch000005_50b5a1f724.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="-200 à 200 apr. J.-C. La loi romaine - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Mochica et Nasca dans les Andes. Les Han en Chine. Rome.Les quatre siècles qui encadrent le début de notre ère sont caractérisés par la prédominance de vastes empires.En Occident tout d'abord, la république romaine supplante l'empire carthaginois dans la domination des rives de la Méditerranée…" data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="" height="" /></a><figcaption class="figure-caption"><p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> -200 à 200 apr. J.-C. La loi romaine </p><p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p></figcaption></figure></div><p>Pendant plusieurs siècles, l'Empire romain a assuré la paix et l'unité du monde méditerranéen et façonné dans ses provinces la majeure partie de l'Europe. Les Romains n'avaient certes pas que des qualités et leur domination résulte partout de l'emploi judicieux de la force. Mais, une fois établie, cette domination s'est maintenue grâce à la diffusion d'une civilisation en partie héritée des Grecs, et par la participation des élites indigènes au <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme « gouvernement » désigne le groupe de personnes dont la fonction principale consiste à assurer l'avenir d'une société politique, donc d'un pays. Cette constatation, à la fois historique et géographique, conduit à procéder à deux distinctions importantes.. La première distinction porte sur l'origine du gouvernement et sur la manière dont ses titulaires accèdent à cette p..." title="Article : GOUVERNEMENT" href="/encyclopedie/gouvernement/">gouvernement</a> et à l'administration. Le <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Vieux de près de deux millénaires, le droit romain suscite encore aujourd'hui l'intérêt des juristes. Il leur fournit un langage commun, un système de référence, un « champ d'exercice » et, pour le moins, un objet de réflexion. Bien qu'il ne manque pas de détracteurs et que, depuis Rabelais et Molière, il passe pour refuge des pédants, son enseignement, encore assuré dans d'assez..." title="Article : DROIT ROMAIN" href="/encyclopedie/droit-romain/">droit romain</a> a fait progresser le respect de la personne humaine et des contrats qui sont à la base de toute société. La concession de plus en plus large du droit de cité, pratiquement obtenu en 212 (édit de Caracalla) par tous les habitants de l'Empire, a permis à des millions d'individus d'accéder à une même forme de civilisation. À partir du <span class="pc">iii</span><sup>e</sup> siècle, le monde romain a subi l'assaut des Barbares venus de l'Europe du Nord et de l'Asie, et pour leur résister s'est donné une structure bureaucratique, militaire et « totalitaire », ce qui n'a pas empêché le brillant renouveau du <span class="pc">iv</span><sup>e</sup> siècle, qui vit également triompher le christianisme. Après la séparation survenue entre l'Orient et l'Occident en 395, de nouvelles invasions allaient ruiner et morceler en royaumes barbares l'Occident, tandis que l'empire d'Orient poursuivait une longue carrière : l'Empire byzantin, à bien des égards héritier de l'Empire romain, devait durer jusqu'au milieu du <span class="pc">xv</span><sup>e</sup> siècle.</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yQ160291_1"><i class="anchor" id="yQ160291_1"></i><h2>Auguste et son temps</h2><div class="block_2" data-ucode="yQ160291_1_0"><i class="anchor" id="yQ160291_1_0"></i><h3>L'organisation du régime</h3><p> À la fin de la période troublée du second triumvirat, qui fait suite à la mort de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de CÉSAR (101-44 av. J.-C.). Héritier spirituel et politique de Marius, ambitieux, mais à la mesure de ses capacités et de ses dons éblouissants, César apparut, vers l'année 65, comme un des principaux chefs du parti populaire. Son alliance avec Pompée et Crassus leur permit à tous trois, sous le couvert de la légalité, de se partager l'influence et le pouvoir. Après son con..." title="Article : CÉSAR (101-44 av. J.-C.)" href="/encyclopedie/cesar/">César</a> en 44 avant J.-C., Octave, son fils adoptif et son héritier, fut en 31 vainqueur d'Antoine et de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de CLÉOPÂTRE (69-30 av. J.-C.). Que Cléopâtre VII, fille de Ptolémée le Flûtiste, rencontre successivement, en 48 avant J.-C. le général Caius Iulius Caesar, âgé de cinquante-quatre ans alors qu'elle n'en avait que vingt et un, puis en 41 avant J.-C. le général Marcus Antonius, « l'enfant colossal », comme l'appelait Ernest Renan, ce sont là aventures sentimentales, p�..." title="Article : CLÉOPÂTRE (69-30 av. J.-C.)" href="/encyclopedie/cleopatre/">Cléopâtre</a> à la bataille d'Actium. De 31 à 27, il conserva les pouvoirs extraordinaires du triumvirat et prépara lentement la stabilisation du régime nouveau dont il fut le fondateur : le principat. Le destin tragique de César avait appris à Octave que le monde désirait un roi et que la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Étymologiquement, le terme signifie commandement par un seul. Dans la classification des types de gouvernements, formalisée par Aristote et considérée comme le modèle des classifications, la monarchie est une forme de gouvernement caractérisée par l'unicité du titulaire du pouvoir, mais aussi par l'exercice de ce pouvoir au bénéfice de tous. Le choix de ce critère par Aristote est..." title="Article : MONARCHIE" href="/encyclopedie/monarchie/">monarchie</a> était odieuse aux Romains.</p><p>Soutenu par l'armée et des ralliés de tous bords, « républicains » et « césariens », chevaliers et sénateurs, il décida, avec une grande habileté politique, de conserver pour lui un pouvoir quasi absolu, mais qui était fondé sur le cumul de plusieurs magistratures civiles héritées du passé républicain de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La Ville éternelle : depuis le i er siècle de notre ère, la ville sise au milieu de la péninsule italienne sur le Tibre à une trentaine de kilomètres de la mer tyrrhénienne bénéficie d'une image de puissance intemporelle. Ancien foyer de l'Empire romain, l'actuelle capitale de l'Italie et de la catholicité occupe une place symbolique importante en Europe, voire dans le monde, dont ..." title="Article : ROME" href="/encyclopedie/rome/">Rome</a>. Tel fut l'objet de la séance du Sénat (janv. 27) où la <em>res publica</em>, restaurée par ses soins, fut solennellement rendue au Sénat et au peuple. En fait un partage s'effectua : le Sénat conservait l'administration de quelques provinces dégarnies de troupes et confiait à Octave, qui reçut peu après le titre d'Auguste, les provinces frontières, ce qui lui laissait le commandement des armées. Depuis 31, il gérait le consulat sans interruption, ce qui était une monstruosité institutionnelle ; depuis 43, il possédait l' <em>imperium</em>, et, depuis 30, la plupart des droits des tribuns (puissance tribunicienne). Le nom d'<em>Augustus </em>soulignait en lui ce qu'il y avait de sacré et de divin, et conférait à ses décisions et à ses avis une « majoration » singulière (l'<em>auctoritas</em>), quoique sans fondement institutionnel. En 23, il abandonne le consulat (occasionnellement revêtu par la suite en 5 et en 2 av. J.-C.), mais reçoit la puissance tribunicienne complète et à vie, qui devint la base civile de son pouvoir, et un <em>imperium </em>proconsulaire <em>majus </em>(plus grand que celui des proconsuls des provinces sénatoriales). En 19, il reçoit temporairement le pouvoir consulaire, l'initiative des lois et certains pouvoirs des censeurs. En 12 avant J.-C., il est élu régulièrement grand pontife, et reçoit, en 2 avant J.-C., le titre de Père de la patrie, qui place sous sa protection et sa clientèle<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonnés</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus variés, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les écrans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicité</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="Q160291_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="LE BOHEC, Yann"><a title="Auteur : Yann LE BOHEC" rel="author" href="/auteurs/yann-le-bohec/"><strong>Yann LE BOHEC</strong></a> : professeur à l'université de Grenoble </li><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="PETIT, Paul"><a title="Auteur : Paul PETIT" rel="author" href="/auteurs/paul-petit/"><strong>Paul PETIT</strong></a> : professeur à la faculté des lettres et sciences humaines de Grenoble </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire" href="/carte-mentale/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yQ160291_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire" href="/classification/histoire/"> Histoire </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire : chronologie" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/"> Histoire : chronologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Antiquité" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/antiquite/"> Antiquité </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Europe, Antiquité" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/antiquite/europe-antiquite/"> Europe, Antiquité </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Rome antique, histoire" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/antiquite/europe-antiquite/rome-antique-histoire/"> Rome antique, histoire </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Empire romain"> <a title="Classification : Empire romain" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/antiquite/europe-antiquite/rome-antique-histoire/empire-romain/"> Empire romain </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none"> <i class="anchor" id="yQ160291_MEDIAS"></i> <p class="title-minor">Médias</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="CH000005" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : -200 à 200 apr. J.-C. La loi romaine" href="/media/200-a-200-apr-j-c-la-loi-romaine-ch000005/"> <img id="CH000005" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/7/csm_ch000005_50b5a1f724.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="-200 à 200 apr. J.-C. La loi romaine - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Mochica et Nasca dans les Andes. Les Han en Chine. Rome.Les quatre siècles qui encadrent le début de notre ère sont caractérisés par la prédominance de vastes empires.En Occident tout d'abord, la république romaine supplante l'empire carthaginois dans la domination des rives de la Méditerranée…" data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="" height="" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> -200 à 200 apr. J.-C. La loi romaine </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="DE070005" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Système impérial romain" href="/media/systeme-imperial-romain-de070005/"> <img id="DE070005" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/d/c/csm_de070005_dbae8da9a8.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Système impérial romain - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Dans le cadre du régime mis en place par Auguste à la toute fin du Ier siècle avant J.-C., l'empereur occupe une place centrale et prééminente. Les institutions de la République, Sénat et comices, bien que maintenues, jouent désormais un rôle de simples auxiliaires du prince. Cette…" data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="2000" height="1500" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Système impérial romain </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH99B046" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Détail du décor de l'Ara Pacis Augustae" href="/media/detail-du-decor-de-lara-pacis-augustae-ph99b046/"> <img id="PH99B046" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/e/csm_ph99b046_9a6d7a27c3.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Détail du décor de l'Ara Pacis Augustae - crédits : Index/ Bridgeman Images " data-description="Tellus, la Terre, accompagnée de personnages figurant les eaux et les vents. Relief de l'enceinte inaugurée en 9 avant J.-C. L'autel devait figurer le retour victorieux d'Auguste d'Espagne et de Gaule. Marbre. Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome." data-copyright="Index/ Bridgeman Images " width="800" height="554" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Détail du décor de l'Ara Pacis Augustae </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Index/ Bridgeman Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" rel="related" href="/medias/rome-et-empire-romain-le-haut-empire/"> Afficher les 17 médias de l'article <span class="rg">ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - </span><span class="rm">Le Haut-Empire</span> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yQ160291_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/civilisation-romaine/"> <span class="rg">CIVILISATION ROMAINE </span><span class="rm">(notions de base)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author"> Encyclopædia Universalis</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">4 295 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">18 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CIVILISATION ROMAINE (notions de base)" href="/encyclopedie/civilisation-romaine/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Fondation mythique de Rome - crédits : Erich Lessing/ AKG-images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/a/csm_pi020115_e1f6a49ede.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>Le <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="S'il faut définir philosophiquement le destin, le résultat de cette conceptualisation doit contenir l'expression, d'une part, d'un déterminisme et, d'autre part, d'une saisie de ce déterminisme au moment de la mort : mort par anticipation ou saisie rétrospective. On aurait par exemple la formulation suivante : « enchaînement des causes et des effets conduisant à la mort ». Ce qui,..." title="Article : DESTIN" href="/encyclopedie/destin/">destin</a> de Rome est celui d’une obscure bourgade de la péninsule italienne devenue, en l’espace de quatre siècles, une mégapole, capitale d’un immense empire s’étendant de l’Écosse à l’Arabie, des confins sahariens aux rives du Danube. Ce processus historique s’accompagna de la disparition de la ...</p> </div> </li> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none article-indexes learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yQ160291_INDEXES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Voir aussi</p> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet"> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ALAMANS" href="/index/alamans/"> <span class="rg">ALAMANS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PANNONIE" href="/index/pannonie/"> <span class="rg">PANNONIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ROMAIN ART" href="/index/art-romain/"> <span class="rg">ROMAIN </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉTRURIE" href="/index/etrurie/"> <span class="rg">ÉTRURIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NARBONNAISE" href="/index/narbonnaise/"> <span class="rg">NARBONNAISE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PLÈBE" href="/index/plebe/"> <span class="rg">PLÈBE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VOIES ROMAINES" href="/index/voies-romaines/"> <span class="rg">VOIES ROMAINES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PATRICIAT" href="/index/patriciat/"> <span class="rg">PATRICIAT</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LATINE LITTÉRATURE" href="/index/litterature-latine/"> <span class="rg">LATINE </span><span class="pc">LITTÉRATURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PROCONSUL, histoire romaine" href="/index/proconsul-histoire-romaine/"> <span class="rg">PROCONSUL, </span><em class="it">histoire romaine</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : IMPÔT, histoire" href="/index/impot-histoire/"> <span class="rg">IMPÔT, </span><em class="it">histoire</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LÉGION" href="/index/legion/"> <span class="rg">LÉGION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SIÈGE MACHINES DE" href="/index/machines-de-siege/"> <span class="rg">SIÈGE </span><span class="pc">MACHINES DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MILITAIRES DOCTRINES ET TACTIQUES" href="/index/doctrines-et-tactiques-militaires/"> <span class="rg">MILITAIRES </span><span class="pc">DOCTRINES ET TACTIQUES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AUGUSTE SIÈCLE D'" href="/index/siecle-d-auguste/"> <span class="rg">AUGUSTE </span><span class="pc">SIÈCLE D'</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ARMÉE, histoire" href="/index/armee-histoire/"> <span class="rg">ARMÉE, </span><em class="it">histoire</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ROMAINE RELIGION" href="/index/religion-romaine/"> <span class="rg">ROMAINE </span><span class="pc">RELIGION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : COMMERCE, histoire" href="/index/commerce-histoire/"> <span class="rg">COMMERCE, </span><em class="it">histoire</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SÉVÈRES LES" href="/index/les-severes/"> <span class="rg">SÉVÈRES </span><span class="pc">LES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CITÉ ANTIQUE" href="/index/cite-antique/"> <span class="rg">CITÉ ANTIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GRECQUE ANCIENNE LITTÉRATURE" href="/index/litterature-grecque-ancienne/"> <span class="rg">GRECQUE ANCIENNE </span><span class="pc">LITTÉRATURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MARINE HISTOIRE DE LA" href="/index/histoire-de-la-marine/"> <span class="rg">MARINE </span><span class="pc">HISTOIRE DE LA</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BARBARES" href="/index/barbares/"> <span class="rg">BARBARES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SÉNAT ROMAIN" href="/index/senat-romain/"> <span class="rg">SÉNAT ROMAIN</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ORDRES DE BATAILLE" href="/index/ordres-de-bataille/"> <span class="rg">ORDRES DE BATAILLE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : IMPERIUM" href="/index/imperium/"> <span class="rg">IMPERIUM</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PRINCIPAT, histoire romaine" href="/index/principat-histoire-romaine/"> <span class="rg">PRINCIPAT, </span><em class="it">histoire romaine</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PAIX ROMAINE" href="/index/paix-romaine/"> <span class="rg">PAIX ROMAINE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GORDIENS RÉVOLTE DES" href="/index/revolte-des-gordiens/"> <span class="rg">GORDIENS </span><span class="pc">RÉVOLTE DES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DOMINAT, histoire romaine" href="/index/dominat-histoire-romaine/"> <span class="rg">DOMINAT, </span><em class="it">histoire romaine</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉCONOMIE ANTIQUE" href="/index/economie-antique/"> <span class="rg">ÉCONOMIE ANTIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ANTONINS LES" href="/index/les-antonins/"> <span class="rg">ANTONINS </span><span class="pc">LES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DACIE" href="/index/dacie/"> <span class="rg">DACIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GALBA (5 av. J.-C. - 69 apr. J.-C.) empereur romain (68-69)" href="/index/galba/"> <span class="rg">GALBA </span><span class="rm">(5 av. J.-C. - 69 apr. J.-C.) empereur romain (68-69)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : OTHON (32-69) empereur romain (69)" href="/index/othon/"> <span class="rg">OTHON </span><span class="rm">(32-69) empereur romain (69)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VITELLIUS AULUS (15-69) empereur romain (69)" href="/index/aulus-vitellius/"> <span class="rg">VITELLIUS </span><span class="pc">AULUS </span><span class="rm">(15-69) empereur romain (69)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MAGISTRATURE, histoire romaine" href="/index/magistrature-histoire-romaine/"> <span class="rg">MAGISTRATURE, </span><em class="it">histoire romaine</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ROMAINE EXPANSION" href="/index/expansion-romaine/"> <span class="rg">ROMAINE </span><span class="pc">EXPANSION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AURÉLIEN (212 env.-275) empereur romain (270-275)" href="/index/aurelien-212-env-275-empereur-romain-270-275/"> <span class="rg">AURÉLIEN </span><span class="rm">(212 env.-275) empereur romain (270-275)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ILLYRIENNE DYNASTIE" href="/index/dynastie-illyrienne/"> <span class="rg">ILLYRIENNE </span><span class="pc">DYNASTIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CLAUDE II LE GOTHIQUE (219-270) empereur romain (268-270)" href="/index/claude-ii-le-gothique/"> <span class="rg">CLAUDE II LE GOTHIQUE </span><span class="rm">(219-270) empereur romain (268-270)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PROBUS (232-282) empereur romain (276-282)" href="/index/probus/"> <span class="rg">PROBUS </span><span class="rm">(232-282) empereur romain (276-282)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MACRIN (164-218) empereur romain (217-218)" href="/index/macrin/"> <span class="rg">MACRIN </span><span class="rm">(164-218) empereur romain (217-218)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉGYPTE, histoire : l'Antiquité" href="/index/egypte-histoire-l-antiquite/"> <span class="rg">ÉGYPTE, </span><em class="it">histoire : l'Antiquité</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GRÈCE, histoire, Antiquité" href="/index/grece-histoire-antiquite/"> <span class="rg">GRÈCE, </span><em class="it">histoire, Antiquité</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GRANDE-BRETAGNE, histoire, des origines au XIe s." href="/index/grande-bretagne-histoire-des-origines-au-xie-s/"> <span class="rg">GRANDE-BRETAGNE, </span><em class="it">histoire, des origines au XI<sup class="sup">e</sup> s.</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SYRIE, histoire jusqu'en 1941" href="/index/syrie-histoire-jusqu-en-1941/"> <span class="rg">SYRIE, </span><em class="it">histoire jusqu'en 1941</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : COHORTE ROMAINE" href="/index/cohorte/"> <span class="rg">COHORTE ROMAINE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AFRIQUE DU NORD, histoire, Antiquité et Moyen Âge" href="/index/afrique-du-nord-histoire-antiquite-et-moyen-age/"> <span class="rg">AFRIQUE DU NORD, </span><em class="it">histoire, Antiquité et Moyen Âge</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : TINGITANE" href="/index/tingitane/"> <span class="rg">TINGITANE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CHRISTIANISME PRIMITIF" href="/index/christianisme-primitif/"> <span class="rg">CHRISTIANISME PRIMITIF</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CENSUS" href="/index/census/"> <span class="rg">CENSUS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ROME, l'Empire romain" href="/index/rome-l-empire-romain/"> <span class="rg">ROME, </span><em class="it">l'Empire romain</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GORDIEN III, lat. MARCUS ANTONIUS GORDIANUS (224 env.-244) empereur romain (238-244)" href="/index/gordien-iii-lat-marcus-antonius-gordianus-empereur-romain/"> <span class="rg">GORDIEN III, </span><span class="rm">lat. </span><span class="pc">MARCUS ANTONIUS GORDIANUS </span><span class="rm">(224 env.-244) empereur romain (238-244)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SATIRICON" href="/index/satiricon/"> <span class="rg">SATIRICON</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ESPAGNE, histoire : Antiquité" href="/index/espagne-histoire-antiquite/"> <span class="rg">ESPAGNE, </span><em class="it">histoire : Antiquité</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PERFECTISSIMES, histoire romaine" href="/index/perfectissimes-histoire-romaine/"> <span class="rg">PERFECTISSIMES, </span><em class="it">histoire romaine</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ALIMENTAIRE COMPORTEMENT" href="/index/comportement-alimentaire/"> <span class="rg">ALIMENTAIRE </span><span class="pc">COMPORTEMENT</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VALÉRIEN, lat. PUBLIUS LICINIUS VALERIANUS (mort en 260)" href="/index/valerien-lat-publius-licinius-valerianus/"> <span class="rg">VALÉRIEN, </span><span class="rm">lat. </span><span class="pc">PUBLIUS LICINIUS VALERIANUS </span><span class="rm">(mort en 260)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LIMES" href="/index/limes/"> <span class="rg">LIMES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GOTHS ou GOTS" href="/index/goths-gots/"> <span class="rg">GOTHS </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">GOTS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PANNONIE PROVINCE DE" href="/index/province-de-pannonie/"> <span class="rg">PANNONIE </span><span class="pc">PROVINCE DE</span> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_74169bae4d.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Crédits images Accueil" rel="nofollow" href="/credits-illustrations/">Crédits images</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire </a> de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2025 Encyclopædia Universalis France. Tous droits de propriété industrielle et intellectuelle réservés.</p> </footer> <a href="javascript:" class="btn btn-primary" id="back-to-top" title="Retour en haut de page"><i aria-hidden="true" class="far fa-arrow-up"></i></a> <script> // noinspection ES6ConvertVarToLetConst,JSUnusedGlobalSymbols var subscription_uri = 'https://www.universalis.fr/abonnement/' bodyLoaded = true; loaded(); </script> <script>(()=>{var e,a,c,r,_,b={},d={};function __webpack_require__(e){var a=d[e];if(void 0!==a)return a.exports;var c=d[e]={id:e,loaded:!1,exports:{}};return b[e].call(c.exports,c,c.exports,__webpack_require__),c.loaded=!0,c.exports}__webpack_require__.m=b,__webpack_require__.n=e=>{var a=e&&e.__esModule?()=>e.default:()=>e;return __webpack_require__.d(a,),a},__webpack_require__.d=(e,a)=>{for(var c in a)__webpack_require__.o(a,c)&&!__webpack_require__.o(e,c)&&Object.defineProperty(e,c,{enumerable:!0,get:a[c]})},__webpack_require__.f={},__webpack_require__.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(__webpack_require__.f).reduce(((a,c)=>(__webpack_require__.f[c](e,a),a)),[])),__webpack_require__.u=e=>"js/"+e+"."+{177:"333ddd8e201baf8b0ef8",190:"a2441ee3e33c1b0dfb46",227:"acdc7edf769672ab395c",305:"c88c90542337f7fdd2de",346:"425075e72748a674ccbf",477:"22a31b1dea1b4afd2f5b",741:"a93fdc8c8a0167d66f8f",780:"9353cebb460c5e2269f8",786:"f4a7bab54148096ad474",789:"2d5c1ea061f479250649",830:"3ed10eef4abea47b3440",849:"67c23bd45876db282f82",882:"da3184782d3541205108",883:"b504c671ee56b3f5edf8",1031:"71fa0551886a59bcf1ca",1095:"9e59e92f30df1ec926e4",1142:"fc1a3a90c8a7cd0d7807",1222:"77e66626c184b7d31555",1480:"fef98c6a57f99f65fda8",1641:"20b900e0adda4c80db1d",1752:"41f05fd71a4dd13c9c08",1800:"1379f1df3ace760a2e7c",1890:"22dc4ae68245cd61893b",1926:"cef6829613662fa0d351",1975:"036f60f531547d8fb303",2003:"f48ccb771cd49cb7cf66",2136:"60095022ee15cac44eb4",2307:"be05dd39a77150ede1ff",2357:"b90575dcf5ca8c8f1ef6",2385:"c3da4f2c357252c9df08",2528:"35cf15469387068e6a85",2864:"f4fc3b62492697c38f08",2895:"a8f0413fcf2fee539813",3015:"e1084ababa33d08a81f0",3138:"75edb076a18972355143",3157:"b5de2b39ea37d3133af0",3169:"bd110d3b5b35b2926832",3343:"95ea7335a61f647d7e16",3507:"0c9b809d4c154301d6b7",3630:"c01bae56eaef759dc47e",3706:"15030bd90e02872595a8",3758:"957c19e64d42e47c33c7",4010:"bf993b78bd832234df6e",4047:"da30a71b441aa46bb8e5",4116:"94b769711c17c522d8c9",4280:"a995ffa72fa330a58630",4354:"4e0a70f1a566added829",4415:"7b18d362eeeac2a0f13a",4441:"dca649f001491a2bd607",4465:"308ce3c81e5393f25865",4550:"0d0291bd658dcc1e4cb2",4595:"c37517f72707c874a2b1",4692:"b98cac1fb67e4e908d64",4709:"8c7f740c485202951444",4766:"50b40199b264532882fa",4793:"801bcc6ee25931aea123",4800:"976c343f52e42fa93fdc",4880:"541bc47ab333186eb00d",4882:"ac4bf9b5216b41e62db4",5015:"5e41b5ed1c14f8339ac3",5037:"45597a02f6e5efbbe8ab",5097:"70b5339794033b90dc7f",5107:"55931eae2cd4b39a0de0",5156:"dfe562b76cf0ff9f24e0",5263:"88eb3ab427a4cbc934b9",5366:"046ebce9f739eb2e0c89",5423:"c13018ad8a1f937349ca",5486:"93bbfe795b3084129f59",5506:"9e948f9be7ebe096eebf",5614:"c9a8ac19be4023b7b250",5738:"6466f626e725a42b3698",5865:"f1a798618f3b6f9903b0",5975:"88ee9cdd28f0245914f8",5977:"bf7db06c1133a66449f3",6036:"56ff12c9dd70677ce693",6037:"e7cdaffc1d87265d5627",6111:"c25dd0a941839ee93c38",6251:"36a514e5dc40273fc7e1",6423:"a8e0bb7db6d3fded7dda",6600:"f619d552df8bcc9fecb5",7033:"6a366be1fc4535fb0efb",7096:"25a463e58dd1075911f1",7204:"3e5234153f1f490db272",7278:"ab7009f38bbb5732c15d",7319:"c14f96c5a30814af47fa",7555:"a5f570d29bfea1ef7506",7700:"e6a6a14ecf4012ebdafc",7766:"6f944a74026e1fe1264f",7900:"05c142408eaaa8435ffd",8113:"1a49932d3f9f58a0e19b",8141:"0226899ac199d372352a",8220:"9d69310a1c5abbd2e07a",8264:"55490fb5d4a9513d0175",8515:"eedd52d13507ac3fc95b",8615:"b508710cbd8a37db7ec5",8642:"1b6778bd5cc7a3c2bc58",8776:"8830e16a52d7de41cbc0",8871:"37df2861ac3d33fe4501",8991:"2a744e08ba37c28a332a",9112:"8b5424231c22fe32757a",9207:"d925c96ca941b509bb11",9229:"5d03eb6d1503a7e3708e",9416:"6ee4ffb0e861caab07f2",9424:"6538e064c5cb624ae4c6",9577:"3fd42a3b577d256de596",9612:"48e1d8ac85448df568dc",9664:"195f68941847fc00c374",9759:"a6a9959235213314d1b6",9797:"d76c4091e0c7d0b6b3f9",9871:"f06db479356ec8fadfeb",9957:"75378c34d0a170e87382"}[e]+".bundle.js",__webpack_require__.miniCssF=e=>4826===e?"css/index.css":"css/"+e+".css",__webpack_require__.g=function(){if("object"==typeof globalThis)return globalThis;try{return this||new Function("return this")()}catch(e){if("object"==typeof window)return window}}(),__webpack_require__.o=(e,a)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,a),e={},a="@universalis/web_fr:",__webpack_require__.l=(c,r,_,b)=>{if(e[c])e[c].push(r);else{var d,f;if(void 0!==_)for(var t=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),i=0;i<t.length;i++){var n=t[i];if(n.getAttribute("src")==c||n.getAttribute("data-webpack")==a+_){d=n;break}}d||(f=!0,(d=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",d.timeout=120,__webpack_require__.nc&&d.setAttribute("nonce",__webpack_require__.nc),d.setAttribute("data-webpack",a+_),d.src=c),e[c]=[r];var onScriptComplete=(a,r)=>{d.onerror=d.onload=null,clearTimeout(u);var _=e[c];if(delete e[c],d.parentNode&&d.parentNode.removeChild(d),_&&_.forEach((e=>e(r))),a)return a(r)},u=setTimeout(onScriptComplete.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:d}),12e4);d.onerror=onScriptComplete.bind(null,d.onerror),d.onload=onScriptComplete.bind(null,d.onload),f&&document.head.appendChild(d)}},__webpack_require__.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},__webpack_require__.nmd=e=>(e.paths=[],e.children||(e.children=[]),e),__webpack_require__.p="/_web/assets/",c=(e,a,c)=>{var r=document.createElement("link");return r.rel="stylesheet",r.type="text/css",r.onload=a,r.onerror=function(a){var _=a&&a.target&&a.target.src||e,b=new Error("Loading CSS chunk "+chunkId+" failed.\n("+_+")");b.code="CSS_CHUNK_LOAD_FAILED",b.request=_,r.parentNode.removeChild(r),c(b)},r.href=e,document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(r),r},r=e=>new Promise(((a,r)=>{var _=__webpack_require__.miniCssF(e),b=__webpack_require__.p+_;if(((e,a)=>{for(var c=document.getElementsByTagName("link"),r=0;r<c.length;r++){var _=(d=c[r]).getAttribute("data-href")||d.getAttribute("href");if("stylesheet"===d.rel&&(_===e||_===a))return d}var b=document.getElementsByTagName("style");for(r=0;r<b.length;r++){var d;if((_=(d=b[r]).getAttribute("data-href"))===e||_===a)return d}})(_,b))return a();c(b,a,r)})),_={4826:0},__webpack_require__.f.miniCss=(e,a)=>{_[e]?a.push(_[e]):0!==_[e]&&{2528:1,3157:1,3343:1,3507:1,3630:1,3706:1,5366:1,6036:1,8991:1}[e]&&a.push(_[e]=r(e).then((()=>{_[e]=0}),(a=>{throw delete _[e],a})))},(()=>{var e={4826:0};__webpack_require__.f.j=(a,c)=>{var r=__webpack_require__.o(e,a)?e[a]:void 0;if(0!==r)if(r)c.push(r[2]);else{var _=new Promise(((c,_)=>r=e[a]=[c,_]));c.push(r[2]=_);var b=__webpack_require__.p+__webpack_require__.u(a),d=new Error;__webpack_require__.l(b,(c=>{if(__webpack_require__.o(e,a)&&(0!==(r=e[a])&&(e[a]=void 0),r)){var _=c&&("load"===c.type?"missing":c.type),b=c&&c.target&&c.target.src;d.message="Loading chunk "+a+" failed.\n("+_+": "+b+")",d.name="ChunkLoadError",d.type=_,d.request=b,r[1](d)}}),"chunk-"+a,a)}};var webpackJsonpCallback=(a,c)=>{var r,_,[b,d,f]=c,t=0;if(b.some((a=>0!==e[a]))){for(r in d)__webpack_require__.o(d,r)&&(__webpack_require__.m[r]=d[r]);if(f)f(__webpack_require__)}for(a&&a(c);t<b.length;t++)_=b[t],__webpack_require__.o(e,_)&&e[_]&&e[_][0](),e[_]=0},a=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr||[];a.forEach(webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,0)),a.push=webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,a.push.bind(a))})(),__webpack_require__.nc=void 0,document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",(function(){__webpack_require__.e(3138).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,73138)).then((function(){Promise.all([__webpack_require__.e(1890),__webpack_require__.e(786)]).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,786)).then((function(e){e.default()}))}))}))})();</script> <script> let eu_article_ucode = "Q160291"</script> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

ROME ET EMPIRE ROMAIN - Le Haut-Empire - Encyclopædia Universalis