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Constitution and the High Court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Constitution_and_the_High_Court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_monarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_monarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Constitutional monarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_monarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Federalism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Federalism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Federalism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Federalism-sublist" 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id="toc-Parliamentary_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation_of_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_of_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Separation of powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_of_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direct_election_to_both_Houses_of_Parliament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_election_to_both_Houses_of_Parliament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Direct election to both Houses of Parliament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_election_to_both_Houses_of_Parliament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Referendum_for_constitutional_amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Referendum_for_constitutional_amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Referendum for constitutional amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Referendum_for_constitutional_amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_of_federal_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_federal_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Growth of federal power</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Growth_of_federal_power-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Growth of federal power subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_federal_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Centralising_interpretations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Centralising_interpretations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Centralising interpretations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Centralising_interpretations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reserved_State_powers_doctrine_and_the_Engineers_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reserved_State_powers_doctrine_and_the_Engineers_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.1</span> <span>Reserved State powers doctrine and the Engineers case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reserved_State_powers_doctrine_and_the_Engineers_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Broad_interpretation_of_Commonwealth_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broad_interpretation_of_Commonwealth_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.2</span> <span>Broad interpretation of Commonwealth powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broad_interpretation_of_Commonwealth_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiscal_imbalance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiscal_imbalance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Fiscal imbalance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiscal_imbalance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_areas_of_competence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_areas_of_competence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>New areas of competence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_areas_of_competence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>New powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_external_affairs_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_external_affairs_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>The external affairs power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_external_affairs_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_corporations_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_corporations_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>The corporations power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_corporations_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection_of_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection_of_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Protection of rights</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Protection_of_rights-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Protection of rights subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Protection_of_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Access_to_the_High_Court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Access_to_the_High_Court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Access to the High Court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Access_to_the_High_Court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-No_Bill_of_Rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#No_Bill_of_Rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>No Bill of Rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-No_Bill_of_Rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Express_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Express_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Express rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Express_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Freedom_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.1</span> <span>Freedom of religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Just_terms"_compensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Just_terms"_compensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.2</span> <span>"Just terms" compensation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Just_terms"_compensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection_against_residency_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection_against_residency_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.3</span> <span>Protection against residency discrimination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection_against_residency_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trial_by_jury_for_indictable_offences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trial_by_jury_for_indictable_offences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.4</span> <span>Trial by jury for indictable offences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trial_by_jury_for_indictable_offences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_from_economic_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_from_economic_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.5</span> <span>Freedom from economic regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_from_economic_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implied_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implied_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Implied rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implied_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Freedom_of_political_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_of_political_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4.1</span> <span>Freedom of political communication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_of_political_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_vote" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_vote"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4.2</span> <span>Right to vote</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_to_vote-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_due_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_due_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4.3</span> <span>Right to due process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_to_due_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">This article is part of a series on the</span></b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#00843D; border: 1px double #8C959A;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Australia" title="Politics of Australia"><span style="color:white;"><small>Politics of</small><br />Australia</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Australia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Coat_of_Arms_of_Australia.svg/110px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Coat_of_Arms_of_Australia.svg/165px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Coat_of_Arms_of_Australia.svg/220px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="color:#222; text-align:center;"> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Monarchy</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Australia" title="Monarchy of Australia">Monarch</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">Charles III</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia" title="Governor-General of Australia">Governor-General</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Mostyn" title="Sam Mostyn">Sam Mostyn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Government" title="Australian Government"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Executive</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Prime Minister of Australia">Prime Minister</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Albanese" title="Anthony Albanese">Anthony Albanese</a> (ALP)</li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Deputy Prime Minister of Australia">Deputy Prime Minister</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Marles" title="Richard Marles">Richard Marles</a> (ALP)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Federal_Executive_Council_(Australia)" title="Federal Executive Council (Australia)">Federal Executive Council</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_ministries" title="List of Australian ministries">Ministry</a> <a href="/wiki/Albanese_ministry" title="Albanese ministry">Albanese ministry</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia" title="Cabinet of Australia">Cabinet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Legislature</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">Australian Parliament</a></b></li></ul> <p><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_House_of_Representatives_2022.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Australian_House_of_Representatives_2022.svg/60px-Australian_House_of_Representatives_2022.svg.png" decoding="async" width="59" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Australian_House_of_Representatives_2022.svg/120px-Australian_House_of_Representatives_2022.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2022_Australian_Senate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/2022_Australian_Senate.svg/60px-2022_Australian_Senate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/2022_Australian_Senate.svg/120px-2022_Australian_Senate.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Australian_Senate" title="Australian Senate">Senate</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Australian_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Australian Senate">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Sue_Lines" title="Sue Lines">Sue Lines</a> (ALP)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Government_in_the_Senate_(Australia)" title="Leader of the Government in the Senate (Australia)">Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Penny_Wong" title="Penny Wong">Penny Wong</a> (ALP)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives" title="Australian House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Australian_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives">Speaker</a> <a href="/wiki/Milton_Dick" title="Milton Dick">Milton Dick</a> (ALP)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_(Australia)" title="Leader of the House (Australia)">Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Tony_Burke" title="Tony Burke">Tony Burke</a> (ALP)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Opposition_(Australia)" title="Opposition (Australia)">Opposition</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_(Australia)" title="Leader of the Opposition (Australia)">Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Dutton" title="Peter Dutton">Peter Dutton</a> (LP)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_ministry_of_Peter_Dutton" title="Shadow ministry of Peter Dutton">Shadow Ministry</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Australia" title="Judiciary of Australia"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Judiciary</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court of Australia</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_High_Court_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Justice of the High Court of Australia">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gageler" title="Stephen Gageler">Stephen Gageler</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Keane" title="Patrick Keane">Keane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Gordon" title="Michelle Gordon">Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Edelman" title="James Edelman">Edelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Steward_(judge)" title="Simon Steward (judge)">Steward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_Gleeson" title="Jacqueline Gleeson">Gleeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Beech-Jones" title="Robert Beech-Jones">Beech-Jones</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Australia" title="Federal Court of Australia">Federal Court of Australia</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_judges_of_the_Federal_Court_of_Australia" title="List of judges of the Federal Court of Australia">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Debra_Mortimer" title="Debra Mortimer">Debra Mortimer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_judges_of_the_Federal_Court_of_Australia" title="List of judges of the Federal Court of Australia">List of Judges</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Federal_Circuit_and_Family_Court_of_Australia" title="Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia">Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_judges_of_the_Family_Court_of_Australia" title="List of judges of the Family Court of Australia">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Will_Alstergren" title="Will Alstergren">Will Alstergren</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_judges_of_the_Family_Court_of_Australia" title="List of judges of the Family Court of Australia">List of Judges</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Australia#Australian_court_hierarchy" title="Judiciary of Australia">State and territory courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_legal_system" title="Australian legal system">Australian legal system</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Australia" title="Elections in Australia"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Elections</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b>Recent elections</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Australian_federal_election" title="2022 Australian federal election">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Australian_federal_election" title="2019 Australian federal election">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Australian_federal_election" title="2016 Australian federal election">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Australian_federal_election" title="2013 Australian federal election">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Australian_federal_election" title="2010 Australian federal election">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Australian_federal_election" title="2007 Australian federal election">2007</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system_of_Australia" title="Electoral system of Australia">Federal electoral system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electorates_of_the_Australian_House_of_Representatives" title="Electorates of the Australian House of Representatives">Electoral divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_federal_by-elections" title="List of Australian federal by-elections">By-elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Referendums_in_Australia" title="Referendums in Australia">Referendums and plebiscites</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voter_registration_in_Australia" title="Voter registration in Australia">Voter registration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_spill" title="Leadership spill">Leadership spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Australia" title="List of political parties in Australia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_funding_in_Australia" title="Political funding in Australia">Political funding</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia" title="States and territories of Australia"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">States and territories</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governors_of_the_Australian_states" title="Governors of the Australian states">Governors and administrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premiers_and_chief_ministers_of_the_Australian_states_and_territories" title="Premiers and chief ministers of the Australian states and territories">Premiers and chief ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliaments_of_the_Australian_states_and_territories" title="Parliaments of the Australian states and territories">Parliaments and assemblies</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Australia#State_and_territory_courts_and_tribunals" title="Judiciary of Australia">State courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_systems_of_the_Australian_states_and_territories" title="Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories">State electoral systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Australia" title="Local government in Australia"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Local government</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_areas_of_New_South_Wales" title="Local government areas of New South Wales">NSW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Victoria" title="Local government in Victoria">Vic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Queensland" title="Local government in Queensland">Qld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_areas_of_Western_Australia" title="Local government areas of Western Australia">WA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_areas_of_South_Australia" title="Local government areas of South Australia">SA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_areas_of_Tasmania" title="Local government areas of Tasmania">Tas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_areas_of_the_Northern_Territory" title="Local government areas of the Northern Territory">NT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_local_government_political_parties_in_Australia" title="List of local government political parties in Australia">Political parties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Australia" title="Foreign relations of Australia"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Foreign relations</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Foreign_Affairs_and_Trade" title="Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade">Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Foreign_Affairs_(Australia)" title="Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)">Foreign Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Penny_Wong" title="Penny Wong">Penny Wong</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Australia" title="List of diplomatic missions of Australia">Diplomatic missions of</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_Australia" title="List of diplomatic missions in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_nationality_law" title="Australian nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a 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States relations">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93Canada_relations" title="Australia–Canada relations">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Australia–European Union relations">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93China_relations" title="Australia–China relations">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93India_relations" title="Australia–India relations">India</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#FFCD00; color:#222;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Australia#Ideology_in_Australian_politics" title="Politics of Australia"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Ideologies</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Australia" title="Anarchism in Australia">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_politics_in_Australia" title="Christian politics in Australia">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Australia" title="Conservatism in Australia">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_Australia" title="Environmental movement in Australia">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics_in_Australia" title="Far-right politics in Australia">Far-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hansonism" title="Hansonism">Hansonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Australia" title="Monarchism in Australia">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism_in_Australia" title="Multiculturalism in Australia">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_nationalism" title="Australian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Australia" title="Irreligion in Australia">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Australia" title="Socialism in Australia">Socialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #00843D;border-bottom:1px solid #00843D;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/48px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/64px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Australia" title="Portal:Australia">Australia portal</a><div class="center"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:New_South_Wales" title="Portal:New South Wales">New South Wales</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Victoria" title="Portal:Victoria">Victoria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Queensland" title="Portal:Queensland">Queensland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Western_Australia" title="Portal:Western Australia">Western Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:South_Australia" title="Portal:South Australia">South Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tasmania" title="Category:Tasmania">Tasmania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Australian_Capital_Territory" title="Category:Australian Capital Territory">Australian Capital Territory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Northern_Territory" title="Category:Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_Australia_sidebar" title="Template:Politics of Australia sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_Australia_sidebar" title="Template talk:Politics of Australia sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_Australia_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of Australia sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Australian constitutional law</b> is the area of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Australia">law of Australia</a> relating to the interpretation and application of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution of Australia</a>. Legal cases regarding Australian constitutional law are often handled by the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court of Australia</a>, the highest court in the Australian judicial system. Several major doctrines of Australian constitutional law have developed. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia#History" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution of Australia § History</a></div> <p>Constitutional law in the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of Australia">Commonwealth of Australia</a> consists mostly of that body of doctrine which interprets the Commonwealth Constitution. The Constitution itself is embodied in clause 9 of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia_Constitution_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act">Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act</a>, which was passed by the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">British Parliament</a> in 1900 after its text had been negotiated in Australian <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Convention (Australia)">Constitutional Conventions</a> in the 1890s and approved by the voters in each of the Australian colonies. The British government did, however, insist on one change to the text, to allow a greater range of appeals to the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Privy Council</a> in London.<sup id="cite_ref-Gleeson_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gleeson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It came into force on 1 January 1901, at which time the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of Australia">Commonwealth of Australia</a> came into being. </p><p>The Constitution created a framework of government some of whose main features, and sources of inspiration, were the following:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>constitutional monarchy (British and existing colonial models)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a> (United States model)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary government">parliamentary</a>, or "responsible", government (British and existing colonial models)</li> <li>distinct textual <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> (US model)</li> <li>direct election to both Houses of Parliament (then a novelty)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor-General" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor-General">Governor-General</a> as a representative of a monarch (existing colonial models, notably Canada)</li> <li>requirement of a <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a> for amendment of the Constitution (Swiss model)</li> <li>only very limited guarantees of personal rights (rejection of the US model)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a> (US model)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Constitution_and_the_High_Court">The Constitution and the High Court</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Constitution and the High Court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial review in Australia">Judicial review in Australia</a></div> <p>The process of judicial review – the ability of <a href="/wiki/The_High_Court_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="The High Court of Australia">The High Court of Australia</a> to declare legislation unconstitutional and therefore invalid – has its origin in American experience, where the right of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> to strike down legislation deemed incompatible with the Constitution was first asserted by the Supreme Court itself in the seminal case of <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i> in 1803. Although completely foreign to both British and Australian colonial experience, the framers of the Australian Constitution clearly intended that the practice would take hold in Australia, and even expressly adverted to it in the Constitutional text (in section 76). This power of judicial review of legislation for conformity with the Constitution has been exercised almost exclusively by the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court of Australia</a>, and almost invariably with a full bench of all its members, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Communist_Party_v_Commonwealth" title="Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth">Communist Party case</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influence from American jurisprudence has occurred in specific cases.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A brief overview of the other listed features will provide a background for the doctrinal developments examined below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constitutional_monarchy">Constitutional monarchy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Constitutional monarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Monarchy in Australia">Monarchy in Australia</a></div> <p>Australia is a constitutional monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-conmon_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conmon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the term "<a href="/wiki/Head_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of State">Head of State</a>" is not used in the Constitution, it was intended that the Commonwealth (like the colonies) would continue to recognise the British Sovereign. "The Queen" (meaning <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>, defined to include "Her Majesty's heirs and successors in the sovereignty of the United Kingdom"), was one of the three elements of <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">Parliament</a>, along with the Senate and the House of Representatives (section 1). Today, the King of Australia has replaced the King of the United Kingdom within Australia's parliament, but they happen to be the same person. The Monarch is represented in Australia by an appointed <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia" title="Governor-General of Australia">Governor-General</a>. The executive power is vested in the Governor-General "as the Queen's representative" (section 61), as is the command-in-chief of the armed forces (section 68). </p><p>The Australian Constitution provides the Governor-General with a number of powers, including; the power to dissolve Parliament (Sections 5, 57), the power to refuse assent to bills presented to her (section 58) and the power to dismiss the government <a href="/wiki/Political_minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Political minister">Ministers</a> (section 64).,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the practical use of such powers is restricted by <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">constitutional convention</a>, which mandate the Governor General to act on ministerial advice, except in exceptional circumstances. Because the conventions are not written in The Constitution, the limits of the Governor General's powers are unclear. Convention does, however, allow The Governor General to exercise some powers without ministerial advice in exceptional circumstances. These powers are known as <i>reserve powers</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-reserve_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reserve-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reserve powers allow The Governor General to commission a <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Prime Minister of Australia">Prime Minister</a> when no party, or coalition of parties has a majority of seats in The House of Representatives and the power to dismiss a Prime Minister, who has been subject to a <a href="/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence" title="Motion of no confidence">vote of no confidence</a> in the House of Representatives.<sup id="cite_ref-reserve_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reserve-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Reserve_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Reserve powers">reserve powers</a> may also include the power to dismiss a Prime Minister who is engaging in persistent illegal action (Governor Sir <a href="/wiki/Philip_Game" title="Philip Game">Philip Game</a> of New South Wales dismissed Premier <a href="/wiki/Jack_Lang_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack Lang (Australia)">Jack Lang</a> on this ground in 1932). However, it remains controversial whether they include the power to dismiss a Prime Minister who, while retaining the <a href="/wiki/Motion_of_Confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion of Confidence">confidence</a> of the House of Representatives, is not able to get the annual <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_Supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of Supply">supply Bill</a> passed by the Senate, as happened during the <a href="/wiki/Australian_constitutional_crisis_of_1975" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian constitutional crisis of 1975">Australian constitutional crisis of 1975</a> when the Governor-General acted against the advice of Ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-reserve_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reserve-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The role of the Monarch is today even more circumscribed and amounts only to appointing (and, in theory, dismissing) a Governor-General on the advice of the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Prime Minister of Australia">Prime Minister</a>, as well as performing (by invitation) certain ceremonial functions when personally present in Australia. See <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Australia" title="Constitutional history of Australia">Constitutional history of Australia</a> for further details on the development of the monarch's role in relation to Australia. </p><p>The importance of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">constitutional conventions</a> in this area means that Australia cannot be said, strictly, to operate entirely under a written constitution, but has to some extent a system like the <a href="/wiki/British_unwritten_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="British unwritten constitution">British unwritten constitution</a>. However, it would be a mistake to exaggerate the importance of this aspect of Australia's constitutional arrangements: </p> <ul><li>the reliance on <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">constitutional convention</a> is confined almost entirely to the relations between the Queen/Governor-General and the Ministers of State; and</li> <li>more completely written constitutional systems also develop binding conventions: for instance, popular election to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Electoral_College" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Electoral College">Electoral College of the United States</a>, though not mandated by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, has probably become a binding norm.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Federalism">Federalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Federalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Division_of_powers">Division of powers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Division of powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_Australia" title="Federalism in Australia">Federalism in Australia</a></div> <p>The Constitution sets up the Commonwealth of Australia as a <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federal</a> polity, with enumerated limited specific powers conferred on the Federal Parliament. The State Parliaments are not assigned specific enumerated powers; rather the powers of their predecessor colonial Parliaments are continued except insofar as they are expressly withdrawn or vested exclusively in the Federal Parliament by the Constitution. The framers rejected an alternative model, the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Canadian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has been described as "an allocation of exclusive powers to both levels of government, not concurrent powers."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bulk of enumerated powers are contained in <a href="/wiki/Section_51_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51 of the Australian Constitution">section 51</a> and section 52. Section 52 powers are 'exclusive' to the Commonwealth (although some section 51 powers are in practice necessarily exclusive, such as the power with respect to borrowing money on the public credit of the Commonwealth in paragraph (iv), and the power to legislate with respect to matters referred to the Commonwealth by a State in paragraph (xxxvii)). By contrast, the subjects in <a href="/wiki/Section_51_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51 of the Australian Constitution">section 51</a> can be legislated on by both state and Commonwealth parliaments. However, in the event of inconsistency or an intention by the Commonwealth to cover the field the Commonwealth law prevails (<a href="/wiki/Section_109_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 109 of the Australian Constitution">section 109</a>). </p><p>Both concurrent (<a href="/wiki/Section_51_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51 of the Australian Constitution">section 51</a>) and exclusive (section 52) powers are stated to be "subject to this Constitution". As a result, the Commonwealth's law-making power is subject to the limitations and guarantees in the Constitution (both express and implied). For example, section 99 forbids the Commonwealth from giving preference to any State or part of a State "by any law or regulation of trade, commerce, or revenue". And as discussed below, an implied guarantee of freedom of political communication has been held to limit the Commonwealth's power to regulate political discourse. </p><p>The list of powers assigned to the Federal Parliament is quite similar to that assigned by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, but is in some respects broader: for instance, it includes "astronomical and meteorological observations", marriage and divorce, and interstate industrial relations. The interpretation of similar heads of power – for instance the <a href="/wiki/Section_51(i)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(i) of the Australian Constitution">Trade and Commerce Power</a> in Australia and the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> in the US – has in some cases been different. </p><p>The constitution also provides some opportunities for Federal-State co-operation: any State can "refer" a "matter" to the Commonwealth Parliament, and the Commonwealth Parliament can exercise, "at the request or with the concurrence of the Parliaments of all the States directly concerned", any power which, at the time of Federation, could be exercised only by the British Parliament. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parliamentary_structures">Parliamentary structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Parliamentary structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Representation in the House of Representatives is based on population and ‘original states’ have equal numbers in the Senate. The two houses are equal in power except for certain restrictions in financial matters. For example, the Senate may not amend a <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_Supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of Supply">supply</a> Bill, although as the <a href="/wiki/Australian_constitutional_crisis_of_1975" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian constitutional crisis of 1975">Australian constitutional crisis of 1975</a> demonstrates, it may defer or refuse to pass such a Bill altogether; Bills to impose taxation or appropriate revenue may not originate in the Senate; and the Senate may not amend a Bill so as to increase taxation. </p><p>Again, federalism is evident in the process of <a href="/wiki/Referendums_in_Australia" title="Referendums in Australia">constitutional amendment</a>, which requires that the Bill to amend the Constitution be approved by a majority of electors overall <i>and</i> a majority of electors in a majority of States (that is, four out of the six). </p><p>Additionally, amendments "altering the limits" of a State or diminishing its proportional representation in Parliament require the approval of electors in that State. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parliamentary_government">Parliamentary government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Parliamentary government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was assumed by the framers, in line with British and local colonial tradition, that the executive government would consist of Ministers who were members of Parliament and "<a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary government">responsible</a>", that is, answerable, to it, and that the continued existence of the government would depend on it maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Motion_of_Confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion of Confidence">confidence</a> in the House of Representatives. </p><p>These arrangements, however, are only hinted at in the text of the Constitution. There is a requirement (section 64) that the "Queen's Ministers of State", who are nominally appointed by the Governor-General, be or swiftly become members of either House of Parliament. The existence of the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Prime Minister of Australia">Prime Minister</a> and Cabinet, and the requirement for them to have the <a href="/wiki/Motion_of_Confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion of Confidence">confidence</a> of the House of Representatives, are not mentioned. Nonetheless, these have been fundamental features of Australian constitutional practice from the start.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, the principle of responsible government was reinforced by the High Court of Australia which upheld orders for a Minister of the government to table documents in the <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_Legislative_Council" title="New South Wales Legislative Council">NSW Legislative Council</a> after he refused to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Separation_of_powers">Separation of powers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Separation of powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_in_Australia" title="Separation of powers in Australia">Separation of powers in Australia</a></div> <p>The Constitution features a distinct <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Legislative_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative power">Legislative power</a> is dealt with in Chapter I, and is vested in the Federal Parliament (section 1). <a href="/wiki/Executive_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive power">Executive power</a> is dealt with in Chapter II, and is vested in the Governor-General as the Queen's representative (section 61). The <a href="/wiki/Judicature" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicature">judicature</a> is dealt with in Chapter III, and is vested in the Federal High Court and "in such other federal courts as the Parliament creates, and in such other courts as it invests with federal jurisdiction" (section 71). </p><p>However, the Queen is an element of the Parliament as well as being head of the executive; and the Ministers of State who "advise" the Governor-General are actually <i>required</i> to be or become members of Parliament. </p><p>While there is no significant separation of the legislative and executive powers (the "political branches"), the High Court has developed an increasingly stringent doctrine of the separation of the judicial power from the other two.<sup id="cite_ref-Boilermakers_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boilermakers-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Direct_election_to_both_Houses_of_Parliament">Direct election to both Houses of Parliament</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Direct election to both Houses of Parliament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Constitution required direct election of members to both Houses of Parliament from the beginning (sections 7 and 24). This was a novelty at the time, since the national upper houses with which the framers were best acquainted were chosen by other means: indirect election by the State legislatures (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> before the <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Seventeenth Amendment</a> in 1913), executive appointment for life (<a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Canada" title="Senate of Canada">Senate of Canada</a>), or a combination of appointment for life and hereditary succession (British <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Referendum_for_constitutional_amendment">Referendum for constitutional amendment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Referendum for constitutional amendment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Referendums_in_Australia" title="Referendums in Australia">Referendums in Australia</a></div> <p>The text of the Constitution was not presented to the British Parliament for formal enactment until it had been approved by the electors of the colonies. </p><p>On the same principle, any amendment to the Constitution requires approval at a <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a>, by the process set out in <a href="/wiki/Section_128_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 128 of the Australian Constitution">section 128 of the Constitution</a>. A double majority – a majority of electors and of a majority of states – is required. </p><p>Constitutional referendums were based on the Swiss practice. However, the Swiss use of the popular <a href="/wiki/Popular_initiative" title="Popular initiative">initiative</a> in constitutional amendment was not followed, so that constitutional alterations, although they must be approved by the people, can only be initiated by Parliament. </p><p>The use of the referendum in initially adopting the Constitution, and its requirement for constitutional amendment, has been cited by justices of the High Court to argue that the Constitution is fundamentally based on <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a> (rather than on the <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_supremacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary supremacy">supremacy</a> of the British Parliament, which is its technical legal foundation). This doctrine has achieved greater prominence since the cessation, in 1986, of all authority of that Parliament over Australia: see <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Australia" title="Constitutional history of Australia">Constitutional history of Australia</a> for details. </p><p>There have been 44 proposals for constitutional amendment put to the people since Federation. Of these, only 8 have passed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth_of_federal_power">Growth of federal power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Growth of federal power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Probably the most obvious development in Australian constitutional law has been the steady growth in the power of the federal government relative to the states. Several factors could account for this, including: </p> <ul><li>doctrines of constitutional interpretation which favour a broad reading of Commonwealth powers</li> <li>the "fiscal imbalance" between the Commonwealth and the States (see <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_basis_of_taxation_in_Australia" title="Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia">Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia</a>)</li> <li>the development of new areas of competence which did not exist at Federation, and which have fallen to the Commonwealth</li> <li>the growing importance of legislative areas that were always Commonwealth powers (for example, <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxix)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution">external affairs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xx)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution">trading corporations</a>)</li> <li>constitutional amendment or <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxxvii)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution">referral by the States</a></li> <li>the willingness of Australian governments, including supporters of States' rights, to exercise their powers to the full</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Centralising_interpretations">Centralising interpretations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Centralising interpretations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reserved_State_powers_doctrine_and_the_Engineers_case">Reserved State powers doctrine and the Engineers case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Reserved State powers doctrine and the Engineers case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reserved_State_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Reserved State powers">Reserved State powers</a></div> <p>Prior to 1920 the "<a href="/wiki/Reserved_State_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Reserved State powers">reserved State powers</a>" doctrine and "implied inter-governmental immunities" were used to preserve state power. Reserved state powers holds that the Constitution should be read in a restrictive way so as to preserve as much autonomy as possible for the States.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Implied intergovernmental immunities holds that Commonwealth and States are immune to each other's laws and cannot mutually regulate each other's governmental apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1920, the <a href="/wiki/Amalgamated_Society_of_Engineers_v_Adelaide_Steamship_Co._Ltd." class="mw-redirect" title="Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd.">Engineer's case</a> (after changes in the composition of the Court) swept away this doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-Engineers_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engineers-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court now insisted on adhering only to interpreting a statute "expounded according to the intent of the Parliament that made it; and that intention has to be found by an examination of the language used in the statute as a whole".<sup id="cite_ref-Engineers_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engineers-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was to be no reading in of implications by reference to the presumed intentions of the framers. </p><p>As a result, the constitution is no longer read in a way which attempts to preserve the power of the states. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Broad_interpretation_of_Commonwealth_powers">Broad interpretation of Commonwealth powers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Broad interpretation of Commonwealth powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even before the Engineer's case,<sup id="cite_ref-Engineers_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engineers-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a line of judicial reasoning asserted that Commonwealth powers should be interpreted broadly rather than narrowly wherever possible.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <i>Engineers</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Engineers_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engineers-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this approach was reinforced. For example, <a href="/wiki/Section_109_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 109 of the Australian Constitution">Section 109</a>, regarding inconsistency between Commonwealth and State laws, was broadly interpreted. Commonwealth law prevails not only where inconsistent obligations are imposed, but where Commonwealth legislation evinces an intention to "cover the field" by being the whole law on a particular subject.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Commonwealth can "manufacture" inconsistency by expressly stating that its legislation is intended to cover the field.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, an issue that was raised, without being conclusively resolved, in the <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_v_Commonwealth_(2006)" title="New South Wales v Commonwealth (2006)">Workplace Relations Challenge</a> was whether the Commonwealth can "clear the field" by stating an intention that State laws are not to apply even if the Commonwealth does not enact other laws in their place.<sup id="cite_ref-WorkChoices_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WorkChoices-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Commonwealth can only legislate with respect to an enumerated head of power, This does not mean that the law must be solely, or even predominantly, directed at that head of power. As long as it can be "fairly characterized" as a law with respect to an enumerated power, it is irrelevant that it could also be categorised as a law regarding some other subject matter.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Likewise, Parliament's <i>motivation</i> in passing the law is irrelevant.<sup id="cite_ref-1stTax_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1stTax-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is environmental legislation. The Constitution does not provide the Commonwealth Parliament with any power to control the environment or its use. Nonetheless, a very broad-ranging environmental protection Act could be passed relying on a combination of powers such as <a href="/wiki/Section_51(i)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(i) of the Australian Constitution">interstate and international trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xx)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution">corporations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Section_51(ii)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(ii) of the Australian Constitution">taxation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxix)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution">foreign affairs</a> and so on. The law can be supported by those powers although Parliament intended it to be an '<a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">environmental law</a>'. Particularly in the last two decades, many Acts of very wide-ranging effect have been passed on just these bases, in fields as diverse as environment protection, privacy, and anti-discrimination, fields in which the Commonwealth has no <i>direct</i> power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiscal_imbalance">Fiscal imbalance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fiscal imbalance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_basis_of_taxation_in_Australia" title="Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia">Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia</a></div> <p>At the time of Federation, the colonies' main source of revenue consisted of customs and <a href="/wiki/Tax#Excises" title="Tax">excise</a> duties (<a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> being still a newer notion). Since one of the main reasons for Federation was to create a <a href="/wiki/Customs_union" title="Customs union">common market</a>, inevitably authority over these taxes was vested exclusively in the Commonwealth Parliament (section 90). It was acknowledged that this would create a situation where the Commonwealth would raise much more money than it could spend, whereas the States, being still responsible for most areas of law and of social infrastructure, would need to spend much more money than they could raise (the problem now known as "<a href="/wiki/Fiscal_imbalance" title="Fiscal imbalance">vertical fiscal imbalance</a>"). Although the framers were able to agree on a formula for distribution of the Commonwealth's surplus to the States in the first few years after Federation, they could not agree on a long-term formula. Accordingly, section 96 of the Constitution provides that the Commonwealth Parliament "may grant financial assistance to any State on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit". </p><p>One result of this has been that the Commonwealth has been able to make grants to the States on terms so specific as to amount to the virtual takeover of particular fields of competence. For instance, although the Constitution gives the Commonwealth no express power over education, by means of "tied grants" it has in fact become paramount in the field of tertiary education. Although any state has the option to refuse a grant, the consequences of doing so make this unattractive. Similarly, the Commonwealth has become dominant in the field of public hospitals, and a major player in the field of roads and other major infrastructure. </p><p>The Commonwealth has also come to monopolise <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a>. Once the advantages of income tax were recognised, both the Commonwealth and the States levied income taxes. However, during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the Commonwealth government decided to take over the collection of income taxes and return some proceeds to the States as grants. The Commonwealth passed legislation to levy income tax at a nationwide rate similar to the previous combination of Commonwealth tax and the various state taxes. Separate legislation then granted section 96 monetary grants to states if the State did not levy income taxes. In practice, it would be difficult for States to continue taxing. </p><p>This arrangement was twice challenged by the States in the High Court and twice upheld.<sup id="cite_ref-1stTax_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1stTax-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2ndTax_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2ndTax-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Victoria_v_Commonwealth_(1957)" title="Victoria v Commonwealth (1957)">the Second Uniform Tax case</a> the taxation part of the scheme was held to be valid based on the taxation power, and the grants held to be valid on the basis of the words 'terms and conditions' of section 96.<sup id="cite_ref-2ndTax_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2ndTax-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>States are also at the mercy of the High Court's definition of an "<a href="/wiki/Tax#Excises" title="Tax">excise</a> duty," which states cannot levy. The High Court has long stated the definition in terms such as "an inland tax on a step in production, manufacture, sale or distribution of goods". However, it does not include a mere fee for a licence to carry on a particular business or profession. Accordingly, the States had for a long time levied, with the compliance of the High Court, "business franchise fees" on retailers of products, particularly liquor and tobacco products. </p><p>These "franchise fees" were mostly calculated according to the value of the retailer's sales in a specific <i>preceding</i> period, rather than on the value of goods currently being sold. Although these seem similar to excise duties, a series of High Court precedents had effectively "quarantined" such fees from disallowance in the areas of liquor retailing, tobacco retailing, and petrol distribution. In 1997, by a bare majority, the High Court decided that this area of doctrinal quarantine was incoherent with the rest of the law relating to excise duties and removed it. <sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The immediate result was the loss of some $5 billion (Australian) in the annual revenues of the States and Territories. </p><p>In 1999, the Commonwealth Parliament passed legislation introducing a new broad-based Federal indirect tax, the Goods and Services Tax; the revenue from this tax was to go entirely to the States and Territories in exchange for abolishing a range of other indirect taxes. By this stage, the financial dependence of the States on the Commonwealth had become almost complete. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_areas_of_competence">New areas of competence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: New areas of competence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of various technologies during the twentieth century also added to the power of the centre. <a href="/wiki/Section_51(v)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(v) of the Australian Constitution">Section 51(v) of the Australian Constitution</a> gives the Commonwealth Parliament power over "postal, telegraphic, telephonic, and other like services". With little controversy, this power now covers radio, television, satellite, cable, and optic fibre technologies. </p><p>A greater struggle occurred over Commonwealth legislation in the field of aviation. Commonwealth regulation is based on the <a href="/wiki/Section_51(i)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(i) of the Australian Constitution">interstate and international trade and commerce power</a>. Prima facie, it does not cover intrastate aviation. However, a purely intrastate aviation industry is no longer economically feasible and separate systems of state regulation pose safety concerns.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As a result, the High Court held that all aviation has an interstate character, placing it within Commonwealth legislative power. In 1937 a referendum was submitted to the people giving the Commonwealth power over aviation, and that the referendum was rejected by the people. The rejection of a power by the people has never persuaded the Court that the Commonwealth should not exercise the power. </p><p>Another example concerns intellectual property. Although the Constitution gave the Commonwealth Parliament power over "copyrights, patents of inventions and designs, and trade marks", the enormous growth of electronic media content has given this power a much wider scope than could possibly have been envisaged at Federation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_powers">New powers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: New powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Commonwealth power has been extended by four constitutional amendments. An <a href="/wiki/Australian_referendum,_1910_(State_Debts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian referendum, 1910 (State Debts)">amendment in 1910</a> and an <a href="/wiki/1928_Australian_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="1928 Australian referendum">amendment in 1928</a> allowed the Commonwealth to take over and manage state debts. An <a href="/wiki/Australian_referendum,_1967_(Aboriginals)" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)">amendment passed in 1967</a> gave the Commonwealth power over Aboriginal affairs, which has had a significant effect particularly in the pastoral and central regions of Australia. </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Australian_referendum,_1946_(Social_Services)" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian referendum, 1946 (Social Services)">amendment passed in 1946</a> gave the Commonwealth power to provide a wide range of social services. This included unemployment and sickness benefits, maternity allowances, child endowment, and medical and dental services. Apart from defence, social services is the largest area of Commonwealth expenditure. Along with the grants power, it is the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Medicare_(Australia)" title="Medicare (Australia)">Medicare</a> scheme of universal health insurance. </p><p>The High Court decided that <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xx)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution">the corporations power</a> was not broad enough to cover incorporation itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Incorporation_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Incorporation-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decision threatened the validity of Australian companies incorporated under commonwealth law. The states used <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxxvii)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution">'the referral power'</a> to refer the power over incorporation to the Commonwealth Parliament. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_external_affairs_power">The external affairs power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The external affairs power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxix)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution">Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution</a></div> <p>The Constitution gives the Commonwealth Parliament power over "external affairs". Originally this power had little content, because Australia's foreign relations were managed by the United Kingdom. As Australia gained independence and international personality, so did the significance of this power. </p><p>Australia's relations with other countries fall directly under the subject of external affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dams_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dams-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes relations with other British Dominions and further extends to relations with international organisations.<sup id="cite_ref-Koowarta_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koowarta-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pursuit and advancement of friendliness with foreign governments is another vital aspect under the external affairs power.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The High Court has held that the power covers the regulation of conduct that takes place outside Australia, suggesting that mere externality to Australia could enliven the power.<sup id="cite_ref-Polyukhovich_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polyukhovich-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, Commonwealth legislation of 1998 that retroactively criminalised <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a> committed during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> in Europe by Australian citizens was held a valid exercise of the external affairs power.<sup id="cite_ref-Polyukhovich_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polyukhovich-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The power has also been held to extend to the implementation of international <a href="/wiki/Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties">treaties</a>, even if the subject matter of the treaty is otherwise not within Commonwealth power. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Koowarta_v_Bjelke-Petersen" title="Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen">Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Koowarta_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koowarta-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the High Court found that the Commonwealth had the power to implement the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination">Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination</a> in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Racial_Discrimination_Act_1975" title="Racial Discrimination Act 1975">Racial Discrimination Act</a>. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v_Tasmania" title="Commonwealth v Tasmania">Tasmanian Dams Case</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dams_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dams-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the High Court has upheld Commonwealth legislation forbidding the Tasmanian government from proceeding with a dam that would have submerged an area of Tasmanian government-owned land that had been declared a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites">World Heritage Area</a> under the World Heritage Convention to which Australia is a party.<sup id="cite_ref-Dams_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dams-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Richardson_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richardson-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Land use is otherwise a State responsibility. </p><p>More recently, the external affairs power has been used to remove the States' power to criminalise male homosexual activity. This followed an adverse report by the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights Committee">Human Rights Committee</a> on Tasmanian provisions. The <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights Committee">Human Rights Committee</a> was established under the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>, to which Australia is a party. Rather than challenge the resulting Commonwealth <i>Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act</i> of 1994, the Tasmanian Parliament repealed the legislation in question.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although it would appear that there is an open-ended potential for the Commonwealth to encroach on areas of traditional State competence through the external affairs power, to date it has been used with some discretion, if only because the use of the power in this way inevitably excites considerable political controversy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (July 2020)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_corporations_power">The corporations power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The corporations power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xx)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution">Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution</a></div> <p>The corporations power allows the Commonwealth to legislate on "foreign corporations, and trading or financial corporations formed within the limits of the Commonwealth". Although the width of the expression "trading or financial corporations" has never been authoritatively settled, it appears that it covers at least all commercial enterprises carried out under the corporate form.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As corporations have come to dominate the economy, the practical scope the corporations power has increased. For example, in 2005 the Commonwealth Parliament enacted the <i><a href="/wiki/WorkChoices" title="WorkChoices">WorkChoices</a></i> legislation,<sup id="cite_ref-WC_Act_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WC_Act-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which, relying primarily on the corporations power, seeks to create a uniform national industrial relations system to the exclusion of both the States' and the Commonwealth's own industrial relations systems. Previous systems were based on the 'conciliation and arbitration' power. The new legislation applies to all employees of a "constitutional corporation." A constitutional corporation is a corporation within the meaning of section 51(xx) of the Constitution. The legislation also applies to employees of the Commonwealth and its agencies, and some others. The expected coverage of this law is approximately 85% of the Australian workforce. That proportion is likely to increase as employers who operate as sole traders or in partnerships incorporate to take advantage of the new legislation's relatively "employer-friendly" provisions. </p><p>On 14 November 2006, the High Court by a 5-to-2 majority upheld the validity of the <i>WorkChoices</i> legislation<sup id="cite_ref-WC_Act_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WC_Act-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> against all the challenges that had been made to it in an action brought by each of the States and mainland Territories, as well as certain trade unions.<sup id="cite_ref-WorkChoices_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WorkChoices-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The single majority judgment, while it did not expressly adopt, waved aside all the objections that had been argued against the "object of command" test for the validity of the exercise of the corporations power. Accordingly, the judgment suggests that, henceforth, it may be a sufficient basis of validity that Federal legislation be specifically addressed to constitutional corporations ("A constitutional corporation must...", "A constitutional corporation must not..."), without any additional requirement that the legislation also address some aspect of the status or activities of corporations which is specific to such entities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (July 2020)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> If this is correct, then given the preponderant role of corporations in the modern economy, the possibility exists for substantial Federal control of the greater part of the economy, with little if any regard to the traditional constitutional "heads of power". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protection_of_rights">Protection of rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Protection of rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Access_to_the_High_Court">Access to the High Court</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Access to the High Court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To a very large extent, the Constitution leaves it to Parliament to determine both the High Court's <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a> (section 76), and the exceptions to, and conditions on, its power to hear appeals (section 73). However, the Constitution grants the Court some original jurisdiction directly, without the possibility of Parliamentary limitation (section 75). This includes matters in which "a <a href="/wiki/Prerogative_writ" title="Prerogative writ">writ</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mandamus" title="Mandamus">Mandamus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_(writ)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition (writ)">prohibition</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunction</a> is sought against an officer of the Commonwealth". </p><p>In recent years, the Parliament has all but eliminated the possibility of appeal against many decisions in the area of <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migration</a>, especially in regard to applications for <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a> status. However, since the Parliament is not constitutionally able to limit or abolish access to the High Court for the purpose of applying for one of these "constitutional writs", such applications have become a major means of challenging migration decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014–15 94% of the applications for constitutional writs involved immigration matters.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="No_Bill_of_Rights">No Bill of Rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: No Bill of Rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Constitution contains no comprehensive set of human rights guarantees. Factors sometimes cited for this include faith in the common law's protection of rights and a belief that a powerful Senate would effectively resist overzealous governments. The Constitution does contain protection for several specific rights. These include: </p> <ul><li>right to vote in Commonwealth elections if one can vote in State ones (section 41)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>, and prohibition of religious tests for Federal offices (section 116)</li> <li>trial by jury in Federal cases tried on indictment (section 80)</li> <li>"just terms" for the compulsory "acquisition" of property by the Commonwealth (section 51(xxxi))</li> <li>an ambiguously worded prohibition on discrimination against residents of other States (section 117)<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>All but the last of these have been read down by the High Court, at least relative to the content of the corresponding United States guarantees. On the other hand, since the 1990s the High Court has been developing a <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> of rights said to be <i>implied</i> in the text and structure of the Constitution. </p><p>In addition, a constitutional requirement that "trade, commerce, and intercourse among the States ... shall be absolutely free" (section 92) was, for a time, interpreted as a guarantee of some degree of freedom from economic regulation by either Commonwealth or State Parliaments. The reference to "intercourse", on the other hand, has always been understood as guaranteeing a right to movement across State boundaries. </p><p>Although express protections for <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> in the Constitution are scant, and have mostly been read down, some protections have been created by the High Court through its <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> on the separation of powers and through its findings of rights implied by the text and structure of the constitutional document. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Express_rights">Express rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Express rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As mentioned, there are five rights which the Constitution guarantees against the Commonwealth – <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">religious freedom</a>, trial by jury, "just terms" compensation, free trade between the states, and protection against discrimination based on the state an individual lives in. (A referendum proposal to amend the Constitution to clarify these rights and to make them good also against the States was defeated in 1988.) As will be seen, guaranteed access to the High Court can itself amount to an important right. And the guarantee of free trade and commerce was for a time interpreted as something like an individual right. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Freedom_of_religion">Freedom of religion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Freedom of religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Section_116_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia</a></div> <p>The Constitution states that the Commonwealth "shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth" (section 116). </p><p>In determining what is considered a religion, the High Court has adopted a broad approach; demonstrating an unwillingness to create a limiting definition.<sup id="cite_ref-Scientology_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scientology-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prohibition on establishing any religion has had nothing like the impact that the corresponding ban on making a law "respecting an establishment of religion" in the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> has had in that country. The High Court, in rejecting a challenge to Federal funding of church schools, <sup id="cite_ref-Black_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Black-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> seemed to take the view that nothing less than an explicit establishment of a <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State Church</a> as the official religion of the Commonwealth would come within the terms of the prohibition. </p><p>Section 116 also protects the right of a person to have <i>no</i> religion by prohibiting the Commonwealth from "imposing any religious observance".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Just_terms"_compensation"><span id=".22Just_terms.22_compensation"></span>"Just terms" compensation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: "Just terms" compensation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxxi)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxxi) of the Constitution of Australia">Section 51(xxxi) of the Constitution of Australia</a></div> <p>The Constitution gives the Commonwealth power "with respect to ... the acquisition of property on just terms" in <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxxi)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" title="Section 51(xxxi) of the Australian Constitution">Section 51(xxxi)</a>. By contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> contains a prohibition: "nor shall private property be taken ... without just compensation". The differences between <i>acquisition</i> and <i>taking</i>, and between <i>terms</i> and <i>compensation</i>, combined with the fact that the Australian provision is expressed as a positive grant of power coupled with a limitation, have been read so as to weaken the Australian guarantee relative to the American one. </p><p>The use of the term "acquisition" has been interpreted so as to require that the Commonwealth (or some other party for a Commonwealth purpose) actually acquire possessory or proprietary rights over the property in question, or at least some benefit: the mere <a href="/wiki/Extinguishment" title="Extinguishment">extinguishment</a> of a person's proprietary rights by the Commonwealth (or a prohibition on effectively exercising them) is insufficient to amount to an acquisition.<sup id="cite_ref-Dams_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dams-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koowarta_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koowarta-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Richardson_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richardson-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And "just terms" has been taken to mean something less than "just compensation"; in particular, it does not necessarily require payment to the owner of the value of the property when it was compulsorily acquired<sup id="cite_ref-Kingswell_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kingswell-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Australian film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Castle_(1997_Australian_film)" title="The Castle (1997 Australian film)">The Castle</a></i> addresses this issue. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protection_against_residency_discrimination">Protection against residency discrimination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Protection against residency discrimination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia</a> provides protection against discrimination on the basis of state of residence. </p><p>Historically, section 117 had been read down by the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> so as to be devoid of any real meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Matheison_1999_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Matheison_1999-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in 1904 it was found that discrimination in favour of people who are "residents of and domiciled in Western Australia" was permissible, as the Constitution only prohibited discrimination on the basis of a person's state of residence, not their state of domicile.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_1904_HCA_46_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_1904_HCA_46-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1989 landmark case <i>Street v Queensland Bar Association</i>, the modern approach to interpretation was developed. The court held that the purpose of the section was national unity, and consequentially, residence should be given a broader meaning. In addition, the court overruled a case in which the historical approach was used.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Matheison_1999_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Matheison_1999-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> In reaching its conclusion, each of the seven Justices issued a separate opinion. Combining this with the fact that there is little case law referencing section 117, there remains significant debate over the nature and extent of the right contained within it.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Simpson_2008_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Simpson_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trial_by_jury_for_indictable_offences">Trial by jury for indictable offences</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Trial by jury for indictable offences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The constitutional guarantee that a trial on indictment for a federal offence must be by jury (section 80) has been rendered virtually worthless because the High Court has decided that it is applicable only to a trial that proceeds <i>formally</i> by way of indictment, and it is completely in Parliament's discretion to decide which offences are triable on indictment and which are not. This narrow view is confirmed in the majority judgement of <i>Kingswell v the Queen</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kingswell_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kingswell-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Powerful dissents to the effect that the section must be given some substantive meaning (the trial of offences of some specific degree of gravity must be by jury) have not prevailed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kingswell_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kingswell-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, where Parliament <i>has</i> prescribed jury trial, the Court has been willing to impose some content on that notion. In particular, it has insisted that conviction by a jury for a Federal offence must be by the unanimous agreement of the jurors – a majority verdict will not suffice.<sup id="cite_ref-Cheatle_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cheatle-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bernasconi_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernasconi-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brownlee_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brownlee-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Freedom_from_economic_regulation">Freedom from economic regulation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Freedom from economic regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Section_92_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 92 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 92 of the Constitution of Australia</a></div> <p>The constitutional requirement that "trade, commerce, and intercourse amongst the States ... shall be absolutely free" (section 92) was for a considerable time interpreted as a guarantee of some degree of freedom from government regulation. A notable example of this line of <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> was the High Court's disallowance of a Commonwealth Act which had the aim of nationalising the banking industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Bank_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bank-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCarter_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarter-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dairy_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dairy-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1988 following the decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Cole_v_Whitfield" title="Cole v Whitfield">Cole v Whitfield</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Cole_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was notable also for the Court's willingness to use the transcripts of the Convention debates as an aid to interpretation, the Court unanimously decided that what the section prohibited, in relation to interstate trade and commerce, were only "discriminatory burdens of a protectionist kind".<sup id="cite_ref-Cole_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bath_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bath-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, the section did no more than guarantee "<a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>" (in the conventional sense) among the States. But in relation to "intercourse" (i.e. personal movement between States), the Court suggested that the scope of the guarantee would be much wider, and may even, in relation to some forms of such intercourse, be truly absolute.<sup id="cite_ref-Tooheys_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tooheys-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Betfair_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Betfair-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sportsbet_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sportsbet-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implied_rights">Implied rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Implied rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Implied rights are the political and civil freedoms that necessarily underlie the actual words of the constitution but are not themselves expressly stated directly in the constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Rowe_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowe-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The High Court has held that no implication can be drawn from the Constitution which is not based on the actual terms of the Constitution, or on its structure.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 1990s the High Court has discovered rights which are said to be implied by the very structure and textual form of the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chief amongst these is an implied right to freedom of communication on political matters. In addition, some protections of civil liberties have been the result of the High Court's zealous attempts to safeguard the independence of, and confidence in, the Federal judiciary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Freedom_of_political_communication">Freedom of political communication</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Freedom of political communication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_political_communication" title="Freedom of political communication">Freedom of political communication</a></div> <p>Two cases decided in 1992 established a new implied right to freedom of communication on political matters. The first case, <i><a href="/wiki/Nationwide_News_Pty_Ltd_v_Wills" title="Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills">Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills</a></i>, concerned a Federal provision criminalising the "bringing into disrepute" of members of an industrial relations tribunal, and a prosecution under that provision of a person who had published a newspaper article repeatedly describing such members as "corrupt" and "compliant".<sup id="cite_ref-F19_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F19-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second case, <i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Television_Pty_Ltd_v_Commonwealth" title="Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth">Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth</a></i>, concerned a Federal attempt to ban political advertising on radio and television during election periods and to strictly control it at other times, via a system of "free time" entitlements.<sup id="cite_ref-F20_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F20-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In both cases, the majority of the High Court reasoned that, since the Constitution required direct election of members of the Federal Parliament, and since moreover the Ministers of State were required to be or swiftly become members of that Parliament, the result was that "representative democracy is constitutionally entrenched". That being so, freedom of public discussion of political and economic matters is essential to allow the people to make their political judgments so as to exercise their right to vote effectively. Furthermore, since "public affairs and political discussion are indivisible", it is impossible to limit this necessary freedom to purely Federal issues: it applies also to issues which might be the preserve of the State or local levels of government. Therefore, there is implied in the Constitution a guarantee of freedom of communication on <i>all</i> political matters.<sup id="cite_ref-F20_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F20-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Court stressed that this freedom is not absolute, but the result in both cases was that the relevant Federal legislation was struck down. In the latter case, some strong dissents to the effect that limiting expenditure on political advertising in the electronic media might actually <i>enhance</i> representative democracy did not prevail. </p><p>Both these cases concerned the validity of Federal legislation. But two years later, the Court extended the implied guarantee into the area of private law, by holding that it also applied to limit the statutory and common law of <a href="/wiki/Slander_and_libel" class="mw-redirect" title="Slander and libel">defamation</a>. A former chairman of a Commonwealth Parliamentary Committee on Migration claimed to have been defamed by a newspaper which had published a letter accusing him of bias, in his official capacity, towards people of his own ethnic background.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-F21_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F21-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By trial, it was conceded that the accusation was false. However the Court accepted a "constitutional defence" which was said (by three Justices) to operate when otherwise defamatory statements concerning the fitness of a public official to hold office were published without knowledge of, or recklessness as to, their falsity, and when publication was reasonable in the circumstances. </p><p>This case, however, and a series of following cases, failed to produce a clear statement of the operative principle which commanded the support of a majority of the Court. But in 1997 in <i><a href="/wiki/Lange_v_Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a></i> which involved the alleged defamation of a former Prime Minister of New Zealand a unanimous Court did state the operative principle. It rejected the "constitutional defence" of the migration-bias case just discussed, and instead expanded the scope of "qualified privilege", requiring the defendant to have <i>actively</i> taken reasonable steps to verify the accuracy of the published material, and also, in most circumstances, to have given the defamed person an opportunity to respond.<sup id="cite_ref-Lange_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lange-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-F22_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F22-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the Court made it clear that the qualified privilege may extend to discussion concerning the United Nations and other countries, even where there is no direct nexus with the exercise of political choice in Australia. In <i><a href="/wiki/McCloy_v_New_South_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="McCloy v New South Wales">McCloy v New South Wales</a></i>, the High Court further endorsed the view that a qualified freedom of political communication exists and provided an updated and more detailed legal test.<sup id="cite_ref-McCloy_HCA_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCloy_HCA-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The constitutional guarantee of freedom of political communication is, prima facie, far more restricted than the generalised guarantee of freedom of speech and of the press in the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>. But it remains to be seen whether a suitable expansion of the notion of "political communication" may not lead, in time, to a similar result. In the migration-bias case, some of the Justices, while being careful to quarantine "commercial speech without political content", seemed to imply that the scope of "political speech" may nevertheless be very broad indeed. Mitchell Landrigan goes as far as arguing that the exception to the <i>Anti-Discrimination Act 1977</i> (NSW) permitting the exclusion of women from ordination as priests infringes the right of women to "rise to positions from which they may take part in political speech as [politically persuasive] religious leaders."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any such constitutional protection would depend on a court finding that the anti-discrimination laws, first, effectively burdened political speech (as relevant to the Commonwealth Parliament) and, secondly, disproportionately burdened such speech. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Right_to_vote">Right to vote</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Right to vote"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suffrage_in_Australia" title="Suffrage in Australia">Suffrage in Australia</a></div> <p>The Constitution is silent as to many aspects of the democratic process, leaving these details to be provided by Parliament. The Constitution does however require in sections 7 and 24 that the members of Parliament be "<i>directly chosen by the people</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1975 two judges of the High Court suggested that these requirements may amount to a right to vote, holding "<i>the long established universal adult suffrage may now be recognized as a fact and as a result it is doubtful whether ... anything less than this could be described as a choice by the people.</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983 the High Court took a limited view of the right to vote in <a href="/wiki/R_v_Pearson;_Ex_parte_Sipka" title="R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka">R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sipka_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sipka-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The High Court Judge <a href="/wiki/Michael_Kirby_(judge)" title="Michael Kirby (judge)">Michael Kirby</a>, writing extrajudicially in 2000, said that "<i>...in Australia, there may be a basic right to vote implied in the text of the constitution itself</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to 2006 prisoners were only <a href="/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement#Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Felony disenfranchisement">disenfranchised</a> if they were serving sentences of three years or more.<sup id="cite_ref-2005Act_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2005Act-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2006 legislation sought to disenfranchise all prisoners, regardless of the length of their sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-2006Act_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2006Act-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The validity of the disenfranchisement was challenged by Vickie Roach who was serving a four-year gaol term for negligently causing serious injury in a car accident and her legal team comprised <a href="/wiki/Ron_Merkel" title="Ron Merkel">Ron Merkel</a>, QC and Michael Pearce, SC.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2007 the High Court held in <a href="/wiki/Roach_v_Electoral_Commissioner" title="Roach v Electoral Commissioner">Roach v Electoral Commissioner</a> that the requirement that members be "<i>directly chosen by the people</i>" conferred a limited "right to vote".<sup id="cite_ref-Roach_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roach-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In principle, these words guaranteed qualified <a href="/wiki/Universal_franchise" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal franchise">universal franchise</a>, and limited the Federal government's legislative power to limit that franchise. The court held that removing right to vote for serious misconduct was acceptable and that the previous legislation was valid, however imprisonment failed as a method of identifying serious criminal misconduct such that the 2006 amendments<sup id="cite_ref-2006Act_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2006Act-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were invalid.<sup id="cite_ref-Roach_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roach-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2006 legislation<sup id="cite_ref-2006Act_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2006Act-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was again considered in <a href="/wiki/Rowe_v_Electoral_Commissioner" title="Rowe v Electoral Commissioner">Rowe v Electoral Commissioner</a>, where the High Court held that amendments restricting the enrolment of voters once an election has been called were also invalid.<sup id="cite_ref-Rowe_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowe-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> * <i> The High Court subsequently held that closing the electoral roles 7 days after the issuing of writs was not a burden on the constitutional mandate that members of Parliament be directly chosen by the people.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The right to vote does not involve a corresponding right not to vote.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The High Court rejected a challenge to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Senate#Electoral_system" title="Australian Senate">2016 Senate voting changes</a> holding that both above the line and below the line voting were constitutionally valid methods for the people to choose their Senators.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Right_to_due_process">Right to due process</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Right to due process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As mentioned above, the fact that the Constitution prescribes a system of "responsible", or <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary government">parliamentary</a>, government means that there can be no meaningful separation of the legislative and executive powers, despite their distinct <i>textual</i> separation in the Constitution. However, the same consideration does not militate against a separation of the judicial power from the other two, and in fact the High Court has come to insist on this with some force. It has also held that the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_in_Australia" title="Separation of powers in Australia">separation of the judicial power</a> implies that a body exercising that power must do so in a manner that is consistent with traditional notions of what constitutes judicial process. The result may be a limited constitutional guarantee of due process. </p><p>The judicial power of the Commonwealth is vested, in Chapter III of the Constitution, in the High Court and such other courts as the Parliament creates or invests with Federal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-s71_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s71-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Expedient_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Expedient-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Australian constitutional jargon, such courts are called "Chapter III courts". The members of Chapter III courts may not be removed except by the Governor-General on an address from both Houses of Parliament on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity; they otherwise hold office until the age of 70.<sup id="cite_ref-s72_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s72-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In separate cases in 1915,<sup id="cite_ref-Wheat_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheat-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1918,<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the High Court held that "judicial power" (essentially, the power of interpretation of the law and enforcement of decisions) could not be invested in anything other than a Chapter III court, and specifically, in anything other than a body whose members have life tenure. In <i><a href="/wiki/Kruger_v_Commonwealth" title="Kruger v Commonwealth">Kruger v Commonwealth</a></i> (1997) the High Court considered claims by members of the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Stolen Generation">Stolen Generation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stolen_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stolen-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including that their removal and subsequent detention without due process was in contravention of the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-1997_HCA_27_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1997_HCA_27-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dawson J,<sup id="cite_ref-1997_HCA_27_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1997_HCA_27-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p. 61">: p. 61 </span></sup> and McHugh J,<sup id="cite_ref-1997_HCA_27_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1997_HCA_27-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p. 142">: p. 142 </span></sup> held that the Constitution contained no general guarantee of due process of law. Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ held that the removal of Indigenous children was not the exercise of judicial power, hence no question of due process arose.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The converse of the separation of powers is the decision of the High Court in <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Kirby;_Ex_parte_Boilermakers%27_Society_of_Australia" title="R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia">Boilermakers' Case</a></i> in 1956, that Chapter III courts cannot be invested with anything <i>other than</i> judicial power.<sup id="cite_ref-Boilermakers_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boilermakers-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-F25_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F25-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kable_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kable-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To some extent the rigour of the separation of powers doctrine was softened by the Court's subsequent acceptance that judges could, constitutionally, be assigned functions in their <i>personal</i> capacity as judges rather than as members of a Chapter III court.<sup id="cite_ref-F24_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F24-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But this raised the question of which such functions were compatible with the simultaneous holding of Federal judicial office. The answers offered by the Court have been controversial and involved some very fine distinctions: for instance, it has held that a power to authorise telephone interceptions <i>is</i> compatible,<sup id="cite_ref-F26_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F26-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while a power to make recommendations concerning the protection of land which might be of heritage significance to Aboriginals <i>is not</i> compatible.<sup id="cite_ref-F27_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F27-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most striking application (and extension) of this "incompatibility" doctrine, however, has involved the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_South_Wales" title="Supreme Court of New South Wales">Supreme Court of the State of New South Wales</a>, a court that may be invested with Federal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-Expedient_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Expedient-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Kable_v_Director_of_Public_Prosecutions_(NSW)" title="Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW)">Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions</a></i> (1996)<sup id="cite_ref-Kable_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kable-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-F28_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F28-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> concerned a criminal law passed by the New South Parliament and directed at a single named individual (somewhat in the manner of a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_attainder" title="Bill of attainder">Bill of attainder</a>). </p><p>The individual was a prisoner (under state law) whose sentence was about to expire but who was alleged to have made threats against the safety of various persons, to be carried out when released. The State Parliament enacted a law, applying only to him, which authorised the Supreme Court of New South Wales to make "preventive detention orders" for periods up to six months, with the possibility of renewal.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The orders were to be made if the Court was satisfied, "on the balance of probabilities", that the person to whom the Act applied was "more likely than not to commit a serious act of violence". </p><p>It is clear that, had the <i>Federal</i> Parliament passed such an Act, it would be found invalid, as it was in effect a legislative judgment and so violated of the constitutional separation of the judicial power. However, the High Court found that the separation of powers was <i>not</i> a feature of the New South Wales constitution, so the State Act was not invalid on that ground. </p><p>The Act was found invalid, however, on the ground that since the Supreme Court of New South Wales had been invested with federal jurisdiction, it must not be required to perform a function "incompatible" with the exercise of the judicial power of the Commonwealth. To that extent, the States are not free to legislate as they please with respect to their own courts. A requirement to order the "preventive detention" of someone who has not been charged with any criminal offence was found "incompatible" with the exercise of Federal judicial power. In this rather circuitous manner, the High Court has found a limited constitutional guarantee of due process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/48px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/64px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Australia" title="Portal:Australia">Australia portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Constitution">Australian Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Australia" title="Constitutional history of Australia">Constitutional history of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_Australia" title="Separation of church and state in Australia">Separation of church and state in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_in_Australia" title="Separation of powers in Australia">Separation of powers in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_Australia" title="Federalism in Australia">Federalism in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Referendums_in_Australia" title="Referendums in Australia">Referendums in Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Section_51_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51 of the Australian Constitution">Section 51 of the Australian Constitution</a> – federal heads of power</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(i)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(i) of the Australian Constitution">Trade and Commerce Power</a>; <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xx)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution">Corporations Power</a>; <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxix)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution">External Affairs Power</a></li></ul></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Section_109_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 109 of the Australian Constitution">Section 109 of the Australian Constitution</a> – inconsistency between state and federal laws</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gleeson-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gleeson_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThe_Honourable_Murray_Gleeson2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gleeson" title="Murray Gleeson">The Honourable Murray Gleeson</a> (18 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hcourt.gov.au/assets/publications/speeches/former-justices/gleesoncj/cj_18jun08.pdf">"The Privy Council – an Australian Perspective"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. High Court of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Privy+Council+%E2%80%93+an+Australian+Perspective&rft.pub=High+Court+of+Australia&rft.date=2008-06-18&rft.au=The+Honourable+Murray+Gleeson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hcourt.gov.au%2Fassets%2Fpublications%2Fspeeches%2Fformer-justices%2Fgleesoncj%2Fcj_18jun08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAroney2009" class="citation book cs1">Aroney, Nicholas (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/constitution-of-a-federal-commonwealth/E685089E543B0D14B22136FD7FEA922D#fndtn-information"><i>The constitution of a federal commonwealth : the making and meaning of the Australian constitution</i></a>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-12968-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-12968-8"><bdi>978-1-139-12968-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/774393122">774393122</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+constitution+of+a+federal+commonwealth+%3A+the+making+and+meaning+of+the+Australian+constitution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F774393122&rft.isbn=978-1-139-12968-8&rft.aulast=Aroney&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fconstitution-of-a-federal-commonwealth%2FE685089E543B0D14B22136FD7FEA922D%23fndtn-information&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsBrennanLynch2014" class="citation book cs1">Williams, George; Brennan, Sean; Lynch, Andrew (2014). <i>Blackshield and Williams Australian Constitutional Law and Theory</i> (6 ed.). Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">77–</span>88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86287-918-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86287-918-8"><bdi>978-1-86287-918-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blackshield+and+Williams+Australian+Constitutional+Law+and+Theory&rft.place=Leichhardt%2C+NSW&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.edition=6&rft.pub=Federation+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-86287-918-8&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Brennan%2C+Sean&rft.au=Lynch%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAroneyKincaid" class="citation news cs1">Aroney, Nicholas; Kincaid, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2017/05/12/comparing-australian-and-american-federal-jurisprudence/">"Analysis | Comparing Australian and American federal jurisprudence"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Analysis+%7C+Comparing+Australian+and+American+federal+jurisprudence&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Aroney&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft.au=Kincaid%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fvolokh-conspiracy%2Fwp%2F2017%2F05%2F12%2Fcomparing-australian-and-american-federal-jurisprudence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James A. Thomson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1673&context=lawreview">American and Australian Constitutions: Continuing Adventures in Comparative Constitutional Law</a>, 30 J. Marshall L. Rev. 627 (1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zelman Cowan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu/buffalolawreview/vol4/iss2/2">A Comparison of the Constitutions of Australia and the United States</a>, 4 Buff. L. Rev. 155 (1955).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEvans2009" class="citation web cs1">Evans, Harry (December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/pops/~/link.aspx?_id=62157B3AE2F04D79A23615AA882A326B&_z=z">"The Other Metropolis: The Australian Founders' Knowledge of America"</a>. <i>Papers on Parliament No. 52</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Ex parte McNally">Re Wakim; Ex parte McNally</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1999/27.html">[1999] HCA 27</a>, (1999) 198 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 51173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=White_v_Director_of_Military_Prosecutions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="White v Director of Military Prosecutions (page does not exist)">White v Director of Military Prosecutions</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2007/29.html">[2007] HCA 29</a>, (2007) 231 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 570.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Attorney-General_for_NSW_v_Brewery_Employees_Union_of_NSW" title="Attorney-General for NSW v Brewery Employees Union of NSW">Attorney-General for NSW v Brewery Employees Union of NSW</a> (Union Label Case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1908/94.html">[1908] HCA 94</a>, (1908) 6 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 469.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/D%27Emden_v_Pedder" title="D'Emden v Pedder">D'Emden v Pedder</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1904/1.html">[1904] HCA 1</a>, (1904) 1 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Engineers-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Engineers_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Engineers_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Engineers_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Engineers_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Amalgamated_Society_of_Engineers_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amalgamated Society of Engineers (Australia)">Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd</a> (Engineers Case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1920/54.html">[1920] HCA 54</a>, (1920) 28 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Jumbunna_Coal_Mine_NL_v_Victorian_Coal_Miners%27_Association" title="Jumbunna Coal Mine NL v Victorian Coal Miners' Association">Jumbunna Coal Mine NL v Victorian Coal Miners' Association</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1908/95.html">[1908] HCA 95</a>, (1908) 6 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_McLean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ex parte McLean (page does not exist)">Ex parte McLean</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1930/12.html">[1930] HCA 12</a>, (1930) 43 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 472; see also <i><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Engineering_Co_Ltd_v_Cowburn" title="Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn">Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1926/6.html">[1926] HCA 6</a>, (1926) 37 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 466</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wenn_v_Attorney-General_(Victoria)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wenn v Attorney-General (Victoria) (page does not exist)">Wenn v Attorney-General (Victoria)</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1948/134.html">[1948] HCA 134</a>, (1948) 77 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WorkChoices-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WorkChoices_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WorkChoices_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_v_Commonwealth_(2006)" title="New South Wales v Commonwealth (2006)">NSW v Commonwealth</a> (WorkChoices case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2006/52.html">[2006] HCA 52</a>, (2006) 229 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Actors_and_Announcers_Equity_Association_v_Fontana_Films_Pty_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Actors and Announcers Equity Association v Fontana Films Pty Ltd (page does not exist)">Actors and Announcers Equity Association v Fontana Films Pty Ltd</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1982/23.html">[1982] HCA 23</a>, (1982) 150 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 169; See also: <i><a href="/wiki/Fairfax_v_Commissioner_of_Taxation" title="Fairfax v Commissioner of Taxation">Fairfax v Commissioner of Taxation</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1965/64.html">[1965] HCA 64</a>, (1965) 114 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1stTax-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1stTax_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1stTax_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/South_Australia_v_Commonwealth" title="South Australia v Commonwealth">South Australia v Commonwealth</a> ("the First Uniform Tax case")</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1942/14.html">[1942] HCA 14</a>, (1942) 65 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 373.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2ndTax-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-2ndTax_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2ndTax_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Victoria_v_Commonwealth_(1957)" title="Victoria v Commonwealth (1957)">Victoria v Commonwealth</a> ("the Second Uniform Tax case")</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1957/54.html">[1957] HCA 54</a>, (1957) 99 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 575.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Ha_v_New_South_Wales" title="Ha v New South Wales">Ha v New South Wales</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1997/34.html">[1997] HCA 34</a>, (1997) 189 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 465; see also <i><a href="/wiki/Matthews_v_Chicory_Marketing_Board_(Vic)" title="Matthews v Chicory Marketing Board (Vic)">Matthews v Chicory Marketing Board (Vic)</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1938/38.html">[1938] HCA 38</a>, (1938) 60 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Incorporation-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Incorporation_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_v_Commonwealth_(1990)" title="New South Wales v Commonwealth (1990)">NSW v Commonwealth</a> (Incorporation case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1990/2.html">[1990] HCA 2</a>, (1990) 169 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 482.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v Sharkey</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1949/46.html">[1949] HCA 46</a>, (1949) 79 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dams-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dams_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dams_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dams_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dams_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v_Tasmania" title="Commonwealth v Tasmania">Commonwealth v Tasmania</a> (the Tasmanian Dams Case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1983/21.html">[1983] HCA 21</a>, (1983) 158 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koowarta-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koowarta_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koowarta_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koowarta_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <i><a href="/wiki/Koowarta_v_Bjelke-Petersen" title="Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen">Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1982/27.html">[1982] HCA 27</a>, (1983) 153 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_v_Mowbray" title="Thomas v Mowbray">Thomas v Mowbray</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2007/33.html">[2007] HCA 33</a>, (2007) 233 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polyukhovich-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Polyukhovich_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Polyukhovich_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Polyukhovich_v_Commonwealth" title="Polyukhovich v Commonwealth">Polyukhovich v Commonwealth</a> (War Crimes Act Case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1991/32.html">[1991] HCA 32</a>, (1991) 172 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 501.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richardson-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Richardson_v_Forestry_Commission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richardson v Forestry Commission (page does not exist)">Richardson v Forestry Commission</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1988/10.html">[1988] HCA 10</a>, (1988) 164 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/undocs/html/vws488.htm">Toonen v Australia (1994) UNHCR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_v_Federal_Court_of_Australia;_Ex_parte_WA_National_Football_League&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R v Federal Court of Australia; Ex parte WA National Football League (page does not exist)">R v Federal Court of Australia; Ex parte WA National Football League</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1979/6.html">[1979] HCA 6</a>, (1979) 143 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WC_Act-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WC_Act_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WC_Act_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2005A00153">"<i>Workplace Relations Amendment (Work Choices) Act</i> 2005"</a>. Commonwealth of Australia. 12 December 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Workplace+Relations+Amendment+%28Work+Choices%29+Act+2005&rft.pub=Commonwealth+of+Australia&rft.date=2006-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.au%2FDetails%2FC2005A00153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChief_Justice_Robert_French2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_French" title="Robert French">Chief Justice Robert French</a> (25 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hcourt.gov.au/assets/publications/speeches/current-justices/frenchcj/frenchcj25mar11.pdf">"The Role of the Courts in Migration Law"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. High Court.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Role+of+the+Courts+in+Migration+Law&rft.pub=High+Court&rft.date=2011-03-25&rft.au=Chief+Justice+Robert+French&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hcourt.gov.au%2Fassets%2Fpublications%2Fspeeches%2Fcurrent-justices%2Ffrenchcj%2Ffrenchcj25mar11.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hcourt.gov.au/assets/corporate/annual-reports/hca-annual-report-2014-15.pdf">"High Court of Australia Annual Report 2014-15"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a>. p. 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=High+Court+of+Australia+Annual+Report+2014-15&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=High+Court&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hcourt.gov.au%2Fassets%2Fcorporate%2Fannual-reports%2Fhca-annual-report-2014-15.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Henry v Boehm</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1973/32.html">[1973] HCA 32</a>, (1973) 128 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 482</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Street v Queensland Bar Association</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1989/53.html">[1989] HCA 53</a>, (1989) 168 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 461</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scientology-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scientology_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <i>Church of the New Faith v Commissioner of Pay-roll Tax (Scientology case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1983/40.html">[1983] HCA 40</a>, (1983) 154 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Black_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attorney-General_(Vic);_Ex_Rel_Black_v_Commonwealth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attorney-General (Vic); Ex Rel Black v Commonwealth (page does not exist)">Attorney-General (Vic); Ex Rel Black v Commonwealth</a> (</i>DOGS Case<i>)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1981/2.html">[1981] HCA 2</a>, (1981) 146 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 559.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Adelaide_Co_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_Inc_v_Commonwealth" title="Adelaide Co of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc v Commonwealth">Adelaide Co of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc v Commonwealth</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1943/12.html">[1943] HCA 12</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1943/12.pdf">(1943) 67 <abbr title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</abbr> 116</a>) at p. 123 per Latham CJ.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kingswell-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kingswell_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kingswell_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kingswell_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Kingswell v The Queen</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1985/72.html">[1985] HCA 72</a>, (1985) 159 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Matheison_1999-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Matheison_1999_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Matheison_1999_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatheison_(1999)" class="citation web cs1">Matheison, Michael (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20001025130000/http://law.anu.edu.au/publications/flr/Vol27no3/MATHIESON.htm">"Section 117 of the Constitution: The Unfinished Rehabilitation"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.anu.edu.au/publications/flr/Vol27no3/MATHIESON.htm">the original</a> on 25 October 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Section+117+of+the+Constitution%3A+The+Unfinished+Rehabilitation&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Matheison&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw.anu.edu.au%2Fpublications%2Fflr%2FVol27no3%2FMATHIESON.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span> (1999) 27(3) <a href="/wiki/Federal_Law_Review" title="Federal Law Review">Federal Law Review</a> 393 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0067-205X">0067-205X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_1904_HCA_46-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_1904_HCA_46_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Davies v Western Australia</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1904/46.html">[1904] HCA 46</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1904/46.pdf">(1904) 2 <abbr title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</abbr> 29</a> (23 December 1904), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Simpson_2008-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia_Simpson_2008_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimpson_(2008)" class="citation journal cs1">Simpson, Amelia (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MelbULawRw/2008/19.html">"The (Limited) Significance of the Individual in Section 117 State Residence Discrimination"</a>. <i>Melbourne University Law Review</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Melbourne+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+%28Limited%29+Significance+of+the+Individual+in+Section+117+State+Residence+Discrimination&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Amelia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FMelbULawRw%2F2008%2F19.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span> (2008) 32(2) <a href="/wiki/Melbourne_University_Law_Review" title="Melbourne University Law Review">Melbourne University Law Review</a> 639 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0025-8938">0025-8938</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cheatle-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cheatle_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cheatle v The Queen</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1993/44.html">[1993] HCA 44</a>, (1993) 177 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 541.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernasconi-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bernasconi_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v Bernasconi</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1915/13.html">[1915] HCA 13</a>, (1915) 19 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 629.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brownlee-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brownlee_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Brownlee v The Queen</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCATrans/2000/687.html">[2000] HCATrans 687</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bank-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bank_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_New_South_Wales_v_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank of New South Wales v Commonwealth">Bank of NSW v Commonwealth</a> (the Bank Nationalisation Case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1948/7.html">[1948] HCA 7</a>, (1948) 76 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarter-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCarter_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>McCarter v Brodie</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1950/18.html">[1950] HCA 18</a>, (1950) 80 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 432.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dairy-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dairy_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>North Eastern Dairy Co Ltd v Dairy Industry Authority of NSW</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1975/45.html">[1975] HCA 45</a>, (1975) 134<a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 559.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cole-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cole_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cole_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Cole_v_Whitfield" title="Cole v Whitfield">Cole v Whitfield</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1988/18.html">[1988] HCA 18</a>, (1988) 165 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 360.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bath-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bath_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Bath_v_Alston_Holdings_Pty_Ltd" title="Bath v Alston Holdings Pty Ltd">Bath v Alston Holdings Pty Ltd</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1988/27.html">[1988] HCA 27</a>, (1988) 165 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tooheys-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tooheys_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Castlemaine_Tooheys_Ltd_v_South_Australia" title="Castlemaine Tooheys Ltd v South Australia">Castlemaine Tooheys Ltd v South Australia</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1990/1.html">[1990] HCA 1</a>, (1990) 169 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 436.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Betfair-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Betfair_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Betfair_Pty_Limited_v_Western_Australia" title="Betfair Pty Limited v Western Australia">Betfair Pty Limited v Western Australia</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2008/11.html">[2008] HCA 11</a>, (2008) 234 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sportsbet-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sportsbet_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sportsbet Pty Ltd v New South Wales</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2012/18.html">[2012] HCA 18</a>, (2012) 249 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rowe-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Rowe_v_Electoral_Commissioner" title="Rowe v Electoral Commissioner">Rowe v Electoral Commissioner</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2010/46.html">[2010] HCA 46</a>, (2010) 243 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>McGinty v Western Australia</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1996/48.html">[1996] HCA 48</a>, (1996) 186 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurns1997" class="citation journal cs1">Burns, R (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/HCRev/1997/13.html">"Political Discussion as a Defence to Defamation: Lange v Australian Broadcasting Commission"</a>. <i>[1997] High Court Review 13</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%5B1997%5D+High+Court+Review+13&rft.atitle=Political+Discussion+as+a+Defence+to+Defamation%3A+Lange+v+Australian+Broadcasting+Commission&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FHCRev%2F1997%2F13.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F19-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F19_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Nationwide_News_Pty_Ltd_v_Wills" title="Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills">Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/46.html">[1992] HCA 46</a>, (1992) 177 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1;<br />See also <i>Suntory (Aust) Pty Ltd v Commissioner of Taxation</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/FCAFC/2009/80.html">[2009] FCAFC 80</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Australia" title="Federal Court of Australia">Federal Court (Full Court)</a> (Australia)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F20-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-F20_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-F20_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Television_Pty_Ltd_v_Commonwealth" title="Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth">Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/45.html">[1992] HCA 45</a>, (1992) 177 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1994/46.html">[1994] HCA 46</a>, (1994) 182 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F21-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F21_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliams,_George1996–97" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated"><a href="/wiki/George_Williams_(lawyer)" title="George Williams (lawyer)">Williams, George</a> (1996–97). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/RP9697/97rp10">"The State of Play in the Constitutionally Implied Freedom of Political Discussion and Bans on Electoral Canvassing in Australia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_Library_of_Australia" title="Parliamentary Library of Australia">Parliamentary Library of Australia</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+State+of+Play+in+the+Constitutionally+Implied+Freedom+of+Political+Discussion+and+Bans+on+Electoral+Canvassing+in+Australia&rft.pub=Parliamentary+Library+of+Australia&rft.date=1996%2F1997&rft.au=Williams%2C+George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aph.gov.au%2FAbout_Parliament%2FParliamentary_Departments%2FParliamentary_Library%2Fpubs%2Frp%2FRP9697%2F97rp10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lange-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lange_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <i><a href="/wiki/Lange_v_Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1997/25.html">[1997] HCA 25</a>, (1997) 189 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 520.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F22-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F22_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see also <i>Bass v Roberts</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/sa/SADC/2000/35.html">[2000] SADC 35</a>;<br /><i>Adelaide v Corneloup</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/sa/SASCFC/2011/84.html">[2011] SASCFC 84</a>;<br /><i>Monis v The Queen</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2013/4.html">[2013] HCA 4</a>, (2013) 249 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 9;<br /><i>Unions NSW v NSW</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2013/58.html">[2013] HCA 58</a>, (2013) 252 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 530;<br /><i>Gibbs v Christies Beach Sports & Social Club (No 1)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/sa/SADC/2000/28.html">[2000] SADC 28</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCloy_HCA-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCloy_HCA_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/McCloy_v_New_South_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="McCloy v New South Wales">McCloy v New South Wales</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2015/34.html">[2015] HCA 34</a>, (2015) 257 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 17 (7 October 2015), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLandrigan2009" class="citation journal cs1">Landrigan, Mitchell (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AltLawJl/2009/52.html">"Voices in the Political Wilderness: Women in the Sydney Anglican Diocese"</a>. <i>Alternative Law Journal</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1037969X0903400307">10.1177/1037969X0903400307</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220052381">220052381</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alternative+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Voices+in+the+Political+Wilderness%3A+Women+in+the+Sydney+Anglican+Diocese&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1037969X0903400307&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220052381%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Landrigan&rft.aufirst=Mitchell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FAltLawJl%2F2009%2F52.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/xx7.html">section 7</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s24.html">section 24</a> Commonwealth of Australia Constitution.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Attorney-General (Cth); Ex rel McKinlay v Commonwealth</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1975/653.html">[1975] HCA 653</a>, (1975) 135 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1 per <a href="/wiki/Edward_McTiernan" title="Edward McTiernan">McTeirnnan</a> & <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Jacobs" title="Kenneth Jacobs">Jacobs</a> JJ at [6].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sipka-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sipka_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Pearson;_Ex_parte_Sipka" title="R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka">R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1983/6.html">[1983] HCA 6</a>, (1983) 152 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 254</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThe_Hon_Justice_Michael_Kirby" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kirby_(judge)" title="Michael Kirby (judge)">The Hon Justice Michael Kirby</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.michaelkirby.com.au/images/stories/speeches/2000s/vol47/2001/1720-UPHOLDING_FRANCHISE%2C_ABR.doc">"Upholding The Franchise"</a>. <i>(2001) 21 Australian Bar Review 1</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0814-8589">0814-8589</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130426062558/http://www.michaelkirby.com.au/images/stories/speeches/2000s/vol47/2001/1720-UPHOLDING_FRANCHISE%2C_ABR.doc">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%282001%29+21+Australian+Bar+Review+1&rft.atitle=Upholding+The+Franchise&rft.issn=0814-8589&rft.au=The+Hon+Justice+Michael+Kirby&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.michaelkirby.com.au%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Fspeeches%2F2000s%2Fvol47%2F2001%2F1720-UPHOLDING_FRANCHISE%252C_ABR.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2005Act-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2005Act_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2005C00337/Html/Text#para3718">"Section 93(8)(b) <i>Commonwealth Electoral Act</i> 1918"</a>. Commonwealth of Australia. 16 May 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Section+93%288%29%28b%29+Commonwealth+Electoral+Act+1918&rft.pub=Commonwealth+of+Australia&rft.date=2005-05-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.au%2FDetails%2FC2005C00337%2FHtml%2FText%23para3718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJerome_Davidson2004" class="citation web cs1">Jerome Davidson (24 May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040706124454/http://www.aph.gov.au/Library/pubs/cib/2003-04/04cib12.pdf">"Inside outcasts: prisoners and the right to vote in Australia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_Library_of_Australia" title="Parliamentary Library of Australia">Parliamentary Library of Australia</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aph.gov.au/Library/pubs/cib/2003-04/04cib12.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 July 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inside+outcasts%3A+prisoners+and+the+right+to+vote+in+Australia&rft.pub=Parliamentary+Library+of+Australia&rft.date=2004-05-24&rft.au=Jerome+Davidson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aph.gov.au%2FLibrary%2Fpubs%2Fcib%2F2003-04%2F04cib12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2006Act-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-2006Act_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2006Act_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2006Act_83-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2006A00065">"<i>Electoral and Referendum Amendment (Electoral Integrity and Other Measures) Act</i> 2006 (Cth)"</a>. Commonwealth of Australia. July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electoral+and+Referendum+Amendment+%28Electoral+Integrity+and+Other+Measures%29+Act+2006+%28Cth%29&rft.pub=Commonwealth+of+Australia&rft.date=2007-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.au%2FDetails%2FC2006A00065&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Nguyen2007" class="citation news cs1">Kenneth Nguyen (25 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/prisoner-goes-to-high-court-to-win-right-to-vote/2007/04/24/1177180651410.html">"Prisoner goes to High Court to win right to vote"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Age" title="The Age">The Age</a></i>. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Age&rft.atitle=Prisoner+goes+to+High+Court+to+win+right+to+vote&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2007-04-25&rft.au=Kenneth+Nguyen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theage.com.au%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Fprisoner-goes-to-high-court-to-win-right-to-vote%2F2007%2F04%2F24%2F1177180651410.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roach-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roach_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roach_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Roach_v_Electoral_Commissioner" title="Roach v Electoral Commissioner">Roach v Electoral Commissioner</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2007/43.html">[2007] HCA 43</a>, (2007) 233 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080306073019/http://www.hrlrc.org.au/html/s02_article/article_view.asp?id=168&nav_cat_id=145&nav_top_id=62">"Prisoners and the Right to Vote: Roach v AEC and Commonwealth of Australia"</a>. Human Rights Law Resource Centre. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hrlrc.org.au/html/s02_article/article_view.asp?id=168&nav_cat_id=145&nav_top_id=62">the original</a> on 6 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prisoners+and+the+Right+to+Vote%3A+Roach+v+AEC+and+Commonwealth+of+Australia&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Law+Resource+Centre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhrlrc.org.au%2Fhtml%2Fs02_article%2Farticle_view.asp%3Fid%3D168%26nav_cat_id%3D145%26nav_top_id%3D62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Murphy_v_Electoral_Commissioner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murphy v Electoral Commissioner (page does not exist)">Murphy v Electoral Commissioner</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2016/36.html">[2016] HCA 36</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Holmdahl v Australian Electoral Commission (No 2)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/sa/SASCFC/2012/110.html">[2012] SASCFC 110</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Day_v_Australian_Electoral_Officer_for_the_State_of_South_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Day v Australian Electoral Officer for the State of South Australia (page does not exist)">Day v Australian Electoral Officer for the State of South Australia</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2016/20.html">[2016] HCA 20</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-s71-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-s71_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s71.html">s 71</a> Judicial power and Courts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Expedient-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Expedient_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Expedient_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">High Court Justice Sir Owen Dixon described the power of the Australian Parliament to invest <i>State</i> courts with <i>Federal</i> jurisdiction as an "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/autochthonous" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:autochthonous">autochthonous</a> expedient", essentially an economy measure in a country of small population.<sup id="cite_ref-Boilermakers_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boilermakers-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-s72-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-s72_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s72.html">s 72</a> Judges' appointment, tenure, and remuneration. Judicial office was originally for life; the age limit was introduced by a referendum in 1977.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheat-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wheat_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_v_Commonwealth_(1915)" title="New South Wales v Commonwealth (1915)">New South Wales v Commonwealth (Wheat Case)</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1915/17.html">[1915] HCA 17</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1915/17.pdf">(1915) 20 <abbr title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</abbr> 54</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alexander-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Waterside_Workers%27_Federation_of_Australia_v_J_W_Alexander_Ltd" title="Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd">Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1918/56.html">[1918] HCA 56</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1918/56.pdf">(1918) 25 <abbr title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</abbr> 434</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stolen-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stolen_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islander</a> children who had been systematically removed from their families by the Australian <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Australia">Federal</a> and State government agencies: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20051229130000/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/55165/20051230-0000/www.humanrights.gov.au/bth/additional_resources/bth_guide/bth.pdf">"Community Guide"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bringing Them Home</i>. <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_and_Equal_Opportunity_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission">Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission</a>. 1997. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.humanrights.gov.au/bth/additional_resources/bth_guide/bth.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 December 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bringing+Them+Home&rft.atitle=Community+Guide&rft.date=1997&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanrights.gov.au%2Fbth%2Fadditional_resources%2Fbth_guide%2Fbth.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+constitutional+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1997_HCA_27-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1997_HCA_27_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1997_HCA_27_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1997_HCA_27_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Kruger_v_Commonwealth" title="Kruger v Commonwealth">Kruger v Commonwealth</a> (Stolen Generation case)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1997/27.html">[1997] HCA 27</a>, (1997) 190 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Kruger_v_Commonwealth" title="Kruger v Commonwealth">Kruger v Commonwealth</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1997/27.html">[1997] HCA 27</a>, (1997) 190 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1 per Toohey J at p. 84, Gaudron J at p. 110 and Gummow J at p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F25-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F25_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <i>Victorian Stevedoring & General Contracting Company Pty Ltd v Dignan</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1931/34.html">[1931] HCA 34</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1931/34.pdf">(1931) 46 <abbr title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</abbr> 73</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kable-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kable_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kable_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Kable_v_Director_of_Public_Prosecutions_(NSW)" title="Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW)">Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW)</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1996/24.html">[1996] HCA 24</a>, (1996) 189 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">By this decision, the system of industrial arbitration that had been in place for 30 years, and which involved judges of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court acting in both a judicial and an administrative capacity, was overturned.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F24-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F24_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <i>Brandy v Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1995/10.html">[1995] HCA 10</a>, (1995) 183 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 245</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As of June 2017<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> judges of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Australia" title="Federal Court of Australia">Federal Court</a> have been appointed as the President of the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Work_Commission" title="Fair Work Commission">Fair Work Commission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iain_Ross_(judge)" title="Iain Ross (judge)">Iain Ross</a>, and President of the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_Appeals_Tribunal" title="Administrative Appeals Tribunal">Administrative Appeals Tribunal</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Logan_(judge)" title="John Logan (judge)">John Logan</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F26-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F26_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Grollo v Palmer</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1995/26.html">[1995] HCA 26</a>, (1995) 184 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 348;<br /> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wainohu_v_New_South_Wales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wainohu v New South Wales (page does not exist)">Wainohu v New South Wales</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2011/24.html">[2011] HCA 24</a>, (2011) 243 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 181;<br /> <i>Hilton v Wells</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1985/16.html">[1985] HCA 16</a>, (1985) 157 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 57;<br /> <i>KS v Veitch (No 2)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWCA/2012/266.html">[2012] NSWCA 266</a>;<br /> <i>Gypsy Jokers Motorcycle Club INC v Commissioner of Police [No2]</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/wa/WASC/2008/166.html">[2008] WASC 166</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F27-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F27_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilson_v_Minister_for_Aboriginal_%26_Torres_Strait_Islander_Affairs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilson v Minister for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Affairs (page does not exist)">Wilson v Minister for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Affairs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hindmarsh_Island_bridge_controversy" title="Hindmarsh Island bridge controversy">Hindmarsh Island case</a>)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1996/18.html">[1996] HCA 18</a>, (1996) 189 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Kateb_v_Godwin" title="Al-Kateb v Godwin">Al-Kateb v Godwin</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2004/37.html">[2004] HCA 37</a>, (2004) 219 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 562.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F28-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F28_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <i>Kable v State of NSW</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWCA/2012/243.html">[2012] NSWCA 243</a>;<br /><i>Fencott v Muller</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1983/12.html">[1983] HCA 12</a>, (1983) 152 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 570;<br /><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kirk_v_Industrial_Relations_Commission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kirk v Industrial Relations Commission (page does not exist)">Kirk v Industrial Relations Commission</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2010/1.html">[2010] HCA 1</a>, (2010) 239 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 531;<br /><i>Attorney-General [NT] v Emmerson</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2014/13.html">[2014] HCA 13</a>, (2010) 253 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 393</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/num_act/cpa1994n77297/">Community Protection Act 1994</a></i> (NSW).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Tony Blackshield and <a href="/wiki/George_Williams_(lawyer)" title="George Williams (lawyer)">George Williams</a>, <i>Australian Constitutional Law and Theory: Commentary and Materials</i> (3rd ed., Federation Press, Annandale NSW, 2002)</li> <li>John Quick and Robert Garran, <i>The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth</i> (LexisNexis Butterworths, Sydney, [1901] 2002)</li> <li>Leslie Zines, <i>The High Court and the Constitution</i> (4th ed., Butterworths, Sydney, 1997)</li> <li>Greg Craven, "Conversations with the Constitution" (1st ed, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2004)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004014032/http://scaleplus.law.gov.au/html/pasteact/1/641/top.htm">Full text of the Constitution</a> from the Australian Attorney-General's Department</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_Australia207" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Australian_Constitution" title="Template:Australian Constitution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Australian_Constitution" title="Template talk:Australian Constitution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Australian_Constitution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Australian Constitution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_Australia207" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution of Australia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislative power</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_I_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter I of the Constitution of Australia">Chapter I of the Constitution of Australia: The Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives" title="Australian House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Senate" title="Australian Senate">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Executive power</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia" title="Cabinet of Australia"> Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_II_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia">Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia: The Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_61_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 61 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 61 of the Constitution of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Australia" title="Monarchy of Australia">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia" title="Governor-General of Australia">Governor-General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Executive_Council_(Australia)" title="Federal Executive Council (Australia)"> Federal Executive Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Judicial power</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_III_Court" title="Chapter III Court">Chapter III of the constitution of Australia: Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_75_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 75 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 75 of the Constitution of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R_v_Kirby;_Ex_parte_Boilermakers%27_Society_of_Australia" title="R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia"> Boilermakers' Case</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter-State_Commission" title="Inter-State Commission">Inter-State Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia#Appeals_to_the_Privy_Council" title="High Court of Australia"> Privy Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Doctrines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Constitutional_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Constitutional Law">Australian Constitutional Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsible_government" title="Responsible government">Responsible government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_in_Australia" title="Separation of powers in Australia">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)#Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">Constitutional conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_Australia" title="Federalism in Australia">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_political_communication" title="Freedom of political communication">Implied freedom of political communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_immunity_(Australia)" title="Intergovernmental immunity (Australia)">Implied immunity of instrumentalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_power" title="Reserve power"> Reserve power (sovereign)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers_doctrine" title="Reserved powers doctrine"> Reserved State powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Amendments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendums_in_Australia" title="Referendums in Australia">Referendum process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Australian_Senate_elections_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="1906 Australian Senate elections referendum">Senate elections (1906)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1910_Australian_referendum_(State_Debts)" title="1910 Australian referendum (State Debts)">1st State debts (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_Australian_referendum_(State_Debts)" class="mw-redirect" title="1928 Australian referendum (State Debts)">2nd State debts (1928)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Australian_referendum_(Social_Services)" title="1946 Australian referendum (Social Services)">Social services (1946)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Australian_referendum_(Aboriginals)" title="1967 Australian referendum (Aboriginals)">Aboriginals (1967)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Australian_referendum_(Senate_Casual_Vacancies)" title="1977 Australian referendum (Senate Casual Vacancies)">Casual vacancies (1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Australian_referendum_(Referendums)" title="1977 Australian referendum (Referendums)">Referendums (1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Australian_referendum_(Retirement_of_Judges)" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Australian referendum (Retirement of Judges)">Retirement of judges (1977)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constitutional texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster 1931</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_Adoption_Act_1942" title="Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942">Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_Act_1986" title="Australia Act 1986">Australia Act 1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Constitution_(Public_Record_Copy)_Act_1990" title="Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990">Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Australia" title="Constitutional history of Australia">Constitutional history of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1975_Australian_constitutional_crisis" title="1975 Australian constitutional crisis">The Dismissal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Convention (Australia)">Constitutional Conventions</a> (<a href="/wiki/1998_Australian_Constitutional_Convention" title="1998 Australian Constitutional Convention">1998</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Australian_parliamentary_eligibility_crisis" title="2017–18 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis">2017–18 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_states_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of proposed states of Australia">List of proposed states of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Republicanism in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_Australia" title="Secession in Australia">Separatist movements within Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By chapter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_I_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter I of the Constitution of Australia">I: The Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_II_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia">II: The Executive Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_III_Court" title="Chapter III Court">III: The Judicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_IV_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter IV of the Constitution of Australia">IV: Finance and Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_V_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter V of the Constitution of Australia">V: The States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_VI_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter VI of the Constitution of Australia">VI: New States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapter VII of the Constitution of Australia">VII: Miscellaneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_VIII_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter VIII of the Constitution of Australia">VIII: Alteration of the Constitution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By section</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Section_1_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 1 of the Constitution of Australia">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_2_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 2 of the Constitution of Australia">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_3_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 3 of the Constitution of Australia">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_4_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 4 of the Constitution of Australia">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_5_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 5 of the Constitution of Australia">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_6_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 6 of the Constitution of Australia">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_7_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 7 of the Constitution of Australia">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_8_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 8 of the Constitution of Australia">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_9_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 9 of the Constitution of Australia">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_10_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 10 of the Constitution of Australia">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_11_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 11 of the Constitution of Australia">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_12_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 12 of the Constitution of Australia">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_13_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 13 of the Constitution of Australia">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_14_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 14 of the Constitution of Australia">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_15_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 15 of the Constitution of Australia">15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_16_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 16 of the Constitution of Australia">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_17_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 17 of the Constitution of Australia">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_18_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 18 of the Constitution of Australia">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_19_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 19 of the Constitution of Australia">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_20_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 20 of the Constitution of Australia">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_21_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 21 of the Constitution of Australia">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_22_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 22 of the Constitution of Australia">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_23_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 23 of the Constitution of Australia">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_24_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 24 of the Constitution of Australia">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_25_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 25 of the Constitution of Australia">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_26_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 26 of the Constitution of Australia">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_27_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 27 of the Constitution of Australia">27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_28_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 28 of the Constitution of Australia">28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_29_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 29 of the Constitution of Australia">29</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_30_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 30 of the Constitution of Australia">30</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_31_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 31 of the Constitution of Australia">31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_32_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 32 of the Constitution of Australia">32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_33_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 33 of the Constitution of Australia">33</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_34_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 34 of the Constitution of Australia">34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_35_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 35 of the Constitution of Australia">35</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_36_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 36 of the Constitution of Australia">36</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_37_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 37 of the Constitution of Australia">37</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_38_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 38 of the Constitution of Australia">38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_39_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 39 of the Constitution of Australia">39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_40_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 40 of the Constitution of Australia">40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_41_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 41 of the Constitution of Australia">41</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_42_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 42 of the Constitution of Australia">42</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_43_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 43 of the Constitution of Australia">43</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_44_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 44 of the Constitution of Australia">44</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_45_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 45 of the Constitution of Australia">45</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_46_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 46 of the Constitution of Australia">46</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_47_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 47 of the Constitution of Australia">47</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_48_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 48 of the Constitution of Australia">48</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_49_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 49 of the Constitution of Australia">49</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_50_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 50 of the Constitution of Australia">50</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_52_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 52 of the Constitution of Australia">52</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_53_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 53 of the Constitution of Australia">53</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_54_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 54 of the Constitution of Australia">54</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_55_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 55 of the Constitution of Australia">55</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_56_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 56 of the Constitution of Australia">56</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_57_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 57 of the Constitution of Australia">57</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_58_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 58 of the Constitution of Australia">58</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_59_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 59 of the Constitution of Australia">59</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_60_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 60 of the Constitution of Australia">60</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_61_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 61 of the Constitution of Australia">61</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_62_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 62 of the Constitution of Australia">62</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_63_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 63 of the Constitution of Australia">63</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_64_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 64 of the Constitution of Australia">64</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_65_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 65 of the Constitution of Australia">65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_66_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 66 of the Constitution of Australia">66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_67_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 67 of the Constitution of Australia">67</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_68_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 68 of the Constitution of Australia">68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_69_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 69 of the Constitution of Australia">69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_70_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 70 of the Constitution of Australia">70</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_71_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 71 of the Constitution of Australia">71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_72_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 72 of the Constitution of Australia">72</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_73_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 73 of the Constitution of Australia">73</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_74_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 74 of the Constitution of Australia">74</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_75_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 75 of the Constitution of Australia">75</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_76_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 76 of the Constitution of Australia">76</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_77_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 77 of the Constitution of Australia">77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_78_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 78 of the Constitution of Australia">78</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_79_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 79 of the Constitution of Australia">79</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_80_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 80 of the Constitution of Australia">80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_81_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 81 of the Constitution of Australia">81</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_82_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 82 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">82</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_83_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 83 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">83</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_84_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 84 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">84</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_85_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 85 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">85</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_86_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 86 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">86</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_87_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 87 of the Constitution of Australia">87</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_88_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 88 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">88</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_89_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 89 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">89</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_90_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 90 of the Constitution of Australia">90</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_91_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 91 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">91</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_92_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 92 of the Constitution of Australia">92</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_93_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 93 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">93</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_94_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 94 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">94</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_95_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 95 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">95</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_96_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 96 of the Constitution of Australia">96</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_97_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 97 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">97</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_98_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 98 of the Constitution of Australia">98</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_99_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 99 of the Constitution of Australia">99</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_100_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 100 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">100</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_101_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 101 of the Constitution of Australia">101</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_102_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 102 of the Constitution of Australia">102</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_103_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 103 of the Constitution of Australia">103</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_104_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 104 of the Constitution of Australia">104</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_105_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 105 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">105</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_105A_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 105A of the Constitution of Australia">105A</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_106_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 106 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">106</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_107_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 107 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">107</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_108_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 108 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">108</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_109_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 109 of the Constitution of Australia">109</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_110_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 110 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">110</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_111_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 111 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">111</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_112_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 112 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">112</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_113_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 113 of the Constitution of Australia">113</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_114_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 114 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">114</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_115_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 115 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">115</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_116_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia">116</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_117_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia">117</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_118_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 118 of the Constitution of Australia">118</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_119_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 119 of the Constitution of Australia">119</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_120_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 120 of the Constitution of Australia">120</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_121_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 121 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">121</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_122_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 122 of the Constitution of Australia">122</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_123_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 123 of the Constitution of Australia">123</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_124_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 124 of the Constitution of Australia">124</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_125_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 125 of the Constitution of Australia">125</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_126_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 126 of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">126</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_127_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 127 of the Constitution of Australia">127</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_VIII_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Chapter VIII of the Constitution of Australia">128</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Section_51_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia">Enumerated legislative<br /> powers (Section 51)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Powers of</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(i)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(i) of the Constitution of Australia">(i) Interstate trade and commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_basis_of_taxation_in_Australia" title="Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia">(ii) Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(v)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(v) of the Constitution of Australia">(v) Post and telegraph (communication)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(vi)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(vi) of the Constitution of Australia">(vi) Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(ix)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(ix) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(ix) Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(x)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(x) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(x) Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51_(xii)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51 (xii) of the Constitution of Australia">(xii) Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xiii)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xiii) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xiii) Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xiv)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xiv) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xiv) Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xviii)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xviii) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xviii) Copyrights, patents and trademarks</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xix)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xix) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xix) Naturalization and aliens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xx)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(xx) of the Constitution of Australia">(xx) Corporations</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xxi)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xxi) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xxi) Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xxii)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xxii) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xxii) Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xxiii)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xxiii) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xxiii) Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xxiiiA)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xxiiiA) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xxiiiA) Social security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxvi)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(xxvi) of the Constitution of Australia">(xxvi) Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxvii)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(xxvii) of the Constitution of Australia">(xxvii) Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxix)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(xxix) of the Constitution of Australia">(xxix) External affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxx)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(xxx) of the Constitution of Australia">(xxx) Pacific islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxxi)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxxi) of the Constitution of Australia">(xxxi) Acquisition of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxxv)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxxv) of the Constitution of Australia">(xxxv) Conciliation and arbitration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xxxvi)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xxxvi) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xxxvi) Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxxvii)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(xxxvii) of the Constitution of Australia">(xxxvii) Referral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxxviii)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 51(xxxviii) of the Constitution of Australia">(xxxviii) Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_51(xxxix)_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 51(xxxix) of the Constitution of Australia (page does not exist)">(xxxix) Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_Allegiance_(Australia)" title="Oath of Allegiance (Australia)">Schedule</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&oldid=1254075922">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australian_constitutional_law&oldid=1254075922</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a 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