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Previous research used children's answer patterns and verbal reports as evidence of how they solve this task. In the present study we investigated to what extent eye movements recorded during task solution reflect children's use of the number line. By means of a cross-sectional design with 66 children from Grades 1, 2, and 3, we show that eye-tracking data (a) reflect grade-related increase in estimation competence, (b) are correlated with the accuracy of manual answers, (c) relate, in Grade 2, to children's addition competence, (d) are systematically distributed over the number line, and (e) replicate previous findings concerning children's use of counting strategies and orientationpoint strategies. 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if (!viewCountBody) { throw new Error('Failed to find work views element'); } viewCountBody.textContent = `${commaizedViewCount} views`; } catch (error) { // Remove the whole views element if there was some issue parsing. document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count')?.parentNode?.remove(); throw new Error(`Failed to parse view count: ${viewCount}`, error); } }; // If the DOM is still loading, wait for it to be ready before updating the view count. if (document.readyState === "loading") { document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', () => { updateViewCount(viewCount); }); // Otherwise, just update it immediately. } else { updateViewCount(viewCount); } })();</script></div><p class="ds-work-card--work-abstract ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-md">The number line estimation task captures central aspects of children's developing number sense, that is, their intuitions for numbers and their interrelations. Previous research used children's answer patterns and verbal reports as evidence of how they solve this task. In the present study we investigated to what extent eye movements recorded during task solution reflect children's use of the number line. By means of a cross-sectional design with 66 children from Grades 1, 2, and 3, we show that eye-tracking data (a) reflect grade-related increase in estimation competence, (b) are correlated with the accuracy of manual answers, (c) relate, in Grade 2, to children's addition competence, (d) are systematically distributed over the number line, and (e) replicate previous findings concerning children's use of counting strategies and orientationpoint strategies. These findings demonstrate the validity and utility of eye-tracking data for investigating children's developing number sense and estimation competence.</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":51130355,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/1023744/A_validation_of_eye_movements_as_a_measure_of_elementary_school_childrens_developing_number_sense"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":51130355,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/1023744/A_validation_of_eye_movements_as_a_measure_of_elementary_school_childrens_developing_number_sense"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger-container"><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger ds-signup-banner-trigger-premium-marketing"></div></div><div class="ds-signup-banner ds-signup-banner-premium-marketing"><div id="ds-signup-banner-close-button"><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary ds2-5-button--inverse"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">close</span></button></div><div class="premium-banner-content"><div class="left"><img src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-capital-white.svg" /><span>Get access to the world's latest research</span></div><div class="right"><div class="card free"><div class="header">Free</div><div class="feature-list"><div class="feature"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">check</span><span>Download one paper at a time</span></div><div class="feature"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">check</span><span>Save papers to bookmarks</span></div><div class="feature"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">check</span><span>Basic search</span></div></div><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary ds2-5-button--small ds2-5-button--inverse ds2-5-button--full-width js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"premium-banner-desktop-free"}">Sign up for free</button></div><div class="card premium"><div class="pill">Recommended</div><div class="header premium">Premium</div><div class="feature-list"><div class="feature"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">check</span><span>Get highly curated PDF packages</span></div><div class="feature"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">check</span><span>Track your impact with Mentions</span></div><div class="feature"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">check</span><span>Access advanced search filters</span></div><div class="feature"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">check</span><span>Support Academia’s mission</span></div><div class="feature"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">check</span><span>Create your personal website</span></div></div><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--small ds2-5-button--inverse ds2-5-button--full-width js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"premium-banner-desktop-upgrade","submitText":"Try Premium for $1"}">Try Premium for $1</button></div></div></div></div><script>(() => { // Set up signup banner show/hide behavior: // 1. 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The ability to estimate may provide a feedback tool to check performance in different mathematics learning contents. The most widely used task to assess number estimation is the Number Line Estimation Task (Siegler & Booth, 2004), and some researchers used a kind of Numerosity Task (Luwel, Verschaffel, Onghena & De Corte, 2003). This research compares the students' accuracy in two tasks that assess the ability of Brazilian children (N = 60), attending the 2nd and 3rd grades of a public school, to estimate. The children's success in the Number Line Estimation Task suggests it is more accurate than the Numerosity Estimation Task in assessing children's performance in estimation maybe because of the different cognitive functions required by the two tasks. The study´s educational implications are discussed.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Number estimation in children: An assessment study with number line estimation and numerosity tasks","attachmentId":95299468,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/92237582/Number_estimation_in_children_An_assessment_study_with_number_line_estimation_and_numerosity_tasks","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/92237582/Number_estimation_in_children_An_assessment_study_with_number_line_estimation_and_numerosity_tasks"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="12406458" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/12406458/Children_s_Number_Line_Estimation_Shows_Development_of_Measurement_Skills_Not_Number_Representations_">Children’s Number-Line Estimation Shows Development of Measurement Skills (Not Number Representations)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="31176255" href="https://uci.academia.edu/BarbaraSarnecka">Barbara W Sarnecka</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Developmental Psychology, 2014</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Children’s understanding of numbers is often assessed using a number-line task, where the child is shown a line labeled with 0 at one end and a higher number (e.g., 100) at the other end. The child is then asked where on the line some intermediate number (e.g., 70) should go. Performance on this task changes predictably during childhood, and this has often been interpreted as evidence of a change in the child’s psychological representation of integer quantities. The present article presents theoretical and empirical evidence that the change in number-line performance actually reflects the development of measurement skills used in the task. We compare 2 versions of the number-line task: the bounded version used in the literature and a new, unbounded version. Results indicate that it is only children’s performance on the bounded task (which requires subtraction or division) that changes markedly with age. In contrast, children’s performance on the unbounded task (which requires only addition) remains fairly constant as they get older. Thus, developmental changes in performance on the traditional bounded number-line task likely reflect the growth of task-specific measurement skills rather than changes in the child’s understanding of numerical quantities.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Children’s Number-Line Estimation Shows Development of Measurement Skills (Not Number Representations)","attachmentId":43872873,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/12406458/Children_s_Number_Line_Estimation_Shows_Development_of_Measurement_Skills_Not_Number_Representations_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/12406458/Children_s_Number_Line_Estimation_Shows_Development_of_Measurement_Skills_Not_Number_Representations_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="569473" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/569473/What_the_eyes_already_know_using_eye_movement_measurement_to_tap_into_childrens_implicit_numerical_magnitude_representations">What the eyes already 'know': using eye movement measurement to tap into children's implicit numerical magnitude representations</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="9218" href="https://kuleuven.academia.edu/BertDeSmedt">Bert De Smedt</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Infant and Child …, 2010</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"What the eyes already 'know': using eye movement measurement to tap into children's implicit numerical magnitude representations","attachmentId":51354441,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/569473/What_the_eyes_already_know_using_eye_movement_measurement_to_tap_into_childrens_implicit_numerical_magnitude_representations","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/569473/What_the_eyes_already_know_using_eye_movement_measurement_to_tap_into_childrens_implicit_numerical_magnitude_representations"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="14442112" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/14442112/Representational_change_and_strategy_use_in_childrens_number_line_estimation_during_the_first_years_of_primary_school">Representational change and strategy use in children's number line estimation during the first years of primary school</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33380182" href="https://cambridge.academia.edu/DenesSzucs">Denes Szucs</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Behavioral and Brain Functions, 2012</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Background: The objective of this study was to scrutinize number line estimation behaviors displayed by children in mathematics classrooms during the first three years of schooling. We extend existing research by not only mapping potential logarithmic-linear shifts but also provide a new perspective by studying in detail the estimation strategies of individual target digits within a number range familiar to children. Methods: Typically developing children (n = 67) from Years 1-3 completed a number-to-position numerical estimation task (0-20 number line). Estimation behaviors were first analyzed via logarithmic and linear regression modeling. Subsequently, using an analysis of variance we compared the estimation accuracy of each digit, thus identifying target digits that were estimated with the assistance of arithmetic strategy.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Representational change and strategy use in children's number line estimation during the first years of primary school","attachmentId":44145014,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/14442112/Representational_change_and_strategy_use_in_childrens_number_line_estimation_during_the_first_years_of_primary_school","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/14442112/Representational_change_and_strategy_use_in_childrens_number_line_estimation_during_the_first_years_of_primary_school"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="84947722" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/84947722/Number_line_estimation_from_kindergarten_to_grade_2_A_longitudinal_study">Number line estimation from kindergarten to grade 2: A longitudinal study</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="38396776" href="https://independent.academia.edu/AnnemieDesoete">Annemie Desoete</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Learning and Instruction, 2014</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">A bulk of evidence supports the association of number line estimations using Arabic digits and dots with math learning. Surprisingly few studies have been conducted to explore the relationship between estimations using number words and mathematics. The present study expands previous findings by investigating estimations in three formats (Arabic digits, dots and number), adding language as predictor and by focusing at timed and untimed math learning. A sample of 132 children was followed from kindergarten till grade 2. Results reveal variability in estimation accuracy and errors declining with age and instruction in all children. In addition, our findings suggest that Arabic numerals have a more linear distribution than number words. Moreover, our findings suggest that language explains variation in kindergarten but not in evolution and, more in particular, untimed math achievement can be predicted by number line estimation. Implications for assessment, prediction of math learning and instruction are discussed.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Number line estimation from kindergarten to grade 2: A longitudinal study","attachmentId":89799870,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/84947722/Number_line_estimation_from_kindergarten_to_grade_2_A_longitudinal_study","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/84947722/Number_line_estimation_from_kindergarten_to_grade_2_A_longitudinal_study"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="381920" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/381920/Spontaneous_focusing_on_numerosity_mathematical_skills_of_young_children">Spontaneous focusing on numerosity mathematical skills of young children</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="290887" href="https://utu.academia.edu/MinnaHannulaSormunen">Minna Hannula-Sormunen</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Two studies were conducted to investigate, firstly, children’s focusing on the aspect of numerosity in utilizing enumeration in action, and, secondly, whether children’s Spontaneous FOcusing on Numerosity (SFON) is related to their counting development. The longitudinal data of 39 children from the age of 3.5 to 6 years showed individual differences in SFON, as well as stability in children’s SFON across tasks during the follow-up. Path analyses indicated a reciprocal relationship between SFON and counting development. The results were confirmed by a cross-sectional study of 183 6.5-year-old children when the effects of nonverbal IQ, verbal comprehension and lacking enumeration and procedural skills were controlled.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Spontaneous focusing on numerosity mathematical skills of young children","attachmentId":1868052,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/381920/Spontaneous_focusing_on_numerosity_mathematical_skills_of_young_children","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/381920/Spontaneous_focusing_on_numerosity_mathematical_skills_of_young_children"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="98701066" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/98701066/Spontaneous_focusing_on_numerosity_and_mathematical_skills_of_young_children">Spontaneous focusing on numerosity and mathematical skills of young children</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="290887" href="https://utu.academia.edu/MinnaHannulaSormunen">Minna Hannula-Sormunen</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Learning and Instruction, 2005</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Two studies were conducted to investigate, firstly, children's focusing on the aspect of numerosity in utilizing enumeration in action, and, secondly, whether children's Spontaneous FOcusing on Numerosity (SFON) is related to their counting development. The longitudinal data of 39 children from the age of 3.5 to 6 years showed individual differences in SFON, as well as stability in children's SFON across tasks during the follow-up. Path analyses indicated a reciprocal relationship between SFON and counting development. The results were confirmed by a cross-sectional study of 183 6.5-year-old children when the effects of nonverbal IQ, verbal comprehension and lacking enumeration and procedural skills were controlled.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Spontaneous focusing on numerosity and mathematical skills of young children","attachmentId":99981057,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/98701066/Spontaneous_focusing_on_numerosity_and_mathematical_skills_of_young_children","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/98701066/Spontaneous_focusing_on_numerosity_and_mathematical_skills_of_young_children"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="89729209" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/89729209/Does_It_Count_Pre_School_Children_s_Spontaneous_Focusing_on_Numerosity_and_Their_Development_of_Arithmetical_Skills_at_School">Does It Count? Pre-School Children’s Spontaneous Focusing on Numerosity and Their Development of Arithmetical Skills at School</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="216082939" href="https://independent.academia.edu/NadinePoltz">Nadine Poltz</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Brain Sciences, 2022</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Background: Children’s spontaneous focusing on numerosity (SFON) is related to numerical skills. This study aimed to examine (1) the developmental trajectory of SFON and (2) the interrelations between SFON and early numerical skills at pre-school as well as their influence on arithmetical skills at school. Method: Overall, 1868 German pre-school children were repeatedly assessed until second grade. Nonverbal intelligence, visual attention, visuospatial working memory, SFON and numerical skills were assessed at age five (M = 63 months, Time 1) and age six (M = 72 months, Time 2), and arithmetic was assessed at second grade (M = 95 months, Time 3). Results: SFON increased significantly during pre-school. Path analyses revealed interrelations between SFON and several numerical skills, except number knowledge. Magnitude estimation and basic calculation skills (Time 1 and Time 2), and to a small degree number knowledge (Time 2), contributed directly to arithmetic in second grade. The con...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Does It Count? Pre-School Children’s Spontaneous Focusing on Numerosity and Their Development of Arithmetical Skills at School","attachmentId":93475650,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/89729209/Does_It_Count_Pre_School_Children_s_Spontaneous_Focusing_on_Numerosity_and_Their_Development_of_Arithmetical_Skills_at_School","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/89729209/Does_It_Count_Pre_School_Children_s_Spontaneous_Focusing_on_Numerosity_and_Their_Development_of_Arithmetical_Skills_at_School"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="78446491" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/78446491/Framework_for_analysing_children_s_ways_of_experiencing_numbers">Framework for analysing children’s ways of experiencing numbers</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="612310" href="https://gu-se.academia.edu/CamillaBj%C3%B6rklund">Camilla Björklund</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2019</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This study contributes to the field of arithmetic learning a framework based on a conjecture that learning is a change in ways of experiencing numbers – decisive for what is possible to do with numbers in arithmetic tasks. 309 task-based interviews with 5-6-year-old children were used to develop the framework. To validate its use for studies on arithmetic skills development we selected 7 children who between two interview occasions developed from scoring 0 in the first interview to &gt;75% correct answers in the second interview. Based on the results of these children’s changing ways of experiencing numbers, we conclude that arithmetic skills development can be found empirically related to changes in the children’s ways of experiencing numbers, which validates the framework as being a useful tool to follow and describe children’s arithmetic skills over time.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Framework for analysing children’s ways of experiencing numbers","attachmentId":85491056,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/78446491/Framework_for_analysing_children_s_ways_of_experiencing_numbers","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/78446491/Framework_for_analysing_children_s_ways_of_experiencing_numbers"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":51130355,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":51130355,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_51130355" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. 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Line Trainings in Kindergarten: Effects on Arithmetic Performance and Number Sense","attachmentId":71512034,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/55825505/Counting_and_Number_Line_Trainings_in_Kindergarten_Effects_on_Arithmetic_Performance_and_Number_Sense","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/55825505/Counting_and_Number_Line_Trainings_in_Kindergarten_Effects_on_Arithmetic_Performance_and_Number_Sense"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="113228363" 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study","attachmentId":110242983,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/113228363/Strategy_use_in_number_line_tasks_An_exploratory_eye_tracking_study","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/113228363/Strategy_use_in_number_line_tasks_An_exploratory_eye_tracking_study"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="4172365" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/4172365/Young_childrens_cognitive_representations_of_number_and_their_number_line_estimations">Young children's cognitive representations of number and their number line estimations</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="703933" href="https://cambridge.academia.edu/JoannaWilliamson">Joanna Williamson</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Young children's cognitive representations of number and their number line estimations","attachmentId":31675314,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/4172365/Young_childrens_cognitive_representations_of_number_and_their_number_line_estimations","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" 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class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/126624907/Spontaneous_focusing_on_numerosity_in_preschool_as_a_predictor_of_mathematical_skills_and_knowledge_in_the_fifth_grade"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="125355756" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/125355756/Quantity_Recognition_in_Structured_Whole_Number_Representations_of_Students_with_Mathematical_Difficulties_An_Eye_Tracking_Study">Quantity Recognition in Structured Whole Number Representations of Students with Mathematical Difficulties : An Eye-Tracking Study</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="43520473" href="https://independent.academia.edu/AlfredSchabmann">Alfred Schabmann</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 2019</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Quantity Recognition in Structured Whole Number Representations of Students with Mathematical Difficulties : An Eye-Tracking Study","attachmentId":119414953,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/125355756/Quantity_Recognition_in_Structured_Whole_Number_Representations_of_Students_with_Mathematical_Difficulties_An_Eye_Tracking_Study","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/125355756/Quantity_Recognition_in_Structured_Whole_Number_Representations_of_Students_with_Mathematical_Difficulties_An_Eye_Tracking_Study"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="125355758" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/125355758/Enumeration_Processes_of_Children_with_Mathematical_Difficulties_An_Explorative_Eye_Tracking_Study_on_Subitizing_Groupitizing_Counting_and_Pattern_Recognition">Enumeration Processes of Children with Mathematical Difficulties: An Explorative Eye-Tracking Study on Subitizing, Groupitizing, Counting, and Pattern Recognition</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="43520473" href="https://independent.academia.edu/AlfredSchabmann">Alfred Schabmann</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 2020</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Enumeration Processes of Children with Mathematical Difficulties: An Explorative Eye-Tracking Study on 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class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="10309575" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/10309575/The_relationship_between_the_shape_of_the_mental_number_line_and_familiarity_with_numbers_in_5_to_9_year_old_children_Evidence_for_a_segmented_linear_model">The relationship between the shape of the mental number line and familiarity with numbers in 5- to 9-year old children: Evidence for a segmented linear model</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="25266671" href="https://kuleuven.academia.edu/PatrickOnghena">Patrick Onghena</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 2008</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link 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