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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Franck–Hertz experiment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franck–Hertz_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Göttingen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Göttingen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Göttingen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Göttingen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Exile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Later life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">James Franck</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B3_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83" title="جيمس فرانك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جيمس فرانك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="جیمز فرانک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جیمز فرانک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95" title="জেমস ফ্রাংক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জেমস ফ্রাংক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Джэймс Франк – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джэймс Франк" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Джеймс Франк – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джеймс Франк" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AD%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%82_%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BA" title="Τζέιμς Φρανκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζέιμς Φρανκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="جیمز فرانک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جیمز فرانک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C%EC%9E%84%EC%8A%A4_%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%ED%81%AC" title="제임스 프랑크 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제임스 프랑크" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%B4%D5%BD_%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF" title="Ջեյմս Ֆրանկ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջեյմս Ֆրանկ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="जेम्स फ्रान्क – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जेम्स फ्रान्क" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A1_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A7" title="ג'יימס פרנק – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'יימס פרנק" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%96_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%98" title="ჯეიმზ ფრანკი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯეიმზ ფრანკი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Джеймс Франк – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джеймс Франк" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacobus_Franck" title="Iacobus Franck – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iacobus Franck" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEeimss_Franks" title="Džeimss Franks – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džeimss Franks" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Џејмс Франк – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Џејмс Франк" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D" title="ജെയിംസ് ഫ്രാങ്ക് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജെയിംസ് ഫ്രാങ്ക്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95" title="जेम्स फ्रांक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जेम्स फ्रांक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%98" title="ჯეიმს ფრანკი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯეიმს ფრანკი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B3_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83" title="جيمس فرانك – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جيمس فرانك" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="جیمز فرانک – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جیمز فرانک" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="जेम्स फ्र्यान्क – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जेम्स फ्र्यान्क" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A0%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AF" title="ジェイムス・フランク – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジェイムス・フランク" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%95" title="ਜੇਮਸ ਫ੍ਰੈਂਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੇਮਸ ਫ੍ਰੈਂਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%A9" title="جیمز فرینک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جیمز فرینک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Франк, Джеймс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Франк, Джеймс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="जेम्स फ्रान्क – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जेम्स फ्रान्क" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%95%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="جەیمز فرانک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جەیمز فرانک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Џејмс Франк – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џејмс Франк" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜேம்ஸ் பிராங்க் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜேம்ஸ் பிராங்க்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%96%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Җеймс Франк – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Җеймс Франк" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D" title="జేమ్స్ ఫ్రాంక్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జేమ్స్ ఫ్రాంక్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Джеймс Франк – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джеймс Франк" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="جیمز فرانک – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جیمز فرانک" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E5%85%B0%E5%85%8B" title="詹姆斯·弗兰克 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="詹姆斯·弗兰克" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="James Franck" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E5%85%B0%E5%85%8B" title="詹姆斯·弗兰克 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="詹姆斯·弗兰克" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German physicist (1882–1964)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/James_Frank" title="James Frank">James Frank</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">James Franck</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Franck_1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/James_Franck_1925.jpg/220px-James_Franck_1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/James_Franck_1925.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Franck in 1925</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1882-08-26</span>)</span>26 August 1882<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">21 May 1964<span style="display:none">(1964-05-21)</span> (aged 81)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category">German</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Heidelberg">University of Heidelberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cage_effect" title="Cage effect">Cage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck%E2%80%93Condon_principle" title="Franck–Condon principle">Franck–Condon principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck%E2%80%93Hertz_experiment" title="Franck–Hertz experiment">Franck–Hertz experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist nowrap"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross, 2nd Class</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_Cross" title="Hanseatic Cross">Hanseatic Cross</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross, 1st Class</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physics">Nobel Prize for Physics</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Medal" title="Max Planck Medal">Max Planck Medal</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumford_Prize" title="Rumford Prize">Rumford Prize</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/andp.19063261508">Über die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung</a></i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1906)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Gabriel_Warburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Emil Gabriel Warburg">Emil Gabriel Warburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Drude" title="Paul Drude">Paul Drude</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hanle" title="Wilhelm Hanle">Wilhelm Hanle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_R._von_Hippel" title="Arthur R. von Hippel">Arthur R. von Hippel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Puck" title="Theodore Puck">Theodore Puck</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>James Franck</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈdʒɛɪ̯ms<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈfʁaŋk]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/db\/De-James_Franck.ogg\/De-James_Franck.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-James Franck.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/db/De-James_Franck.ogg/De-James_Franck.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-James_Franck.ogg" title="File:De-James Franck.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>; 26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a German <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> who won the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physics">Nobel Prize for Physics</a> with <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Hertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav Hertz">Gustav Hertz</a> "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom".<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He completed his <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate</a> in 1906 and his <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> in 1911 at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Frederick William University</a> in Berlin, where he lectured and taught until 1918, having reached the position of <a href="/wiki/Academic_ranks_in_Germany" title="Academic ranks in Germany">professor extraordinarius</a>. He served as a volunteer in the German Army during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross</a> 1st Class. </p><p>Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of the <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Institute">Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft</a> for Physical Chemistry. In 1920, Franck became <a href="/wiki/Professor_ordinarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor ordinarius">professor ordinarius</a> of experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a>. While there he worked on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a> with <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics. His work included the <a href="/wiki/Franck%E2%80%93Hertz_experiment" title="Franck–Hertz experiment">Franck–Hertz experiment</a>, an important confirmation of the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>. He promoted the careers of women in physics, notably <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Sponer" title="Hertha Sponer">Hertha Sponer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilde_Levi" title="Hilde Levi">Hilde Levi</a>. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> came to power in Germany in 1933, Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics. He assisted <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lindemann" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Lindemann">Frederick Lindemann</a> in helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a year at the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_Institute" title="Niels Bohr Institute">Niels Bohr Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, he moved to the United States, where he worked at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. During this period he became interested in <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. </p><p>Franck participated in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> as Director of the Chemistry Division of the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a>. He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which is best known for the compilation of the <a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a>, which recommended that the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bombs</a> not be used on the Japanese cities without warning. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>James Franck was born in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, Germany, on 26 August 1882, into a <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> family, the second child and first son of Jacob Franck, a banker, and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20104_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20104-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had an older sister, Paula, and a younger brother, Robert Bernard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich20118–11_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich20118–11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father was a devout and religious man, while his mother came from a family of rabbis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20104_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20104-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franck attended primary school in Hamburg. Starting in 1891 he attended the <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm-Gymnasium_(Hamburg)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm-Gymnasium (Hamburg)">Wilhelm-Gymnasium</a>, which was then a boys-only school.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich20118–11_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich20118–11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hamburg had no university then, so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany. Intending to study law and economics, Franck entered the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Heidelberg">University of Heidelberg</a> in 1901, as it had a renowned law school.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201112–15_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201112–15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attended lectures on law, but was far more interested in those on science. While there, he met <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, who would become a lifelong friend. With Born's help, he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196553–54_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196553–54-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franck attended mathematics lectures by <a href="/wiki/Leo_K%C3%B6nigsberger" title="Leo Königsberger">Leo Königsberger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Cantor" title="Georg Cantor">Georg Cantor</a>, but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences, so he decided to go to the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Frederick William University</a> in Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201112–15_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201112–15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Berlin, Franck attended lectures by <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emil_Warburg" title="Emil Warburg">Emil Warburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201116–17_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201116–17-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in the <a href="/wiki/Spree_(river)" title="Spree (river)">Spree River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201116–17_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201116–17-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For his <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (Dir. Phil.) under Warburg's supervision,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20105_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20105-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warburg suggested that he study <a href="/wiki/Corona_discharge" title="Corona discharge">corona discharges</a>. Franck found this topic too complex, so he changed the focus of his <a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">thesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196554–55_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196554–55-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Entitled <i>Über die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung</i> ("On the Mobility of <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ions</a>"),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011331_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011331-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it would subsequently be published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With his thesis completed, Franck had to perform his deferred military service. He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion. He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty. He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein in <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> in 1907, but did not enjoy it, and soon returned to Frederick William University.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201124–26_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201124–26-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson, a Swedish pianist. They were married in a Swedish ceremony in <a href="/wiki/Gothenburg" title="Gothenburg">Gothenburg</a> on 23 December 1907. They had two daughters, Dagmar (Daggie), who was born in 1909, and Elisabeth (Lisa), who was born in 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201134–35_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201134–35-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To pursue an academic career in Germany, having a doctorate was not enough; one needed a <i><a href="/wiki/Venia_legendi" class="mw-redirect" title="Venia legendi">venia legendi</a></i>, or habilitation. This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work. Franck chose the latter route. There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time, and by 1914 he had published 34 articles. He was the sole author of some, but generally preferred working in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Eva_von_Bahr_(physicist)" title="Eva von Bahr (physicist)">Eva von Bahr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Pohl" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Pohl">Robert Pohl</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Pringsheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Pringsheim (page does not exist)">Peter Pringsheim</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Pringsheim" class="extiw" title="de:Peter Pringsheim">de</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Wood" title="Robert W. Wood">Robert W. Wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wehnelt" title="Arthur Wehnelt">Arthur Wehnelt</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Westphal" title="Wilhelm Westphal">Wilhelm Westphal</a>. His most fruitful collaboration was with <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Hertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav Hertz">Gustav Hertz</a>, with whom he wrote 19 articles. He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201124–31_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201124–31-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Franck–Hertz_experiment"><span id="Franck.E2.80.93Hertz_experiment"></span>Franck–Hertz experiment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Franck–Hertz experiment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Franck%E2%80%93Hertz_experiment" title="Franck–Hertz experiment">Franck–Hertz experiment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franck-Hertz_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph. The vertical axis is labelled "current", and ranges from 0 to 300 in arbitrary units. The horizontal axis is labelled "voltage", and ranges from 0 to 15 volts." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Franck-Hertz_en.svg/220px-Franck-Hertz_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Franck-Hertz_en.svg/330px-Franck-Hertz_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Franck-Hertz_en.svg/440px-Franck-Hertz_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Anode current (arbitrary units) versus grid voltage (relative to the cathode). This graph is based on the original 1914 paper by Franck and Hertz. </figcaption></figure> <p>In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigate <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescence</a>. They designed a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> for studying energetic <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> that flew through a thin vapour of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> atoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolts</a>) of its <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> before flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FH1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FH1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These experimental results provided confirmation of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> and Planck's relation (<span class="nowrap"><i>E</i> = <i>fh</i></span>) linking energy (<i>E</i>) and frequency (<i>f</i>) arising from quantisation of energy with the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a> (<i>h</i>). But they also provided evidence supporting the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">model of the atom</a> that had been proposed the previous year by <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's "quantum energy levels". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 eV more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of this <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FH2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FH2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201161_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201161-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was "completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohr's theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.".<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I">World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Franck enlisted in the <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">German Army</a> soon after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> in August 1914. In December he was sent to the <a href="/wiki/Picardy" title="Picardy">Picardy</a> sector of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>. He became a deputy officer (<i><a href="/wiki/Offizierstellvertreter" class="mw-redirect" title="Offizierstellvertreter">offizierstellvertreter</a></i>), and then a lieutenant (<i><a href="/wiki/Leutnant" title="Leutnant">leutnant</a></i>) in 1915.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201152–58_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201152–58-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early 1915 he was transferred to <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a>'s new unit that would introduce clouds of chlorine gas as a weapon.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> he was responsible for locating sites for the attacks. He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross</a>, Second Class, on 30 March 1915,<sup id="cite_ref-Papers_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the city of Hamburg awarded him the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_Cross" title="Hanseatic Cross">Hanseatic Cross</a> on 11 January 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-Papers_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While in hospital with <a href="/wiki/Pleurisy" title="Pleurisy">pleurisy</a>, he co-wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz, and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on 19 September 1916. Sent to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Russian front</a>, he came down with <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>. He returned to Berlin, where he joined Hertz, Westphal, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a>, Otto Hahn and others at Haber's <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute_for_Physical_Chemistry_and_Electrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry</a>, working on the development of <a href="/wiki/Gas_masks" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas masks">gas masks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201152–58_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201152–58-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, on 23 February 1918. He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918, soon after the war ended.<sup id="cite_ref-Papers_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the war over, Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research, and Haber offered Franck a job. His new post came with more pay, but was not a tenured position. It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished. Working with new, younger collaborators such as <a href="/wiki/Walter_Grotrian" title="Walter Grotrian">Walter Grotrian</a>, Paul Knipping, Thea Krüger, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Reiche" title="Fritz Reiche">Fritz Reiche</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Sponer" title="Hertha Sponer">Hertha Sponer</a>, his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state, results that would later prove important in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201161–64_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201161–64-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Metastable" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastable">metastable</a>" for atoms spending an extended time in a state other than <a href="/wiki/Ground_state" title="Ground state">that of least energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196557–58_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196557–58-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920, Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of the <i>bonzen</i> ("bigwigs").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201170–71_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201170–71-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Göttingen"><span id="G.C3.B6ttingen"></span>Göttingen</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Göttingen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franckfeier_1923_Die_Bonzen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Franckfeier_1923_Die_Bonzen.jpg/220px-Franckfeier_1923_Die_Bonzen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Franckfeier_1923_Die_Bonzen.jpg/330px-Franckfeier_1923_Die_Bonzen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Franckfeier_1923_Die_Bonzen.jpg/440px-Franckfeier_1923_Die_Bonzen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1640" data-file-height="1405" /></a><figcaption><i>Die Bonzen</i>, left to right: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Reich&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Reich (page does not exist)">Max Reich</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Reich" class="extiw" title="de:Max Reich">de</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, James Franck and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Pohl" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Pohl">Robert Pohl</a> in 1923</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1920, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> offered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics, which had recently been vacated by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a>. Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics, thanks to <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">David Hilbert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Klein" title="Felix Klein">Felix Klein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski" title="Hermann Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Runge" title="Carl Runge">Carl Runge</a>, but not so much for physics. This would change. As part of his price for coming to Göttingen, Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there. On 15 November 1920, Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics, a fully tenured <i>professor ordinarius</i>. He was allowed two assistants, so he brought <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Sponer" title="Hertha Sponer">Hertha Sponer</a> with him from Berlin to fill one of the positions. Pohl, a gifted teacher, headed the First Institute, and handled the lectures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201175–79_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201175–79-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_bio_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_bio-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20107_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20107-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Born and Franck, Göttingen was one of the world's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_bio_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_bio-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20107_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20107-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although they published only three papers together, Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other. Gaining admittance to Franck's laboratory became highly competitive. His doctoral students included <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kopfermann" title="Hans Kopfermann">Hans Kopfermann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_R._von_Hippel" title="Arthur R. von Hippel">Arthur R. von Hippel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hanle" title="Wilhelm Hanle">Wilhelm Hanle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Houtermans" title="Fritz Houtermans">Fritz Houtermans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Gerhard_Kuhn" title="Heinrich Gerhard Kuhn">Heinrich Kuhn</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Werner_Kroebel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Werner Kroebel (page does not exist)">Werner Kroebel</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Kroebel" class="extiw" title="de:Werner Kroebel">de</a>]</span>, Walter Lochte-Holtgreven and <a href="/wiki/Heinz_Maier-Leibnitz" title="Heinz Maier-Leibnitz">Heinz Maier-Leibnitz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196558–59_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196558–59-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In supervising doctoral candidates, Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well-defined, and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research, while still staying within the limits of the candidate's ability, the laboratory's equipment and the institute's budget.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201190_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201190-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under his direction, research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196562–63_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196562–63-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his own research, Franck developed what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Franck%E2%80%93Condon_principle" title="Franck–Condon principle">Franck–Condon principle</a>, a rule in <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a> that explains the intensity of <a href="/wiki/Vibronic_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibronic transition">vibronic transitions</a>, simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of a <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> of the appropriate energy. The principle states that during an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic transition">electronic transition</a>, a change from one <a href="/wiki/Quantum_vibration" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum vibration">vibrational</a> <a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">energy level</a> to another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrational <a href="/wiki/Wave_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave functions">wave functions</a> overlap more significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20108–9_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20108–9-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20109–11_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20109–11-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For his work during this time period, Franck was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exile">Exile</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Exile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This period came to an end when the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> won power in Germany in <a href="/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election" title="March 1933 German federal election">an election</a> on 2 March 1933. The following month it enacted the <a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Restoration_of_the_Professional_Civil_Service" title="Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service">Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service</a>, which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants, along with political opponents of the government. As a veteran of the First World War, Franck was exempt, but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011188–194_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011188–194-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion. He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school,<sup id="cite_ref-David_Nachmansohn_1979_62_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_Nachmansohn_1979_62-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011132_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011132-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same.<sup id="cite_ref-David_Nachmansohn_1979_62_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_Nachmansohn_1979_62-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner201012_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner201012-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newspapers around the world reported it, but no government or university protested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011197_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011197-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Franck assisted <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lindemann" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Lindemann">Frederick Lindemann</a> in helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011203–204_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011203–204-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a brief visit to the United States, where he measured the absorption of light in <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> with Wood at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>, he took up a position at the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_Institute" title="Niels Bohr Institute">Niels Bohr Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011209–214_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011209–214-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He needed a new collaborator, so he took on <a href="/wiki/Hilde_Levi" title="Hilde Levi">Hilde Levi</a>, whose recent thesis had impressed him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchweber2012276_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012276-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and liquids, but under Bohr's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions, particularly <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, the process by which plants use light to convert <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and water into more organic compounds. Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules. He co-authored two papers with Levi on the subject, which he would return to over the following years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011209–214_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011209–214-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Franck found a position at the <i><a href="/wiki/Technical_University_of_Denmark" title="Technical University of Denmark">Polytekniske Læreanstalt</a></i> in Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel, who was now his son in law, having married his daughter Dagmar. He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them. The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011218–219_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011218–219-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Germany <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">invaded Denmark</a> on 9 April 1940, the Hungarian chemist <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a> dissolved the gold medal, along with that of <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aqua_regia" title="Aqua regia">aqua regia</a> to prevent the Germans from taking them. He placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Hevesy196227–28_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Hevesy196227–28-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1935, Franck moved to the United States, where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196563–64_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196563–64-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen, but he received $10,000 for equipment from the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a>. A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff. Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany, and needed money to help them emigrate. He therefore accepted an offer from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest, in 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011223–224_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011223–224-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Franck's first paper there, co-authored with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, was on photochemical processes in crystals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011229_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011229-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Gaffron" title="Hans Gaffron">Hans Gaffron</a> became his collaborator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011233–235_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011233–235-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were joined by Pringsheim, who escaped from Belgium after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Belgium">German invasion</a>. Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011238_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011238-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States, and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011233_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011233-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became a <a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalised</a> United States citizen on 21 July 1941,<sup id="cite_ref-Papers_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so he was not an <a href="/wiki/Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">enemy alien</a> when the United States <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_upon_Germany_(1941)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States declaration of war upon Germany (1941)">declared war on Germany</a> on 11 December 1941. His daughters still were, though, so they were restricted from travelling, and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942, although they were permitted to attend her funeral.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011237_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011237-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 1942, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur H. Compton">Arthur H. Compton</a> established its <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> at the University of Chicago. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, its mission was to build <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> to create <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> that would be used in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bombs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECompton195682–83_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECompton195682–83-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Metallurgical Laboratory's Chemistry Division was initially headed by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a>, but he preferred hands on work to administration. Compton then turned to Franck, with some trepidation owing to his German background.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECompton1956123–124_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECompton1956123–124-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compton later wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes, and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom. "It's not the German people I'm fighting", he explained. "It's the Nazis. They have a stranglehold over Germany. The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters." The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECompton1956124_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECompton1956124-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>In addition to heading the Chemistry Division, Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which consisted of himself and <a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Hughes" title="Donald J. Hughes">Donald J. Hughes</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._J._Nickson" title="J. J. Nickson">J. J. Nickson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Rabinowitch" title="Eugene Rabinowitch">Eugene Rabinowitch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, J. C. Stearns and <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nina_Byers_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nina_Byers-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1945, Franck warned <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> of their fears that "mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner201016_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner201016-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The committee compiled what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a>. Finished on 11 June 1945, it recommended that the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bombs</a> not be used on the Japanese cities without warning.<sup id="cite_ref-Nina_Byers_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nina_Byers-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any event, the <a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a> decided otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECompton1956235–236_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECompton1956235–236-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life">Later life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Albert_Einstein,_Niels_Bohr,_James_Franck_and_Rabi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Portrait_of_Albert_Einstein%2C_Niels_Bohr%2C_James_Franck_and_Rabi.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Albert_Einstein%2C_Niels_Bohr%2C_James_Franck_and_Rabi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Portrait_of_Albert_Einstein%2C_Niels_Bohr%2C_James_Franck_and_Rabi.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Albert_Einstein%2C_Niels_Bohr%2C_James_Franck_and_Rabi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Portrait_of_Albert_Einstein%2C_Niels_Bohr%2C_James_Franck_and_Rabi.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Albert_Einstein%2C_Niels_Bohr%2C_James_Franck_and_Rabi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3555" data-file-height="3014" /></a><figcaption>Four Nobel Prize laureates. Franck between <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> in 1954</figcaption></figure> <p>Franck married <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Sponer" title="Hertha Sponer">Hertha Sponer</a> in a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011259_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011259-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his first wife, Ingrid, having died in 1942. In his post-war research, he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis. Meitner saw no break between his early and later work. She recalled that </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Franck enjoyed talking about his problems, not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind. Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated, indeed obsessed by it. Common sense and straight logic were his main tools, together with simple apparatus. His research followed an almost straight line, from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner201017–18_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner201017–18-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>In addition to the Nobel Prize. Franck was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Planck medal">Max Planck medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Physikalische_Gesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft">Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft</a> in 1951 and the <a href="/wiki/Rumford_Medal" title="Rumford Medal">Rumford Medal</a> of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955. He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner201020_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner201020-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was elected a member of the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1944,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elected a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1964">Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1964</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196567–68_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196567–68-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also an International Member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196567–68_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196567–68-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was buried in Chicago with his first wife.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011309_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011309-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1967, the University of Chicago named the <a href="/wiki/James_Franck_Institute" title="James Franck Institute">James Franck Institute</a> after him.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Franck_(crater)" title="Franck (crater)">lunar crater</a> has also been named in his honour.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His papers are in the University of Chicago Library.<sup id="cite_ref-Papers_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">List of Jewish Nobel laureates</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nobel_Prize-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1925/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1925"</a>. The Nobel Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1925&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1925%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20104-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20104_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20104_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRiceJortner2010">Rice & Jortner 2010</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich20118–11-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich20118–11_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich20118–11_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemmerich2011">Lemmerich 2011</a>, pp. 8–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201112–15-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201112–15_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201112–15_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemmerich2011">Lemmerich 2011</a>, pp. 12–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196553–54-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196553–54_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuhn1965">Kuhn 1965</a>, pp. 53–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201116–17-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201116–17_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201116–17_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemmerich2011">Lemmerich 2011</a>, pp. 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20105-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiceJortner20105_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRiceJortner2010">Rice & Jortner 2010</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196554–55-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196554–55_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuhn1965">Kuhn 1965</a>, pp. 54–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011331-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011331_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemmerich2011">Lemmerich 2011</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranck1906" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Franck, J. (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1424075">"Über die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung"</a>. <i>Annalen der Physik</i> (in German). <b>326</b> (15): 972–1000. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1906AnP...326..972F">1906AnP...326..972F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19063261508">10.1002/andp.19063261508</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015064464335">2027/mdp.39015064464335</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1521-3889">1521-3889</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Beweglichkeit+der+Ladungstr%C3%A4ger+der+Spitzenentladung&rft.volume=326&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=972-1000&rft.date=1906&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015064464335&rft.issn=1521-3889&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19063261508&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1906AnP...326..972F&rft.aulast=Franck&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1424075&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201124–26-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201124–26_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemmerich2011">Lemmerich 2011</a>, pp. 24–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201134–35-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201134–35_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemmerich2011">Lemmerich 2011</a>, pp. 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich201124–31-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich201124–31_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemmerich2011">Lemmerich 2011</a>, pp. 24–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196555–56_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuhn1965">Kuhn 1965</a>, pp. 55–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FH1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FH1_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranckHertz1914" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Franck, J.; <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Hertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav Hertz">Hertz, G.</a> (1914). "Über Zusammenstöße zwischen Elektronen und Molekülen des Quecksilberdampfes und die Ionisierungsspannung desselben" [On the collisions between electrons and molecules of mercury vapor and the ionization potential of the same]. <i>Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft</i> (in German). <b>16</b>: 457–467.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Verhandlungen+der+Deutschen+Physikalischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+Zusammenst%C3%B6%C3%9Fe+zwischen+Elektronen+und+Molek%C3%BClen+des+Quecksilberdampfes+und+die+Ionisierungsspannung+desselben&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=457-467&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Franck&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Hertz%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHon1989" class="citation journal cs1">Hon, Giora (1989). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nasonline.org&rft.atitle=James+Franck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fmember-directory%2Fdeceased-members%2F20001816.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn196567–68-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196567–68_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn196567–68_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuhn1965">Kuhn 1965</a>, pp. 67–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Franck&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"APS Member History"</a>. <i>search.amphilsoc.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=search.amphilsoc.org&rft.atitle=APS+Member+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3DFranck%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011309-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemmerich2011309_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemmerich2011">Lemmerich 2011</a>, p. 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150620070031/http://jfi.uchicago.edu/aboutinstitute/index.shtml">"About the Institute"</a>. James Franck Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jfi.uchicago.edu/aboutinstitute/index.shtml">the original</a> on 20 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+the+Institute&rft.pub=James+Franck+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjfi.uchicago.edu%2Faboutinstitute%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/2012?__fsk=-1273938748">"Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Franck on Moon"</a>. <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a> and <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Planetary+Names%3A+Crater%2C+craters%3A+Franck+on+Moon&rft.pub=USGS+and+NASA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplanetarynames.wr.usgs.gov%2FFeature%2F2012%3F__fsk%3D-1273938748&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompton1956" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton, Arthur</a> (1956). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atomicquestperso0000comp"><i>Atomic Quest</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/173307">173307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Quest&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173307&rft.aulast=Compton&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatomicquestperso0000comp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Hevesy1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">de Hevesy, Georg</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/adventuresinradi01heve#page/27/mode/1up/search/medals"><i>Adventures in Radioisotope Research</i></a>. New York: Pergamon Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12162216">12162216</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adventures+in+Radioisotope+Research&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12162216&rft.aulast=de+Hevesy&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fadventuresinradi01heve%23page%2F27%2Fmode%2F1up%2Fsearch%2Fmedals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1965" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Gerhard_Kuhn" title="Heinrich Gerhard Kuhn">Kuhn, Heinrich Gerhard</a> (November 1965). "James Franck. 1882–1964". <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>11</b>: 53–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1965.0004">10.1098/rsbm.1965.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/769261">769261</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:71347884">71347884</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=James+Franck.+1882%E2%80%931964&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=53-74&rft.date=1965-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A71347884%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F769261%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1965.0004&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Heinrich+Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemmerich2011" class="citation book cs1">Lemmerich, Jost (2011). <i>Science and Conscience: The life of James Franck</i>. Translated by Ann M. Hentschel. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7909-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7909-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-7909-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Conscience%3A+The+life+of+James+Franck&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-7909-8&rft.aulast=Lemmerich&rft.aufirst=Jost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNachmansohn1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Nachmansohn" title="David Nachmansohn">Nachmansohn, David</a> (1979). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanjewishpion0000nach"><i>German-Jewish pioneers in science, 1900–1933: highlights in atomic physics, chemistry, and biochemistry</i></a></span>. New York: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-38790-402-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-38790-402-3"><bdi>978-0-38790-402-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German-Jewish+pioneers+in+science%2C+1900%E2%80%931933%3A+highlights+in+atomic+physics%2C+chemistry%2C+and+biochemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-38790-402-3&rft.aulast=Nachmansohn&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanjewishpion0000nach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiceJortner2010" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Rice" title="Stuart A. Rice">Rice, Stuart A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Jortner" title="Joshua Jortner">Jortner, Joshua</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/franck-james.pdf">"James Franck 1882–1964: A Biographical Memoir"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. U. S. National Academy of Sciences<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Franck+1882%E2%80%931964%3A+A+Biographical+Memoir&rft.pub=U.+S.+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.&rft.au=Jortner%2C+Joshua&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fpublications%2Fbiographical-memoirs%2Fmemoir-pdfs%2Ffranck-james.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweber2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Silvan_S._Schweber" title="Silvan S. Schweber">Schweber, Silvan S.</a> (2012). <i>Nuclear Forces: The Making of the Physicist Hans Bethe</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06587-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06587-1"><bdi>978-0-674-06587-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/758383322">758383322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Forces%3A+The+Making+of+the+Physicist+Hans+Bethe&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F758383322&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06587-1&rft.aulast=Schweber&rft.aufirst=Silvan+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Medawar" title="Jean Medawar">Medawar, Jean</a>; Pyke, David (2012). <i>Hitler's Gift: The True Story of the Scientists Expelled by the Nazi Regime</i>. New York: Arcade Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61145-709-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61145-709-4"><bdi>978-1-61145-709-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Gift%3A+The+True+Story+of+the+Scientists+Expelled+by+the+Nazi+Regime&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Arcade+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-61145-709-4&rft.aulast=Medawar&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft.au=Pyke%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Franck" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Franck&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4609-1">Oral history interview transcript with James Franck on 9 July 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a>—Session I</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4609-2">Oral history interview transcript with James Franck on 10 July 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a>—Session II</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4609-3">Oral history interview transcript with James Franck on 11 July 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a>—Session III</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4609-4">Oral history interview transcript with James Franck and Hertha Sponer Franck on 12 July 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a>—Session IV</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4609-5">Oral history interview transcript with James Franck and Hertha Sponer Franck on 13 July 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a>—Session V</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4609-6">Oral history interview transcript with James Franck and Hertha Sponer Franck on 14 July 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a>—Session VI</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/30">James Franck</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q57066#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1926: "Transformation of Kinetic Energy of Free Electrons into Excitation Energy of Atoms by Impacts"</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">P. Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">M. Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann" title="Gabriel Lippmann">Lippmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dal%C3%A9n" title="Gustaf Dalén">Dalén</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Kamerlingh Onnes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1915: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">W. L. Bragg</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1917: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Glover_Barkla" title="Charles Glover Barkla">Barkla</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1918: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1919: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Stark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Guillaume</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1921: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1924: <a href="/wiki/Manne_Siegbahn" title="Manne Siegbahn">M. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1925: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Hertz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">C. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" title="Owen Willans Richardson">O. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">De Broglie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1931</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1933: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1934</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">C. D. Anderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">G. P. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Stern</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Bridgman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Victor_Appleton" title="Edward Victor Appleton">Appleton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Bothe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Lamb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Kusch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Brattain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">C. N. Yang</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">T. D. Lee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Cherenkov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Tamm</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Glaser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_M%C3%B6ssbauer" title="Rudolf Mössbauer">Mössbauer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Goeppert Mayer</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Basov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov" title="Alexander Prokhorov">Prokhorov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Kastler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Néel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Gabor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Ryle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Hewish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Roy_Mottelson" title="Ben Roy Mottelson">Mottelson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">Rainwater</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Richter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._C._Ting" title="Samuel C. C. Ting">Ting</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Mott</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">R. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Bloembergen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Schawlow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kai_Siegbahn" title="Kai Siegbahn">K. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">K. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Van der Meer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ruska</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> / <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Steinberger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt" title="Hans Georg Dehmelt">Dehmelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul" title="Wolfgang Paul">Paul</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">R. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">J. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Brockhouse" title="Bertram Brockhouse">Brockhouse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shull" title="Clifford Shull">Shull</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist)" title="David Lee (physicist)">D. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff" title="Douglas Osheroff">Osheroff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson" title="Robert Coleman Richardson">R. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Chu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Claude_Cohen-Tannoudji" title="Claude Cohen-Tannoudji">Cohen-Tannoudji</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips" title="William Daniel Phillips">Phillips</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Alferov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Kroemer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–<br />present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell" title="Eric Allin Cornell">Cornell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ketterle" title="Wolfgang Ketterle">Ketterle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Wieman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Koshiba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Giacconi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Abrikosov (physicist)">Abrikosov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_L._Hall" title="John L. Hall">Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._H%C3%A4nsch" title="Theodor W. Hänsch">Hänsch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Grünberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Kao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Boyle</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Geim</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Novoselov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Perlmutter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Riess</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">Wineland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serge_Haroche" title="Serge Haroche">Haroche</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Akasaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Amano</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Nakamura</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Kajita</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">McDonald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" title="David J. Thouless">Thouless</a> / <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Haldane" title="Duncan Haldane">Haldane</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Kosterlitz" title="J. Michael Kosterlitz">Kosterlitz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Ashkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Mourou</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Strickland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Queloz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Genzel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Ghez" title="Andrea M. Ghez">Ghez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hasselmann" title="Klaus Hasselmann">Hasselmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syukuro_Manabe" title="Syukuro Manabe">Manabe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2022: <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2023: <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Agostini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Krausz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">L'Huillier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">Hopfield</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Hinton</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1925_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1925_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1925 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1925_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1925 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1925_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1925 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1925_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1925 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Adolf_Zsigmondy" title="Richard Adolf Zsigmondy">Richard Adolf Zsigmondy</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1925_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1925 Nobel Prize in Literature">1925</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a> (United Kingdom)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austen_Chamberlain" title="Austen Chamberlain">Austen Chamberlain</a> (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Charles G. Dawes</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">James Franck</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Gustav Ludwig Hertz</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>None</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1920_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1920 Nobel Prize winners">1920</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1921_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1921 Nobel Prize winners">1921</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1922_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1922 Nobel Prize winners">1922</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1923_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1923 Nobel Prize winners">1923</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1924_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1924 Nobel Prize winners">1924</a></dd> <dd><b>1925 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1926_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1926 Nobel Prize winners">1926</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1927_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1927 Nobel Prize winners">1927</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1928_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1928 Nobel Prize winners">1928</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1929_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1929 Nobel Prize winners">1929</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1930_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1930 Nobel Prize winners">1930</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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.navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/21px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/42px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/21px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/42px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>James Franck</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:James_Franck" class="extiw" title="c:Category:James Franck">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/James_Franck" class="extiw" title="q:James Franck">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q57066#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q57066#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q57066#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000110330255">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/113222021">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/115847/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJq6WMWRCpryHTQrv7FFrq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118534653">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n83146477">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119637760">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119637760">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Franck, James <1882-1964>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/SBLV284039">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jo2016905884&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069496110">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000315702&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007275771005171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058513147406706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA07504895?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=126428">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=16649138500">Scopus</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:franck.james">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/282428">MathSciNet</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/james-franck/">Leopoldina</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118534653.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118534653">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th 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