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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Modernization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philanthropy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philanthropy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Philanthropy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philanthropy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle-class_values" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle-class_values"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Middle-class values </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle-class_values-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leaders_and_activists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaders_and_activists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Leaders and activists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaders_and_activists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Politicians_and_government_officials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politicians_and_government_officials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1 Politicians and government officials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politicians_and_government_officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Robert_M._La_Follette" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_M._La_Follette"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1.1 Robert M. La Follette </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_M._La_Follette-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theodore_Roosevelt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theodore_Roosevelt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1.2 Theodore Roosevelt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theodore_Roosevelt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Woodrow_Wilson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Woodrow_Wilson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1.3 Woodrow Wilson </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Woodrow_Wilson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charles_Evans_Hughes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles_Evans_Hughes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1.4 Charles Evans Hughes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles_Evans_Hughes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gifford_Pinchot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gifford_Pinchot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1.5 Gifford Pinchot </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gifford_Pinchot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authors_and_journalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authors_and_journalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.2 Authors and journalists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authors_and_journalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Herbert_Croly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herbert_Croly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.2.1 Herbert Croly </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herbert_Croly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upton_Sinclair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upton_Sinclair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.2.2 Upton Sinclair </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upton_Sinclair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ida_Tarbell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ida_Tarbell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.2.3 Ida Tarbell </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ida_Tarbell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lincoln_Steffens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lincoln_Steffens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.3 Lincoln Steffens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lincoln_Steffens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jane_Addams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jane_Addams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.4 Jane Addams </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jane_Addams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_and_local_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_and_local_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 State and local activity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-State_and_local_activity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle State and local activity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-State_and_local_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Western_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Western states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oregon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oregon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Oregon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oregon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 California </div> </a> <ul id="toc-California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 South </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_Carolina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Carolina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 North Carolina </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Carolina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Midwest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Midwest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Midwest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Midwest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wisconsin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wisconsin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Wisconsin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wisconsin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kansas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kansas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Kansas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kansas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ohio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ohio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Ohio </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ohio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iowa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iowa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.4 Iowa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iowa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_ideas_and_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_ideas_and_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Key ideas and issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Key_ideas_and_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Key ideas and issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Key_ideas_and_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antitrust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antitrust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Antitrust </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antitrust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Primaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Government reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-City_manager" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_manager"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 City manager </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_manager-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family_roles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_roles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Family roles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_roles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pure_food,_drugs,_and_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pure_food,_drugs,_and_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Pure food, drugs, and water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pure_food,_drugs,_and_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_hygiene_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_hygiene_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Social hygiene movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_hygiene_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_policy_and_unions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_policy_and_unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Labor policy and unions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_policy_and_unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_rights_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_rights_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Civil rights issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Civil_rights_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Civil rights issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Civil_rights_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_suffrage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_suffrage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Women's suffrage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_suffrage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Race_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Race relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_political_reform_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_political_reform_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Key political reform efforts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Key_political_reform_efforts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Key political reform efforts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Key_political_reform_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Democracy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Direct_primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Direct primary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urbanization_and_Municipal_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanization_and_Municipal_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Urbanization and Municipal reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanization_and_Municipal_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gary_Plan_for_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gary_Plan_for_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Gary Plan for schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gary_Plan_for_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cities_during_the_Progressive_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cities_during_the_Progressive_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Cities during the Progressive Era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cities_during_the_Progressive_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Business_progressivism_in_1920s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business_progressivism_in_1920s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2.1 Business progressivism in 1920s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business_progressivism_in_1920s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automobiles_in_the_Progressive_and_New_Eras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automobiles_in_the_Progressive_and_New_Eras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Automobiles in the Progressive and New Eras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automobiles_in_the_Progressive_and_New_Eras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rural_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rural_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Rural reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rural_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Good_roads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Good_roads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Good roads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Good_roads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation_of_natural_resources_in_the_Progressive_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation_of_natural_resources_in_the_Progressive_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Conservation of natural resources in the Progressive Era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation_of_natural_resources_in_the_Progressive_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_versus_traditional_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_versus_traditional_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Modern versus traditional conflicts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_versus_traditional_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Constitutional change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 National policy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-National_policy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle National policy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-National_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-National_economic_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_economic_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 National economic policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_economic_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antitrust_under_Roosevelt_and_Taft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antitrust_under_Roosevelt_and_Taft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Antitrust under Roosevelt and Taft </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antitrust_under_Roosevelt_and_Taft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immigration_policy_and_immigrants_in_the_Progressive_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immigration_policy_and_immigrants_in_the_Progressive_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Immigration policy and immigrants in the Progressive Era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immigration_policy_and_immigrants_in_the_Progressive_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immigration_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immigration_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Immigration policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immigration_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Foreign policy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Foreign policy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overseas_possessions:_the_Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overseas_possessions:_the_Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Overseas possessions: the Philippines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overseas_possessions:_the_Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Peace movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Societal reforms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Societal_reforms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Societal reforms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Societal_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rhetoric_of_righteousness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhetoric_of_righteousness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Rhetoric of righteousness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhetoric_of_righteousness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prohibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prohibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Prohibition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prohibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women's_education_in_home_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_education_in_home_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.1 Women's education in home economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_education_in_home_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Child_labor_and_schooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Child_labor_and_schooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.2 Child labor and schooling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Child_labor_and_schooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine_and_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine_and_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Medicine and law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine_and_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Social sciences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eugenics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eugenics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7 Eugenics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eugenics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Decline </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Decline subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Progressive_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Progressive_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 End of the Progressive Era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Progressive_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_progressive_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_progressive_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notable progressive leaders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_progressive_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Overviews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Progressivism_after_1917" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Progressivism_after_1917"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 Progressivism after 1917 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Progressivism_after_1917-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Presidential_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presidential_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.3 Presidential politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Presidential_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_and_local" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_and_local"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.4 State and local </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_and_local-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender,_race,_ethnicity,_class,_and_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender,_race,_ethnicity,_class,_and_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.5 Gender, race, ethnicity, class, and religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender,_race,_ethnicity,_class,_and_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.6 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Campaign_textbooks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaign_textbooks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.6.1 Campaign textbooks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_textbooks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" > 27 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحقبة التقدمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحقبة التقدمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proqressiv_d%C3%B6vr" title="Proqressiv dövr – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Proqressiv dövr" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACn-p%C5%8D%CD%98-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB_S%C3%AE-t%C4%81i" title="Chìn-pō͘-chú-gī Sî-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chìn-pō͘-chú-gī Sî-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_periode" title="Progressive periode – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Progressive periode" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Progressive Era" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progresseerumise_ajastu" title="Progresseerumise ajastu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Progresseerumise ajastu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_progresista" title="Era progresista – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Era progresista" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progresisma_Erao" title="Progresisma Erao – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Progresisma Erao" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="عصر ترقی‌خواهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عصر ترقی‌خواهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88re_progressiste" title="Ère progressiste – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ère progressiste" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%EB%B3%B4_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="진보 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="진보 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razvojno_doba" title="Razvojno doba – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Razvojno doba" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frams%C3%B3knart%C3%ADmabili%C3%B0" title="Framsóknartímabilið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Framsóknartímabilið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_progressista" title="Era progressista – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Era progressista" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99" title="העידן הפרוגרסיבי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="העידן הפרוגרסיבי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%A9%E6%96%B0%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="革新主義時代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="革新主義時代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_progressive_periode" title="Den progressive periode – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den progressive periode" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="پرمختلونکی پير – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پرمختلونکی پير" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_post%C4%99powa" title="Era postępowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Era postępowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_Progressiva" title="Era Progressiva – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Era Progressiva" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Эра прогрессивизма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эра прогрессивизма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%93_%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%BA" title="ප්‍රගතිශීලී යුගය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රගතිශීලී යුගය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Progressive Era" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressiivisuuden_kausi" title="Progressiivisuuden kausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Progressiivisuuden kausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressiva_eran" title="Progressiva eran – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Progressiva eran" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0lerici_D%C3%B6nem" title="İlerici Dönem – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İlerici Dönem" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%9B%E6%AD%A5%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="进步时代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="进步时代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Turn-of-the-century political reform movement in the United States</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Progressive Era (disambiguation)">Progressive Era (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931918)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1865–1918)">History of the United States (1865–1918)</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States in World War I</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Henry_Mayer%2C_The_Awakening%2C_1915_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1176_01_-_Restoration.jpg/200px-Henry_Mayer%2C_The_Awakening%2C_1915_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1176_01_-_Restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Henry_Mayer%2C_The_Awakening%2C_1915_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1176_01_-_Restoration.jpg/300px-Henry_Mayer%2C_The_Awakening%2C_1915_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1176_01_-_Restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Henry_Mayer%2C_The_Awakening%2C_1915_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1176_01_-_Restoration.jpg/400px-Henry_Mayer%2C_The_Awakening%2C_1915_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1176_01_-_Restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9045" data-file-height="6003" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The Awakening: "Votes for Women" in 1915 <a href="/wiki/Puck_(magazine)" title="Puck (magazine)">Puck magazine</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Including</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth Party System</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">President(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. 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Harding</a> <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key events</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_anti-trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="United States anti-trust law">Trust-busting</a> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Initiative and referendum</a> <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a> <a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline and periods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">until 1607</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1607–1765</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1765–1783</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1783–1788</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1788–1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1801–1817</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1817–1825</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1825–1849</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1849–1865</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1865–1877</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1877–1896</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Progressive Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1896–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929–1941</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Post-World War II Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1964–1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Era">Reagan Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1981–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post-Cold War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–2008</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    Modern Era</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2008–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">Civil unrest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Racial violence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_flags_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the flags of the United States">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime history of the United States">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history">African American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Indian Americans">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans#History" title="German Americans">German American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transgender_people_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of transgender people in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Places</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_regions_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Historic regions of the United States">Historic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">AL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">AK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">AZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">AR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">CA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">CO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">CT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">DE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">FL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">GA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">HI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">ID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">IL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">IN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">IA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">KS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">KY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">LA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">ME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">MD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">MA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">MI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">MN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">MS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">MO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">MT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">NE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">NV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">NH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">NJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">NM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">NY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">NC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">OH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">OK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">OR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">PA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">RI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">SC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">SD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">TN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">TX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">UT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">VT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">VA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">WA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">WV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">WI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">WY</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Territories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">DC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">AS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">GU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">MP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">PR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">VI</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Progressivism" title="Category:Progressivism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Purple" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Purple_flag_waving.svg/75px-Purple_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Purple_flag_waving.svg/113px-Purple_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Purple_flag_waving.svg/150px-Purple_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">BLM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_for_the_Common_Good" title="Economy for the Common Good">ECG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_movement" title="Ethical movement">Ethical movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indivisible_movement" title="Indivisible movement">Indivisible movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MeToo_movement" title="MeToo movement">#MeToo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_Wall_Street" title="Occupy Wall Street">Occupy Wall Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Christianity" title="Progressive Christianity">Progressive Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Conservatism">Progressive Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Progressive Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform movement">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Resistance_(American_political_movement)" title="The Resistance (American political movement)">The Resistance</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY" title="YIMBY">YIMBY</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloward%E2%80%93Piven_strategy" title="Cloward–Piven strategy">Cloward–Piven strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broad_measures_of_economic_progress" title="Broad measures of economic progress">Broad measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Economic growth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">Freedom of movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_enhancement" title="Human enhancement">Human enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inward_light" title="Inward light">Inward light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Moral universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of progress">Philosophy of progress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_education" title="Progressive education">Progressive education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_education_in_Latin_America#Educational_progressivism" title="Inclusive education in Latin America">In Latin America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_stack" title="Progressive stack">Progressive stack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">Progressive taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Progressive nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice_warrior" title="Social justice warrior">Social justice warrior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">Social organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">Social progress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Social_Progress_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by Social Progress Index">List of countries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific progress">Scientific progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_essentialism" title="Strategic essentialism">Strategic essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Reparations for slavery in the United States">In the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">Scientific management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_Unionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidarity Unionism">Solidarity unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Techno-progressivism" title="Techno-progressivism">Techno-progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_childlessness" title="Voluntary childlessness">Voluntary childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Abbott" title="Edith Abbott">Abbott (Edith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Abbott" title="Grace Abbott">Abbott (Grace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imran_Ahmed_(strategist)" title="Imran Ahmed (strategist)">Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Alinsky" title="Saul Alinsky">Alinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Alexander" title="Michelle Alexander">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajamu_X" title="Ajamu X">Ajamu X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Archer" title="Deborah Archer">Archer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_Belmont" title="Alva Belmont">Belmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophonisba_Breckinridge" title="Sophonisba Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Brinton" title="Sam Brinton">Brinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Campbell,_Baroness_Campbell_of_Surbiton" title="Jane Campbell, Baroness Campbell of Surbiton">Cambell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cloward" title="Richard Cloward">Cloward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Debs (Eugene)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Dees" title="Morris Dees">Dees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman" title="Charlotte Perkins Gilman">Gilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haben_Girma" title="Haben Girma">Girma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirana_Hassan" title="Tirana Hassan">Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Heumann" title="Judith Heumann">Heumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Huang" title="Margaret Huang">Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_(activist)" title="George Jackson (activist)">Jackson (George)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jackson (Jesse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Cooper_Jackson" title="Esther Cooper Jackson">Jackson (Esther)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Jenkins" title="Andrea Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anetta_Kahane" title="Anetta Kahane">Kahane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaun_King" title="Shaun King">King (Shaun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">King (Jr.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ludmer" title="Maurice Ludmer">Ludmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey_Mahogany" title="Honey Mahogany">Mahogany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_McBride" title="Sarah McBride">McBride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DeRay_Mckesson" title="DeRay Mckesson">Mckesson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Page#Activism" title="Elliot Page">Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_J._Pearson" title="Justin J. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Rothblatt" title="Gabriel Rothblatt">Rothblatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_J._Seligmann" title="Herbert J. Seligmann">Seligmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Smeeth" title="Ruth Smeeth">Smeeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Soros" title="Alexander Soros">Soros (Alexander)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Soros" title="George Soros">Soros (George)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha_Walia" title="Harsha Walia">Walia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Windsor#Activism" title="Edith Windsor">Windsor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Wong_(activist)" title="Alice Wong (activist)">Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Woodhull" title="Victoria Woodhull">Woodhull</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imani_Barbarin" title="Imani Barbarin">Barbarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bedborough" title="George Bedborough">Bedborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bong_Joon-ho" title="Bong Joon-ho">Bong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Conover" title="Adam Conover">Conover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Criado_Perez" title="Caroline Criado Perez">Criado Perez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauren_Kate_Dale" class="mw-redirect" title="Lauren Kate Dale">Dale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcy_Darnovsky" title="Marcy Darnovsky">Darnovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizzie_Dearden" title="Lizzie Dearden">Dearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Duberman" title="Martin Duberman">Duberman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Favreau_(speechwriter)" title="Jon Favreau (speechwriter)">Favreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesca_Fiorentini" title="Francesca Fiorentini">Fiorentini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Glaude" title="Eddie Glaude">Glaude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Goldberg" title="Michelle Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thom_Hartmann" title="Thom Hartmann">Hartmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medhi_Hasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Medhi Hasan">Hasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karine_Jean-Pierre#MoveOn_and_political_commentary" title="Karine Jean-Pierre">Jean-Pierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_Jennings" title="Jazz Jennings">Jennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ana_Kasparian" title="Ana Kasparian">Kasparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Klein" title="Ezra Klein">Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Klippenstein" title="Ken Klippenstein">Klippenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Kulinski" title="Kyle Kulinski">Kulinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_Levy_(writer)" title="Ariel Levy (writer)">Levy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Lovett" title="Jon Lovett">Lovett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Marsh" title="Jeffrey Marsh">Marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Marshall" title="Josh Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_McKay" title="Adam McKay">McKay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Miller" title="Stephanie Miller">Miller (Stephanie)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Monroe" title="Jack Monroe">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Moore" title="Michael Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Morgan" title="Robin Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Nagle" title="Angela Nagle">Nagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Okrent" title="Daniel Okrent">Okrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Oliver" title="John Oliver">Oliver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pakman" title="David Pakman">Pakman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Piker" title="Hasan Piker">Piker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zo%C3%AB_Quinn" title="Zoë Quinn">Quinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Rather" title="Dan Rather">Rather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Reich (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joy_Reid" title="Joy Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Seder" title="Sam Seder">Seder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Simpson_(journalist)" title="Mark Simpson (journalist)">Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Smith_(journalist)" title="Ben Smith (journalist)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keffals" title="Keffals">Sorrenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Stewart" title="Jon Stewart">Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Talbot" title="David Talbot">Talbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Thorn" title="Abigail Thorn">Thorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommy_Vietor" title="Tommy Vietor">Vietor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenk_Uygur" title="Cenk Uygur">Uygur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Wise" title="Tim Wise">Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaush" title="Vaush">Kochinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ContraPoints" title="ContraPoints">Wynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Zuckerberg" title="Donna Zuckerberg">Zuckerberg</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anita_L._Allen" title="Anita L. Allen">Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Anderson" title="Carol Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Benedict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruha_Benjamin" title="Ruha Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liat_Ben-Moshe" title="Liat Ben-Moshe">Ben-Moshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">Beveridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Black" title="Edwin Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoinette_Brown_Blackwell" title="Antoinette Brown Blackwell">Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Bornstein" title="Kate Bornstein">Bornstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Brand" title="Adolf Brand">Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">de Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drucilla_Cornell" title="Drucilla Cornell">Cornell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis (Mike)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Brown_Douglas" title="Kelly Brown Douglas">Douglas (Kelly)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havelock_Ellis" title="Havelock Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_M._Fredrickson" title="George M. Fredrickson">Fredrickson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betty_Friedan" title="Betty Friedan">Friedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Wilson_Gilmore" title="Ruth Wilson Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelynn_M._Hammonds" title="Evelynn M. Hammonds">Hammonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_E._Helms" title="Janet E. Helms">Helms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld" title="Magnus Hirschfeld">Hirschfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">hooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Jeffries" title="Leonard Jeffries">Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibram_X._Kendi" title="Ibram X. Kendi">Kendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peggy_McIntosh" title="Peggy McIntosh">McIntosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Merriam" title="Charles Edward Merriam">Merriam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Meyers" title="Robin Meyers">Meyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Mills" title="Charles W. Mills">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">Money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Oastler#Political_philosophy" title="Richard Oastler">Oastler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Ostrowski" title="Marius Ostrowski">Ostrowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nell_Irvin_Painter" title="Nell Irvin Painter">Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlando_Patterson" title="Orlando Patterson">Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurit_Peled-Elhanan" title="Nurit Peled-Elhanan">Peled-Elhanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Reich" title="Wilhelm Reich">Reich (Wilhelm)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Roberts" title="Dorothy Roberts">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rothstein" title="Richard Rothstein">Rothstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Saini" title="Angela Saini">Saini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abby_Stein" title="Abby Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_TallBear" title="Kim TallBear">TallBear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cress_Welsing" title="Frances Cress Welsing">Welsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Wilderson_III" title="Frank B. Wilderson III">Wilderson III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshana_Zuboff" title="Shoshana Zuboff">Zuboff</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacinda_Ardern" title="Jacinda Ardern">Ardern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cory_Booker" title="Cory Booker">Booker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Boric" title="Gabriel Boric">Boric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Breed" title="London Breed">Breed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">Bryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Buttigieg" title="Pete Buttigieg">Buttigieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Casar" title="Greg Casar">Casar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">da Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Debs (Eugene)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Finke" title="Leigh Finke">Finke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howie_Hawkins" title="Howie Hawkins">Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Hessel" title="Stéphane Hessel">Hessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dario_Hunter" title="Dario Hunter">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramila_Jayapal" title="Pramila Jayapal">Jayapal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro_Khanna" title="Ro Khanna">Khanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">La Follette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Lee" title="Summer Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Frost" title="Maxwell Frost">Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiorello_La_Guardia" title="Fiorello La Guardia">La Guardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyuh_Woon-hyung" title="Lyuh Woon-hyung">Lyuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Markey" title="Ed Markey">Markey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_McBride" title="Sarah McBride">McBride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">McGovern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Merkley" title="Jeff Merkley">Merkley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomiichi_Murayama" title="Tomiichi Murayama">Murayama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Murphy" title="Emily Murphy">Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Nader" title="Ralph Nader">Nader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Holmes_Norton" title="Eleanor Holmes Norton">Norton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Manuel_L%C3%B3pez_Obrador" title="Andrés Manuel López Obrador">Obrador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilhan_Omar" title="Ilhan Omar">Omar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Petro" title="Gustavo Petro">Petro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Pocan" title="Mark Pocan">Pocan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayanna_Pressley" title="Ayanna Pressley">Pressley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamie_Raskin" title="Jamie Raskin">Raskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Eleanor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Franklin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Theodore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_S%C3%A1nchez" title="Pedro Sánchez">Sánchez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keir_Starmer" title="Keir Starmer">Starmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashida_Tlaib" title="Rashida Tlaib">Tlaib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Walz" title="Tim Walz">Walz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butch_Ware" title="Butch Ware">Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonnie_Watson_Coleman" title="Bonnie Watson Coleman">Watson Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Weaver" title="James B. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson" title="Harold Wilson">Wilson (Harold)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar%C5%8D_Yamamoto" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarō Yamamoto">Yamamoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Yavlinsky" title="Grigory Yavlinsky">Yavlinsky</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Better-World_Philosophy" title="Better-World Philosophy">Better-World Philosophy</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_and_Superman" title="Man and Superman">Man and Superman</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Universal_Kinship" title="The Universal Kinship">The Universal Kinship</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Conspiracy" title="The Open Conspiracy">The Open Conspiracy</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mass_Psychology_of_Fascism" title="The Mass Psychology of Fascism">The Mass Psychology of Fascism</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die_Sexualit%C3%A4t_im_Kulturkampf" title="Die Sexualität im Kulturkampf">Sexuality in the Cultural Struggle</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beveridge_Report" title="Beveridge Report">Beveridge Report</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_for_Radicals" title="Rules for Radicals">Rules for Radicals</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanist_Manifesto_II" title="Humanist Manifesto II">Humanist Manifesto II</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman_Hating" title="Woman Hating">Woman Hating</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale" title="The Handmaid's Tale">The Handmaid's Tale</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Athena" title="Black Athena">Black Athena</a> (1987–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Racial_Contract" title="The Racial Contract">The Racial Contract</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Against_the_Weak" title="War Against the Weak">War Against the Weak</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Audacity_of_Hope" title="The Audacity of Hope">The Audacity of Hope</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Invention_of_the_Jewish_People" title="The Invention of the Jewish People">The Invention of the Jewish People</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Jim_Crow" title="The New Jim Crow">The New Jim Crow</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Speech_(Sanders_book)" title="The Speech (Sanders book)">The Speech</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Revolution_(Sanders_book)" title="Our Revolution (Sanders book)">Our Revolution</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Rage" title="White Rage">White Rage</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Color_of_Law" title="The Color of Law">The Color of Law</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_(book)" title="Inferior (book)">Inferior</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Zuckerberg#Not_All_Dead_White_Men" title="Donna Zuckerberg">Not All Dead White Men</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_Women:_Exposing_Data_Bias_in_a_World_Designed_for_Men" title="Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men">Invisible Women</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/How_to_Be_an_Antiracist" title="How to Be an Antiracist">How to Be an Antiracist</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_After_Technology" title="Race After Technology">Race After Technology</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior:_The_Return_of_Race_Science" title="Superior: The Return of Race Science">Superior</a> (2019)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amadeu_Antonio_Foundation" title="Amadeu Antonio Foundation">Amadeu Antonio Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">ACLU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sexual_Health_Association" title="American Sexual Health Association">ASHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_Global_Network_Foundation" title="Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation">BLMGNF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Genetics_and_Society" title="Center for Genetics and Society">CGS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brennan_Center_for_Justice" title="Brennan Center for Justice">Brennan Center for Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_Change" title="Color of Change">Color of Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Alliance" title="Democracy Alliance">Democracy Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker_Center_for_Human_Rights" title="Ella Baker Center for Human Rights">Ella Baker Center for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_and_Human_Rights_Commission" title="Equality and Human Rights Commission">Equality and Human Rights Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Network_Against_Racism" title="European Network Against Racism">ENAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_Society" title="Fabian Society">Fabian Society</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Coefficients_(dining_club)" title="Coefficients (dining club)">Coefficients</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Immigration_Reform_Movement" title="Fair Immigration Reform Movement">FIRM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_Foundation" title="Ford Foundation">Ford Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_not_Hate" title="Hope not Hate">Hope not Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Lesbian,_Gay,_Bisexual,_Trans_and_Intersex_Association" title="International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association">ILGA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Committee_Against_Racism" title="International Committee Against Racism">InCAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Public_Policy_Research" title="Institute for Public Policy Research">IPPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArthur_Foundation" title="MacArthur Foundation">MacArthur Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Black_Lives" title="Movement for Black Lives">Movement for Black Lives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_one_is_illegal" title="No one is illegal">No one is illegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Welfare_Rights_Organization" title="National Welfare Rights Organization">NWRO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society_(2006_organization)" title="Students for a Democratic Society (2006 organization)">New SDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Society_Foundations" title="Open Society Foundations">OSF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Revolution" title="Our Revolution">Our Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_American_Way" title="People for the American Way">PFAW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Alliance" title="Progressive Alliance">PA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_International" title="Progressive International">PI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_League" title="Progressive League">Progressive League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Majority" title="Progressive Majority">Progressive Majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ProgressNow" title="ProgressNow">ProgressNow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Flare" title="Red Flare">Red Flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wood_Johnson_Foundation" title="Robert Wood Johnson Foundation">RWJF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_for_the_People" title="Science for the People">SftP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tides_Foundation" title="Tides Foundation">Tides Foundation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crooked_Media" title="Crooked Media">Crooked Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CTXT" title="CTXT">CTXT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HuffPost" title="HuffPost">HuffPost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(magazine)" title="Jacobin (magazine)">Jacobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jezebel_(website)" title="Jezebel (website)">Jezebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucifer_the_Lightbearer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucifer the Lightbearer">Lucifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones_(magazine)" title="Mother Jones (magazine)">Mother Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Statesman" title="New Statesman">New Statesman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Progressive" title="The Progressive">The Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salon.com" title="Salon.com">Salon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Searchlight_(magazine)" title="Searchlight (magazine)">Searchlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Young_Turks" title="The Young Turks">The Young Turks</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirchnerism" title="Kirchnerism">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_political_parties_(Japan)" title="Progressive political parties (Japan)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_South_Korea" title="Progressivism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerationism" title="Accelerationism">Accelerationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_progressivism" title="Economic progressivism">Economic progressivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red%E2%80%93green_alliance" title="Red–green alliance">Red–green alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_populism" title="Left-wing populism">Left-wing populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">In United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress Studies">Progress Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive era">Progressive era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #800080; border-bottom:1px solid #800080; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Template:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Progressive Era (1901–1929) was a period in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> during the early 20th century of widespread social activism and political reform across the country.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressives</a> sought to address the problems caused by rapid industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption as well as the enormous concentration of industrial ownership in monopolies. Progressive reformers were alarmed by the spread of slums, poverty, and the exploitation of labor. Multiple overlapping progressive movements fought perceived social, political, and economic ills by advancing good democracy, scientific methods, and professionalism; regulating business; protecting the natural environment; and improving working and living conditions of the urban poor.<a href="#cite_note-Auto29-3-3">[3]</a> Corrupt and undemocratic <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machines</a> and their bosses were a major target of progressive reformers. To revitalize democracy, progressives established direct <a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">primary elections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">direct election of senators</a> (rather than by state legislatures), <a href="/wiki/Initiatives_and_referendums_in_the_United_States" title="Initiatives and referendums in the United States">initiatives and referenda</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-4">[4]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">women's suffrage</a> which was promoted to advance democracy and bring the presumed moral influence of women into politics.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> For many progressives, <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">prohibition of alcoholic beverages</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> was key to eliminating corruption in politics as well as improving social conditions. Another target were <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopolies</a>, which progressives worked to regulate through <a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">trustbusting</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">antitrust laws</a> with the goal of promoting fair competition. Progressives also advocated new government agencies focused on regulation of industry.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> An additional goal of progressives was bringing to bear scientific, medical, and engineering solutions to reform government and education and foster improvements in various fields including medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, and churches. They aimed to professionalize the social sciences, especially history,<a href="#cite_note-Richard_Hofstadter_1968-8">[8]</a> economics,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-9">[9]</a> and political science<a href="#cite_note-Barry_Karl_1975-10">[10]</a> and improve efficiency with <a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">scientific management</a> or Taylorism.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Initially, the movement operated chiefly at the local level, but later it expanded to the state and national levels. Progressive leaders were often from the educated middle class, and various progressive reform efforts drew support from lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, business people, and the working class.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Originators_of_progressive_ideals_and_efforts">Originators of progressive ideals and efforts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Originators of progressive ideals and efforts">edit</a>]</div> Certain key groups of thinkers, writers, and activists played key roles in creating or building the movements and ideas that came to define the shape of the Progressive Era. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_democracy:_Initiative_and_referendum">Popular democracy: Initiative and referendum</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Popular democracy: Initiative and referendum">edit</a>]</div> Inspiration for the initiative movement was based on the Swiss experience. New Jersey labor activist James W. Sullivan visited Switzerland in 1888 and wrote a detailed book that became a template for reformers pushing the idea: Direct Legislation by the Citizenship Through the Initiative and Referendum (1893).<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> He suggested that using the initiative would give political power to the working class and reduce the need for strikes. Sullivan's book was first widely read on the left, as by labor activists, socialists and populists. William U'Ren was an early convert who used it to build the Oregon reform crusade. By 1900, middle-class "progressive" reformers everywhere were studying it.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Georgism">Georgism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Georgism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a>'s first book, sold several million copies, becoming one of the highest selling books of the late 1800s. It helped spark the Progressive Era and a worldwide social reform movement around an ideology now known as <a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Riis" title="Jacob Riis">Jacob Riis</a>, for example, explicitly marks the beginning of the Progressive Era awakening as 1879 because of the date of this publication. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muckraking:_exposing_corruption">Muckraking: exposing corruption</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Muckraking: exposing corruption">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Muckraker" title="Muckraker">Muckraker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_media_and_American_politics" title="Mass media and American politics">Mass media and American politics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:McClure%27s_Christmas_1903_cover.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/McClure%27s_Christmas_1903_cover.jpg/220px-McClure%27s_Christmas_1903_cover.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/McClure%27s_Christmas_1903_cover.jpg/330px-McClure%27s_Christmas_1903_cover.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/McClure%27s_Christmas_1903_cover.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Christmas 1903 cover of McClure's features a muckraking expose of Rockefeller and Standard Oil by Ida Tarbell.</figcaption></figure> Magazines experienced a boost in popularity in 1900, with some attaining circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. In the beginning of the age of mass media, the rapid expansion of national advertising led the cover price of popular magazines to fall sharply to about 10 cents, lessening the financial barrier to consume them.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Another factor contributing to the dramatic upswing in magazine circulation was the prominent coverage of corruption in politics, local government, and big business, particularly by journalists and writers who became known as <a href="/wiki/Muckraker" title="Muckraker">muckrakers</a>. They wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. Relying on their own <a href="/wiki/Investigative_journalism" title="Investigative journalism">investigative journalism</a>, muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">political corruption</a>. Muckraking magazines, notably <a href="/wiki/McClure%27s" title="McClure's">McClure's</a>, took on corporate monopolies and <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machines</a> while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, and <a href="/wiki/Social_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues">social issues</a> like <a href="/wiki/Child_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor in the United States">child labor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Most of the muckrakers wrote nonfiction, but fictional exposés often had a major impact as well, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Upton_Sinclair" title="Upton Sinclair">Upton Sinclair</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In his 1906 novel <a href="/wiki/The_Jungle" title="The Jungle">The Jungle</a>, Sinclair exposed the unsanitary and inhumane practices of the meatpacking industry, as he made clear in the Jungle itself. He quipped, "I aimed at the public's heart and by accident, I hit it in the stomach," as readers demanded and got the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Meat_Inspection_Act" title="Federal Meat Inspection Act">Meat Inspection Act</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act" title="Pure Food and Drug Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like <a href="/wiki/Ray_Stannard_Baker" title="Ray Stannard Baker">Ray Stannard Baker</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Creel" title="George Creel">George Creel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brand_Whitlock" title="Brand Whitlock">Brand Whitlock</a>. Others such as <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Steffens" title="Lincoln Steffens">Lincoln Steffens</a> exposed political corruption in many large cities; <a href="/wiki/Ida_Tarbell" title="Ida Tarbell">Ida Tarbell</a> is famed for her criticisms of <a href="/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller" title="John D. Rockefeller">John D. Rockefeller</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Oil Company">Standard Oil Company</a>. In 1906, <a href="/wiki/David_Graham_Phillips" title="David Graham Phillips">David Graham Phillips</a> unleashed a blistering indictment of corruption in the US Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up too much muck.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernization">Modernization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Modernization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Efficiency_movement" title="Efficiency movement">Efficiency movement</a></div> The progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and technology as the grand solution to society's flaws. They looked to education as the key to bridging the gap between their present wasteful society and technologically enlightened future society. Characteristics of progressivism included a favorable attitude toward urban–industrial society, belief in mankind's ability to improve the environment and conditions of life, belief in an obligation to intervene in economic and social affairs, a belief in the ability of experts and in the efficiency of government intervention.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Scientific management, as promulgated by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Frederick Winslow Taylor</a>, became a watchword for industrial efficiency and elimination of waste, with the stopwatch as its symbol.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Philanthropy">edit</a>]</div> The number of rich families climbed exponentially, from 100 or so millionaires in the 1870s to 4,000 in 1892 and 16,000 in 1916. Many subscribed to <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a>'s credo outlined in <a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a> that said they owed a duty to society that called for philanthropic giving to colleges, hospitals, medical research, libraries, museums, religion, and social betterment.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In the early 20th century, American philanthropy matured, with the development of very large, highly visible private foundations created by <a href="/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller" title="John D. Rockefeller">Rockefeller</a> and Carnegie. The largest foundations fostered modern, efficient, business-oriented operations (as opposed to "charity") designed to better society rather than merely enhance the status of the giver. Close ties were built with the local business community, as in the "community chest" movement.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Red_Cross" title="American Red Cross">American Red Cross</a> was reorganized and professionalized.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Several major foundations aided the blacks in the South and were typically advised by <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>. By contrast, Europe and Asia had few foundations. This allowed both Carnegie and Rockefeller to operate internationally with a powerful effect.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle-class_values">Middle-class values</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Middle-class values">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg/220px-Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg/330px-Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg/440px-Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1383" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman" title="Charlotte Perkins Gilman">Charlotte Perkins Gilman</a> (pictured) wrote these articles about <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a> for the Atlanta Constitution, published on December 10, 1916.</figcaption></figure> A hallmark group of the Progressive Era, the middle class became the driving force behind much of the thought and reform that took place in this time. With an increasing disdain for the upper class and aristocracy of the time, the middle class is characterized by their rejection of the individualistic philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Upper_ten_thousand" title="Upper ten thousand">Upper Ten</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> They had a rapidly growing interest in the communication and role between classes, those of which are generally referred to as the upper class, working class, farmers, and themselves.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Along these lines, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Hull-House" class="mw-redirect" title="Hull-House">Hull-House</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a>, coined the term "association" as a counter to <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a>, with association referring to the search for a relationship between the classes.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Additionally, the middle class (most notably women) began to move away from prior <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> domestic values. Divorce rates increased as women preferred to seek education and freedom from the home.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Victorianism was pushed aside by the rise of progressivism.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaders_and_activists">Leaders and activists</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Leaders and activists">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Politicians_and_government_officials">Politicians and government officials</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Politicians and government officials">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Robert_M._La_Follette">Robert M. La Follette</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Robert M. La Follette">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a> and <a href="/wiki/La_Follette_family" title="La Follette family">La Follette family</a></div> Robert M. La Follette and his family were the dominant forces of progressivism in Wisconsin from the late 1890s to the early 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> He tried for a national leadership role in 1912 but blundered badly in a highly embarrassing speech to leading journalists.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Starting as a loyal organizational Republican, he broke with the bosses in the late 1890s, built up a network of local organizers loyal to him, and fought for control of the state Republican Party, with mixed success. The Democrats were a minor factor in the state, but he did form coalitions with the active Socialist Party in Milwaukee. He failed to win the nomination for governor in 1896 and 1898 before winning the <a href="/wiki/1900_Wisconsin_gubernatorial_election" title="1900 Wisconsin gubernatorial election">1900 gubernatorial election</a>. As governor of Wisconsin, La Follette compiled a progressive record, implementing primary elections and tax reform. La Follette won re-election in 1902 and 1904. In 1905 the legislature elected him to the United States Senate, where he emerged as a national progressive leader, often clashing with conservatives like Senator <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Aldrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Nelson Aldrich">Nelson Aldrich</a>. He initially supported President Taft, but broke with Taft after the latter failed to push a reduction in <a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">tariff</a> rates. He challenged Taft for the Republican presidential nomination in the <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 presidential election</a>, but his candidacy was overshadowed by Theodore Roosevelt. La Follette's refusal to support Roosevelt, and especially his suicidal ranting speech before media leaders in February 1912, alienated many progressives. La Follette forfeited his stature as a national leader of progressive Republicans, while remaining a power in Wisconsin.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> La Follette supported some of President Wilson's policies, but he broke with the president over foreign policy, thereby gaining support from Wisconsin's large German and Scandinavian elements. During World War I, La Follette was the most outspoken opponent of the administration's domestic and international policies.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> With the major parties each nominating conservative candidates in the <a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924 presidential election</a>, left-wing groups coalesced behind La Follette's <a href="/wiki/Third_party_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Third party (United States)">third-party</a> candidacy. With the support of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party</a>, farmer's groups, labor unions, and others, La Follette was strong in Wisconsin, and to a much lesser extent in the West. He called for government ownership of railroads and electric utilities, cheap credit for farmers, stronger laws to help labor unions, and protections for civil liberties. La Follette won 17% of the popular vote and carried only his home state in the face of a Republican landslide. After his death in 1925 his sons, <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette_Jr." title="Robert M. La Follette Jr.">Robert M. La Follette Jr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_La_Follette" title="Philip La Follette">Philip La Follette</a>, succeeded him as progressive leaders in Wisconsin.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Theodore_Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Theodore Roosevelt">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration">Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration</a></div> President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> was a leader of the Progressive movement, and he championed his "<a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a>" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. He made conservation a top priority and established many new <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States" title="List of national parks of the United States">national parks</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._National_Forests" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. National Forests">forests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_National_Monuments_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of National Monuments of the United States">monuments</a> intended to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary" title="Roosevelt Corollary">focused on Central America</a> where he began construction of the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a>. He expanded the army and sent the <a href="/wiki/Great_White_Fleet" title="Great White Fleet">Great White Fleet</a> on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to broker the end of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. He avoided controversial tariff and money issues. He was elected to a full term in 1904 and continued to promote progressive policies, some of which were passed in Congress. By 1906 he was moving to the left, advocating some social welfare programs, and criticizing various business practices such as trusts. The leadership of the GOP in Congress moved to the right, as did his protégé President William Howard Taft. Roosevelt broke bitterly with Taft in 1910, and also with Wisconsin's progressive leader <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a>. Taft defeated Roosevelt for the 1912 Republican nomination and Roosevelt set up an entirely new Progressive Party. It called for a "New Nationalism" with active supervision of corporations, higher taxes, and unemployment and old-age insurance. He supported voting rights for women but was silent on civil rights for blacks, who remained in the regular Republican fold. He lost and his new party collapsed, as conservatism dominated the GOP for decades to come. Biographer William Harbaugh argues: <dl><dd><dl><dd>In foreign affairs, Theodore Roosevelt’s legacy is judicious support of the national interest and promotion of world stability through the maintenance of a balance of power; creation or strengthening of international agencies, and resort to their use when practicable; and implicit resolve to use military force, if feasible, to foster legitimate American interests. In domestic affairs, it is the use of government to advance the public interest. "If on this new continent", he said, "we merely build another country of great but unjustly divided material prosperity, we shall have done nothing".<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Woodrow_Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Woodrow Wilson">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Presidency of Woodrow Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration">Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonianism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> gained a national reputation as governor of New Jersey by defeating the bosses and pushing through a progressive agenda. As president he introduced a comprehensive program of domestic legislation.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> He had four major domestic priorities: the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation</a> of natural resources, banking reform, <a href="/wiki/Tariff_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariff in United States history">tariff reduction</a>, and opening access to raw materials by breaking up Western mining trusts.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Though foreign affairs would unexpectedly dominate his presidency, Wilson's first two years in office largely focused on the implementation of his New Freedom domestic agenda.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Wilson presided over the passage of his progressive <a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom">New Freedom</a> domestic agenda. His first major priority was the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1913" title="Revenue Act of 1913">Revenue Act of 1913</a>, which lowered <a href="/wiki/Tariff_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariff in United States history">tariffs</a> and implemented a federal <a href="/wiki/Income_Tax_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Income Tax in the United States">income tax</a>. Later tax acts implemented a federal <a href="/wiki/Estate_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Estate tax in the United States">estate tax</a> and raised the top income tax rate to 77 percent. Wilson also presided over the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act" title="Federal Reserve Act">Federal Reserve Act</a>, which created a central banking system in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Reserve System">Federal Reserve System</a>. Two major laws, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Trade Commission Act">Federal Trade Commission Act</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Antitrust Act">Clayton Antitrust Act</a>, were passed to regulate business and prevent monopolies. Wilson did not support civil rights and did not object to accelerating <a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Segregation in the United States">segregate</a> of federal employees. In World War I, he made internationalism a key element of the progressive outlook, as expressed in his <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a> and the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>—an ideal called <a href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Charles_Evans_Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Charles Evans Hughes">edit</a>]</div> New York Governor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> is known for exposing the insurance industry. During his time in office he promoted a range of reforms. As presidential candidate in 1916 he lost after alienating progressive California voters. As Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, he often sided with <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a> in upholding popular reforms such as the minimum wage, workmen's compensation, and maximum work hours for women and children.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> He also wrote several opinions upholding the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce under the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a>. His majority opinion in the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad v. Interstate Commerce Commission upheld the right of the federal government to regulate the hours of railroad workers.<a href="#cite_note-Shoemaker_2004_63–64-49">[49]</a> His majority opinion in the 1914 <a href="/wiki/Houston_East_%26_West_Texas_Railway_Co._v._United_States" title="Houston East & West Texas Railway Co. v. United States">Shreveport Rate Case</a> upheld a decision by the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> to void discriminatory railroad rates imposed by the <a href="/wiki/Railroad_Commission_of_Texas" title="Railroad Commission of Texas">Railroad Commission of Texas</a>. The decision established that the federal government could regulate intrastate commerce when it affected interstate commerce, though Hughes avoided directly overruling the 1895 case of <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._E._C._Knight_Co." title="United States v. E. C. Knight Co.">United States v. E. C. Knight Co.</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court he took a moderate middle position and upheld key New Deal laws.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Gifford_Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gifford Pinchot">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a> was an American forester and politician. Pinchot served as the first Chief of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States Forest Service</a> from 1905 until 1910 and was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of Pennsylvania">28th Governor of Pennsylvania</a>, serving from 1923 to 1927, and again from 1931 to 1935. He was a member of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Republican_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Republican Party">Republican Party</a> for most of his life, though he also joined the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1912)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1912)">Progressive Party</a> for a brief period. Pinchot is known for reforming the management and development of forests in the United States and for advocating the conservation of the nation's reserves by planned use and renewal.<a href="#cite_note-AmExp-52">[52]</a> He called it "the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield for the service of man." Pinchot coined the term <a href="/wiki/Conservation_ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation ethic">conservation ethic</a> as applied to natural resources. Pinchot's main contribution was his leadership in promoting scientific forestry and emphasizing the controlled, profitable use of forests and other natural resources so they would be of maximum benefit to mankind.<a href="#cite_note-AmExp-52">[52]</a> He was the first to demonstrate the practicality and profitability of managing forests for continuous cropping. His leadership put the conservation of forests high on America's priority list.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Authors_and_journalists">Authors and journalists</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Authors and journalists">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Herbert_Croly">Herbert Croly</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Herbert Croly">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Croly" title="Herbert Croly">Herbert Croly</a> was an intellectual leader of the movement as an editor, political philosopher and a co-founder of the magazine <a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a>. His political philosophy influenced many leading progressives including Theodore Roosevelt, <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Berle" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolph Berle">Adolph Berle</a>, as well as his close friends Judge <a href="/wiki/Learned_Hand" title="Learned Hand">Learned Hand</a> and Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Levy-54">[54]</a> Croly's 1909 book <a href="/wiki/The_Promise_of_American_Life" title="The Promise of American Life">The Promise of American Life</a> looked to the constitutional liberalism as espoused by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, combined with the radical <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">democracy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The book influenced contemporaneous progressive thought, shaping the ideas of many intellectuals and political leaders, including then ex-President Theodore Roosevelt. Calling themselves "The New Nationalists", Croly and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Weyl" title="Walter Weyl">Walter Weyl</a> sought to remedy the relatively weak national institutions with a strong federal government. He promoted a strong army and navy and attacked <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifists</a> who thought democracy at home and peace abroad was best served by keeping America weak. Croly was one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">modern liberalism in the United States</a>, especially through his books, essays and a highly influential magazine founded in 1914, The New Republic. In his 1914 book Progressive Democracy, Croly rejected the thesis that the liberal tradition in the United States was inhospitable to <a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">anti-capitalist</a> alternatives. He drew from the American past a history of resistance to <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> wage relations that was fundamentally liberal, and he reclaimed an idea that progressives had allowed to lapse—that working for wages was a lesser form of liberty. Increasingly skeptical of the capacity of <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">social welfare</a> legislation to remedy social ills, Croly argued that America's liberal promise could be redeemed only by <a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">syndicalist</a> reforms involving <a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">workplace democracy</a>. His liberal goals were part of his commitment to <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">American republicanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-O'Leary-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Upton_Sinclair">Upton Sinclair</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Upton Sinclair">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Upton_Sinclair" title="Upton Sinclair">Upton Sinclair</a> was an American writer who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in several genres. Sinclair's work was well known and popular in the first half of the 20th century, and he won the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Fiction" title="Pulitzer Prize for Fiction">Pulitzer Prize for Fiction</a> in 1943. In 1906, Sinclair acquired particular fame for his classic <a href="/wiki/Muckraker" title="Muckraker">muck-raking</a> novel <a href="/wiki/The_Jungle" title="The Jungle">The Jungle</a>, which exposed labor and sanitary conditions in the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Meatpacking_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Meatpacking industry">meatpacking industry</a>, causing a public uproar that contributed in part to the passage a few months later of the 1906 <a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act" title="Pure Food and Drug Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Meat_Inspection_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat Inspection Act">Meat Inspection Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In 1919, he published <a href="/wiki/The_Brass_Check" title="The Brass Check">The Brass Check</a>, a muck-raking <a href="/wiki/Expos%C3%A9_(journalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposé (journalism)">exposé</a> of American journalism that publicized the issue of <a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">yellow journalism</a> and the limitations of the "free press" in the United States. Four years after publication of The Brass Check, the first <a href="/wiki/Code_of_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of ethics">code of ethics</a> for journalists was created.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ida_Tarbell">Ida Tarbell</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ida Tarbell">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ida_Tarbell" title="Ida Tarbell">Ida Tarbell</a>, a writer and lecturer, was one of the leading <a href="/wiki/Muckraker" title="Muckraker">muckrakers</a> and pioneered <a href="/wiki/Investigative_journalism" title="Investigative journalism">investigative journalism</a>. Tarbell is best known for her 1904 book, <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Standard_Oil_Company" title="The History of the Standard Oil Company">The History of the Standard Oil Company</a>. The book was published as a series of articles in <a href="/wiki/McClure%27s_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="McClure's Magazine">McClure's Magazine</a> from 1902 to 1904. The work helped turn elite public opinion against the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a> monopoly.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lincoln_Steffens">Lincoln Steffens</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lincoln Steffens">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Steffens" title="Lincoln Steffens">Lincoln Steffens</a> was another investigative journalist and one of the leading <a href="/wiki/Muckraker" title="Muckraker">muckrakers</a>. He launched a series of articles in <a href="/wiki/McClure%27s" title="McClure's">McClure's</a>, called Tweed Days in St. Louis,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> that would later be published together in a book titled <a href="/wiki/The_Shame_of_the_Cities" title="The Shame of the Cities">The Shame of the Cities</a>. He is remembered for investigating corruption in <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">municipal government</a> in American cities and leftist values. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jane_Addams">Jane Addams</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Jane Addams">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a> was an American <a href="/wiki/Settlement_movement" title="Settlement movement">settlement</a> activist, reformer, social worker,<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a>,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_administrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Public administrator">public administrator</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> and author. She was a notable figure in the history of social work and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">women's suffrage in the United States</a> and an advocate of <a href="/wiki/World_peace" title="World peace">world peace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> She co-founded Chicago's <a href="/wiki/Hull_House" title="Hull House">Hull House</a>, one of America's most famous settlement houses. In 1920, she was a co-founder for the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a> (ACLU).<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In 1931, she became the first American woman to be awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>, and is recognized as the founder of the social work profession in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Maurice Hamington considered her a radical <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatist</a> and the first woman "public philosopher" in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In the 1930s, she was the best-known female public figure in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="State_and_local_activity">State and local activity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: State and local activity">edit</a>]</div> According to James Wright, the typical progressive agenda at the state level included: <blockquote>A reduction of corporate influence, open processes of government and politics, equity entrance in taxation, efficiency in government mental operation, and an expanded, albeit limited, state responsibility to the citizens who are most vulnerable and deprived.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></blockquote> In the south, prohibition was high on the agenda but controversial. Jim Crow and disenfranchisement of Black voters was even higher on the agenda.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In the Western states, <a href="/wiki/Woman_suffrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Woman suffrage">woman suffrage</a> was a success story, but racist anti-Asian sentiment also prevailed.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_states">Western states</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Western states">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oregon">Oregon</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Oregon">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Direct_Legislation_League" title="Direct Legislation League">Direct Legislation League</a></div> The Oregon <a href="/wiki/Direct_Legislation_League" title="Direct Legislation League">Direct Legislation League</a> was an organization of political activists founded by <a href="/wiki/William_S._U%27Ren" class="mw-redirect" title="William S. U'Ren">William S. U'Ren</a> in 1898. Oregon was one of the few states where former Populists like U'Ren became progressive leaders. U'Ren had been inspired by reading the influential 1893 book Direct Legislation Through the Initiative and Referendum,<a href="#cite_note-directbook-74">[74]</a> and the group's founding followed in the wake of the 1896 founding of the National Direct Legislation League, which itself had its roots in the Direct Legislation League of <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> and its short-lived predecessor, the People's Power League.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt-75">[75]</a> The group led efforts in Oregon to establish an <a href="/wiki/Popular_initiative" title="Popular initiative">initiative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a> system, allowing direct legislation by the state's citizens. In 1902, the <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Legislative_Assembly" title="Oregon Legislative Assembly">Oregon Legislative Assembly</a> approved such a system, which was known at the time as the "<a href="/wiki/Oregon_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Oregon System">Oregon System</a>". The group's further efforts led to successful ballot initiatives implementing a <a href="/wiki/Direct_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct primary">direct primary</a> system in 1904, and allowing citizens to <a href="/wiki/Recall_election" title="Recall election">directly recall</a> public officials in 1908.<a href="#cite_note-OBB_Initiative-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carey-77">[77]</a> Democrats who promoted progressive policies included <a href="/wiki/George_Earle_Chamberlain" class="mw-redirect" title="George Earle Chamberlain">George Earle Chamberlain</a> (governor 1903–1909 and senator 1909–1921); <a href="/wiki/Oswald_West" title="Oswald West">Oswald West</a> (governor 1911–1915); and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Lane" title="Harry Lane">Harry Lane</a> (senator 1913–1917). The most important Republican was <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bourne_Jr._(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Bourne Jr. (politician)">Jonathan Bourne Jr.</a> (senator 1907–1913 and national leader of progressive causes 1911–1912).<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="California">California</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: California">edit</a>]</div> California built the most successful grass roots progressive movement in the country by mobilizing independent organizations and largely ignoring the conservative state parties. The system continues strong into the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Following the Oregon model, <a href="/wiki/John_Randolph_Haynes" title="John Randolph Haynes">John Randolph Haynes</a> organized the <a href="/wiki/Direct_Legislation_League" title="Direct Legislation League">Direct Legislation League</a> of California in 1902 to launch the campaign for inclusion of the initiative and referendum in the state's constitution.<a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a> The League sent questionnaires to prospective candidates to the state legislature to obtain their stance on direct legislation and to make those positions public. It then flooded the state with letters seeking new members, money, and endorsements from organizations like the State Federation of Labor. As membership grew it worked with other private organizations to petition the state legislature, which was not responsive. In 1902 the League won a state constitutional amendment establishing direct democracy at the local level, and in 1904, it successfully engineered the recall of the first public official.<a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South">South</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: South">edit</a>]</div> Progressivism was strongest in the cities, but the South was rural with few large cities. Nevertheless, statewide progressive movements were organized by Democrats in every Southern state.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Furthermore, Southern Democrats in Congress gave strong support to President Wilson's reforms.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The South was a main target of Northern philanthropy designed to fight poverty and disease, and help the black community. <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a> mobilized small black-owned business and secured access to Northern philanthropy. Across the South the <a href="/wiki/General_Education_Board" title="General Education Board">General Education Board</a> (funded by the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_family" title="Rockefeller family">Rockefeller family</a>) provided large-scale subsidies for black schools, which otherwise continued to be underfunded.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The South was targeted in the 1920s and 1930s by the <a href="/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Rosenwald Fund">Julius Rosenwald Fund</a>, which contributed matching funds to local communities for the construction of thousands of schools for African Americans in rural areas throughout the South. Black parents donated land and labor to build improved schools for their children.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_Carolina">North Carolina</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: North Carolina">edit</a>]</div> North Carolina took a leadership role in modernizing the south, notably in expansion of public education and the state university system and improvements in transportation, which earned it the nickname "The Good Roads State."<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> State leaders included Governor <a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Aycock" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles B. Aycock">Charles B. Aycock</a>, who led both the educational and the white supremacy crusades; diplomat <a href="/wiki/Walter_Hines_Page" title="Walter Hines Page">Walter Hines Page</a>; and educator <a href="/wiki/Charles_Duncan_McIver" title="Charles Duncan McIver">Charles Duncan McIver</a>. Women were especially active through the <a href="/wiki/WCTU" class="mw-redirect" title="WCTU">WCTU</a>, the Baptist church, overseas missions, local public schools, and in the cause of prohibition, leading North Carolina to become the first southern state to implement statewide <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/statewide-prohibition">prohibition</a>. Progressives worked to limit child labor in textile mills and supported public health campaigns to eradicate <a href="/wiki/Hookworm" title="Hookworm">hookworm</a> and other debilitating diseases.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> While the majority of North Carolininans continued to support traditional gender roles, and state legislators did not ratify the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment</a> until 1971, Progressive reformers like <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Weil" title="Gertrude Weil">Gertrude Weil</a> and Dr. <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Delia_Dixon-Carroll" title="Elizabeth Delia Dixon-Carroll">Elizabeth Delia Dixon Carroll</a> lobbied for <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">woman suffrage</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Wilmington_massacre" title="Wilmington massacre">Wilmington massacre</a>, North Carolina imposed strict legal segregation and rewrote its constitution in order to <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">disfranchise</a> Black men through poll taxes and literacy tests. In the Black community, <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Hawkins_Brown" title="Charlotte Hawkins Brown">Charlotte Hawkins Brown</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Palmer_Memorial_Institute" title="Palmer Memorial Institute">Palmer Memorial Institute</a> to provide a liberal arts education to Black children and promote excellence and leadership. Brown worked with <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> (in his role with the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a>), who provided ideas and access to Northern philanthropy.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Midwest">Midwest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Midwest">edit</a>]</div> Apart from Wisconsin, the Midwestern states were about average in supporting Progressive reforms. Ohio took the lead in municipal reform. The negative effects of industrialization triggered the political movement of progressivism, which aimed to address its negative consequences through social reform and government regulation. <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Gates_Starr" title="Ellen Gates Starr">Ellen Gates Starr</a> pioneered the settlement house outreach to newly arrived immigrants by establishing <a href="/wiki/Hull_House" title="Hull House">Hull House</a> in Chicago in 1889. Settlement houses provided social services and played an active role in civic life, helping immigrants prepare for naturalization and campaigning for regulation and services from city government.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Midwestern mayors—especially <a href="/wiki/Hazen_S._Pingree" title="Hazen S. Pingree">Hazen S. Pingree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tom_L._Johnson" title="Tom L. Johnson">Tom L. Johnson</a>, led early reforms against boss-dominated municipal politics, while <a href="/wiki/Samuel_M._Jones" title="Samuel M. Jones">Samuel M. Jones</a> advocated public ownership of local utilities. <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a>, the most famous leader of Midwestern progressivism, began his career by winning election against his state's Republican party in 1900. The machine was temporarily defeated, allowing reformers to launch the "<a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_idea" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisconsin idea">Wisconsin idea</a>" of expanded democracy. This idea included major reforms such as direct primaries, campaign finance, civil service, anti-lobbying laws, state income and inheritance taxes, child labor restrictions, pure food, and workmen's compensation laws. La Follette promoted government regulation of railroads, public utilities, factories, and banks. Although La Follette lost influence in the national party in 1912, the Wisconsin reforms became a model for national progressivism.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Wisconsin">edit</a>]</div> Wisconsin from 1900 to the late 1930s was a regional and national model for innovation and organization in the progressive movement. The direct primary made it possible to mobilize voters against the previously dominant political machines. The first factors involved the <a href="/wiki/La_Follette_family" title="La Follette family">La Follette family</a> going back and forth between trying to control of the Republican Party and if frustrated trying third-party activity especially in 1924 and the 1930s. Secondly the <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_idea" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisconsin idea">Wisconsin idea</a>, of intellectuals and planners based at the University of Wisconsin shaping government policy. LaFollette started as a traditional Republican in the 1890s, where he fought against populism and other radical movements. He broke decisively with the state Republican leadership, and took control of the party by 1900, all the time quarreling endlessly with ex-allies.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The Democrats were a minor conservative factor in Wisconsin. The Socialists, with a strong German and union base in Milwaukee, joined the progressives in statewide politics. Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a> tried to use his national reputation to challenge President Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912. However, as soon as Roosevelt declared his candidacy, most of La Follette's supporters switched away. La Follette supported many of his Wilson's domestic programs in Congress. However he strongly opposed Wilson's foreign policy, and mobilized the large German and Scandinavian elements which demanded neutrality in the World War I. He finally ran <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1924%E2%80%931934)" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1924–1934)">an independent campaign for president</a> in 1924 that appealed to the German Americans, labor unions, socialists, and more radical reformers. He won 1/6 of the national vote, but carried only his home state. After his death in 1925 his two sons took over the party. They serve terms as governor and senator and set up a third party in the state. The third party fell apart in the 1930s, and totally collapsed by 1946. The <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Idea" title="Wisconsin Idea">Wisconsin Idea</a> was the commitment of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_System#Former_University_of_Wisconsin" title="University of Wisconsin System">University of Wisconsin</a> under President <a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Van_Hise" title="Charles R. Van Hise">Charles R. Van Hise</a>, with LaFollette support, to use the university's powerful intellectual resources to develop practical progressive reforms for the state and indeed for the nation.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Between 1901 and 1911, Progressive Republicans in Wisconsin created the nation's first comprehensive statewide <a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">primary election</a> system,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> the first effective <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_compensation" title="Workers' compensation">workplace injury compensation</a> law,<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> and the first state <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a>,<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> making taxation proportional to actual earnings. The key leaders were <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a> and (in 1910) Governor <a href="/wiki/Francis_E._McGovern" title="Francis E. McGovern">Francis E. McGovern</a>. However, in 1912 McGovern supported Roosevelt for president and LaFollette was outraged. He made sure the next legislature defeated the governor's programs, and that McGovern was defeated in his bid for the Senate in 1914. The Progressive movement split into hostile factions. Some was based on personalities—especially La Follette's style of violent personal attacks against other Progressives, and some was based on who should pay, with the division between farmers (who paid property taxes) and the urban element (which paid income taxes). This disarray enabled the conservatives (called "Stalwarts") to elect <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Philipp" class="mw-redirect" title="Emanuel Philipp">Emanuel Philipp</a> as governor in 1914. The Stalwart counterattack said the Progressives were too haughty, too beholden to experts, too eager to regulate, and too expensive. Economy and budget cutting was their formula.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The progressive <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Idea" title="Wisconsin Idea">Wisconsin Idea</a> promoted the use of the University of Wisconsin faculty as intellectual resources for state government, and as guides for local government. It promoted expansion of the university through the <a href="/wiki/UW-Extension" class="mw-redirect" title="UW-Extension">UW-Extension</a> system to reach all the state's farming communities.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> University economics professors <a href="/wiki/John_R._Commons" title="John R. Commons">John R. Commons</a> and Harold Groves enabled Wisconsin to create the first <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">unemployment compensation</a> program in the United States in 1932.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Idea" title="Wisconsin Idea">Wisconsin Idea</a> scholars at the university generated the plan that became the New Deal's <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Act" title="Social Security Act">Social Security Act</a> of 1935, with Wisconsin expert <a href="/wiki/Arthur_J._Altmeyer" title="Arthur J. Altmeyer">Arthur J. Altmeyer</a> playing the key role.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The Stalwarts counterattacked by arguing if the university became embedded in the state, then its internal affairs became fair game, especially the faculty preference for advanced research over undergraduate teaching.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The Stalwarts controlled the Regents, and their interference in academic freedom outraged the faculty. Historian <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Jackson_Turner" title="Frederick Jackson Turner">Frederick Jackson Turner</a>, the most famous professor, quit and went to Harvard.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kansas">Kansas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Kansas">edit</a>]</div> State leaders in reform included editor <a href="/wiki/William_Allen_White" title="William Allen White">William Allen White</a>, who reached a national audience, and Governor <a href="/wiki/Walter_R._Stubbs" title="Walter R. Stubbs">Walter R. Stubbs</a>. According to Gene Clanton's study of Kansas, populism and progressivism have a few similarities but different bases of support. Both opposed corruption and trusts. Populism emerged earlier and came out of the farm community. It was radically egalitarian in favor of the disadvantaged classes. It was weak in the towns and cities except in labor unions. Progressivism, on the other hand, was a later movement. It emerged after the 1890s from the urban business and professional communities. Most of its activists had opposed populism. It was elitist, and emphasized education and expertise. Its goals were to enhance efficiency, reduce waste, and enlarge the opportunities for upward social mobility. However, some former Populists changed their emphasis after 1900 and supported progressive reforms.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ohio">Ohio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Ohio">edit</a>]</div> Ohio was distinctive for municipal reform in the major cities, especially Toledo, Cleveland, Columbus, and Dayton. The middle class lived in leafy neighborhoods in the city and took the trolley to work in downtown offices. The working class saved money by walking to their factory jobs; municipal reformers appealed to the middle-class vote, by attacking the high fares and mediocre service of privately owned transit companies. They often proposed city ownership of the transit lines, but the homeowners were reluctant to save a penny on fares by paying more dollars in property taxes <a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio" title="Dayton, Ohio">Dayton, Ohio</a>, was under the reform leadership of <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Patterson_(NCR_owner)" title="John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)">John Patterson</a>, the hard-charging chief executive of <a href="/wiki/NCR_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="NCR Corporation">National Cash Register</a> company. He appealed to the businessman with the gospel of efficiency in municipal affairs, run by non-partisan experts like himself. He wanted a city manager form of government in which outside experts would bring efficiency while elected officials would have little direct power, and bribery would not prevail. When the city council balked at his proposals, he threatened to move the National Cash Register factories to another city, and they fell in line. A massive flood in Dayton in 1913 killed 400 people and caused $100 million in property damage. Patterson took charge of the relief work and demonstrated in person the sort of business leaders he proposed. Dayton adopted his policies; by 1920, 177 American cities had followed suit and adopted city manager governments.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iowa">Iowa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Iowa">edit</a>]</div> Iowa had a mixed record. The spirit of progressivism emerged in the 1890s, peaked in the 1900s, and decayed after 1917.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Under the guidance of Governor (1902–1908) and Senator (1908–1926) <a href="/wiki/Albert_B._Cummins" title="Albert B. Cummins">Albert Baird Cummins</a> the "Iowa Idea" played a role in state and national reform. A leading Republican, Cummins fought to break up monopolies. His Iowa successes included establishing the direct primary to allow voters to select candidates instead of bosses; outlawing free railroad passes for politicians; imposing a two-cents-per-mile railway maximum passenger fare; imposing pure food and drug laws; and abolishing corporate campaign contributions. He tried, without success, to lower the high protective tariff in Washington.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Women put <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women's suffrage</a> on the state agenda. It was led by local chapters of the <a href="/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union" title="Woman's Christian Temperance Union">Woman's Christian Temperance Union</a>, whose main goal was to impose prohibition. In keeping with the general reform mood of the latter 1860s and 1870s, the issue first received serious consideration when both houses of the General Assembly passed a women's suffrage amendment to the state constitution in 1870. Two years later, however, when the legislature had to consider the amendment again before it could be submitted to the general electorate. It was defeated because interest had waned, and strong opposition had developed especially in the <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German-American</a> community, which feared women would impose prohibition. Finally, in 1920, Iowa got woman suffrage with the rest of the country by the 19th amendment to the federal Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_ideas_and_issues">Key ideas and issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Key ideas and issues">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monopoly_brothers_supported_by_the_little_consumer_1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Monopoly_brothers_supported_by_the_little_consumer_1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="359" height="466" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="466" /></a><figcaption>Monopoly brothers—Politically powerful trusts created high prices all carried by hapless little consumer 1912; by Thomas Powers</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antitrust">Antitrust</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Antitrust">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_antitrust_law" title="History of United States antitrust law">History of United States antitrust law</a></div> Standard Oil was widely hated. Many newspapers reprinted attacks from a flagship Democratic newspaper, The New York World, which made this trust a special target. For example, a feature article in 1897 stated: <blockquote>There has been no outrage too colossal, no petty meanness too contemptible for these freebooters to engage in. From hounding and driving prosperous businessman to beggery and suicide, to holding up and plundering widows and orphans, the little dealer in the country and the crippled peddler on the highway—all this is entered into the exploits of this organized gang of commercial bandits.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></blockquote> There were legal efforts to curtail the oil monopoly in the Midwest and South. Tennessee, Illinois, Kentucky and Kansas took the lead in 1904–1905, followed by Arkansas, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Ohio, Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia. The results were mixed. Federal action finally won out in 1911, splitting Standard Oil into 33 companies. The 33 seldom competed with each other. The federal decision together with the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914</a> and the creation that year of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a> largely de-escalated the antitrust rhetoric among progressives.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The new framework after 1914 had little or no impact on the direction and magnitude of merger activity.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primaries">Primaries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Primaries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">Partisan primary</a></div> By 1890, the secret ballot was widely adopted by the states for elections, which was non-controversial and resulted in the elimination of purchased votes since the purchaser couldn't determine how the voter cast their vote. Despite this change, the candidates were still selected by party conventions. In the 1890s, the South witnessed a decrease in the possibility of Republican or Populist or coalition victories in most elections, with the Democratic Party gaining full control over all statewide Southern elections. To prevent factionalism within the Democratic Party, Southern states began implementing primaries. However, candidates who competed in the primaries and lost were prohibited from running as independents in the fall election. Louisiana was the first state to introduce primaries in 1892, and by 1907, eleven Southern and border states had implemented statewide primaries.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In the North, Robert LaFollette introduced the primary in Wisconsin in 1904. Most Northern states followed suit, with reformers proclaiming grass roots democracy. The party leaders and bosses also wanted direct primaries to minimize the risk of sore losers running as independents.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> When candidates for office were selected by the party caucus (meetings open to the public) or by statewide party conventions of elected delegates, the public lost a major opportunity to shape policy. The progressive solution was the "open" primary by which any citizen could vote, or the "closed" primary limited to party members. In the early 20th century most states adopted the system for local and state races—but only 14 used it for delegates to the national presidential nominating conventions. The biggest battles came in New York state, where the conservatives fought hard for years against several governors until the primary was finally adopted in 1913.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_reform">Government reform</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Government reform">edit</a>]</div> Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, stubbornness, corruption, and injustices of the <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>, the Progressives were committed to changing and reforming every aspect of the state, society and economy. Significant changes enacted at the national levels included the imposition of an <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixteenth Amendment</a>, direct election of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senators</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Seventeenth Amendment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">prohibition of alcohol</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighteenth Amendment</a>, election reforms to stop corruption and fraud, and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women's suffrage</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment</a> to the U.S. Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> A main objective of the Progressive Era movement was to eliminate corruption within the government. They made it a point to also focus on family, education, and many other important aspects that still are enforced today. The most important political leaders during this time were Theodore Roosevelt and Robert M. La Follette. Key Democratic leaders were <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Progressive_Era-121">[121]</a> This movement targeted the regulations of huge monopolies and corporations. This was done through antitrust laws to promote equal competition among every business. This was done through the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act_of_1890" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890">Sherman Act of 1890</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Act of 1914</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act_of_1914" title="Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914">Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Progressive_Era-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="City_manager">City manager</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: City manager">edit</a>]</div> At the local level the new <a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">city manager</a> system was designed by progressives to increase efficiency and reduce partisanship and avoid the bribery of elected local officials. Kansas was a leader, where it was promoted in the press, led by Henry J. Allen of the Wichita Beacon, and pushed through by Governor <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Capper" title="Arthur Capper">Arthur Capper</a>. Eventually 52 Kansas cities used the system.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_roles">Family roles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Family roles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lindsey_ben.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Lindsey_ben.jpg/220px-Lindsey_ben.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Lindsey_ben.jpg/330px-Lindsey_ben.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Lindsey_ben.jpg 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="559" /></a><figcaption>Colorado judge <a href="/wiki/Ben_Lindsey_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben Lindsey (jurist)">Ben Lindsey</a>, a pioneer in the establishment of juvenile court systems</figcaption></figure> By the late 19th century, urban and rural governments had systems in place for welfare to the poor and incapacitated. Progressives argued these needs deserved a higher priority.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Local <a href="/wiki/Mothers%27_pensions" title="Mothers' pensions">public assistance programs</a> were reformed to try to keep families together.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Inspired by crusading Judge <a href="/wiki/Ben_Lindsey_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben Lindsey (jurist)">Ben Lindsey</a> of Denver, cities established juvenile courts to deal with disruptive teenagers without sending them to adult prisons.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pure_food,_drugs,_and_water">Pure food, drugs, and water</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Pure food, drugs, and water">edit</a>]</div> The purity of food, milk, and drinking water became a high priority in the cities. At the state and national levels new food and drug laws strengthened urban efforts to guarantee the safety of the <a href="/wiki/Food_system" title="Food system">food system</a>. The 1906 federal <a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act" title="Pure Food and Drug Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a>, which was pushed by drug companies and providers of medical services, removed from the market patent medicines that had never been scientifically tested.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> With the decrease in standard working hours, urban families had more leisure time. Many spent this leisure time at movie theaters. Progressives advocated censorship of motion pictures as it was believed that patrons (especially children) viewing movies in dark, unclean, potentially unsafe theaters, might be negatively influenced in witnessing actors portraying crimes, violence, and sexually suggestive situations. Progressives across the country influenced municipal governments of large urban cities, to build numerous parks where it was believed that leisure time for children and families could be spent in a healthy, wholesome environment, thereby fostering good morals and citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_hygiene_movement">Social hygiene movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Social hygiene movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_Sexual_Health_Association" title="American Sexual Health Association">American Sexual Health Association</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">social hygiene movement</a> brought together different groups that were concerned with venereal disease, prostitution, society's moral standards, and family life. The primary objective was to enhance public health and promote social morality, specifically in matters concerning sexuality and reproductive health.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The movement targeted prostitution or "white slavery" and aimed to eliminate it by criminalizing it and enforcing stricter penalties for those involved in the sex trade.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> When the US entered the war a high priority was to end prostitution in proximity to military installations. The result was a permanent closing of red light districts in major cities.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Besides public health, the social hygiene movement also aimed to uphold moral purity and family values. The <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's Christian Temperance Union">Women's Christian Temperance Union</a> (WCTU) and the <a href="/wiki/Young_Men%27s_Christian_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Men's Christian Association">Young Men's Christian Association</a> (YMCA) were among the leading groups that encouraged abstinence and discouraged premarital sex. They also advocated for more stringent censorship of literature and entertainment deemed morally unacceptable.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> While the social hygiene movement achieved considerable success in promoting public health and morality, its approach of criminalizing prostitution and promoting abstinence failed to address the underlying causes of these issues, such as poverty, economic inequality, and gender inequality. Moreover, its strict moral standards often marginalized groups such as immigrants and African Americans. Nonetheless, the movement genuinely sought to promote public health and social morality and to create a more stable and ordered society.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Labor_policy_and_unions">Labor policy and unions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Labor policy and unions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hine_-_Indiana_glassworks_night_scene,_1908_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Hine_-_Indiana_glassworks_night_scene%2C_1908_1.JPG/220px-Hine_-_Indiana_glassworks_night_scene%2C_1908_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Hine_-_Indiana_glassworks_night_scene%2C_1908_1.JPG/330px-Hine_-_Indiana_glassworks_night_scene%2C_1908_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Hine_-_Indiana_glassworks_night_scene%2C_1908_1.JPG/440px-Hine_-_Indiana_glassworks_night_scene%2C_1908_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4768" data-file-height="3312" /></a><figcaption>Glass works in Indiana, from a 1908 photograph by <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hine" title="Lewis Hine">Lewis Hine</a></figcaption></figure> There were many dramatic changes in the condition of American workers from 1915 to 2015.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Labor unions, especially those affiliated with the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a> (AFL), grew rapidly in the early 20th century, and had a progressive agenda as well. After experimenting in the early 20th century with cooperation with business in the <a href="/wiki/National_Civic_Federation" title="National Civic Federation">National Civic Federation</a>, the AFL turned after 1906 to a working political alliance with the Democratic Party. The alliance was especially important in the larger industrial cities. The unions wanted restrictions on judges who intervened in labor disputes, usually on the side of the employer. They finally achieved that goal with the <a href="/wiki/Norris%E2%80%93La_Guardia_Act" title="Norris–La Guardia Act">Norris–La Guardia Act</a> of 1932.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> President Taft signed the March 4, 1913, bill (the last day of his presidency), establishing the Department of Labor as a <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a>-level department, replacing the previous <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Commerce_and_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Commerce and Labor">Department of Commerce and Labor</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Bauchop_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="William Bauchop Wilson">William B. Wilson</a> was appointed as the first Secretary of Labor on March 5, 1913, by President Wilson.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> In October 1919, Secretary Wilson chaired the first meeting of the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> even though the U.S. was not yet a member.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> In September 1916, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Employees%27_Compensation_Act" title="Federal Employees' Compensation Act">Federal Employees' Compensation Act</a> introduced benefits to workers who are injured or contract illnesses in the workplace. The act established an agency responsible for federal workers' compensation, which was transferred to the Labor Department in the 1940s and has become known as the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Workers%27_Compensation_Programs" title="Office of Workers' Compensation Programs">Office of Workers' Compensation Programs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_rights_issues">Civil rights issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Civil rights issues">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Women">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States#Progressive_era:_1900–1940" title="History of women in the United States">History of women in the United States § Progressive era: 1900–1940</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg/220px-1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg/330px-1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg/440px-1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>In 1912, women's suffrage headquarters reached out to men in Cleveland, Ohio.</figcaption></figure> Across the nation, middle-class women organized on behalf of <a href="/wiki/Social_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Social reform">social reforms</a> during the Progressive Era. Using the language of <a href="/wiki/Social_housekeeping" title="Social housekeeping">municipal housekeeping</a> women were able to push such reforms as prohibition, women's suffrage, child-saving, and public health. Middle-class women formed local clubs, which after 1890 were coordinated by the <a href="/wiki/General_Federation_of_Women%27s_Clubs" title="General Federation of Women's Clubs">General Federation of Women's Clubs</a> (GFWC). Historian Paige Meltzer puts the GFWC in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressive Movement</a>, arguing that its policies: <blockquote>built on Progressive-era strategies of municipal housekeeping. During the Progressive era, female activists used traditional constructions of womanhood, which imagined all women as mothers and homemakers, to justify their entrance into community affairs: as "municipal housekeepers," they would clean up politics, cities, and see after the health and well-being of their neighbors. Donning the mantle of motherhood, female activists methodically investigated their community's needs and used their "maternal" expertise to lobby, create, and secure a place for themselves in an emerging state welfare bureaucracy, best illustrated perhaps by clubwoman <a href="/wiki/Julia_Lathrop" title="Julia Lathrop">Julia Lathrop</a>'s leadership in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Children%27s_Bureau" title="United States Children's Bureau">Children's Bureau</a>. As part of this tradition of maternal activism, the Progressive-era General Federation supported a range of causes from the pure food and drug administration to public health care for mothers and children, to a ban on child labor, each of which looked to the state to help implement their vision of social justice.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></blockquote> Some activists demanded change, and questioned the old thinking regarding marriage and sexuality. They craved more sexual freedom following the sexually repressive and restrictive Victorian era.<a href="#cite_note-simmons-141">[141]</a> Dating became a new way of courting during the Progressive Era and moved youth into a more romantic way of viewing marriage and relationships.<a href="#cite_note-simmons-141">[141]</a> Within more engagements and marriages, both parties would exchange love notes as a way to express their sexual feelings. The divide between aggressive passionate love associated usually with men and a women's more spiritual romantic love became apparent in the middle class as women were judged on how they should be respected based on how they expressed these feelings.<a href="#cite_note-simmons-141">[141]</a> So, frequently women expressed passionless emotions towards love as a way to establish status among men in the middle class.<a href="#cite_note-simmons-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women's_suffrage">Women's suffrage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Women's suffrage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association" title="National American Woman Suffrage Association">National American Woman Suffrage Association</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association" title="National American Woman Suffrage Association">National American Woman Suffrage Association</a> (NAWSA) was an American women's rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the <a href="/wiki/National_Woman_Suffrage_Association" title="National Woman Suffrage Association">National Woman Suffrage Association</a> (NWSA) and the <a href="/wiki/American_Woman_Suffrage_Association" title="American Woman Suffrage Association">American Woman Suffrage Association</a> (AWSA). The NAWSA set up hundreds of smaller local and state groups, with the goal of passing <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">woman suffrage</a> legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and most important suffrage organization in the United States, and was the primary promoter of women's right to vote. <a href="/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt" title="Carrie Chapman Catt">Carrie Chapman Catt</a> was the key leader in the early 20th century. Like AWSA and NWSA before it, the NAWSA pushed for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> A breakaway group, the <a href="/wiki/National_Woman%27s_Party" title="National Woman's Party">National Woman's Party</a>, tightly controlled by <a href="/wiki/Alice_Paul" title="Alice Paul">Alice Paul</a>, used <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a> to gain publicity and force passage of suffrage. Paul's members chained themselves to the White House fence to get arrested, then went on hunger strikes to gain publicity. While the British suffragettes stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort, Paul began her campaign in 1917 and was widely criticized for ignoring the war and attracting radical anti-war elements.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> A lesser-known feminist movement in the progressive era was the self-defense movement. According to Wendy Rouse, feminists sought to raise awareness about the sexual harassment and violence that women faced on the street, at work, and in the home. They wanted to inspire a sense of physical and personal empowerment through training in active self-defense.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Race_relations">Race relations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Race relations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></div> Across the South, black communities developed their own Progressive reform projects.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Typical projects involved upgrading schools, modernizing church operations, expanding business opportunities, fighting for a larger share of state budgets, and engaging in legal action to secure equal rights.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Reform projects were especially notable in rural areas, where the great majority of Southern blacks lived.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Rural blacks were heavily involved in environmental issues, in which they developed their own traditions and priorities.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a> (1860–1943) was a leader in promoting environmentalism, and was well known for his research projects, particularly those involving agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Although there were some achievements that improved conditions for African Americans and other non-white minorities, the Progressive Era was still in the midst of the <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">nadir of American race relations</a>. While white Progressives in principle believed in improving conditions for minority groups, there were wide differences in how this was to be achieved. Some, such as <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a>, fought to alleviate the plight of poor African Americans. Many, though, were concerned with enforcing, not eradicating, racial segregation. In particular, the mixing of black and white pleasure-seekers in "black-and-tan" clubs troubled Progressive reformers.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> The Progressive ideology espoused by many of the era attempted to correct societal problems created by racial integration following the Civil War by segregating the races and allowing each group to achieve its own potential; most Progressives saw racial integration as a problem to be solved, rather than a goal to be achieved.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> As white Progressives sought to help the white working class, clean up politics, and improve the cities, the country instated the system of racial segregation known as <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> One of the most impacting issues African Americans had to face during the Progressive Era was the right to vote. By the beginning of the 20th century, African Americans were "<a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disfranchised</a>", while in the years prior to this, the right to vote had been guaranteed to "freedmen" through the <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Civil Rights Act of 1870</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_835-158">[158]</a> Southern whites wanted to rid of the political influence of the black vote, citing "that black voting meant only corruption of elections, incompetence of government, and the engendering of fierce racial antagonisms."<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_835-158">[158]</a> Progressive whites found a "loophole" to the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a>'s prohibition of denying one the right to vote due to race through the <a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clause</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_835-158">[158]</a> This allowed for the creation of <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy tests</a> that would essentially be designed for whites to pass them but not African Americans or any other persons of color.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_835-158">[158]</a> Actions such as these from whites of the Progressive Era are some of the many that tied into the Progressive goal, as historian Michael McGerr states, "to segregate society."<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Legal historian Herbert Hovenkap argues that while many early progressives inherited the racism of Jim Crow, as they began to innovate their own ideas, they would embrace <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">marginalism</a>, which stress environmental influences on humans rather than biological inheritance. He states that ultimately Progressives "were responsible for bringing <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> to an end".<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_political_reform_efforts">Key political reform efforts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Key political reform efforts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democracy">Democracy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Democracy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Initiatives_and_referendums_in_the_United_States" title="Initiatives and referendums in the United States">Initiatives and referendums in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primary_election" title="Primary election">Primary election</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Short_ballot" title="Short ballot">Short ballot</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:133px;max-width:133px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:173px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Theodore_Roosevelt,_1904.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="President Theodore Roosevelt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/President_Theodore_Roosevelt%2C_1904.jpg/131px-President_Theodore_Roosevelt%2C_1904.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/President_Theodore_Roosevelt%2C_1904.jpg/197px-President_Theodore_Roosevelt%2C_1904.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/President_Theodore_Roosevelt%2C_1904.jpg/262px-President_Theodore_Roosevelt%2C_1904.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2842" data-file-height="3751" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:173px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Howard_Taft.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="President William Howard Taft" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/William_Howard_Taft.jpg/134px-William_Howard_Taft.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/William_Howard_Taft.jpg/201px-William_Howard_Taft.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/William_Howard_Taft.jpg/268px-William_Howard_Taft.jpg 2x" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="1197" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:117px;max-width:117px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:173px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson,_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait,_1919.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="President Woodrow Wilson" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919.jpg/115px-Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="115" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919.jpg/173px-Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919.jpg/230px-Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2484" data-file-height="3762" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (1901–1909; left), <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (1909–1913; center), and <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (1913–1921; right) were the progressive presidents; their administrations promoted political reforms.</div></div></div></div> Many progressives sought to enable the citizenry to rule more directly and circumvent machines, bosses and professional politicians. The institution of the initiative and referendums made it possible to pass laws without the involvement of the legislature, while the recall allowed for the removal of corrupt or under-performing officials, and the direct primary let people democratically nominate candidates, avoiding the professionally dominated conventions. Thanks to the efforts of Oregon State Representative <a href="/wiki/William_Simon_U%27Ren" title="William Simon U'Ren">William S. U'Ren</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Direct_Legislation_League" title="Direct Legislation League">Direct Legislation League</a>, voters in Oregon overwhelmingly approved a ballot measure in 1902 that created the <a href="/wiki/Popular_initiative" title="Popular initiative">initiative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a> processes for citizens to directly introduce or approve proposed laws or amendments to the state constitution, making Oregon the first state to adopt such a system. U'Ren also helped in the passage of an amendment in 1908 that gave voters power to <a href="/wiki/Recall_election" title="Recall election">recall</a> elected officials, and would go on to establish, at the state level, popular election of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">US Senators</a> and the first <a href="/wiki/Presidential_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential primary">presidential primary</a> in the United States. In 1911, California governor <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Johnson" title="Hiram Johnson">Hiram Johnson</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy_in_Oregon" title="Direct democracy in Oregon">Oregon System</a> of "Initiative, Referendum, and Recall" in his state, viewing them as good influences for citizen participation against the historic influence of large corporations on state lawmakers.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> These Progressive reforms were soon replicated in other states, including <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>, and today roughly half of US states have initiative, referendum and recall provisions in their state constitutions.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, requiring that all senators be elected by the people (they were formerly appointed by state legislatures). The main motivation was to reduce the power of political bosses, who controlled the Senate seats by virtue of their control of state legislatures. The result, according to political scientist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Jones_Ford" title="Henry Jones Ford">Henry Jones Ford</a>, was that the United States Senate had become a "Diet of party lords, wielding their power without scruple or restraint, on behalf of those particular interests" that put them in office.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Reformers also sought to streamline government through the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Short_ballot" title="Short ballot">short ballot</a>. By reducing the number of elected officials and consolidating their power in singular officials like a governor they hoped to increase accountability and clarity in government. Woodrow Wilson was at one point the President of the National Short Ballot Organization.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Direct_primary">Direct primary</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Direct primary">edit</a>]</div> The direct primary became important at the state level starting in the 1890s and at the local level in the 1900s. However, presidential nominations depended chiefly on state party conventions until 1972.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The first primary elections came in the Democratic Party in the South starting in Louisiana in 1892. By 1897, in 11 Southern and border states, the Democratic Party held primaries to select candidates. Unlike the final election run by government officials, primaries are run by party officials, making it easy to discriminate against black voters in the era of Jim Crow. The US Supreme Court declared the <a href="/wiki/White_primary" title="White primary">white primary</a> unconstitutional in <a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a> in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Insurgent Midwestern Republicans began promoting primaries starting in 1890 with <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a> of Wisconsin. He crusaded against Stalwart party bosses of the state Republican Party, and won voter approval in a referendum in 1904.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> While La Follette always won his primary, that was not necessarily the case with other progressives. For example, his son <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette_Jr." title="Robert M. La Follette Jr.">Bob La Follette</a> lost his Senate seat in the 1946 primary to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a>, a much more energetic candidate.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> In New Jersey, on the other hand, the party leaders introduced the primary in every county by 1902. Their goal was to keep the various factions united for the fall campaign and minimize ticket-splitting.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> The Northeast was laggard in adopting the direct primary, with Connecticut and Rhode Island the last states to sign up. The Massachusetts Democratic Party were gravely weakened by the primary system.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> New York Republican Governor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> made a primary law his top goal in 1909 and failed.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanization_and_Municipal_reform">Urbanization and Municipal reform</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Urbanization and Municipal reform">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_urban_history#Progressive_era:_1890s–1920s" title="American urban history">American urban history § Progressive era: 1890s–1920s</a></div> A coalition of middle-class reform-oriented voters, academic experts, and reformers hostile to the political machines started forming in the 1890s and introduced a series of reforms in urban America, designed to reduce waste, inefficiency and corruption, by introducing scientific methods, compulsory education and administrative innovations. The pace was set in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Detroit" title="History of Detroit">Detroit, Michigan</a>, where Republican mayor <a href="/wiki/Hazen_S._Pingree" title="Hazen S. Pingree">Hazen S. Pingree</a> first put together the reform coalition as mayor 1889–1897.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets and administrative structures of local governments. Progressive mayors took the lead in many key cities,<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, Ohio (especially Mayor <a href="/wiki/Tom_L._Johnson" title="Tom L. Johnson">Tom Johnson</a>); <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Ohio" title="Toledo, Ohio">Toledo, Ohio</a>;<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Jersey City, New Jersey;<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Los Angeles;<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>;<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville, Kentucky</a>;<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> and many other cities, especially in the western states. In <a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a>, Governor <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lowden" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Lowden">Frank Lowden</a> undertook a major reorganization of state government.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> In Wisconsin, the stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert La Follette</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Idea" title="Wisconsin Idea">Wisconsin Idea</a> used the state university as a major source of ideas and expertise.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gary_Plan_for_schools">Gary Plan for schools</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Gary Plan for schools">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gary_Plan" title="Gary Plan">Gary Plan</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Gary_Plan" title="Gary Plan">Gary Plan</a> was much discussed method of building a highly efficient public school system.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> It was in part inspired by the educational ideas of philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>. It was designed by School Superintendent <a href="/wiki/William_Wirt_(educator)" title="William Wirt (educator)">William Wirt</a> in 1907 and implemented in the newly built steel mill city of <a href="/wiki/Gary,_Indiana" title="Gary, Indiana">Gary, Indiana</a>. Reformers tried to copy it across the country. Wirt later <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_New_York_City#Conflict_over_the_Gary_Plan" title="History of education in New York City">promoted it in New York City.</a> In New York City it was strongly opposed by unions and local political forces and was reversed in 1917. By 1929 over 200 cities in 41 states adopted variations of the plan. Ronald Cohen states that the Gary Plan was popular because it merged Progressive commitments to: <blockquote>paedagogical and economic efficiency, growth and centralization of administration, an expanded curriculum, introduction of measurement and testing, greater public use of school facilities, a child-centered approach, and heightened concern about using the schools to properly socialize children.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cities_during_the_Progressive_Era">Cities during the Progressive Era</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Cities during the Progressive Era">edit</a>]</div> In the early 1900s, the United States entered a period of peace, prosperity, and progress. In the nation's growing cities, factory output grew, small businesses flourished, and incomes rose. As the promise of jobs and higher wages attracted more and more people into the cities, the US began to shift to a nation of city dwellers. By 1900, 30 million people, or 30 percent of the total population, lived in cities.<a href="#cite_note-AutoPK-166-184">[184]</a> The mass migration of people into the cities enriched some people but caused severe problems for others. For the emerging middle class, benefiting from growing incomes and increases in leisure time, the expanding city offered many advantages. Department stores, chain stores, and shopping centers emerged to meet the growing demand for material goods. Parks, amusement parks, and baseball stadiums were built to meet aesthetic and recreational needs. Transportation systems improved, as did the general infrastructure, better meeting the increased needs of the middle and upper class city dwellers.<a href="#cite_note-AutoPK-166-184">[184]</a> Thousands of poor people also lived in the cities. Lured by the promise of prosperity, many rural families and immigrants from throughout the world arrived in the cities to work in the factories. It is estimated that by 1904 one in three people living in the cities was close to starving to death. For many of the urban poor, living in the city resulted in a decreased quality of life. With few city services to rely upon, the working class lived daily with overcrowding, inadequate water facilities, unpaved streets, and disease. Lagging far behind the middle class, working class wages provided little more than subsistence living and few, if any, opportunities for movement out of the city slums.<a href="#cite_note-AutoPK-166-184">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Business_progressivism_in_1920s">Business progressivism in 1920s</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Business progressivism in 1920s">edit</a>]</div> What historians have identified as "business progressivism", with its emphasis on efficiency and typified by Henry Ford and Herbert Hoover reached an apogee in the 1920s. Wik, for example, argues that Ford's "views on technology and the mechanization of rural America were generally enlightened, progressive, and often far ahead of his times." Tindall stresses the continuing importance of the progressive movement in the South in the 1920s involving increased democracy, efficient government, corporate regulation, social justice, and governmental public service. William Link finds political Progressivism dominant in most of the South in the 1920s. Likewise it was influential in the Midwest. Historians of women and of youth emphasize the strength of the progressive impulse in the 1920s. Women consolidated their gains after the success of the suffrage movement, and moved into causes such as world peace, good government, maternal care (the Sheppard–Towner Act of 1921), and local support for education and public health. The work was not nearly as dramatic as the suffrage crusade, but women voted and operated quietly and effectively. Paul Fass, speaking of youth, says "Progressivism as an angle of vision, as an optimistic approach to social problems, was very much alive." International influences that sparked many reform ideas likewise continued into the 1920s, as American ideas of modernity began to influence Europe. By 1930, a block of progressive Republicans in the Senate were urging Hoover to take more vigorous action to fight the depression. There were about a dozen members of this group, including William Borah of Idaho, George W. Norris of Nebraska, Robert M. La Follette Jr., of Wisconsin, Gerald Nye of North Dakota, Hiram Johnson of California and Bronson M. Cutting of New Mexico. While these western Republicans could stir up issues, they could rarely forge a majority, since they were too individualistic and did not form a unified caucus. Hoover himself had sharply moved to the right, and paid little attention to their liberal ideas. By 1932, this group was moving toward support for Roosevelt's New Deal. They remained staunch isolationists deeply opposed to any involvement in Europe. Outside the Senate, however, a strong majority of the surviving Progressives from the 1910s had become conservative opponents of New Deal economic planning. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Automobiles_in_the_Progressive_and_New_Eras">Automobiles in the Progressive and New Eras</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Automobiles in the Progressive and New Eras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Automobiles_and_the_Progressive_Era.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Automobiles_and_the_Progressive_Era.jpg/220px-Automobiles_and_the_Progressive_Era.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Automobiles_and_the_Progressive_Era.jpg/330px-Automobiles_and_the_Progressive_Era.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Automobiles_and_the_Progressive_Era.jpg/440px-Automobiles_and_the_Progressive_Era.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="458" /></a><figcaption>1923 Ford roadster</figcaption></figure> Sociologists Robert and Helen Lynd conducted a major study of American society during the 1920s. In 1929, they published their research in a book titled Middletown. "Middletown" was the name used to disguise Muncie, Indiana, the actual place where they conducted their research. One of their findings was that the automobile had transformed the lives of people living in Middletown and, by extension, virtually everywhere else in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Auto0Z-167-185">[185]</a> More specifically, the Lynds found that the automobile had such effects as the following: (1) family budgets had changed dramatically; (2) ministers complained that people drove their cars rather than going to church; (3) parents were concerned that their boys and girls were spending too much time together "motoring"; and (4) the car had revolutionized the way people spent their free time.<a href="#cite_note-Auto0Z-167-185">[185]</a> These primary sources also indicate the impact of the automobile on Americans' lives. Some of those effects were seen as positive; others were much more troubling.<a href="#cite_note-Auto0Z-167-185">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural_reform">Rural reform</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Rural reform">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Country_life_movement" title="Country life movement">Country life movement</a></div> As late as 1920, half the population lived in rural areas. They experienced their own progressive reforms, typically with the explicit goal of upgrading country life.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> By 1910, most farmers subscribed to a farm newspaper, where editors promoted efficiency as applied to farming.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Special efforts were made to reach the rural South and remote areas, such as the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Appalachia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ozarks" title="Ozarks">Ozarks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Good_roads">Good roads</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Good roads">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement" title="Good Roads Movement">Good Roads Movement</a></div> The most urgent need was better transportation. The railroad system was virtually complete; the need was for much better roads. The traditional method of putting the burden on maintaining roads on local landowners was increasingly inadequate. New York State took the lead in 1898, and by 1916 the old system had been discarded in every area. Demands grew for local and state government to take charge. With the coming of the automobile after 1910, urgent efforts were made to upgrade and modernize dirt roads designed for horse-drawn wagon traffic. The American Association for Highway Improvement was organized in 1910. Funding came from automobile registration, and taxes on motor fuels, as well as state aid. In 1916, federal aid was first made available to improve post-roads, and promote general commerce. Congress appropriated $75 million over a five-year period, with the Secretary of Agriculture in charge through the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Public_Roads" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Public Roads">Bureau of Public Roads</a>, in cooperation with the state highway departments. There were 2.4 million miles of rural dirt rural roads in 1914; 100,000 miles had been improved with grading and gravel, and 3000 miles were given high quality surfacing. The rapidly increasing speed of automobiles, and especially trucks, made maintenance and repair a high priority. Concrete was first used in 1933, and expanded until it became the dominant surfacing material in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> The South had fewer cars and trucks and much less money, but it worked through highly visible demonstration projects like the "<a href="/wiki/Dixie_Highway" title="Dixie Highway">Dixie Highway</a>."<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schools">Schools</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Schools">edit</a>]</div> Rural schools were often poorly funded, one room operations. Typically, classes were taught by young local women before they married, with only occasional supervision by county superintendents. The progressive solution was modernization through consolidation, with the result of children attending modern schools. There they would be taught by full-time professional teachers who had graduated from the states' teachers colleges, were certified, and were monitored by the county superintendents. Farmers complained at the expense, and also at the loss of control over local affairs, but in state after state the consolidation process went forward.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Numerous other programs were aimed at rural youth, including <a href="/wiki/4-H" title="4-H">4-H</a> clubs,<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. County fairs not only gave prizes for the most productive agricultural practices, they also demonstrated those practices to an attentive rural audience. Programs for new mothers included maternity care and training in baby care.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservation_of_natural_resources_in_the_Progressive_Era">Conservation of natural resources in the Progressive Era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Conservation of natural resources in the Progressive Era">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Progressive_Era-Yosemite_Valley_California.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Progressive_Era-Yosemite_Valley_California.jpg/266px-Progressive_Era-Yosemite_Valley_California.jpg" decoding="async" width="266" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Progressive_Era-Yosemite_Valley_California.jpg/399px-Progressive_Era-Yosemite_Valley_California.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Progressive_Era-Yosemite_Valley_California.jpg/532px-Progressive_Era-Yosemite_Valley_California.jpg 2x" data-file-width="812" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Yosemite Valley, California</figcaption></figure> In the mid to late 19th century, natural resources were heavily exploited, especially in the West. Land speculators and developers took over large tracts of forests and grazing land. Acreage important to waterpower was seized by private concerns. Mining companies practiced improper and wasteful mining practices. Assuming a seemingly inexhaustible supply of natural resources, Americans developed a "tradition of waste."<a href="#cite_note-AutoYL-177-196">[196]</a> Alarmed by the public's attitude toward natural resources as well as the exploitation of natural resources for private gain, conservationists called for federal supervision of the nation's resources and the preservation of those resources for future generations. In President Theodore Roosevelt, the conservationists found a sympathetic ear and man of action. Conservation of the nation's resources, putting an end to wasteful uses of raw materials, and the reclamation of large areas of neglected land have been identified as some of the major achievements of the Roosevelt era.<a href="#cite_note-AutoYL-177-196">[196]</a> President Roosevelt's concern for the environment was influenced by American naturalists, such as John Muir, and by his own political appointees, including Gifford Pinchot, Chief of Forestry. Working in concert with many individuals and organizations, the Roosevelt administration was responsible for the following: the Newlands Act of 1902, which funded irrigation projects from the proceeds of the sale of federal lands in the West; the appointment of the Inland Waterways Commission in 1907 to study the relation of rivers, soil, forest, waterpower development, and water transportation; and the National Conservation Commission of 1909, which was charged with drawing up long-range plans for preserving national resources. Along with a vocal group of conservationists, the Roosevelt administration created an environmental conservation movement whose words and actions continue to be heard and felt throughout the US today.<a href="#cite_note-AutoYL-177-196">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_versus_traditional_conflicts">Modern versus traditional conflicts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Modern versus traditional conflicts">edit</a>]</div> The movement's attempts at introducing urban reforms to rural America often met resistance from traditionalists who saw the country-lifers as aggressive modernizers who were condescending and out of touch with rural life. The traditionalists said many of their reforms were unnecessary and not worth the trouble of implementing. Rural residents also disagreed with the notion that farms needed to improve their efficiency, as they saw this goal as serving urban interests more than rural ones. The social conservatism of many rural residents also led them to resist attempts for change led by outsiders. Most important, the traditionalists did not want to become modern, and did not want their children inculcated with alien modern values through comprehensive schools that were remote from local control.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> The most successful reforms came from the farmers who pursued agricultural extension, as their proposed changes were consistent with existing modernizing trends toward more efficiency and more profit in agriculture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_change">Constitutional change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Constitutional change">edit</a>]</div> The Progressives fixed some of their reforms into law by adding amendments 16, 17, 18, and 19 to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16th amendment</a> made an income tax legal (this required an amendment due to Article One, Section 9 of the Constitution, which required that direct taxes be laid on the States in proportion to their population as determined by the decennial census). The Progressives also made strides in attempts to reduce political corruption through the <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17th amendment</a> (direct election of U.S. Senators). The most radical and controversial amendment came during the anti-German craze of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> that helped the Progressives and others push through their plan for <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">prohibition</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18th amendment</a> (once the Progressives fell out of power the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21st amendment</a> repealed the 18th in 1933). The ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19th amendment</a> in 1920, which recognized <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women's suffrage</a> was the last amendment during the progressive era.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Another significant constitutional change that began during the progressive era was the <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a> so that those rights would apply to the states. In 1920, Benjamin Gitlow was convicted under the <a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">the case</a> went all the way to the Supreme Court, where the justices decided that the First Amendment applied to the states as well as the federal government. Prior to that time, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> was considered to apply only to the federal government, not the states. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_policy">National policy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: National policy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_economic_policy">National economic policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: National economic policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woodrow_Wilson_Priming_the_Prosperity_Pump,_1914_political_cartoon_by_Berryman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Woodrow_Wilson_Priming_the_Prosperity_Pump%2C_1914_political_cartoon_by_Berryman.jpg/220px-Woodrow_Wilson_Priming_the_Prosperity_Pump%2C_1914_political_cartoon_by_Berryman.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Woodrow_Wilson_Priming_the_Prosperity_Pump%2C_1914_political_cartoon_by_Berryman.jpg/330px-Woodrow_Wilson_Priming_the_Prosperity_Pump%2C_1914_political_cartoon_by_Berryman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Woodrow_Wilson_Priming_the_Prosperity_Pump%2C_1914_political_cartoon_by_Berryman.jpg/440px-Woodrow_Wilson_Priming_the_Prosperity_Pump%2C_1914_political_cartoon_by_Berryman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1031" data-file-height="1267" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> used tariff, currency, and antitrust laws to prime the pump and get the economy working.</figcaption></figure> The Progressive Era was one of general prosperity after the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a>—a severe depression—ended in 1897. The <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a> was short and mostly affected financiers. However, Campbell (2005) stresses the weak points of the economy in 1907–1914, linking them to public demands for more Progressive interventions. The Panic of 1907 was followed by a small decline in real wages and increased unemployment, with both trends continuing until World War I. Campbell emphasizes the resulting stress on public finance and the impact on the Wilson administration's policies. The weakened economy and persistent federal deficits led to changes in fiscal policy, including the imposition of federal income taxes on businesses and individuals and the creation of the Federal Reserve System.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Government agencies were also transformed in an effort to improve administrative efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-Harold_U._Faulkner_1951-201">[201]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> (late 19th century), the parties were reluctant to involve the federal government too heavily in the private sector, except in the area of railroads and tariffs. In general, they accepted the concept of <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a>, a doctrine opposing government interference in the economy except to maintain law and order. This attitude started to change during the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">depression of the 1890s</a> when small business, farm, and labor movements began asking the government to intercede on their behalf.<a href="#cite_note-Harold_U._Faulkner_1951-201">[201]</a> By the start of the 20th century, a middle class had developed that was weary of both the business elite and the radical political movements of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The progressives argued the need for government regulation of business practices to ensure competition and free enterprise. Congress enacted a law regulating railroads in 1887 (the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstate Commerce Act">Interstate Commerce Act</a>), and one preventing large firms from controlling a single industry in 1890 (the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a>). These laws were not rigorously enforced, however, until the years between 1900 and 1920, when Republican President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (1901–1909), Democratic President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (1913–1921), and others sympathetic to the views of the Progressives came to power. Many of today's US regulatory agencies were created during these years, including the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a>. <a href="/wiki/Muckrakers" class="mw-redirect" title="Muckrakers">Muckrakers</a> were journalists who encouraged readers to demand more regulation of business. Upton Sinclair's <a href="/wiki/The_Jungle" title="The Jungle">The Jungle</a> (1906) was influential and persuaded America about the supposed horrors of the Chicago <a href="/wiki/Union_Stock_Yards" title="Union Stock Yards">Union Stock Yards</a>, a giant complex of meat processing plants that developed in the 1870s. The federal government responded to Sinclair's book and the Neill–Reynolds Report with the new regulatory <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a>. Ida Tarbell wrote a series of articles against <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a>, which was perceived to be a monopoly. This affected both the government and the public reformers. Attacks by Tarbell and others helped pave the way for public acceptance of the breakup of the company by the Supreme Court in 1911.<a href="#cite_note-Harold_U._Faulkner_1951-201">[201]</a> When Democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected president with a Democratic Congress in 1912 he implemented a series of Progressive policies in economics. In 1913, the <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixteenth Amendment</a> was ratified, and a small <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> was imposed on higher incomes. The Democrats lowered tariffs with the <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1913" title="Revenue Act of 1913">Underwood Tariff</a> in 1913, though its effects were overwhelmed by the changes in trade caused by the World War that broke out in 1914. Wilson proved especially effective in mobilizing public opinion behind tariff changes by denouncing corporate lobbyists, addressing Congress in person in highly dramatic fashion, and staging an elaborate ceremony when he signed the bill into law.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Wilson helped end the long battles over the trusts with the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Antitrust Act">Clayton Antitrust Act</a> of 1914. He managed to convince lawmakers on the issues of money and banking by the creation in 1913 of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Reserve System">Federal Reserve System</a>, a complex business–government partnership that to this day dominates the financial world.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antitrust_under_Roosevelt_and_Taft">Antitrust under Roosevelt and Taft</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Antitrust under Roosevelt and Taft">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_antitrust_law" title="History of United States antitrust law">History of United States antitrust law</a></div> Roosevelt's antitrust record over eight years included 18 civil cases and 26 criminal antitrust cases resulting in 22 convictions and 22 acquittals. Taft's four years had 54 civil and 36 criminal suits and Taft's prosecutor secured 55 convictions and 35 acquittals. Taft's cases included many leading firms in major sectors: Standard Oil; American Tobacco; United States Steel; Aluminum Company of America; International Harvester; National Cash Register; Westinghouse; General Electric; Kodak; Dupont; Union Pacific railroad; and Southern Pacific railroad. It also included trusts or combinations in beef, lumber, wine, turpentine, wallpaper, licorice, thread, and watches.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> The targets even included operations run by Taft's personal friends, such as Ohio-based National Cash Register. The media gave extensive exposure, especially to cases against Standard Oil and American Tobacco, which reached directly tens of millions of consumers. Taft's attorney general <a href="/wiki/George_W._Wickersham" title="George W. Wickersham">George W. Wickersham</a> personally supervised the most important cases against Standard Oil and American Tobacco. He argued to the Supreme Court that trusts should be dissolved into their constituent parts, arguing they were artificial creations and did not achieve their positions through normal business methods and hence were guilty of violating the Sherman act. The government brief argued that dismemberment would correct this inequity and would force and restore normal competition. The Court agreed in 1911 and ordered the Justice Department to draw up complete reorganization plans in six months. Wickersham and his staff, all expert lawyers, were not experts in business management. The hurriedly created over thirty new corporations to replace Standard, plus several in tobacco.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> After reorganizations prices to consumers went up, as the replacement firms lost the size efficiency of the trust. Wickersham discovered that trust busting meant higher prices for consumers. He told Taft, "the disintegrated companies of both the oil and tobacco trust are spending many times what was formerly spent by anyone in advertising in the newspapers."<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> Wickersham realized the problem but Taft never did. He insisted that antitrust lawsuits continue to the end; 16 new cases were launched in the last 2 months of the Taft administration.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immigration_policy_and_immigrants_in_the_Progressive_Era">Immigration policy and immigrants in the Progressive Era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Immigration policy and immigrants in the Progressive Era">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mulberry_Street_NYC_c1900_LOC_3g04637u_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mulberry_Street_NYC_c1900_LOC_3g04637u_edit.jpg/220px-Mulberry_Street_NYC_c1900_LOC_3g04637u_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mulberry_Street_NYC_c1900_LOC_3g04637u_edit.jpg/330px-Mulberry_Street_NYC_c1900_LOC_3g04637u_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mulberry_Street_NYC_c1900_LOC_3g04637u_edit.jpg/440px-Mulberry_Street_NYC_c1900_LOC_3g04637u_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="2067" /></a><figcaption>Manhattan's <a href="/wiki/Little_Italy,_Manhattan" title="Little Italy, Manhattan">Little Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900.</figcaption></figure> Between 1900 and 1915, more than 15 million immigrants arrived in the United States. That was about equal to the number of immigrants who had arrived in the previous 40 years combined. In 1910, three-fourths of New York City's population were either immigrants or first generation Americans (i.e. the sons and daughters of immigrants).<a href="#cite_note-Auto29-3-3">[3]</a> Not only were the numbers of immigrants swelling, the countries from which they came had changed dramatically as well. Unlike earlier immigrants, the majority of the newcomers after 1900 came from non-English speaking European countries. The principal source of immigrants was now Eastern and Southern Europe, especially Italy, Poland, and Russia, countries quite different in culture and language from the United States, and many immigrants had difficulty adjusting to life in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Auto29-3-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> At the same time, the United States had difficulty absorbing the immigrants. Most of the immigrants chose to settle in American cities, where jobs were located. As a result, the cities became ever more crowded. In addition, city services often failed to keep up with the flow of newcomers. Most of the immigrants did find jobs, although they often worked in jobs that most native-born Americans would not take. Over time, however, many immigrants succeeded in improving their condition.<a href="#cite_note-Auto29-3-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Immigration_policy">Immigration policy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Immigration policy">edit</a>]</div> The influx of <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">immigration</a> grew steadily after 1896, with most new arrivals being unskilled workers from southern and eastern Europe. These immigrants were able to find work in the steel mills, slaughterhouses, fishing industry, and construction crews of the emergent mill towns and industrial cities mostly in the Northeast, Midwest, and West Coast. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 halted most transcontinental immigration, only after 1919 did the flow of immigrants resume. Starting in the 1880s, the labor unions aggressively promoted restrictions on immigration, especially restrictions on Chinese, Japanese and Korean immigrants.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> In combination with the racist attitudes of the time, there was a fear that large numbers of unskilled, low-paid workers would defeat the union's efforts to raise wages through collective bargaining.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> In addition, rural Protestants distrusted the urban Catholic and Jewish immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, and on those grounds opposed immigration.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> On the other hand, the rapid growth of industry called for a greater and expanding labor pool that could not be met by natural birth rates. As a result, many large corporations were opposed to immigration restrictions. By the early 1920s, a consensus had been reached that the total influx of immigration had to be restricted, and a series of laws in the 1920s accomplished that purpose.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> A handful of eugenics advocates were also involved in immigration restriction for their own pseudo-scientific reasons.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Immigration restriction continued to be a national policy until after World War II. During World War I, the Progressives strongly promoted <a href="/wiki/Americanization_(immigration)" title="Americanization (immigration)">Americanization</a> programs, designed to modernize the recent immigrants and turn them into model American citizens, while diminishing loyalties to the old country.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> These programs often operated through the public school system, which expanded dramatically.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a>, or Johnson–Reed Act, including the Asian Exclusion Act and National Origins Act, was a federal law that prevented immigration from Asia and set quotas on the number of immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. It also authorized the creation of the country's first formal border control service, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Border_Patrol" title="United States Border Patrol">US Border Patrol</a>, and established a "consular control system" that allowed entry only to those who first obtained a <a href="/wiki/Travel_visa" title="Travel visa">visa</a> from a US consulate abroad. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Foreign policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annexation_Here_to_Stay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Annexation_Here_to_Stay.jpg/220px-Annexation_Here_to_Stay.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Annexation_Here_to_Stay.jpg/330px-Annexation_Here_to_Stay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Annexation_Here_to_Stay.jpg/440px-Annexation_Here_to_Stay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7760" data-file-height="10082" /></a><figcaption>Newspaper reporting the <a href="/wiki/Newlands_Resolution" title="Newlands Resolution">annexation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Hawaii" title="Republic of Hawaii">Republic of Hawaii</a> in 1898</figcaption></figure> Progressives looked to legal <a href="/wiki/Arbitration#History" title="Arbitration">arbitration</a> as an alternative to warfare. The two leading proponents were Taft, a constitutional lawyer who later became Chief Justice, and Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan. Taft's political base was the conservative business community which largely supported peace movements before 1914. The businessmen believed that economic rivalries were cause of war, and that extensive trade led to an interdependent world that would make war a very expensive and useless anachronism. One early success came in the Newfoundland fisheries dispute between the United States and Britain in 1910. In 1911, Taft's diplomats signed wide-ranging arbitration treaties with France and Britain. However he was defeated by former President Theodore Roosevelt, who had broken with his protégé Taft in 1910. They were dueling for control of the Republican Party and Roosevelt encouraged the Senate to impose amendments that significantly weakened the treaties. On the one hand, Roosevelt was acting to sabotage Taft's campaign promises.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> At a deeper level, Roosevelt truly believed that arbitration was a naïve solution and the great issues had to be decided by warfare. The Roosevelt in approach incorporated a near-mystical faith of the ennobling nature of war. It endorsed jingoistic nationalism as opposed to the businessmen's calculation of profit and national interest.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> Foreign policy in the Progressive Era was often marked by a tone of moral supremacy. Woodrow Wilson and William Jennings Bryan both saw themselves as 'Missionaries of Democracy', with the deliberate religious overtone. Historian <a href="/wiki/Arthur_S._Link" title="Arthur S. Link">Arthur S. Link</a> says they felt they were, "Inspired by the confidence that they knew better how to promote the peace and well-being of other countries than did the leaders of those countries themselves."<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Similar ideas and language had already been used previously in the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>, wherein Roosevelt claimed that the United States could serve as the police of the world, using its power to end unrest and wrongdoing on the western hemisphere. Using this moralistic approach, Roosevelt argued for intervention with Cuba to help it to become a "just and stable civilization", by way of the <a href="/wiki/Platt_Amendment" title="Platt Amendment">Platt Amendment</a>. Wilson used a similar moralistic tone when dealing with Mexico. In 1913, while revolutionaries took control of the government, Wilson judged them to be immoral, and refused to acknowledge the in-place government on that reason alone.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overseas_possessions:_the_Philippines">Overseas possessions: the Philippines</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Overseas possessions: the Philippines">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Well,_I_hardly_know_which_to_take_first!_5-28-1898.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Well%2C_I_hardly_know_which_to_take_first%21_5-28-1898.JPG/220px-Well%2C_I_hardly_know_which_to_take_first%21_5-28-1898.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Well%2C_I_hardly_know_which_to_take_first%21_5-28-1898.JPG/330px-Well%2C_I_hardly_know_which_to_take_first%21_5-28-1898.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Well%2C_I_hardly_know_which_to_take_first%21_5-28-1898.JPG/440px-Well%2C_I_hardly_know_which_to_take_first%21_5-28-1898.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1175" /></a><figcaption>A cartoon of <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a> seated in restaurant looking at the bill of fare containing "Cuba steak", "Porto Rico pig", the "Philippine Islands", and the "Sandwich Islands" (Hawaii)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> were acquired by the United States in 1899, after victory over Spanish forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Battle of Manila Bay</a> and a long series of controversial political debates between the senate and President McKinley and was considered the largest colonial acquisition by the United States at this time.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> While anti-imperialist sentiments had been prevalent in the United States during this time, the acquisition of the Philippines sparked the relatively minor population into action. Voicing their opinions in public, they sought to deter American leaders from keeping the Asian-Pacific nation and to avoid the temptations of expansionist tendencies that were widely viewed as "un-American" at that time.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> The Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as: <blockquote>steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Manila" title="Port of Manila">Port of Manila</a>; dredging the <a href="/wiki/Pasig_River" title="Pasig River">River Pasig</a>; streamlining of the Insular Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network; the establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road- and bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture; large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a></blockquote> In 1903, the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms. By 1905, the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients. The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for the law's failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines' best path to development.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about children's health. The most prominent organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of Women's Clubs.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peace_movement">Peace movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Peace movement">edit</a>]</div> Although the Progressive Era was characterized by public support for <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> under <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, there was also a substantial <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">opposition to the war</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Societal_reforms">Societal reforms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Societal reforms">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhetoric_of_righteousness">Rhetoric of righteousness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Rhetoric of righteousness">edit</a>]</div> Mainline Protestant denominations adopted the <a href="/wiki/Social_Gospel" title="Social Gospel">Social Gospel</a>. The goal was to establish a more perfect society on earth in preparation for Christ's Second Coming. More generally the Social Gospel impulse was base on righteousness, typified by the wide influence of theologian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rauschenbusch" title="Walter Rauschenbusch">Walter Rauschenbusch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> The Presbyterians described the goal in 1910 by proclaiming: <blockquote>The great ends of the church are the proclamation of the gospel for the salvation of humankind; the shelter, nurture, and spiritual fellowship of the children of God; the maintenance of divine worship; the preservation of truth; the promotion of social righteousness; and the exhibition of the Kingdom of Heaven to the world.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a></blockquote> Many progressive leaders used the rhetoric of righteousness to motivate their Protestant supporters. Indeed, Richard Hosfstadter argued that progressivism was, "a phase in the history of the Protestant conscience, a latter-day Protestant revival."<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Wilson and Bryan were moralistic and very religious; Roosevelt and La Follette were moralistic and not very religious.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Roosevelt's rhetoric was characterized by an intense moralism of personal righteousness.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> The tone was typified by his denunciation of "predatory wealth" in a message he sent Congress in January 1908 calling for passage of new labor laws: <blockquote>Predatory wealth—of the wealth accumulated on a giant scale by all forms of iniquity, ranging from the oppression of wageworkers to unfair and unwholesome methods of crushing out competition, and to defrauding the public by stock jobbing and the manipulation of securities. Certain wealthy men of this stamp, whose conduct should be abhorrent to every man of ordinarily decent conscience, and who commit the hideous wrong of teaching our young men that phenomenal business success must ordinarily be based on dishonesty, have during the last few months made it apparent that they have banded together to work for a reaction. Their endeavor is to overthrow and discredit all who honestly administer the law, to prevent any additional legislation which would check and restrain them, and to secure if possible a freedom from all restraint which will permit every unscrupulous wrongdoer to do what he wishes unchecked provided he has enough money....The methods by which the Standard Oil people and those engaged in the other combinations of which I have spoken above have achieved great fortunes can only be justified by the advocacy of a system of morality which would also justify every form of criminality on the part of a labor union, and every form of violence, corruption, and fraud, from murder to bribery and ballot box stuffing in politics.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prohibition">Prohibition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Prohibition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition in the United States</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">Prohibition</a> was the outlawing of the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol. Drinking itself was never prohibited. Throughout the Progressive Era, it remained one of the prominent causes associated with progressivism at the local, state and national level, though support across the full breadth of Progressives was mixed. It pitted the minority urban Catholic population against the larger rural Protestant element,<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Progressivism's rise in the rural communities was aided by the general increase in public consciousness of social issues of the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance movement</a>, which achieved national success with the passage of the 18th Amendment by Congress in late 1917, and the ratification by three-fourths of the states in 1919. Prohibition was backed by the Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Scandinavian Lutherans and other evangelical churches.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> In the South, especially in Texas, prohibition was a top priority of the Protestant progressives.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> Activists were mobilized by the highly effective <a href="/wiki/Anti-Saloon_League" title="Anti-Saloon League">Anti-Saloon League</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Timberlake (1963) argues the dries sought to break the liquor trust, weaken the saloon base of big-city machines, enhance industrial efficiency, and reduce the level of wife beating, child abuse, and poverty caused by alcoholism.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> Agitation for prohibition began during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a> in the 1840s when crusades against drinking originated from evangelical Protestants.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Evangelicals precipitated the second wave of prohibition legislation during the 1880s, which had as its aim local and state prohibition. During the 1880s, referendums were held at the state level to enact prohibition amendments. Two important groups were formed during this period. The <a href="/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union" title="Woman's Christian Temperance Union">Woman's Christian Temperance Union</a> (WCTU) was formed in 1874.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> The Anti-Saloon League which began in Ohio was formed in 1893, uniting activists from different religious groups.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> The league, rooted in Protestant churches, envisioned nationwide prohibition. Rather than condemn all drinking, the group focused attention on the saloon which was considered the ultimate symbol of public <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vice</a>. The league also concentrated on campaigns for the right of individual communities to choose whether to close their saloons.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> In 1907, Georgia and Alabama were the first states to go dry followed by Oklahoma, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Tennessee in the following years. In 1913, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Webb%E2%80%93Kenyon_Act" title="Webb–Kenyon Act">Webb–Kenyon Act</a>, which forbade the transport of liquor into dry states. By 1917, two-thirds of the states had some form of prohibition laws and roughly three-quarters of the population lived in dry areas. In 1913, the Anti-Saloon League first publicly appealed for a prohibition amendment. They preferred a constitutional amendment over a federal statute because although harder to achieve, they felt it would be harder to change. As the United States entered World War I, the Conscription Act banned the sale of liquor near military bases.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> In August 1917, the Lever <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Fuel_Control_Act" title="Food and Fuel Control Act">Food and Fuel Control Act</a> banned production of distilled spirits for the duration of the war. The War Prohibition Act, November 1918, forbade the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages (more than 2.75% alcohol content) until the end of demobilization. The drys worked energetically to secure two-thirds majority of both houses of Congress and the support of three-quarters of the states needed for an amendment to the federal constitution. Thirty-six states were needed, and organizations were set up at all 48 states to seek ratification. In late 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment; it was ratified in 1919 and took effect in January 1920. It prohibited the manufacturing, sale or transport of intoxicating beverages within the United States, as well as import and export. The <a href="/wiki/Volstead_Act" title="Volstead Act">Volstead Act</a>, 1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5% and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not try.<a href="#cite_note-David-249">[249]</a> Consumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance, and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly ineffective, even if it did not eradicate the use of alcohol, it certainly decreased alcohol consumption during the period. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed in 1933, with the passage of the Twenty-First Amendment, thanks to a well-organized repeal campaign led by Catholics (who stressed personal liberty) and businessmen (who stressed the lost tax revenue).<a href="#cite_note-David-249">[249]</a> Prohibition also brought a rise to organized crime, which was able to profit off the sales of illegal alcohol. <a href="/wiki/Al_Capone" title="Al Capone">Al Capone</a> was one of the most well-known criminals to partake in illegal alcohol sales. There was a huge demand for alcohol, but most business owners were unwilling to risk getting involved in the transportation of alcohol. The business owners did however have little issue with selling the alcohol that the criminals like Capone provided.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized crime</a> was able to be successful due to their willingness to use intimidation and violence to carry out their illicit enterprises. During prohibition, the mafia was able to grow their stronghold on illegal activities throughout the United States. This illegal behavior began almost in conjunction with prohibition being voted into law. Within the first hours of prohibition, the police in Chicago reported the theft of medicinal liquor.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> The prohibition era gangsters outlasted the law and used it as a starting point to launch their criminal enterprises. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> The reform of schools and other educational institutions was one of the prime concerns of the middle class during this period. The number of schools in the nation increased dramatically. The face of the Progressive Education Movement in America was John Dewey, a professor at the University of Chicago (1896–1904) who argued, in books such as The Child and the Curriculum and Schools of Tomorrow, that, in addition to teaching academic content, schools should teach everyday skills and promote democratic participation. A higher level of education also gained popularity. By 1930, 12.4% of 18- to 21-year-olds were attending college, whereas in 1890 only about 3% of this demographic had an interest in higher learning.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women's_education_in_home_economics">Women's education in home economics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Women's education in home economics">edit</a>]</div> A new field of study, the art and science of homemaking, emerged in the Progressive Era in an effort to feminize women's education in the United States. Home economics emerged at the end of the nineteenth century in response to the many changes occurring both at the level of material culture and practices and in the more abstract realm of gender ideology and thinking about the home. As the industrial revolution took hold of the American economy and as mass production, alienation, and urbanization appeared to be unstoppable trends, Americans looked for solutions that could soften the effects of change without slowing down the engines of progress.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> Alternatively called home arts, the major curriculum reform in women's education was influenced by the publication of Treatise on Domestic Economy, written by Catherine Beecher in 1843. Advocates of home economics argued that homemaking, as a profession, required education and training for the development of an efficient and systematic domestic practice. The curriculum aimed to cover a variety of topics, including teaching a standardized ways of gardening, child-rearing, cooking, cleaning, performing household maintenance, and doctoring. Such scientific management applied to the domestic sphere was presented as a solution to the dilemma black middle-class women faced in terms of searching for meaning and fulfillment in their role of housekeeping. The feminist perspective, by pushing for this type of education, intended to explain that women had separate but equally important responsibilities in life with men that required proper training.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Child_labor_and_schooling">Child labor and schooling</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Child labor and schooling">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Child_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor in the United States">Child labor in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pennsylvania_breaker_boys_1911.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Pennsylvania_breaker_boys_1911.jpg/220px-Pennsylvania_breaker_boys_1911.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Pennsylvania_breaker_boys_1911.jpg/330px-Pennsylvania_breaker_boys_1911.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Pennsylvania_breaker_boys_1911.jpg/440px-Pennsylvania_breaker_boys_1911.jpg 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Breaker_boy" title="Breaker boy">Breaker boys</a> sort coal in an anthracite coal breaker near South <a href="/wiki/Pittston,_Pennsylvania" title="Pittston, Pennsylvania">Pittston, Pennsylvania</a>, 1911</figcaption></figure> There was a concern towards working class children being taken out of school to be put straight to work. Progressives around the country put up campaigns to push for an improvement in public education and to make education mandatory.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> There were some less successful attempts in the South, where educational levels were far lower.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> The Southern Education Board came together to publicize the importance of reform. However, many rejected the reform. Farmers and workers relied heavily on their children to work and help the family's income. Immigrants were not for reform either, fearing that such a thing would Americanize their children. Enrollment for children (age 5 to 19) in school rose from 51 percent to 59 between 1900 and 1909. Enrollment in public secondary school went from 519,000 to 841,000. School funds and the term of public schools also grew.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine_and_law">Medicine and law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Medicine and law">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Flexner_Report" title="Flexner Report">Flexner Report</a> of 1910, sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Foundation_for_the_Advancement_of_Teaching" title="Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching">Carnegie Foundation</a>, professionalized American medicine by discarding the scores of local small medical schools and focusing national funds, resources, and prestige on larger, professionalized medical schools associated with universities.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> Prominent leaders included the <a href="/wiki/William_James_Mayo" title="William James Mayo">Mayo Brothers</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Mayo_Clinic" title="Mayo Clinic">Mayo Clinic</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_Minnesota" title="Rochester, Minnesota">Rochester</a>, Minnesota, became world-famous for innovative surgery.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> In the legal profession, the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a> set up in 1900 the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_American_Law_Schools" title="Association of American Law Schools">Association of American Law Schools</a> (AALS). It established national standards for law schools, which led to the replacement of the old system of young men studying law privately with established lawyers by the new system of accredited law schools associated with universities.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_sciences">Social sciences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Social sciences">edit</a>]</div> Progressive scholars, based at the emerging research universities such as <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">California</a>, worked to modernize their disciplines. The heyday of the amateur expert gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. Their explicit goal was to professionalize and make "scientific" the social sciences, especially history,<a href="#cite_note-Richard_Hofstadter_1968-8">[8]</a> economics,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-9">[9]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barry_Karl_1975-10">[10]</a> Professionalization meant creating new career tracks in the universities, with hiring and promotion dependent on meeting international models of scholarship. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Training_Camp_Activities" title="Commission on Training Camp Activities">Commission on Training Camp Activities</a> sought to "socialize and Americanize" troops, especially native-born and foreign-born men, to meet the expected level of societal standards and integrate them into American culture. The ideology of the Commission was characterized by that of the Progressive Era, which strived against prostitution, alcoholism, social diseases, and poor sanitary conditions in major cities. The CTCA attempted to eradicate these problems from military training camps.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eugenics">Eugenics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Eugenics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">Eugenics in the United States</a></div> Some progressives sponsored <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> as a solution to excessively large or underperforming families, hoping that birth control would enable parents to focus their resources on fewer, better children.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas_C._Leonard-267">[267]</a> Progressive leaders like <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Croly" title="Herbert Croly">Herbert Croly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Walter Lippmann</a> indicated their classically liberal concern over the danger posed to the individual by the practice of eugenics.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> The Catholics strongly opposed birth control proposals such as eugenics.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline">Decline</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Decline">edit</a>]</div> In the 1940s typically historians saw the Progressive Era as a prelude to the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> and dated it from 1901 (when Roosevelt became president) to the start of World War I in 1914 or 1917.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> Historians have moved back in time emphasizing the Progressive reformers at the municipal<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> and state<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> levels in the 1890s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_Progressive_Era">End of the Progressive Era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: End of the Progressive Era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seattle_General_Strike" title="Seattle General Strike">Seattle General Strike</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palmer_Raids" title="Palmer Raids">Palmer Raids</a></div> The Progressive political crusades were overshadowed in 1919 by violent confrontations with Bolsheviks (Communists), anarchists and violent strikes. The crusading element of progressivism thus largely ended, apart from prohibition, although business-oriented efficiency efforts continued.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> In 1919, Theodore Roosevelt died and Wilson's health collapsed, leaving a void in top leadership. The major new face was <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> Much less settled is the question of when the era ended. Some historians who emphasize civil liberties decry their suppression during 1917–1919 and do not consider the war as rooted in Progressive policy.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> A strong anti-war movement headed by noted Progressives including <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a>, was suppressed by the <a href="/wiki/Preparedness_Movement" title="Preparedness Movement">Preparedness Movement</a> and Wilson's 1916 re-election, a victory largely enabled by his campaign slogan, "He kept us out of the war."<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> The slogan was no longer accurate by April 6 of the following year, when Wilson surprised much of the Progressive base that twice elected him and asked a joint session of Congress to declare war on Germany. The Senate voted 82–6 in favor; the House agreed, 373–50. Some historians see the so-called "war to end all wars" as a globalized expression of the American Progressive movement, with Wilson's support for a League of Nations as its climax.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> The politics of the 1920s was unfriendly toward the labor unions and liberal crusaders against business, so many if not most historians who emphasize those themes write off the decade. Urban cosmopolitan scholars recoiled at the moralism of prohibition, the intolerance of the nativists and the KKK, and on those grounds denounced the era. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a>, for example, in 1955 wrote that prohibition, "was a pseudo-reform, a pinched, parochial substitute for reform" that "was carried about America by the rural–evangelical virus".<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> However, as <a href="/wiki/Arthur_S._Link" title="Arthur S. Link">Arthur S. Link</a> emphasized, the Progressives did not simply roll over and play dead.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> Link's argument for continuity through the 1920s stimulated a historiography that found Progressivism to be a potent force. Palmer, pointing to leaders like <a href="/wiki/George_W._Norris" title="George W. Norris">George Norris</a>, says, "It is worth noting that progressivism, while temporarily losing the political initiative, remained popular in many western states and made its presence felt in Washington during both the Harding and Coolidge presidencies."<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> Gerster and Cords argue that, "Since progressivism was a 'spirit' or an 'enthusiasm' rather than an easily definable force with common goals, it seems more accurate to argue that it produced a climate for reform which lasted well into the 1920s, if not beyond."<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> Some social historians have posited that the KKK may in fact fit into the Progressive agenda, if Klansmen are portrayed as "ordinary white Protestants" primarily interested in purification of the system, which had long been a core Progressive goal.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_progressive_leaders">Notable progressive leaders</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Notable progressive leaders">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a>, social reformer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a>, suffragist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Baldwin" title="Eleanor Baldwin">Eleanor Baldwin</a>, Portland journalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Bass" title="Robert P. Bass">Robert P. Bass</a>, New Hampshire politician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a>, historian and political scientist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_J._Beveridge" title="Albert J. Beveridge">Albert J. Beveridge</a>, Indiana Politician, Biographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a>, Supreme Court justice</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>, Democratic presidential nominee in 1896, 1900, 1908; Secretary of State</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Burke_(North_Dakota_politician)" title="John Burke (North Dakota politician)">John Burke</a>, North Dakota politician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Burns" title="Lucy Burns">Lucy Burns</a>, suffragist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a>, steel magnate, philanthropist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt" title="Carrie Chapman Catt">Carrie Chapman Catt</a>, suffragist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Cox" title="James M. Cox">James M. Cox</a>, Ohio governor; presidential candidate 1920</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Croly" title="Herbert Croly">Herbert Croly</a>, journalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Darrow" title="Clarence Darrow">Clarence Darrow</a>, lawyer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Eugene V. Debs</a>, five times the presidential candidate of the Socialist Party</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, African American leader, scholar</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Fitzsimmons_Dunne" title="Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne">Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne</a>, Mayor of Chicago; governor of Illinois</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>, inventor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Irving Fisher</a>, economist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Flexner" title="Abraham Flexner">Abraham Flexner</a>, education</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a>, automaker</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a>, writer on political economy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman" title="Charlotte Perkins Gilman">Charlotte Perkins Gilman</a>, feminist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Glaspell" title="Susan Glaspell">Susan Glaspell</a>, playwright, novelist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_H._Glynn" title="Martin H. Glynn">Martin H. Glynn</a>, Governor of New York 1913–1914</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a>, lawyer, writer, zoologist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hine" title="Lewis Hine">Lewis Hine</a>, photographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>, Secretary of Commerce, President</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a>, New York governor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_Johnson" title="Hiram Johnson">Hiram Johnson</a>, Governor of California, Senator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Harris_Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Harris Jones">Mary Harris "Mother" Jones</a>, union activist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_M._Jones" title="Samuel M. Jones">Samuel M. Jones</a>, politician, reformer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Kelley" title="Florence Kelley">Florence Kelley</a>, child advocate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a>, Governor of Wisconsin, Senator, presidential candidate 1924</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiorello_LaGuardia" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiorello LaGuardia">Fiorello LaGuardia</a>, Mayor of New York City</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Walter Lippmann</a>, journalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James_Mayo" title="William James Mayo">Mayo Brothers</a>, medicine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayette_Avery_McKenzie" title="Fayette Avery McKenzie">Fayette Avery McKenzie</a>, sociologist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">J. Howard Moore</a>, zoologist, philosopher, educator, and social reformer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Mott" class="mw-redirect" title="John R. Mott">John R. Mott</a>, YMCA leader</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mundelein" title="George Mundelein">George Mundelein</a>, Catholic leader</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Paul" title="Alice Paul">Alice Paul</a>, suffragist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Perkins" title="Frances Perkins">Frances Perkins</a>, Secretary of Labor in 1930s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Walbridge_Perkins" title="George Walbridge Perkins">George Walbridge Perkins</a>, leading banker and organizer of Progressive Party in 1912</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_B._Phillips" title="Ulrich B. Phillips">Ulrich B. Phillips</a>, historian of South</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Pinchot" title="Amos Pinchot">Amos Pinchot</a>, a leader of Progressive Party of 1912</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a>, conservationist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rauschenbusch" title="Walter Rauschenbusch">Walter Rauschenbusch</a>, theologian of <a href="/wiki/Social_Gospel" title="Social Gospel">Social Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Riis" title="Jacob Riis">Jacob Riis</a>, journalist, photographer, urban reformer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller_Jr." title="John D. Rockefeller Jr.">John D. Rockefeller Jr.</a>, philanthropist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>, Governor of New York, President</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, Governor of New York, President</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elihu_Root" title="Elihu Root">Elihu Root</a>, statesman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Sanford" title="Maria Sanford">Maria Sanford</a>, reformer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a>, birth control activist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Howard_Shaw" title="Anna Howard Shaw">Anna Howard Shaw</a>, suffragist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upton_Sinclair" title="Upton Sinclair">Upton Sinclair</a>, novelist, journalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albion_Small" class="mw-redirect" title="Albion Small">Albion Small</a>, sociologist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a>, governor of New York; Democratic presidential candidate 1928</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Gates_Starr" title="Ellen Gates Starr">Ellen Gates Starr</a>, sociologist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Steffens" title="Lincoln Steffens">Lincoln Steffens</a>, journalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stimson" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Stimson">Henry Stimson</a>, secretary of war for Taft and FDR; and secretary of state for Harding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a>, Secretary of War, President, Chief Justice</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Tarbell" title="Ida Tarbell">Ida Tarbell</a>, journalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Frederick Winslow Taylor</a>, efficiency expert</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Jackson_Turner" title="Frederick Jackson Turner">Frederick Jackson Turner</a>, historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_van_Kleeck" title="Mary van Kleeck">Mary van Kleeck</a>, social scientist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Thorstein Veblen</a>, economist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Wagner" title="Robert F. Wagner">Robert F. Wagner</a> Senator from New York</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Lester Frank Ward</a>, sociologist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a>, African American leader, educator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_Kendall_Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="Burton Kendall Wheeler">Burton Kendall Wheeler</a>, Montana politician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Allen_White" title="William Allen White">William Allen White</a>, journalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, Governor of New Jersey, President</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressivism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor in the United States">Child labor in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">History of direct democracy in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Randolph_Haynes#Direct_Democracy_League" title="John Randolph Haynes">Direct Democracy League for initiative and referendum in California</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_government,_1905%E2%80%931915" title="Liberal government, 1905–1915">Liberal government, 1905–1915</a>, comparable trends in Great Britain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a> – Period in European history, 1871–1914</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a> – Law maintaining market competition, and antitrust</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> John D. Buenker, John C. Boosham, and Robert M. Crunden, Progressivism (1986) pp 3–21 </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Arthur S. Link, "What Happened to the Progressive Movement in the 1920s?." American Historical Review 64.4 (1959): 833–851. </li> <li id="cite_note-Auto29-3-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Auto29-3_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Auto29-3_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Auto29-3_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Auto29-3_3-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/overview/">"Progressive Era to New Era"</a>. Library of Congress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Progressive+Era+to+New+Era&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fclassroom-materials%2Funited-states-history-primary-source-timeline%2Fprogressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929%2Foverview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/summary/The-Progressive-Era-Key-Facts">"United States History. The Progressive Era Key Facts"</a>. Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+States+History.+The+Progressive+Era+Key+Facts&rft.pub=Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fsummary%2FThe-Progressive-Era-Key-Facts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> On purification, see David W. Southern, The Malignant Heritage: Yankee Progressives and the Negro Question, 1900–1915 (1968); Southern, The Progressive Era And Race: Reaction And Reform 1900–1917 (2005); Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition (1976) p 170; and <a href="/wiki/Aileen_Kraditor" class="mw-redirect" title="Aileen Kraditor">Aileen Kraditor</a>, The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement: 1890–1920 (1967). 134–136. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> James H. Timberlake, Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920 (1970) pp. 1–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Kazin2011" class="citation book cs1">Michael Kazin; et al. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fsWLGcZ7pyAC&pg=PA181">The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political Turn up History</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400839469" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400839469"><bdi>978-1400839469</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+American+Political+Turn+up+History&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1400839469&rft.au=Michael+Kazin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfsWLGcZ7pyAC%26pg%3DPA181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richard_Hofstadter_1968-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Hofstadter_1968_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Hofstadter_1968_8-1">b</a> Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968) </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_9-1">b</a> Joseph Dorfman, The economic mind in American civilization, 1918–1933 vol 3, 1969 </li> <li id="cite_note-Barry_Karl_1975-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barry_Karl_1975_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barry_Karl_1975_10-1">b</a> Barry Karl, Charles E. Merriam and the Study of Politics (1975) </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Lewis L. Gould, America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1914 (2000) </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_B._Tyack" class="mw-redirect" title="David B. Tyack">David B. Tyack</a>, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Harvard UP, 1974), p. 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> George Mowry, The California Progressives (1963) p 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%22Direct%20legislation%20by%20the%20Citizenship%22%29">online copies</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Richard J. Ellis, "The Opportunist: James W. Sullivan and the Origins of the Initiative and Referendum in the United States." American Political Thought 11.1 (2022): 1–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Ellis (2002) pp. 28–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCocksHolloranLessoff2009" class="citation book cs1">Cocks, Catherine; Holloran, Peter C.; Lessoff, Alan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rt3243E-Wm0C&pg=PA266">The A to Z of the Progressive Era</a>. Scarecrow Press. p. 266. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810870697" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810870697"><bdi>978-0810870697</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+the+Progressive+Era&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0810870697&rft.aulast=Cocks&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Holloran%2C+Peter+C.&rft.au=Lessoff%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRt3243E-Wm0C%26pg%3DPA266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Herbert Shapiro, ed., The muckrakers and American society (Heath, 1968), contains representative samples as well as academic commentary. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Judson A. Grenier, "Muckraking the muckrakers: Upton Sinclair and his peers." in David R Colburn and Sandra Pozzetta, eds., Reform and Reformers in the Progressive Era (1983) pp: 71–92. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> The Meat Inspection Act </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Arlene F. Kantor, "Upton Sinclair and the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906.: 'I aimed at the public's heart and by accident, I hit it in the stomach'." American Journal of Public Health 66.12 (1976): 1202–1205. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Robert Miraldi, ed. The Muckrakers: Evangelical Crusaders (Praeger, 2000) </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Harry H. Stein, "American Muckrakers and Muckraking: The 50-Year Scholarship", Journalism Quarterly, (1979) 56#1 pp. 9–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> John D. Buenker, and Robert M. Crunden. Progressivism (1986); Maureen Flanagan, America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890–the 1920s (2007) </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift Scientific Management in the Progressive Era 1890–1920 (1964) 656 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Daniel Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (1970). </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.-C._SpenderHugo_Kijne2012" class="citation book cs1">J.-C. Spender; Hugo Kijne (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WcLkBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63">Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor's Gift to the World?</a>. Springer. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1461314219" title="Special:BookSources/978-1461314219"><bdi>978-1461314219</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Management%3A+Frederick+Winslow+Taylor%27s+Gift+to+the+World%3F&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1461314219&rft.au=J.-C.+Spender&rft.au=Hugo+Kijne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWcLkBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Olivier_Zunz" title="Olivier Zunz">Olivier Zunz</a>, Philanthropy in America: A History (2012) ch 1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Philanthropy-America-History-Politics-Twentieth/dp/0691128367/">excerpt and text search</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Nikki Mandell, "Allies or Antagonists? Philanthropic Reformers and Business Reformers in the Progressive Era", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2012), 11#1 71–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Branden Little. "Review of Jones, Marian Moser, The American Red Cross from Clara Barton to the New Deal" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=39722">H-SHGAPE, H-Net Reviews. August 2013, online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Zunz, p. 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGerr2003" class="citation book cs1">McGerr, Michael (2003). A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Fierce+Discontent%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Progressive+Movement+in+America%2C+1870%E2%80%931920&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=McGerr&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiebe1967" class="citation book cs1">Wiebe, Robert H (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/searchfororder1800wieb">The Search For Order: 1877–1920</a>. New York: Hill and Wang. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/searchfororder1800wieb/page/111">111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+For+Order%3A+1877%E2%80%931920&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Wiebe&rft.aufirst=Robert+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsearchfororder1800wieb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGerr2003" class="citation book cs1">McGerr, Michael (2003). A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Fierce+Discontent%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Progressive+Movement+in+America%2C+1870%E2%80%931920&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=McGerr&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Paul R. Amato, and Shelley Irving, "Historical trends in divorce in the United States." in Handbook of divorce and relationship dissolution (Psychology Press, 2013) pp. 57–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGerr2003" class="citation book cs1">McGerr, Michael (2003). A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 40–74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Fierce+Discontent%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Progressive+Movement+in+America%2C+1870%E2%80%931920&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=40-74&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=McGerr&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Nancy C. Unger, Fighting Bob La Follette: The Righteous Reformer (2003) pp. 1–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Nancy C. Unger, "The ‘Political Suicide’ of Robert M. La Follette: Public Disaster, Private Catharsis" Psychohistory Review 21#2 (1993) pp. 187–220 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarcommons.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1018&context=history">online</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Nancy C. Unger, "The ‘Political Suicide’ of Robert M. La Follette: Public Disaster, Private Catharsis" Psychohistory Review 21#2 (1993) pp. 187–220 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarcommons.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1018&context=history">online</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> David P. Thelen, Robert M. La Follette and the insurgent spirit (1976) pp. 32–144 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Unger, Fighting Bob La Follette: The Righteous Reformer (2003) pp. 239–304. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> William H. Harbaugh, "Roosevelt, Theodore (27 October 1858 – 06 January 1919)" American National Biography (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0600569">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> John Milton Cooper, Jr., Woodrow Wilson (2009) pp. 183–184 </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Cooper (2009), pp. 186–187 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Cooper (2009), pp. 212–213, 274 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd_Ambrosius2002" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd Ambrosius (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w9tlCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">Wilsonianism: Woodrow Wilson and His Legacy in American Foreign Relations</a>. Palgrave Macmillan US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-7004-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-7004-6"><bdi>978-1-4039-7004-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wilsonianism%3A+Woodrow+Wilson+and+His+Legacy+in+American+Foreign+Relations&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-7004-6&rft.au=Lloyd+Ambrosius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw9tlCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Tony Smith, Why Wilson Matters: The Origin of American Liberal Internationalism and Its Crisis Today (2019). </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShesol2010">Shesol 2010</a>, p. 27 </li> <li id="cite_note-Shoemaker_2004_63–64-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Shoemaker_2004_63–64_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShoemaker2004">Shoemaker 2004</a>, pp. 63–64 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHenretta2006">Henretta 2006</a>, pp. 136–137 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHenretta2006">Henretta 2006</a>, pp. 115–171 </li> <li id="cite_note-AmExp-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AmExp_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AmExp_52-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/burn/">"The Big Burn-Transcript"</a>. American Experience. PBS. February 3, 2015. Retrieved January 23, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Experience&rft.atitle=The+Big+Burn-Transcript&rft.date=2015-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffilms%2Fburn%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Robert Muccigrosso, ed., Research Guide to American Historical Biography (1988) 3:1238 </li> <li id="cite_note-Levy-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Levy_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._W._Levy1985" class="citation book cs1">D. W. Levy (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/herbertcrolyofne0000levy">Herbert Croly of the New Republic: the Life and Thought of an American Progressive</a>. 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Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-5188-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-5188-0"><bdi>978-1-4696-5188-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1052404500">1052404500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+and+Jim+Crow%3A+women+and+the+politics+of+White+supremacy+in+North+Carolina%2C+1896-1920&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.series=Gender+%26+American+culture&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1052404500&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-5188-0&rft.aulast=Gilmore&rft.aufirst=Glenda+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fon1052404500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Allen F. 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Wisconsin Magazine of History (1958) 42#1: 19–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Nesbit, Wisconsin (1973) pp. 436–440. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Merle Curti and Vernon Carstensen, The University of Wisconsin: A History, 1848–1925 (Vol. 2, 1949) pp. 67–68, 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Allan G. Bogue, Frederick Jackson Turner (1998) pp. 254–258. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Gene Clanton, "Populism, Progressivism, and Equality: The Kansas Paradigm" Agricultural History (1977) 51#3 pp. 559–581. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> John C. 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Morgan Kousser, The shaping of southern politics: Suffrage restriction and the establishment of the one-party south, 1880–1910 (Yale University Press, 1974). </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> John D. Buenker and Edward R. Kantowicz, Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era, 1890–1920 (1988) pp. 380–381. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Peter H. Argersinger, "Electoral Processes." in Encyclopedia of American Political History (1984) 2: 489–512. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> H. Feldman, "The Direct Primary in New York State" American Political Science Review (1917) 11#3 pp. 494–518 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1944250">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Robert F. 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Kyvig, Explicit and authentic acts: amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776–1995 (Kansas UP, 1996) pp. 208–214; Hedwig Richter: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/25338056/_TRANSNATIONAL_REFORM_AND_DEMOCRACY_ELECTION_REFORMS_IN_NEW_YORK_CITY_AND_BERLIN_AROUND_1900_in_Journal_of_the_Gilded_Age_and_Progressive_Era_15_2016_149-175">"Transnational Reform and Democracy: Election Reforms in New York City and Berlin Around 1900"</a>, in: <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Gilded_Age_and_Progressive_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era">Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</a> 15 (2016), 149–175 </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Progressive_Era-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Progressive_Era_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Progressive_Era_121-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-progressive-era/">"The Progressive Era"</a>. 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Edward Flentje, "The Political Roots of City Managers in Kansas" Kansas History (1984) 7#2 pp. 139–158. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Gwendoline Alphonso, "Hearth and Soul: Economics and Culture in Partisan Conceptions of the Family in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920", Studies in American Political Development, Oct 2010, Vol. 24 Issue 2, pp. 206–232. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeff1973" class="citation journal cs1">Leff, Mark H. 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Journal of Presbyterian History (1998). 76#3: 181–186. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Richard Hosfstadter, The Age of Reform (1955) p. 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Patricia O'Toole, The Moralist: Woodrow Wilson and The World He Made (2018) pp. xv–xvii. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Michael Kazin, A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan (2006) pp xiii–xvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Nancy C. Unger, Fighting Bob La Follette: The Righteous Reformer (2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Leroy G. Dorsey, "Preaching Morality in Modern America: Theodore Roosevelt's Rhetorical Progressivism." in Rhetoric and Reform in the Progressive Era, A Rhetorical History of the United States: Significant Moments in American Public Discourse, ed. J. Michael Hogan, (Michigan State University Press, 2003), vol 6, pp. 49–83. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Joshua D. Hawley, Theodore Roosevelt: Preacher of Righteousness (2008), p. xvii. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Theodore-Roosevelt-Joshua-David-Hawley/dp/0300120109">excerpt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Josh_Hawley" title="Josh Hawley">Josh Hawleyin</a> 2019 became a Republican senator with intense moralistic rhetoric. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> See also The Independent (Feb. 6, 1908) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RjAPAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22justified+by+the+advocacy+of+a+system+of+morality%22&pg=PA275">p. 274 online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> "Special message to Congress, January 31, 1908," in Elting E. Morison, ed., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Harvard UP, 1952) vol 5 pp. 1580, 1587; see online version at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/message-congress-workers-compensation">UC Santa Barbara, "The American Presidency Project"</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Ira M. Wasserman, "Status politics and economic class interests: The 1918 prohibition referendum in California." Sociological Quarterly 31.3 (1990): 475–484. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> John D. Buenker, "An American kulturkampf: The birth pangs of cultural pluralism." Urban Liberalism and Progressive Reform (1973) pp. 163–197. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Ira M. Wasserman, "Prohibition and ethnocultural conflict: The Missouri prohibition referendum of 1918." Social Science Quarterly 70.4 (1989): 886–901. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Lewis L. Gould, "Progressives and prohibitionists: Texas Democratic politics, 1911–1921." The Southwestern Historical Quarterly 75.1 (1971): 5–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Joe Locke, "Making the Bible Belt: Preachers, Prohibition, and the Politicization of Southern Religion, 1877–1918" (PhD dissertation, Rice University, 2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> K. Austin Kerr, Organized for Prohibition: A New History of the Anti-Saloon League (1985). </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> James Timberlake, Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920 (Harvard UP, 1963) </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> Jack S. Blocker, American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform (1989) </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> Jed Dannenbaum, Drink and Disorder: Temperance Reform in Cincinnati from the Washingtonian Revival to the WCTU (1984) </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Kerr, Organized for Prohibition: A New History of the Anti-Saloon League (1985) </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGerr2003" class="citation book cs1">McGerr, Michael (2003). A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920. 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Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 53 (4): 399–425. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandbrook2012" class="citation news cs1">Sandbrook, Dominic (August 25, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/aug/26/lawless-prohibition-gangsters-speakeasies">"How Prohibition backfired and gave America an era of gangsters and speakeasies"</a>. The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved August 9, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=How+Prohibition+backfired+and+gave+America+an+era+of+gangsters+and+speakeasies&rft.date=2012-08-25&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Sandbrook&rft.aufirst=Dominic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ffilm%2F2012%2Faug%2F26%2Flawless-prohibition-gangsters-speakeasies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese2001" class="citation journal cs1">Reese, William (2001). "The Origins of Progressive Education". History of Education Quarterly. 41 (1): 1–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1748-5959.2001.tb00072.x">10.1111/j.1748-5959.2001.tb00072.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/369477">369477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143244952">143244952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Progressive+Education&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-24&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143244952%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F369477%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1748-5959.2001.tb00072.x&rft.aulast=Reese&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uvm.edu/~dewey/articles/proged.html">"A Brief Overview of Progressive Education"</a>. 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Retrieved February 8, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Now&rft.atitle=Statistics%3A+Education+in+America%2C+1860%E2%80%931950&rft.aulast=Mintz&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gilderlehrman.org%2Fcontent%2Fstatistics-education-america-1860-1950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/toc/14441_toc.html">"Table of Contents: Stir It Up"</a>. www.upenn.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.upenn.edu&rft.atitle=Table+of+Contents%3A+Stir+It+Up&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.upenn.edu%2Fpennpress%2Fbook%2Ftoc%2F14441_toc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowers1992" class="citation book cs1">Powers, Jane B. (1992). The Girl Question: Vocational Training for Young Women in the Progressive Era. Washington D.C: Routledge. pp. 12–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Girl+Question%3A+Vocational+Training+for+Young+Women+in+the+Progressive+Era&rft.place=Washington+D.C&rft.pages=12-16&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Powers&rft.aufirst=Jane+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> Hugh D. Hindman, Child labor: an American history (M.E. Sharpe, 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/childlaborameric0000hind">online</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism 1880–1930 (1992) p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGerr2003" class="citation book cs1">McGerr, Michael (2003). A Fierce Discontent: The Rise And Fall Of The Progressive Movement In America, 1870–1920. New York: New York:Free Press. pp. 107–110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Fierce+Discontent%3A+The+Rise+And+Fall+Of+The+Progressive+Movement+In+America%2C+1870%E2%80%931920&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=107-110&rft.pub=New+York%3AFree+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=McGerr&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Abraham Flexner, Flexner Report on Medical Education in the United States and Canada 1910 (new edition 1960) </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> Lawrence Friedman and Mark McGarvie, Charity, philanthropy, and civility in American history (2003) p. 231 </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> W. Bruce Fye, "The Origins and Evolution of the Mayo Clinic from 1864 to 1939: A Minnesota Family Practice Becomes an International 'Medical Mecca'", Bulletin of the History of Medicine Volume 84, Number 3, Fall 2010 pp. 323–357 in <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> Steven J. Diner, A Very Different Age: Americans of the Progressive Era (1998) p. 186 </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldwar1centennial.org/index.php/moral-uplifting.html">"Moral Uplifting"</a>. The U.S. World War One Centennial Commission. Retrieved November 12, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+U.S.+World+War+One+Centennial+Commission&rft.atitle=Moral+Uplifting&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwar1centennial.org%2Findex.php%2Fmoral-uplifting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBristow1997" class="citation book cs1">Bristow, Nancy K. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=acBnoFF1ZnkC">Making Men Moral: Social Engineering During the Great War</a>. NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8623-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8623-9"><bdi>978-0-8147-8623-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Men+Moral%3A+Social+Engineering+During+the+Great+War&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-8623-9&rft.aulast=Bristow&rft.aufirst=Nancy+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DacBnoFF1ZnkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenFosdick1918" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Edward Frank; Fosdick, Raymond B. (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/keepingourfighte00alleiala/mode/2up?view=theater">Keeping our fighters fit for war and after</a>. The Century Co., New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keeping+our+fighters+fit+for+war+and+after&rft.pub=The+Century+Co.%2C+New+York&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Edward+Frank&rft.au=Fosdick%2C+Raymond+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkeepingourfighte00alleiala%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas_C._Leonard-267"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_C._Leonard_267-0">^</a> Leonard, Thomas C. (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~tleonard/papers/retrospectives.pdf">"Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era"</a>, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4): 207–224 </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> Nancy Cohen, The reconstruction of American liberalism, 1865–1914 (2002) p. 243 </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> Celeste Michelle Condit, The meanings of the gene: public debates about human heredity (1999) p. 51 </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> Eric Goldman, Rendezvous with Destiny: A History of Modern American Reform (1952) </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Melvin G. Holli, Reform in Detroit: Hazen S. Pingree and Urban Politics (1969) </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> David P. 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Murphy, "World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties in the United States" (1979) </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Jane Addams, Bread and Peace in Time of War (1922) </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> John Milton Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (2010) </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform (1955) p. 287 </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> Arthur S. Link, "What Happened to the Progressive Movement in the 1920s?", American Historical Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Jul. 1959), pp. 833–851 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1905118">1905118</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Niall A. Palmer, The Twenties in America: Politics and History (2006) p. 176 </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> Patrick Gerster and Nicholas Cords, Myth in American History (1977) p. 203 </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> Stanley Coben, "Ordinary white Protestants: The KKK of the 1920s," Journal of Social History, (1994) 28#1 pp. 155–165 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenretta2006" class="citation journal cs1">Henretta, James A. (2006). "Charles Evans Hughes and the Strange Death of Liberal America". University of Illinois Law and History Review. 24 (1): 115–171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0738248000002285">10.1017/S0738248000002285</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27641353">27641353</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145114078">145114078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Illinois+Law+and+History+Review&rft.atitle=Charles+Evans+Hughes+and+the+Strange+Death+of+Liberal+America&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=115-171&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145114078%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27641353%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0738248000002285&rft.aulast=Henretta&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShesol2010" class="citation book cs1">Shesol, Jeff (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/supremepowerfran0000shes">Supreme Power: Franklin Roosevelt vs. the Supreme Court</a>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393064742" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393064742"><bdi>978-0393064742</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Power%3A+Franklin+Roosevelt+vs.+the+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0393064742&rft.aulast=Shesol&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsupremepowerfran0000shes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShoemaker2004" class="citation book cs1">Shoemaker, Rebecca S. (2004). The White Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781576079737" title="Special:BookSources/9781576079737"><bdi>9781576079737</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+White+Court%3A+Justices%2C+Rulings%2C+and+Legacy&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781576079737&rft.aulast=Shoemaker&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AT%26T_as_grasping_octopus_1907.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1f/AT%26T_as_grasping_octopus_1907.gif/300px-AT%26T_as_grasping_octopus_1907.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1f/AT%26T_as_grasping_octopus_1907.gif/450px-AT%26T_as_grasping_octopus_1907.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1f/AT%26T_as_grasping_octopus_1907.gif 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/History_of_AT%26T" title="History of AT&T">AT&T</a> the telephone monopoly as a grasping octopus taking control of entire cities out West. from Telephony (April 1907) p. 235.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overviews">Overviews</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Overviews">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelstein2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Adelstein, Richard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n246.xml">"Progressive Era"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 398–400. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Progressive+Era&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=398-400&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Adelstein&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Flibertarianism%2Fn246.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Baker, Paula. "Politics in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era." in The Oxford Handbook of American Political History (Oxford UP, 2020) pp. 115–134.</li> <li>Buenker, John D., John Chynoweth Burnham, and Robert Morse Crunden. Progressivism (Schenkman Books, 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/progressivism00buenrich">online</a></li> <li>Buenker, John D., and Edward R. Kantowicz, eds. Historical dictionary of the Progressive Era, 1890–1920 (Greenwood, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000buen">online</a></li> <li>Cocks, Catherine, Peter C. Holloran and Alan Lessoff. Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era (2009)</li> <li>Diner, Steven J. A Very Different Age: Americans of the Progressive Era (1998)</li> <li>Flanagan, Maureen. America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890s–1920s (2007)</li> <li>Gould, Lewis L. America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1914 (2000)</li> <li>Gould Lewis L. ed., The Progressive Era (1974)</li> <li>Hays, Samuel P. The Response to Industrialism, 1885–1914 (1957),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Hofstadter, Richard</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Reform" title="The Age of Reform">The Age of Reform</a> (1954), Pulitzer Prize</li> <li>Jensen, Richard. "Democracy, Republicanism and Efficiency: The Values of American Politics, 1885–1930," in Byron Shafer and Anthony Badger, eds, Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775–2000 (U of Kansas Press, 2001) pp. ;149–180; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uic.edu/~rjensen/rj0025.htm">online version</a></li> <li>Johnston, Robert D. "Re-Democratizing the Progressive Era: The Politics of Progressive Era Political Historiography" Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Er 1#1 (2002), pp. 68–92 online also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hist75300gape.commons.gc.cuny.edu/files/2016/06/Johnston-Re-Democratizing-the-Progressive-Era.pdf">online here</a></li> <li>Johnston, Robert D. "Influential Works About the Gilded Age and Progressive Era." in A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2017): 437–449. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biknotes.com/_files/ugd/b8b6dc_99238c77921f42d2b3849abc17d33840.pdf#page=449">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_M._Kennedy_(historian)" title="David M. Kennedy (historian)">Kennedy, David M</a>. ed., Progressivism: The Critical Issues (1971), readings</li> <li>Kloppenberg, James T. Uncertain victory: social democracy and progressivism in European and American thought, 1870–1920 1986 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000707012840/http://www.historyebook.org/">online at ACLS e-books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch, Christopher</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_True_and_Only_Heaven" title="The True and Only Heaven">The True and Only Heaven: Progress and its Critics</a> (1991)</li> <li>Lears, T. J. Jackson. Rebirth of a Nation: The Remaking of Modern America, 1877–1920 (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0060747501">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Leuchtenburg" title="William Leuchtenburg">Leuchtenburg, William E.</a> "Progressivism and Imperialism: The Progressive Movement and American Foreign Policy, 1898–1916," <a href="/wiki/The_Mississippi_Valley_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The Mississippi Valley Historical Review">The Mississippi Valley Historical Review</a>, 39#3 (1952), pp. 483–504. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1895006">1895006</a></li> <li>Link, William A. The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880–1930 (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paradoxofsouther0000link">online</a></li> <li>Mann, Arthur. ed., The Progressive Era (1975) excerpts from scholars and from primary sources</li> <li>McGerr, Michael. A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920 (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195183657/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>McNeese, Tim, with Richard Jensen. The Gilded Age and Progressivism: 1891–1913 (Chelsea House, 2010) for middle schools</li> <li>Milkis, Sidney M., and Jerome M. Mileur. Progressivism and the New Democracy (1999), essays by scholars</li> <li>Mowry, George. The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900–1912. (1954) scholarly survey of era <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheEraOfTheodoreRoosevelt">online</a></li> <li>Painter, Nell Irvin. Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919 (1987) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393305880/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Piott, Steven L. American Reformers, 1870–1920: Progressives in Word and Deed (2006); examines 12 leading activists <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/American-Reformers-1870-1920-Progressives-Word/dp/0742527638/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Piott, Steven L. Giving Voters a Voice: The Origins of the Initiative and Referendum in America (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/givingvotersvoic00piot_0">online</a></li> <li>Postell, Joseph W. and Johnathan O'Neill, eds. Toward an American Conservatism: Constitutional Conservatism during the Progressive Era (2013)</li> <li>Rodgers, Daniel T. Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (2000). stresses links with Europe <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb00064.0001.001">online edition</a></li> <li>Rothbard, Murray. The Progressive Era (2017), libertarian economics; strong on voters</li> <li>Solty, Ingar. "Social Imperialism as Trasformismo: A Political Economy Case Study on the Progressive Era, the Federal Reserve Act, and the U.S.'s Entry into World War One, 1890–1917", in M. Lakitsch, Ed., Bellicose Entanglements 1914: The Great War as a Global War (LIT, 2015), pp. 91–121.</li> <li>Thelen, David P. "Social Tensions and the Origins of Progressivism", Journal of American History 56 (1969), 323–341</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wiebe" title="Robert Wiebe">Wiebe, Robert</a>. The Search For Order, 1877–1920 (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/searchfororder180000wieb">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Progressivism_after_1917">Progressivism after 1917</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Progressivism after 1917">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Chambers, Clarke. Seedtime of Reform: American Social Service and Social Action, 1918–1933 (U of Minnesota Press, 1963)</li> <li>Dawley, Alan. Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0691122350/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Feinman, Ronald L. Twilight of Progressivism: The Western Republican Senators and the New Deal (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981)</li> <li>Glad, Paul W. "Progressives and the Business Culture of the 1920s", Journal of American History, 53#1 (1966), pp. 75–89. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1893931">1893931</a></li> <li>Jensen, Richard. "Democracy, Republicanism and Efficiency: The Values of American Politics, 1885–1930", in Byron Shafer and Anthony Badger, eds, Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775–2000 (U of Kansas Press, 2001) pp. 149–180; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uic.edu/~rjensen/rj0025.htm">online version</a></li> <li>Lemons, J. Stanley. "The Sheppard–Towner act: Progressivism in the 1920s." Journal of American History 55.4 (1969): 776–786.</li> <li>Levy, David W., and Bruce Allen Murphy. "Preserving the Progressive Spirit in a Conservative Time: The Joint Reform Efforts of Justice Brandeis and Professor Frankfurter, 1916–1933." Michigan Law Review 78 (1979): 1252+ online.</li> <li>Link, Arthur. "What happened to the Progressive Movement in the 1920s?" American Historical Review 64#4 (1959), 833–851. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1905118">online</a></li> <li>Link, William A. The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880–1930 (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paradoxofsouther0000link">online</a></li> <li>Murphy, Kevin C. Uphill all the way: The fortunes of progressivism, 1919–1929 (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2013; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2013. 3552093.) online.</li> <li>Putnam, Jackson K. "The Persistence of Progressivism in the 1920’s: The Case of California." Pacific Historical Review 35#4 (1966), pp. 395–411. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3636975">online</a></li> <li>Young, Jeremy C. The Age of Charisma: Leaders, Followers, and Emotions in American Society, 1870–1940 (2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1107114624/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Zieger, Robert H. "Labor, Progressivism, and Herbert Hoover in the 1920's." Wisconsin Magazine of History (1975): 196–208. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4634968">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presidential_politics">Presidential politics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Presidential politics">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howard_K._Beale" title="Howard K. Beale">Beale Howard K.</a> Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00beal">online</a></li> <li>Brands, H. W. Theodore Roosevelt (2001), scholarly biography</li> <li>Clements, Kendrick A. The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1992).</li> <li>Coletta, Paolo. The Presidency of William Howard Taft (1990).</li> <li>Collin, Richard H. "Symbiosis versus Hegemony: New Directions in the Foreign Relations Historiography of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft." Diplomatic History 19.3 (1995): 473–497. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24912399">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooper,_John_Milton" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooper, John Milton">Cooper, John Milton</a> The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. (1983). online; a dual biography</li> <li>Cooper, John Milton Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (2009), a standard scholarly biography</li> <li>Dalton, Kathleen. "Changing interpretations of Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive era." in Christopher M. Nichols and Nancy C. Unger, eds A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2017): 296–307.</li> <li>Edwards, Barry C. "Putting Hoover on the Map: Was the 31st President a Progressive." (1975). Congress & the Presidency 41#1 (2014) pp. 49–83</li> <li>Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (1991). Short scholarly biography; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00goul">online</a></li> <li>Harbaugh, William Henry. Power and Responsibility The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt (1961), a standard scholarly biography emphasizing politics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/powerandresponsi012652mbp">online free</a></li> <li>Harrison, Robert. Congress, Progressive Reform, and the New American State (2004).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Hofstadter, Richard</a>. The American Political Tradition (1948), ch. 8–9–10.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolko1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Kolko, Gabriel</a> (1963). The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">The Free Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Triumph+of+Conservatism%3A+A+Reinterpretation+of+American+History%2C+1900%E2%80%931916&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=The+Free+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Kolko&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgressive+Era" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Link, Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917 (1972) a standard political history of the era <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151909">online</a></li> <li>Lurie, Jonathan. William Howard Taft: The Travails of a Progressive Conservative (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Morris_(writer)" title="Edmund Morris (writer)">Morris, Edmund</a> Theodore Rex. (2001), biography of T. Roosevelt covers 1901–1909</li> <li>Moreno, Paul D. The American State from the Civil War to the New Deal: The Twilight of Constitutionalism and the Triumph of Progressivism (Cambridge UP, 2013).</li> <li>Mowry, George E. Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement. (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00mowr">online free</a></li> <li>Murphy, William B. "The National Progressive Republican League and the Elusive Quest for Progressive Unity." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 8.4 (2009): 515–543; it promoted La Follette in 1912.</li> <li>Pestritto, R. J. Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism. (2005).</li> <li>Rothbard, Murray N. The Progressive Era (2017), libertarian interpretation <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Progressive-Era-Murray-N-Rothbard/dp/1610166744/">online excerpt</a></li> <li>Sanders, Elizabeth. Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers and the American State, 1877–1917 (1999).</li> <li>Sarasohn, David. The Party of Reform: Democrats in the Progressive Era (UP of Mississippi, 1989).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_and_local">State and local</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: State and local">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Abrams, Richard M. Conservatism in a Progressive Era: Massachusetts Politics 1900–1912. (Harvard UP, 1964) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conservatisminpr0000abra">online</a></li> <li>Berman, David R. Governors and the Progressive Movement (University Press of Colorado, 2019) online.</li> <li>Buenker, John D. Urban Liberalism and Progressive Reform (1973).</li> <li>Buenker, John D. The History of Wisconsin, Vol. 4: The Progressive Era, 1893–1914 (1998).</li> <li>Buenker, John D., and Edward R. Kantowicz, eds. Historical dictionary of the Progressive Era, 1890–1920 (Greenwood, 1988). online good coverage of states and major cities.</li> <li>Cherny, Robert W. Populism, Progressivism, and the Transformation of Nebraska Politics, 1885–1915 (1981)</li> <li>Chrislock, Carl H. The Progressive Era in Minnesota, 1899–1918 (1971) online review.</li> <li>Connolly, James J. The Triumph of Ethnic Progressivism: Urban Political Culture in Boston, 1900–1925 (Harvard UP, 1998).</li> <li>Ebner, Michael H., and Eugene M. Tobin, eds. The Age of Urban Reform: New Perspectives on the Progressive Era (1977)</li> <li>Folsom, Burton W. "Tinkerers, tipplers, and traitors: ethnicity and democratic reform in Nebraska during the Progressive era." Pacific Historical Review 50.1 (1981): 53–75. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3639338">online</a></li> <li>Gould, Lewis L. Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (1973)</li> <li>Grantham, Dewey W. "The Contours of Southern Progressivism." American Historical Review 86.5 (1981): 1035–1059.</li> <li>Grantham, Dewey W. Southern progressivism: The reconciliation of progress and tradition (U of Tennessee Press, 1983), a major scholarly history; covers every state and all major reforms.</li> <li>Griffith, Ernest S. A history of American city government: the progressive years and their aftermath 1900–1920 (Praeger, 1974), a major scholarly history covering every state.</li> <li>Huthmacher, J. Joseph. "Urban Liberalism and the Age of Reform" Mississippi Valley Historical Review 49 (1962): 231–241, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1888628">1888628</a>; emphasis on urban, ethnic, working class support for reform</li> <li>Johnston, Robert D. The Radical Middle Class: Populist Democracy and the Question of Capitalism in Progressive Era Portland, Oregon (2003)</li> <li>La Forte, Robert Sherman. Leaders of Reform: Progressive Republicans in Kansas, 1900–1916 (1974) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leadersofreformp0000lafo">online</a></li> <li>Liazos, Ariane. Reforming the City: The Contested Origins of Urban Government, 1890–1930 (Columbia University Press, 2020) excerpt, a major scholarly survey</li> <li>Link, Arthur S. Wilson: The Road to the White House vol 1 (1947) pp 93–308 on New Jersey politics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wilsonroadtowhit00link">online</a></li> <li>Link, William A. The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880–1930 (1992), a major scholarly study</li> <li>Laugen, R. Todd. The Gospel of Progressivism: Moral Reform and Labor War in Colorado, 1900–1930 (UP Colorado)</li> <li>Lubove, Roy. The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1890–1917 (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/progressivesslum0000lubo_v5x9">online</a></li> <li>Lubove, Roy. Twentieth Century Pittsburgh Volume 1: Government, Business, and Environmental Change (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury0000lubo/page/n7/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>McCormick, Richard L. From Realignment to Reform: Political Change in New York State, 1893–1910 (Cornell UP, 1981).</li> <li>Maxwell, Robert S. La Follette and the Rise of the Progressives in Wisconsin. Madison, Wis.: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1956.</li> <li>Miller, Worth Robert. "Building a Progressive Coalition in Texas: The Populist–Reform Democrat Rapprochement, 1900–1907." Journal of Southern History 52.2 (1986): 163–182. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2209666">online</a></li> <li>Mowry, George E. The California Progressives (1951), focus on leadership <ul><li>Mowry, George E. "The California Progressive and His Rationale: A Study in Middle Class Politics." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 36#2 (1949), pp. 239–50. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1891178">online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Noble, Ransom E. New Jersey Progressivism Before Wilson. Princeton UP, 1946) online.</li> <li>Olin, Spencer C. California's Prodigal Sons: Hiram Johnson and the Progressives, 1911–1917 (U California Press, 1968).</li> <li>Pegram, Thomas R. Partisans and Progressives: Private Interest and Public Policy in Illinois, 1870–1922 (U of Illinois Press, 1992) online' also see online review.</li> <li>Piott, Steven L. Holy Joe: Joseph W. Folk and the Missouri Idea (U Missouri Press, 1997).</li> <li>Recchiuti, John Louis. Civic Engagement: Social Science and Progressive-Era Reform in New York City (2007).</li> <li>Reynolds, John F. Testing Democracy: Electoral Behavior and Progressive Reform in New Jersey, 1880–1920 (1988).</li> <li>Richter, Hedwig. "Transnational Reform and Democracy: Election Reforms in New York City and Berlin Around 19001." The Journal Of The Gilded Age And Progressive Era 15.2 (2016): 149–175. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/25338056/_TRANSNATIONAL_REFORM_AND_DEMOCRACY_ELECTION_REFORMS_IN_NEW_YORK_CITY_AND_BERLIN_AROUND_1900_in_Journal_of_the_Gilded_Age_and_Progressive_Era_15_2016_149_175?email_work_card=thumbnail">online</a></li> <li>Sealander, Judith. Grand plans: business progressivism and social change in Ohio's Miami Valley, 1890–1929 (1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grandplansbusine0000seal">online</a></li> <li>Starr, Kevin. Inventing the dream: California through the progressive era (Oxford UP, 1986).</li> <li>Thelen, David. The New Citizenship, Origins of Progressivism in Wisconsin, 1885–1900 (1972) online review.</li> <li>Wallace, Mike. Greater Gotham: A history of New York City from 1898 to 1919 (Oxford UP, 2017).</li> <li>Warner, Hoyt Landon. Progressivism in Ohio 1897–1917 (1964) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.psu.edu/wph/article/download/2774/2606">online review</a></li> <li>Wesser, Robert F. Charles Evans Hughes: Politics and Reform in New York, 1905–1910 (Cornell UP, 1967).</li> <li>Wesser, Robert F. A response to progressivism : the Democratic Party and New York politics, 1902–1918 (1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/responsetoprogre00wess">online</a></li> <li>Wright, James. The Progressive Yankees: Republican Reformers in New Hampshire, 1906–1916 (1987)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender,_race,_ethnicity,_class,_and_religion">Gender, race, ethnicity, class, and religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: Gender, race, ethnicity, class, and religion">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Abell, Aaron I. American Catholicism and Social Action: A Search for Social Justice, 1865–1950 (1960).</li> <li>Bruce, Kyle and Chris Nyland. "Scientific Management, Institutionalism, and Business Stabilization: 1903–1923" Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 35, 2001. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4227725">4227725</a></li> <li>Campbell, Barbara Kuhn. "Prominent Women in the Progressive Era: A Study of Life Histories" (PhD dissertation, University of Illinois at Chicago ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1976. 7700270.</li> <li>Frankel, Noralee and Nancy S. Dye, eds. Gender, Class, Race, and Reform in the Progressive Era (1991).</li> <li>Galambos, Louis. The public image of big business in America, 1880–1940: a quantitative study in social change (JHU Press, 2019).</li> <li>Hahn, Steven. A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (2003).</li> <li>Holdren, Nate. Injury Impoverished: Workplace Accidents, Capitalism, and Law in the Progressive Era (Cambridge UP, 2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/files/282077732/Mawdsley_Review_of_Holdren_AAV.pdf">online review of this book</a></li> <li>Kazin, Michael. Barons of labor: The San Francisco building trades and union power in the progressive era (U of Illinois Press, 1989).</li> <li>Lederhendler, Eli. Jewish immigrants and American capitalism, 1880-1920: from caste to class (Cambridge UP, 2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/81738748/9780521730235_frontmatter.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Leon, Carol Boyd. <a href="//doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2016.5" class="extiw" title="doi:10.21916/mlr.2016.5">"The life of American workers in 1915,"</a> Monthly Labor Review (Bureau of Labor Statistics, February 2016) comparison in many aspects with 2015.</li> <li>Montgomery, David. The Fall of the House of Labor: The workplace, the state, and American labor activism, 1865–1925 (1987).</li> <li>Muncy, Robyn. Creating A Feminine Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935 (1991).</li> <li>Nichols, Shaun S. <a href="//doi.org/10.1215/15476715-8114745" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1215/15476715-8114745">"Harmonious Insurrections: “Labor Progressivism” and Working-Class Power in Washington State</a>, 1886–1919." Labor 17.2 (2020): 47-72.</li> <li>Pearson, Chad. "Twentieth century US labor history: Pedagogy, politics, and controversies Part 1." History Compass 15.12 (2017): e12433. <ul><li><a href="//doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12433" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1111/hic3.12433">"Twentieth century US labor history: Pedagogy, politics, and controversies Part 2."</a> History Compass 16.8 (2018): e12479. DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12479</li></ul></li> <li>Stromquist, Shelton. Reinventing 'The People': The Progressive Movement, the Class Problem, and the Origins of Modern Liberalism, (U. of Illinois Press, 2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-07269-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-07269-3">0-252-07269-3</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30031513">online review</a></li> <li>Wiebe, Robert. "Business Disunity and the Progressive Movement, 1901–1914", Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 44#4 (1958), pp. 664–685. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1886602">1886602</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Fink, Leon, ed. Major Problems in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (1993) primary sources and scholarly essays.</li> <li>Groman, George L. ed. Political Literature of the Progressive Era (Michigan State UP, 1967)</li> <li>Eisenach, Eldon J. ed. The Social and Political Thought of American Progressivism (Hackett, 2006)</li> <li>Pease, Otis, ed. The Progressive Years: The Spirit and Achievement of American Reform (1962)</li> <li>Pestritto, Ronald J., and William J. Atto, eds. American Progressivism: A Reader (2008)</li> <li>Resek, Carl, ed. The Progressives (1967)</li> <li>Wilson, Woodrow. A Crossroads Of Freedom The 1912 Speeches Of Woodrow Wilson (1956) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crossroadsoffree007728mbp">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Campaign_textbooks">Campaign textbooks</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Campaign textbooks">edit</a>]</div> These pamphlets from 100 to 500 pages contain official platforms, arguments, biographies, speeches and statistics, all designed to help local party speakers. <ul><li>Democratic Party Congressional Committee. Democratic campaign book: Congressional Election 1906 (1906), used in every state.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/democraticcamp00demo/page/n6/mode/1up">online</a> <ul><li>National Democratic Congressional Committee. Democratic campaign book: Congressional Election 1910 (1910), used in every state. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/democraticcampai00demouoft">online</a></li> <li>Democratic Party (Ohio). State Executive Committee. Ohio Democratic Campaign Text-book, 1914 (1914); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ohiodemocraticca00demo">online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Republican National Committee. Republican campaign text-book, 1912 (1912), 416 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uscampaigntext0repurich">online</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicanc00repu">1908 Republican campaign text-book online</a></li> <li>Republican Congressional Committee. Republican text-book for the congressional campaign, 1910 (1910) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1910campaignte00repurich">online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/washingtontext00repurich">1916 Republican campaign text-book online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Social-Democratic party. Milwaukee municipal campaign book 1912 (1912) online; local; issues only</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/era.cfm?eraid=11&smtid=1">Digital History "Overview of the Progressive Era" a short scholarly summary </a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Theodore_Roosevelt" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Template:Theodore Roosevelt"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Template talk:Theodore Roosevelt"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theodore Roosevelt"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theodore_Roosevelt" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">26th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1901–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">25th</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_New_York" title="List of governors of New York">33rd</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">Governor of New York</a> (1899–1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Assistant Secretary of the Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a> (1897–1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Commissioner" title="New York City Police Commissioner">New York City Police Commissioner</a> (1895–1897)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">Presidency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Theodore Roosevelt presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt">First inauguration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Inaugural_National_Historic_Site" title="Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site">historic site</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration">Foreign policy</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_dinner_at_the_White_House" title="Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House">Booker T. Washington dinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt#Conservation" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">Conservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newlands_Reclamation_Act" title="Newlands Reclamation Act">Newlands Reclamation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_Act_of_1905" title="Transfer Act of 1905">Transfer Act of 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiquities_Act" title="Antiquities Act">Antiquities Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelican_Island_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge">Pelican Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devils_Tower" title="Devils Tower">Devils Tower National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muir_Woods_National_Monument" title="Muir Woods National Monument">Muir Woods National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States Forest Service</a>, </li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bureau_of_Reclamation" title="United States Bureau of Reclamation">United States Reclamation Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_National_Wildlife_Refuge_System" title="History of the National Wildlife Refuge System">National Wildlife Refuge System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Arch" title="Roosevelt Arch">Roosevelt Arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Governors" title="Conference of Governors">Conference of Governors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Securities_Company" title="Northern Securities Company">Northern Securities Company breakup</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Securities_Co._v._United_States" title="Northern Securities Co. v. United States">court case</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_strike_of_1902" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal strike of 1902">Coal strike of 1902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act" title="Pure Food and Drug Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration#History" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Meat_Inspection_Act" title="Federal Meat Inspection Act">Meat Inspection Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expediting_Act" title="Expediting Act">Expediting Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elkins_Act" title="Elkins Act">Elkins Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepburn_Act" title="Hepburn Act">Hepburn Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldrich%E2%80%93Vreeland_Act" title="Aldrich–Vreeland Act">Aldrich–Vreeland Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillman_Act_of_1907" title="Tillman Act of 1907">Tillman Act of 1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Employers_Liability_Act" title="Federal Employers Liability Act">Federal Employers Liability Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinkaid_Act" title="Kinkaid Act">Kinkaid Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_stick_ideology" title="Big stick ideology">Big stick ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hay%E2%80%93Bunau-Varilla_Treaty" title="Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty">Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone" title="Panama Canal Zone">Panama Canal Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal#United_States_acquisition" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1902%E2%80%931903" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903">Venezuelan crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary" title="Roosevelt Corollary">Roosevelt Corollary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Occupation_of_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Occupation of Cuba">Occupation of Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War#Peace_and_aftermath" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Portsmouth" title="Treaty of Portsmouth">Treaty of Portsmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">1906 Nobel Peace Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907" title="Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907">Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907</a> </li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_War_College" title="United States Army War College">Army War College</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Hall_(National_War_College)" title="Roosevelt Hall (National War College)">Roosevelt Hall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association#History" title="National Collegiate Athletic Association">College football meetings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation#History" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Bureau of Investigation</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce_and_Labor" title="United States Department of Commerce and Labor">Department of Commerce and Labor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Corporations" title="Bureau of Corporations">Bureau of Corporations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Department_Methods" title="Committee on Department Methods">Keep Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inland_Waterways_Commission" title="Inland Waterways Commission">Inland Waterways Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">Bureau of the Census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_White_Fleet" title="Great White Fleet">Great White Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdicaris_affair" title="Perdicaris affair">Perdicaris affair</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt#Cabinet" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Wing" title="West Wing">White House West Wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1901_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1901 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address, 1901</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1906 State of the Union Address">1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1908 State of the Union Address">1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_desk" title="Theodore Roosevelt desk">White House desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="List of federal judges appointed by Theodore Roosevelt">Federal judiciary appointments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rough_Riders" title="Rough Riders">Rough Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Guasimas" title="Battle of Las Guasimas">Battle of Las Guasimas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_Hill" title="Battle of San Juan Hill">Battle of San Juan Hill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bull_Moose_Party" title="Bull Moose Party">"Bull Moose" Progressive Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Nationalism_(Theodore_Roosevelt)" title="New Nationalism (Theodore Roosevelt)">New Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Attempted assassination of Theodore Roosevelt">Assassination attempt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boone_and_Crockett_Club" title="Boone and Crockett Club">Boone and Crockett Club</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian%E2%80%93Roosevelt_African_expedition" title="Smithsonian–Roosevelt African expedition">Smithsonian–Roosevelt African expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt%E2%80%93Rondon_Scientific_Expedition" title="Roosevelt–Rondon Scientific Expedition">"River of Doubt" Amazonian expedition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Birthplace_National_Historic_Site" title="Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site">Birthplace, boyhood home replica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagamore_Hill" title="Sagamore Hill">Sagamore Hill Home and Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt%27s_Maltese_Cross_Cabin" title="Theodore Roosevelt's Maltese Cross Cabin">Maltese Cross Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elkhorn_Ranch" title="Elkhorn Ranch">Elkhorn Ranch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pine_Knot_(cabin)" title="Pine Knot (cabin)">Pine Knot cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youngs_Memorial_Cemetery" title="Youngs Memorial Cemetery">Gravesite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writings and speeches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_bibliography" title="Theodore Roosevelt bibliography">Theodore Roosevelt bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Naval_War_of_1812" title="The Naval War of 1812">The Naval War of 1812 (1882 book)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Strenuous_Life" title="The Strenuous Life">"The Strenuous Life" (1899 speech)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_to_Enforce_Peace" title="League to Enforce Peace">League to Enforce Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_in_a_Republic" title="Citizenship in a Republic">"Citizenship in a Republic" (1910 speech)</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Progressive_Cause_Greater_Than_Any_Individual" class="extiw" title="s:Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual">"Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual" (1912 post-assassination-attempt speech)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt:_An_Autobiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography">Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (1913 book)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Forum_(American_magazine)#Contributions_from_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="The Forum (American magazine)">The Forum magazine articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Cyclopedia" title="Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia">Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Association#Theodore_Roosevelt_Collection" title="Theodore Roosevelt Association">Archival collections</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Electoral history of Theodore Roosevelt">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1898_New_York_state_election" title="1898 New York state election">1898 New York state election</a></li> <li>Republican National Convention: <a href="/wiki/1900_Republican_National_Convention" title="1900 Republican National Convention">1900</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_Republican_National_Convention" title="1904 Republican National Convention">1904</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_National_Convention" title="1912 Republican National Convention">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Republican_National_Convention" title="1916 Republican National Convention">1916</a></li> <li>United States presidential elections: <a href="/wiki/1900_United_States_presidential_election" title="1900 United States presidential election">1900</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_United_States_presidential_election" title="1904 United States presidential election">1904</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Bibliography of Theodore Roosevelt">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Digital_Library" title="Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library">Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Room" title="Roosevelt Room">White House Roosevelt Room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_National_Park" title="Theodore Roosevelt National Park">Theodore Roosevelt National Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Wilderness" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness">Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Island" title="Theodore Roosevelt Island">Theodore Roosevelt Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_National_Forest" title="Roosevelt National Forest">Roosevelt National Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Park_(San_Antonio)" title="Roosevelt Park (San Antonio)">Roosevelt Park (San Antonio)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_for_American_Studies" title="Roosevelt Institute for American Studies">Roosevelt Study Center</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Association" title="Theodore Roosevelt Association">Theodore Roosevelt Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore_Anniversary_coins" title="Mount Rushmore Anniversary coins">Mount Rushmore Anniversary coins</a></li> <li>Statues <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_Statue_of_Theodore_Roosevelt_(New_York_City)" title="Equestrian Statue of Theodore Roosevelt (New York City)">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt,_Rough_Rider" title="Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Rider">Portland, Oregon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Memorial_Park" title="Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park">Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Monument_Assemblage" title="Theodore Roosevelt Monument Assemblage">Monument Assemblage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Monument" title="Theodore Roosevelt Monument">Theodore Roosevelt Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Memorial_(Portland,_Oregon)" title="Theodore Roosevelt Memorial (Portland, Oregon)">Roosevelt Memorial, Portland, Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Presidential_Library" title="Theodore Roosevelt Presidential Library">Proposed presidential library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_United_States_Courthouse" title="Theodore Roosevelt United States Courthouse">Theodore Roosevelt United States Courthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_River" title="Roosevelt River">Roosevelt River</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Bridge" title="Theodore Roosevelt Bridge">Theodore Roosevelt Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Memorial_Bridge" title="Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Bridge">Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Award" title="Theodore Roosevelt Award">Theodore Roosevelt Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Theodore_Roosevelt_(ID-1478)" title="USS Theodore Roosevelt (ID-1478)">USS Theodore Roosevelt (1906</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Theodore_Roosevelt_(SSBN-600)" title="USS Theodore Roosevelt (SSBN-600)">1961</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Theodore_Roosevelt_(CVN-71)" title="USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)">1984</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Road" title="Roosevelt Road">Roosevelt Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. postage stamps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teddy_bear" title="Teddy bear">Teddy bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_stick_ideology" title="Big stick ideology">"Speak softly, and carry a big stick"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Category:Books about Theodore Roosevelt">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Category:Films about Theodore Roosevelt">Films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrible_Teddy,_the_Grizzly_King" title="Terrible Teddy, the Grizzly King">Terrible Teddy, the Grizzly King, 1901 film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_in_Africa" title="Roosevelt in Africa">Roosevelt in Africa, 1910 documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rough_Riders_(film)" title="The Rough Riders (film)">The Rough Riders, 1927 film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teddy,_the_Rough_Rider" title="Teddy, the Rough Rider">Teddy, the Rough Rider, 1940 film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rough_Riders_(miniseries)" title="Rough Riders (miniseries)">Rough Riders, 1997 miniseries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Roosevelts_(miniseries)" title="The Roosevelts (miniseries)">The Roosevelts, 2014 documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_(miniseries)" title="Theodore Roosevelt (miniseries)">Theodore Roosevelt, 2022 miniseries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elkhorn_(TV_series)" title="Elkhorn (TV series)">Elkhorn, 2024 series</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Political positions of Theodore Roosevelt">Political positions</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Bully_pulpit" title="Bully pulpit">Bully pulpit</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananias_Club" title="Ananias Club">Ananias Club</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Nature_fakers_controversy#Roosevelt's_involvement" title="Nature fakers controversy">Nature fakers</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_to_Enforce_Peace" title="League to Enforce Peace">League to Enforce Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Guest_of_Honor_(opera)" title="A Guest of Honor (opera)">A Guest of Honor</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Muckraker#Origin_of_the_term,_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Muckraker">Muckraker</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Republican" title="Roosevelt Republican">Roosevelt Republican</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnes_vs._Roosevelt_libel_trial" title="Barnes vs. Roosevelt libel trial">Barnes vs. Roosevelt libel trial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_family" title="Roosevelt family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Hathaway_Lee_Roosevelt" title="Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt">Alice Hathaway Lee</a> (first wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Roosevelt" title="Edith Roosevelt">Edith Kermit Carow</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Roosevelt_Longworth" title="Alice Roosevelt Longworth">Alice Lee Roosevelt</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Jr." title="Theodore Roosevelt Jr.">Theodore Roosevelt III</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermit_Roosevelt" title="Kermit Roosevelt">Kermit Roosevelt</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Roosevelt_Derby" title="Ethel Roosevelt Derby">Ethel Carow Roosevelt</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Roosevelt" title="Archibald Roosevelt">Archibald Roosevelt</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Roosevelt" title="Quentin Roosevelt">Quentin Roosevelt</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_III" title="Theodore Roosevelt III">Theodore Roosevelt IV</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_V._S._Roosevelt" title="Cornelius V. S. Roosevelt">Cornelius V. S. Roosevelt III</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Roosevelt_II" title="Quentin Roosevelt II">Quentin Roosevelt II</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermit_Roosevelt_Jr." title="Kermit Roosevelt Jr.">Kermit Roosevelt Jr.</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Willard_Roosevelt" title="Joseph Willard Roosevelt">Joseph Willard Roosevelt</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Derby_Williams" title="Edith Derby Williams">Edith Roosevelt Derby</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodora_Keogh" title="Theodora Keogh">Theodora Roosevelt</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Sr." title="Theodore Roosevelt Sr.">Theodore Roosevelt Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Bulloch_Roosevelt" title="Martha Bulloch Roosevelt">Martha Bulloch Roosevelt</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamie_Roosevelt" title="Bamie Roosevelt">Anna "Bamie" Roosevelt</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt_(socialite)" title="Elliott Roosevelt (socialite)">Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinne_Roosevelt_Robinson" title="Corinne Roosevelt Robinson">Corinne Roosevelt</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Roosevelt" title="Cornelius Roosevelt">Cornelius Roosevelt</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Stephens_Bulloch" title="James Stephens Bulloch">James Stephens Bulloch</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Roosevelt" title="James A. Roosevelt">James Alfred Roosevelt</a> (uncle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Roosevelt" title="Robert Roosevelt">Robert Barnhill Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Anna Eleanor Roosevelt</a> (niece)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hall_Roosevelt" title="Hall Roosevelt">Gracie Hall Roosevelt</a> (nephew)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_(Theodore_Roosevelt%27s_dog)" title="Pete (Theodore Roosevelt's dog)">Pete</a> (dog)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">← William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garret_Hobart" title="Garret Hobart">← Garret Hobart</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Category:Theodore Roosevelt">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="William_Howard_Taft" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:William_Howard_Taft" title="Template:William Howard Taft"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:William_Howard_Taft" title="Template talk:William Howard Taft"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:William_Howard_Taft" title="Special:EditPage/Template:William Howard Taft"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="William_Howard_Taft" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States#List_of_chief_justices" title="Chief Justice of the United States">10th</a> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice of the United States</a> (1921–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">27th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1909–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Cuba" title="List of colonial governors of Cuba">3rd</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_Cuba" title="President of Cuba">Provisional Governor of Cuba</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War#Secretary_of_War_(1789–1947)" title="United States Secretary of War">42nd</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">United States Secretary of War</a> (1904–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Philippines#Insular_Government_(1901–1935)" title="Governor-General of the Philippines">Governor-General of the Philippines</a> (1901–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States#List_of_solicitors_general" title="Solicitor General of the United States">6th</a> <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">Solicitor General of the United States</a> (1890–1892)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft#Presidency_(1909–1913)" title="William Howard Taft">Presidency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_Howard_Taft_presidency" title="Timeline of the William Howard Taft presidency">timeline)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Inauguration of William Howard Taft">1909 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dollar_diplomacy" title="Dollar diplomacy">Dollar diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Adoption" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Income Tax amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payne%E2%80%93Aldrich_Tariff_Act" title="Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act">Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weeks_Act" title="Weeks Act">Weeks Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Corrupt_Practices_Act" title="Federal Corrupt Practices Act">Federal Corrupt Practices Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_Ship_Act_of_1910" title="Wireless Ship Act of 1910">Wireless Ship Act of 1910</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apportionment_Act_of_1911" title="Apportionment Act of 1911">Apportionment Act of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Fur_Seal_Convention_of_1911" title="North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911">North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mann%E2%80%93Elkins_Act" title="Mann–Elkins Act">Mann–Elkins Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1912" title="Radio Act of 1912">Radio Act of 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Secrets_Act_of_1911" title="Defense Secrets Act of 1911">Defense Secrets Act of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinchot%E2%80%93Ballinger_controversy" title="Pinchot–Ballinger controversy">Pinchot–Ballinger controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Economy_and_Efficiency" title="Commission on Economy and Efficiency">Commission on Economy and Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Nicaragua" title="United States occupation of Nicaragua">U.S. occupation of Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="United States Chamber of Commerce">United States Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_first_pitch#Presidential_first_pitches" title="Ceremonial first pitch">Ceremonial first pitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1912 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft#Inauguration_and_appointments" title="William Howard Taft">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_William_Howard_Taft" title="List of federal judges appointed by William Howard Taft">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_William_Howard_Taft#United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices" title="List of federal judges appointed by William Howard Taft">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oval_Office#Taft_Oval_Office:_1909–33" title="Oval Office">First Oval Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidential transition of Woodrow Wilson">Wilson transition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chief Justice, Supreme Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft#Chief_Justice_(1921–1930)" title="William Howard Taft">Supreme Court career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1925" title="Judiciary Act of 1925">Judiciary Act of 1925</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">Creation of the Supreme Court Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">Taft Court cases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other actions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taft_Commission" title="Taft Commission">Taft Commission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" title="Insular Government of the Philippine Islands">Insular Government of the Philippine Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Philippines" title="Governor-General of the Philippines">Philippines Civil Governor, 1901–1904</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Katsura_agreement" title="Taft–Katsura agreement">Taft–Katsura agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Occupation_of_Cuba#Occupation" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Occupation of Cuba">1906–1909 Occupation of Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_to_Enforce_Peace" title="League to Enforce Peace">League to Enforce Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_War_Labor_Board_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="National War Labor Board (1918–1919)">National War Labor Board</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft#Early_life_and_education" title="William Howard Taft">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft_National_Historic_Site" title="William Howard Taft National Historic Site">Birthplace, home, and historic site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaca%C3%B1ang_Palace" title="Malacañang Palace">Malacañang Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodbury_Point" title="Woodbury Point">Woodbury Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft_Bridge" title="Taft Bridge">Taft Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Bibliography of William Howard Taft">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft,_Montana" title="Taft, Montana">Taft, Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft_High_School_(New_York_City)" title="William Howard Taft High School (New York City)">High school (New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft_High_School_(Chicago)" title="William Howard Taft High School (Chicago)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft_Charter_High_School" title="William Howard Taft Charter High School">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft_High_School_(San_Antonio)" title="William Howard Taft High School (San Antonio)">San Antonio)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1908_Republican_National_Convention" title="1908 Republican National Convention">1908 Republican National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_United_States_presidential_election" title="1908 United States presidential election">1908 U.S. presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_National_Convention" title="1912 Republican National Convention">1912 Republican National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 U.S. presidential election</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taft_family" title="Taft family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Herron_Taft" title="Helen Herron Taft">Helen Herron Taft</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Robert Alphonso Taft</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Taft_Manning" title="Helen Taft Manning">Helen Taft Manning</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Phelps_Taft_II" title="Charles Phelps Taft II">Charles Phelps Taft II</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft_III" title="William Howard Taft III">William Howard Taft III</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Taft_Jr." title="Robert Taft Jr.">Robert Alphonso Taft Jr.</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seth_Taft" title="Seth Taft">Seth Taft</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonso_Taft" title="Alphonso Taft">Alphonso Taft</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Taft" title="Louise Taft">Louise Taft</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Phelps_Taft" title="Charles Phelps Taft">Charles Phelps Taft</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Waters_Taft" title="Henry Waters Taft">Henry Waters Taft</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Dutton_Taft" title="Horace Dutton Taft">Horace Dutton Taft</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Rawson_Taft" title="Peter Rawson Taft">Peter Rawson Taft</a> (paternal grandfather)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Possum" title="Billy Possum">Billy Possum</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_Wayne" title="Pauline Wayne">Pauline Wayne</a> (cow)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House">Backstairs at the White House</a> (1979 miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_(miniseries)" title="Theodore Roosevelt (miniseries)">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (2022 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">← Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:William_Howard_Taft" title="Category:William Howard Taft">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Woodrow_Wilson" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Template:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Template talk:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Woodrow_Wilson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">28th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1913–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_New_Jersey" title="List of governors of New Jersey">34th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_Jersey" title="Governor of New Jersey">Governor of New Jersey</a> (1911–1913)</li> <li>13th <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Princeton_University" title="List of presidents of Princeton University">President of Princeton University</a> (1902–1910)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Presidency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidential transition of Woodrow Wilson">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="First inauguration of Woodrow Wilson">1913 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Second inauguration of Woodrow Wilson">1917 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_desk" title="Theodore Roosevelt desk">Roosevelt desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Woodrow Wilson">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Woodrow Wilson Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court nominees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Louis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination">Louis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson#Administration_and_Cabinet" title="Woodrow Wilson">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates#Laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">1919 Nobel Peace Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19th Amendment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Sentinels" title="Silent Sentinels">Silent Sentinels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman_Suffrage_Procession" title="Woman Suffrage Procession">Woman Suffrage Procession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1913_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1913 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address 1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1914_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1914 State of the Union Address">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1915 State of the Union Address">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1916 State of the Union Address">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1917 State of the Union Address">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1918 State of the Union Address">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1920 State of the Union Address">1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidential transition of Warren G. Harding">Harding transition</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration">Foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan%E2%80%93Chamorro_Treaty" title="Bryan–Chamorro Treaty">Bryan–Chamorro Treaty</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">Occupation of Haiti</a> (1915–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic_(1916%E2%80%931924)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)">Occupation of the Dominican Republic</a> (1916–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_Appropriations_Act_of_1916" title="Army Appropriations Act of 1916">Army Appropriations Act of 1916</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_National_Defense" title="Council of National Defense">Council of National Defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)" title="Jones Law (Philippines)">Philippine Autonomy Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li>1917–1918; <a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I" title="United States campaigns in World War I">campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I#United_States" title="Home front during World War I">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Public_Information" title="Committee on Public Information">Committee on Public Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Minute_Men" title="Four Minute Men">Four Minute Men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Inquiry" title="The Inquiry">The Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Commission_to_Negotiate_Peace" title="American Commission to Negotiate Peace">American Commission to Negotiate Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice of 11 November 1918</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917" title="Immigration Act of 1917">Immigration Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">Selective Service Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1918" title="Immigration Act of 1918">Immigration Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migratory_Bird_Treaty_Act_of_1918" title="Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918">Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_War_Labor_Board_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="National War Labor Board (1918–1919)">National War Labor Board</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_of_1918" title="Sedition Act of 1918">Sedition Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_Measure_Act_of_1918" title="Wartime Measure Act of 1918">Wartime Measure Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> <ul><li>1919–1920; <a href="/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_speech" title="Pueblo speech">Pueblo speech</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> <ul><li>1919; <a href="/wiki/Big_Four_(World_War_I)#Woodrow_Wilson" title="Big Four (World War I)">Big Four</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">charter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilsonian_Armenia" title="Wilsonian Armenia">Wilsonian Armenia</a> (1920)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom">New Freedom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">Federal racial segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act" title="Federal Reserve Act">Federal Reserve Act</a> <ul><li>1913; <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newlands_Labor_Act" title="Newlands Labor Act">Newlands Labor Act</a> <ul><li>1913; <a href="/wiki/National_Mediation_Board" title="National Mediation Board">Board of Mediation and Conciliation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raker_Act" title="Raker Act">Raker Act</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1913" title="Revenue Act of 1913">Revenue Act of 1913</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Income tax in the United States">Federal income tax</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_and_Harbors_Act" title="Rivers and Harbors Act">Rivers and Harbors Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_and_Harbors_Act_of_1913" title="Rivers and Harbors Act of 1913">1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="River and Harbors Act of 1914">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1915" title="River and Harbors Act of 1915">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1916" title="River and Harbors Act of 1916">1916</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabath_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabath Act">Sabath Act</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Futures_Act" title="Cotton Futures Act">Cotton Futures Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutter_Service_Act" title="Cutter Service Act">Cutter Service Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Internal_Revenue_Tax_Act" title="Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act">Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act_of_1914" title="Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914">Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)" title="Glacier National Park (U.S.)">Glacier National Park Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Legislative Reference Service</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Lever_Act_of_1914" title="Smith–Lever Act of 1914">Smith–Lever Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Risk_Insurance_Act" title="War Risk Insurance Act">War Risk Insurance Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locomotive_Inspection_Act" title="Locomotive Inspection Act">Locomotive Inspection Act</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy_Permits_Act" title="Occupancy Permits Act">Occupancy Permits Act</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamson_Act" title="Adamson Act">Adamson Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brush_Disposal_Act_of_1916" title="Brush Disposal Act of 1916">Brush Disposal Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Futures_Act_of_1916" title="Cotton Futures Act of 1916">Cotton Futures Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Aid_Road_Act_of_1916" title="Federal Aid Road Act of 1916">Federal Aid Road Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Employees%27_Compensation_Act" title="Federal Employees' Compensation Act">Federal Employees' Compensation Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Farm_Loan_Act" title="Federal Farm Loan Act">Federal Farm Loan Act</a> <ul><li>1916; <a href="/wiki/Farm_Credit_System" title="Farm Credit System">Farm Credit System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Farm_Board" title="Federal Farm Board">Federal Farm Loan Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Day_(United_States)" title="Flag Day (United States)">Flag Day</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraudulent_Advertising_Act_of_1916" title="Fraudulent Advertising Act of 1916">Fraudulent Advertising Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keating%E2%80%93Owen_Act" title="Keating–Owen Act">Keating–Owen Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service_Organic_Act" title="National Park Service Organic Act">National Park Service Organic Act</a> <ul><li>1916; <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1916" title="Revenue Act of 1916">Revenue Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Post_Roads_Act_of_1916" title="Rural Post Roads Act of 1916">Rural Post Roads Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_District_Act_of_1916_(Smith_Act)" title="Irrigation District Act of 1916 (Smith Act)">Smith Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock-Raising_Homestead_Act" title="Stock-Raising Homestead Act">Stock-Raising Homestead Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Grain_Standards_Act_of_1916" title="United States Grain Standards Act of 1916">United States Grain Standards Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warehouse_Act_of_1916" title="Warehouse Act of 1916">Warehouse Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Game_Refuges_Act_of_1916" title="Wildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916">Wildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1917" title="Flood Control Act of 1917">Flood Control Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Hughes_Act" title="Smith–Hughes Act">Smith–Hughes Act</a> <ul><li>1917; <a href="/wiki/U.S._Federal_Board_for_Vocational_Education" title="U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education">U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Railroad_Administration" title="United States Railroad Administration">United States Railroad Administration</a> <ul><li>1917; <a href="/wiki/USRA_standard" title="USRA standard">USRA standard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Revenue_Act_of_1917" title="War Revenue Act of 1917">War Revenue Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1918" title="Revenue Act of 1918">Revenue Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acadia_National_Park" title="Acadia National Park">Acadia National Park Act of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon Park Act of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheat_Price_Guarantee_Act" title="Wheat Price Guarantee Act">Wheat Price Guarantee Act</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esch%E2%80%93Cummins_Act" title="Esch–Cummins Act">Esch–Cummins Act</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Railroad_Labor_Board" title="Railroad Labor Board">Railroad Labor Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Act" title="Federal Power Act">Federal Power Act</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission" title="Federal Power Commission">Federal Power Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_Marine_Act_of_1920" title="Merchant Marine Act of 1920">Merchant Marine Act of 1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_Leasing_Act_of_1920" title="Mineral Leasing Act of 1920">Mineral Leasing Act of 1920</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Presidential_Library" title="Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library">Birthplace and Presidential Library</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seeley_G._Mudd_Manuscript_Library" title="Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library">papers and manuscripts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home">Boyhood home in Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home_(Columbia,_South_Carolina)" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home (Columbia, South Carolina)">Boyhood home in South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Princeton_University#Woodrow_Wilson" title="History of Princeton University">Princeton University president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlakenden" title="Harlakenden">Summer White House (Harlakenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Lawn_(New_Jersey)" title="Shadow Lawn (New Jersey)">Shadow Lawn)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_House_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)">Woodrow Wilson House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral#Burials" title="Washington National Cathedral">Gravesite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Congressional Government (1900)</li> <li>When a Man Comes to Himself (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom">The New Freedom (1913)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_History_of_Woodrow_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral History of Woodrow Wilson">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1910_New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election" title="1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election">1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1912 Democratic National Convention">1912 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 U.S. presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1916 Democratic National Convention">1916 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">1916 U.S. presidential election</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy (<a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of memorials to Woodrow Wilson">memorials</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Bibliography of Woodrow Wilson">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Awards" title="Woodrow Wilson Awards">Woodrow Wilson Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Foundation" title="Woodrow Wilson Foundation">Woodrow Wilson Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars" title="Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars">Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Wilson_Quarterly" title="The Wilson Quarterly">The Wilson Quarterly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_School_of_Public_and_International_Affairs" title="Princeton School of Public and International Affairs">Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_High_School_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Woodrow Wilson High School (disambiguation)">High schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy%E2%80%93King_College" title="Kennedy–King College">Woodrow Wilson Junior College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial" title="Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial">Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Woodrow_Wilson_(Austin,_Texas)" title="Statue of Woodrow Wilson (Austin, Texas)">Woodrow Wilson</a> (Austin statue)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_Square" title="Wilson Square">Wilson Square</a> (Warsaw)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Monument" title="Woodrow Wilson Monument">Woodrow Wilson Monument</a> (Prague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Bridge" title="Woodrow Wilson Bridge">Woodrow Wilson Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_National_Fellowship_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation">Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-thousand-dollar_bill" title="United States one-hundred-thousand-dollar bill">United States one-hundred-thousand-dollar bill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_(1944_film)" title="Wilson (1944 film)">Wilson</a> (1944 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage_(TV_series)" title="Profiles in Courage (TV series)">Profiles in Courage</a> (1965 series)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House">Backstairs at the White House</a> (1979 miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_the_Birth_of_the_American_Century" title="Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century">Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century</a> (2002 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_(book)" title="Wilson (book)">Wilson</a> (2013 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffs" title="Suffs">Suffs</a> (2022 musical)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Axson_Wilson" title="Ellen Axson Wilson">Ellen Axson Wilson</a> (wife, 1885–1914, death)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Wilson" title="Edith Wilson">Edith Bolling Wilson</a> (wife, 1915–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Margaret Woodrow Wilson">Margaret Wilson</a> (daughter, acting first lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Woodrow_Wilson_Sayre" class="mw-redirect" title="Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre">Jessie Wilson Sayre</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Wilson_McAdoo" title="Eleanor Wilson McAdoo">Eleanor Wilson McAdoo</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bowes_Sayre_Jr." title="Francis Bowes Sayre Jr.">Francis Sayre Jr.</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ruggles_Wilson" title="Joseph Ruggles Wilson">Joseph Ruggles Wilson</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(journalist)" title="James Wilson (journalist)">James Wilson</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Woodrow_Bones" title="Helen Woodrow Bones">Helen Woodrow Bones</a> (cousin, secretary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">William McAdoo</a> (son-in-law)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Literary_and_Debating_Society" title="Jefferson Literary and Debating Society">Jefferson Literary and Debating Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">Woodrow Wilson and race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">← William Howard Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. 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