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Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy - Wikipedia
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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:1px solid blue;background:misty-rose;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/View_of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg/125px-View_of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/View_of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg/188px-View_of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/View_of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg/250px-View_of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="1057" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anatomical_terminology" title="Category:Anatomical terminology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_bone" title="Anatomical terms of bone">Bone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">Location</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_microanatomy" title="Anatomical terms of microanatomy">Microanatomy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_motion" title="Anatomical terms of motion">Motion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_muscle" title="Anatomical terms of muscle">Muscle</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anatomical_terminology_series" title="Template:Anatomical terminology series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anatomical_terminology_series" title="Template talk:Anatomical terminology series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anatomical_terminology_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anatomical terminology series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This article describes <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">anatomical terminology</a> that is used to describe the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous systems</a> - including the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerves</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomical_terminology_in_neuroanatomy">Anatomical terminology in neuroanatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Anatomical terminology in neuroanatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a>, like other aspects of anatomy, uses specific terminology to describe anatomical structures. This terminology helps ensure that a structure is described accurately, with minimal ambiguity. Terms also help ensure that structures are described consistently, depending on their structure or function. Terms are often derived from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, and like other areas of anatomy are generally standardised based on internationally accepted lexicons such as <a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">Terminologia Anatomica</a>. </p><p>To help with consistency, humans and other species are assumed when described to be in <i><a href="/wiki/Standard_anatomical_position" title="Standard anatomical position">standard anatomical position</a></i>, with the body standing erect and facing observer, arms at sides, palms forward. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location">Location</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">Anatomical terms of location</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">Anatomical terms of location</a> depend on the location and species that is being described. </p><p>To understand the terms used for anatomical localisation, consider an animal with a straight <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">CNS</a>, such as a fish or lizard. In such animals the terms "<a href="/wiki/Rostrum_(anatomy)" title="Rostrum (anatomy)">rostral</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Anterior_and_posterior" title="Anatomical terms of location">caudal</a>", "ventral" and "dorsal" mean respectively towards the rostrum, towards the tail, towards the belly and towards the back. For a full discussion of those terms, see <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">anatomical terms of location</a>. </p><p>For many purposes of anatomical description, positions and directions are relative to the standard <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_planes" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomical planes">anatomical planes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">axes</a>. Such reference to the anatomical planes and axes is called the <a href="/wiki/Stereotaxy" title="Stereotaxy">stereotactic</a> approach. </p><p>Standard terms used throughout anatomy include <i><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Anterior_and_posterior" title="Anatomical terms of location">anterior / posterior</a></i> for the front and back of a structure, <i><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Superior_and_inferior" title="Anatomical terms of location">superior / inferior</a></i> for above and below, <i><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Medial_and_lateral" title="Anatomical terms of location">medial / lateral</a></i> for structures close to and away from the midline respectively, and <i><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Proximal_and_distal" title="Anatomical terms of location">proximal / distal</a></i> for structures close to and far away from a set point. </p><p>Some terms are used more commonly in <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">neuroanatomy</a>, particularly: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Cranial_and_caudal" title="Anatomical terms of location">Rostral</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Cranial_and_caudal" title="Anatomical terms of location">and <i>caudal</i></a>: In animals with linear <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous systems</a>, the term <i>rostral</i> (from the Latin <i>rostrum</i>, meaning "beak") is synonymous with <i>anterior</i> and the term <i>caudal</i> (from the Latin <i>cauda</i>, meaning "tail") is synonymous with <i>posterior</i>. Due to <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> having an upright posture, however, their nervous system is considered to bend about 90°. This is considered to occur at the junction of the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>-<a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalic</a> junction). Thus, the terminology changes at either side of the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>-<a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalic</a> junction. Superior to the junction, the terminology is the same as in animals with linear nervous systems; <i>rostral</i> is synonymous with <i>anterior</i> and <i>caudal</i> is synonymous with posterior. Inferior to the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>-<a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalic</a> junction the term <i>rostral</i> is synonymous with <i>superior</i> and <i>caudal</i> is synonymous with <i>inferior</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Dorsal_and_ventral" title="Anatomical terms of location">Dorsal</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Dorsal_and_ventral" title="Anatomical terms of location">and <i>ventral</i></a>: In animals with linear <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous systems</a>, the term <i>dorsal</i> (from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> dorsum, meaning "back") is synonymous with <i>superior</i> and the term <i>ventral</i> (from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> venter, meaning "belly") is synonymous with <i>inferior</i>. In humans, however, the terminology differs on either side of the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>-<a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalic</a> junction. Superior to the junction, the terminology is the same as in animals with linear nervous systems; <i>dorsal</i> is synonymous with <i>superior</i> and <i>ventral</i> is synonymous with <i>inferior</i>. However, inferior to the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>-<a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalic</a> junction the term <i>dorsal</i> is synonymous with <i>posterior</i> and <i>ventral</i> is synonymous with <i>anterior</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Contralateral" class="mw-redirect" title="Contralateral">Contralateral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ipsilateral" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipsilateral">ipsilateral</a></i> referring to a corresponding position on the opposite left or right side (the <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">sagittal plane</a>) and on the same side (ipsilateral) respectively.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planes_and_axes">Planes and axes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Planes and axes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_brain_anatomical_axes_alterations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Human_brain_anatomical_axes_alterations.jpg/220px-Human_brain_anatomical_axes_alterations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Human_brain_anatomical_axes_alterations.jpg/330px-Human_brain_anatomical_axes_alterations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Human_brain_anatomical_axes_alterations.jpg/440px-Human_brain_anatomical_axes_alterations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The anatomical axes of orientation of the human brain are at odds with the anatomical axes of the human body in the standard anatomical position.<br />Red axis shows how the head bent forward as the back pointed upwards:<br /> c: Caudal<br /> r: Rostral<br /> Yellow axes show the conventions for naming directions in the brain itself:<br /> c: Caudal (though not tail direction),<br /> d: Dorsal<br /> r: Rostral (effectively unchanged)<br /> v: Ventral (though not belly direction)</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_brain_anatomical_planes_letter_annotations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Human_brain_anatomical_planes_letter_annotations.jpg/220px-Human_brain_anatomical_planes_letter_annotations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Human_brain_anatomical_planes_letter_annotations.jpg/330px-Human_brain_anatomical_planes_letter_annotations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Human_brain_anatomical_planes_letter_annotations.jpg/440px-Human_brain_anatomical_planes_letter_annotations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1751" data-file-height="1583" /></a><figcaption>Anatomical axes, planes and localisations in the human brain. Three axes:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>d: <i>Axial, Superior-inferior</i> or <i>Dorsoventral axis</i> (yellow)</li><li>l: Left-right, or <i>Lateral axis</i> (cyan, blue-green)</li><li>m: <i>Median, Antero-posterior</i> or <i>Rostral-to-caudal</i> axis (magenta)</li></ul></div> Three major planes:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>A: <i>Axial</i> (blue), containing the lateral axis and also the Medial axis</li><li>C: <i>Coronal plane</i> (green), containing the axial axis and the lateral axis</li><li>S: <i>Sagittal plane</i> (red), containing the axial axis and the medial axis</li></ul></div> Also:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>e: The eye at the anterior end of the brain</li><li>P: A <i>Parasagittal</i> plane (yellow) through one eye; parasagittal planes comprise the class of planes parallel to (and therefore lateral to) the sagittal plane.</li></ul></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Standard <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_plane" title="Anatomical plane">anatomical planes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_axes" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomical axes">anatomical axes</a> are used to describe structures in animals. In humans and many other <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a> the axis of the central nervous system is not straight, but bent to allow for forward vision when the body is vertical. This means that differences in terminology are needed to reflect the differences between the brains of primates and the brains of nearly all other vertebrates. For example, to describe the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>, "rostral" still means "towards the beak or snout (Latin <i>rostrum</i>)", or at any rate, the interior of the <a href="/wiki/Cranial_cavity" title="Cranial cavity">cranial cavity</a> just behind the face. "Caudal" means "towards the tail (Latin <i>cauda</i>"), but not "towards the back of the cranial cavity", which is "posterior" (behind, in ordinary motion). The <i>rostro-caudal</i> axis of the human central nervous system (magenta in the diagram) makes a near 90° bend at the level of the midbrain and continues through the brain-stem and spinal cord. In human anatomy, the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobes" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital lobes">occipital lobes</a> and the back of the head are posterior but not caudal to the frontal lobes and the face. </p><p>"Superior" and "inferior" are adjectives from human anatomy, respectively meaning towards to top of the head or the soles of the feet when standing. The brain is superior to the spinal cord in people, but in quadrupeds the brain is anterior (forward in motion) to the spinal cord. </p><p>"Dorsal" means "in the direction away from the ridge of the human back or its equivalent in other animals. In human neuroanatomy the word is somewhat distorted, becoming synonymous with "superior" in the <a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">forebrain</a>, i.e. in the direction of the roof of the cranial cavity"cranial cavity and thence to the body. "Ventral" in the central nervous system also refers to the rostro-caudal axis, which changes within the head. </p><p>These three axes of the human brain match the three planes within which they lie, even though the terms for the planes have not been changed from the terms for the bodily planes. The most commonly used reference planes are: </p> <ul><li><i>Axial</i> or "transverse" or "horizontal", the plane that is horizontal and parallel to the ground with the body standing in the <a href="/wiki/Standard_anatomical_position" title="Standard anatomical position">standard anatomical position</a>. It contains (and thus is defined by) the lateral and the medial axes of the brain.</li> <li><i>Coronal</i>, a vertical plane that passes through the coronal suture of the skull (or through both ears), or any plane parallel to this. There is no term "paracoronal" comparable to the commonly used "parasagittal".</li> <li><i>Sagittal</i>, a vertical plane that passes from between the nostrils, and between the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemispheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral hemispheres">cerebral hemispheres</a>, dividing the brain into left and right halves. "Median plane" specifically defines the midline between left and right sides of the body. It contains the dorsoventral and medial axes of the brain. A <i><a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">parasagittal</a></i> plane is any plane parallel to the sagittal plane.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nerves">Nerves</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nerves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Function">Function</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Specific terms are used for peripheral nerves that originate from, or arrive at, a specific point. </p><p>An <i><a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">afferent nerve fiber</a></i> is a fibre originating at the present point. For example, a striatal afferent is an afferent originating at the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>. </p><p>An <i><a href="/wiki/Efferent_nerve_fiber" title="Efferent nerve fiber">efferent nerve fiber</a></i> is one that arrives at the present point. For example, a cortical efferent is a fibre coming from elsewhere, and arriving to the cortex. That is the opposite of the direction in which the nerve fibre conducts signals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nerve_fibre_crossings">Nerve fibre crossings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nerve fibre crossings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Specific terms are also used to describe the route of a nerve or nerve fibre: </p><p>A <b><a href="/wiki/Chiasm_(anatomy)" title="Chiasm (anatomy)">chiasm</a></b> (from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <i> <a href="/wiki/Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">Chi</a></i>) is used to describe different types of crossings of or within <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral</a> nerve fibres between the cerebral hemispheres. The major example in the human brain is the <a href="/wiki/Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">Optic chiasm</a>. </p><p>A <b><a href="/wiki/Decussation" title="Decussation">decussation</a></b> (from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i> decussis</i> 'ten', written as a capital <b>X</b>) refers to nerve fibers that cross the <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">sagittal plane</a> from one side of the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> to the other, and connect <i>different</i> brain regions. There are two kinds: </p> <ul><li>Type 1 crosses the sagittal plane in the <i>same</i> brain region or spinal segment where the cell body is located. Examples are <a href="/wiki/Mauthner_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauthner cells">Mauthner cells</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>.</li> <li>Type 2 crosses the sagittal plane in a <i>different</i> brain region. Example: <a href="/wiki/Decussation_of_pyramids" class="mw-redirect" title="Decussation of pyramids">pyramidal decussations</a>.</li></ul> <p>The first type is known also for <a href="/wiki/Invertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Invertebrates">invertebrates</a>, whereas the second type only occurs in <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a>. The second type is thought to be due to an <a href="/wiki/Axial_Twist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Axial Twist theory">axial twist</a>, such that each hemisphere of the forebrain represents predominantly the <a href="/wiki/Contralateral_brain" title="Contralateral brain">contralateral side of the body</a>. </p><p>A <b><a href="/wiki/Commissure" title="Commissure">commissure</a></b> is a bilateral connection of axons connecting the left and right side of the same brain region. For example, nerve fibre tracts that cross between the two cerebral hemispheres, are the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_commissure" title="Anterior commissure">anterior commissure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Posterior_commissure" title="Posterior commissure">posterior commissure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosum" title="Corpus callosum">corpus callosum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_commissure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippocampal commissure">hippocampal commissure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Habenular_commissure" title="Habenular commissure">habenular commissure</a>. The spinal cord contains a commissure as well: the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_white_commissure" title="Anterior white commissure">anterior white commissure</a>. </p><p>A <b><a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglion</a></b> can also have the form of crossing nerves, but a ganglion always contains <a href="/wiki/Synapses" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapses">synapses</a> between <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> as well as their <a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">cell bodies</a>. The other kinds of nerve crossings never contain synapses of cell bodies of neurons. </p><p>The <b>difference</b> between a <i>chiasm</i> and a <i>decussation</i> is that the first refers to peripheral nerves whereas the latter refers to crossings inside central nervous system. A <i>commissure</i> connects the same brain region of each side whereas a <i>decussation</i> connects different brain regions. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray690.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The brainstem from the front, showing a decussation of the superior pedicle and lemniscus, where nerve fibres from one side cross over to the next"><img alt="The brainstem from the front, showing a decussation of the superior pedicle and lemniscus, where nerve fibres from one side cross over to the next" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gray690.png/84px-Gray690.png" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gray690.png/127px-Gray690.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gray690.png/169px-Gray690.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="709" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The brainstem from the front, showing a <i>decussation</i> of the superior pedicle and lemniscus, where nerve fibres from one side cross over to the next</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Optic_processing_human_brain.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The optic chiasm in the human brain, showing pathways conveying information from the visual field of each eye to the contralateral visual cortex"><img alt="The optic chiasm in the human brain, showing pathways conveying information from the visual field of each eye to the contralateral visual cortex" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Optic_processing_human_brain.jpg/86px-Optic_processing_human_brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Optic_processing_human_brain.jpg/129px-Optic_processing_human_brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Optic_processing_human_brain.jpg/172px-Optic_processing_human_brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="501" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasm</a> in the human brain, showing pathways conveying information from the visual field of each eye to the contralateral visual cortex</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brain">Brain</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Brain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulci_Gyri_Fundi_in_section_of_Human_brain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sulci_Gyri_Fundi_in_section_of_Human_brain.jpg/220px-Sulci_Gyri_Fundi_in_section_of_Human_brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sulci_Gyri_Fundi_in_section_of_Human_brain.jpg/330px-Sulci_Gyri_Fundi_in_section_of_Human_brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sulci_Gyri_Fundi_in_section_of_Human_brain.jpg/440px-Sulci_Gyri_Fundi_in_section_of_Human_brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption>Image of the human brain showing <a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyri">gyri</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fundus_(brain)" title="Fundus (brain)">fundi</a> shown in a <a href="/wiki/Coronal_plane" title="Coronal plane">Coronal section</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Specific terms are used to represent the <a href="/wiki/Gross_anatomy" title="Gross anatomy">gross anatomy</a> of the brain: </p><p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Gyrus" title="Gyrus">gyrus</a></i> is an outward folding of the brain, for example the <a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">precentral gyrus</a>. A <i><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulcus</a></i> is an inward fold, or valley in the brain's surface - for example the <a href="/wiki/Central_sulcus" title="Central sulcus">central sulcus</a>. Additional terms used to describe these may include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annectent" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:annectent">Annectent gyrus</a></i>, for a small gyrus hidden in the depth of a sulcus</li> <li><i>sulcal fundus</i>, for the bottom of a sulcus, an inward fold</li></ul> <p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Fissure_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissure (anatomy)">fissure</a></i> is used to describe: </p> <ol><li>A deep groove produced by <a href="/wiki/Opercularisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Opercularisation">opercularisation</a>. An example is the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">Sylvian Fissure</a>.</li> <li>A deep groove produced by the differentiation of the telencephalic vesicles. An example is the <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_fissure" title="Longitudinal fissure">longitudinal fissure</a>, also known as the <i>interhemispheric fissure</i>.</li></ol> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fundus" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:fundus">fundus</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imaging">Imaging</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Specific acronyms are used to represent imaging. Some common acronyms include MRI (<a href="/wiki/Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic Resonance Imaging">Magnetic Resonance Imaging</a>) and CT (<a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">Computed tomography</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_muscle" title="Anatomical terms of muscle">Anatomical terms of muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_motion" title="Anatomical terms of motion">Anatomical terms of motion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHal.2010" class="citation book cs1">Hal., Blumenfeld (2010). <i>Neuroanatomy through clinical cases</i> (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780878930586" title="Special:BookSources/9780878930586"><bdi>9780878930586</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/473478856">473478856</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroanatomy+through+clinical+cases&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass.&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F473478856&rft.isbn=9780878930586&rft.aulast=Hal.&rft.aufirst=Blumenfeld&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnatomical+terms+of+neuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐f69cdc8f6‐5w7wd Cached time: 20241122150709 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.366 seconds Real time usage: 0.491 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 870/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 23168/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 1051/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 9/100 Expensive parser function count: 3/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 23683/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 0.245/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 4577437/52428800 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 0/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 434.241 1 -total 23.36% 101.441 1 Template:Anatomical_terminology_series 22.94% 99.632 1 Template:Sidebar 21.75% 94.431 1 Template:Reflist 18.62% 80.870 1 Template:Cite_book 17.00% 73.813 1 Template:Short_description 16.06% 69.759 1 Template:More_citations_needed 14.80% 64.247 1 Template:Ambox 9.66% 41.935 2 Template:Pagetype 8.87% 38.496 1 Template:Hlist --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:36771910-0!canonical and timestamp 20241122150709 and revision id 1253398665. 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