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id="toc-Spinoza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Psychology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carl_Jung" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carl_Jung"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Carl Jung</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carl_Jung-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_Zimbardo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_Zimbardo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Philip Zimbardo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_Zimbardo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milgram_experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milgram_experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Milgram experiment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milgram_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Religions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abrahamic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abrahamic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Abrahamic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abrahamic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baháʼí_Faith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baháʼí_Faith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Baháʼí Faith</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baháʼí_Faith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rabbinic_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rabbinic_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Rabbinic Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rabbinic_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Egyptian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Egyptian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Ancient Egyptian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Egyptian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Indian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Hinduism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sikhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sikhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Sikhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sikhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Question_of_a_universal_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Question_of_a_universal_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Question of a universal definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Question_of_a_universal_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Philosophical questions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical_questions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophical questions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Usefulness_as_a_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usefulness_as_a_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Usefulness as a term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Usefulness_as_a_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Necessity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Necessity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Necessity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Necessity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Evil</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">70 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1" title="شر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal" title="Mal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91a%C3%B1a" title="Ñaña – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñaña" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91anqha" title="Ñanqha – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Ñanqha" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C9%99r" title="Şər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Şər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AD" title="অশুভ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অশুভ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D1%83%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1" title="Яуызлыҡ – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Яуызлыҡ" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maraot" title="Maraot – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Maraot" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Зло – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Зло" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo" title="Zlo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zlo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldat" title="Maldat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Maldat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Усал – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Усал" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo" title="Zlo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zlo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uvi" title="Uvi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Uvi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ondskab" title="Ondskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ondskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_B%C3%B6se" title="Das Böse – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Das Böse" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuri" title="Kuri – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kuri" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C" title="Κακό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κακό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal" title="Mal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problemo_de_la_malbono" title="Problemo de la malbono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Problemo de la malbono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaizki" title="Gaizki – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gaizki" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1" title="شر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal" title="Mal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal_(filosof%C3%ADa)" title="Mal (filosofía) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mal (filosofía)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%85" title="악 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="악" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D6%84" title="Չարիք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չարիք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo" title="Zlo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zlo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajo" title="Malajo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Malajo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keburukan" title="Keburukan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keburukan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illska" title="Illska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Illska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male" title="Male – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Male" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A2" title="רוע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רוע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal_(adjektif)" title="Mal (adjektif) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Mal (adjektif)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malum_(ethica)" title="Malum (ethica) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Malum (ethica)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blogis" title="Blogis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Blogis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonosz" title="Gonosz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gonosz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Зло – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Зло" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratsy" title="Ratsy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ratsy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="უბადობა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უბადობა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Хорон сэтгэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хорон сэтгэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwaadaardigheid" title="Kwaadaardigheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kwaadaardigheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%82%AA" title="悪 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="悪" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ondskap" title="Ondskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ondskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vondskap" title="Vondskap – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vondskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau" title="Mau – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mau" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88" title="ਬੁਰਾਈ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੁਰਾਈ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau" title="Mau – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Mau" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C5%82o" title="Zło – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zło" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal" title="Mal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83u" title="Rău – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rău" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Зло – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Зло" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D2%BB%D0%B0%D2%95%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Куһаҕан – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Куһаҕан" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_keqja" title="E keqja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="E keqja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil" title="Evil – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Evil" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo" title="Zlo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zlo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo" title="Zlo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zlo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shar" title="Shar – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Shar" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%95" title="خراپە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خراپە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Зло – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Зло" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo" title="Zlo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zlo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahuus" title="Pahuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pahuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ondska" title="Ondska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ondska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2" title="ความชั่วร้าย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความชั่วร้าย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eer" title="Şer – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Şer" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%9B%D7%98%D7%A1" title="שלעכטס – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שלעכטס" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%83%A1" title="惡 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="惡" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%83%A1" title="惡 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="惡" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Opposite or absence of good</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Evil_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Evil (disambiguation)">Evil (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Demon._A_miniature_from_the_Georgian_manuscript_of_the_12th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Demon._A_miniature_from_the_Georgian_manuscript_of_the_12th_century.jpg/195px-Demon._A_miniature_from_the_Georgian_manuscript_of_the_12th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="195" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Demon._A_miniature_from_the_Georgian_manuscript_of_the_12th_century.jpg/293px-Demon._A_miniature_from_the_Georgian_manuscript_of_the_12th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Demon._A_miniature_from_the_Georgian_manuscript_of_the_12th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>In many <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">demons</a> are considered to be evil beings and are contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angels</a>, who are their good contemporaries.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Evil</b>, by one definition, is being bad and acting out <a href="/wiki/Morally" class="mw-redirect" title="Morally">morally</a> incorrect behavior; or it is the condition of causing unnecessary <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">pain and suffering</a>, thus containing a net negative on <a href="/wiki/The_world" class="mw-redirect" title="The world">the world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evil is commonly seen as the opposite, or sometimes <a href="/wiki/Absence_of_good" title="Absence of good">absence</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a>. It can be an extremely broad concept, although in everyday usage it is often more narrowly used to talk about profound <a href="/wiki/Wickedness" title="Wickedness">wickedness</a> and against <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a>. It is generally seen as taking multiple possible forms, such as the form of personal <a href="/wiki/Moral_evil" title="Moral evil">moral evil</a> commonly associated with the word, or impersonal <a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">natural evil</a> (as in the case of natural disasters or illnesses), and in <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious thought</a>, the form of the <a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">demonic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a>/eternal.<sup id="cite_ref-David_Ray_Griffin_2004_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_Ray_Griffin_2004-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some religions, <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">world views</a>, and philosophies focus on "good versus evil", others deny evil's existence and usefulness in describing people. </p><p>Evil can denote profound <a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">immorality</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Dictionary_Definition_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Dictionary_Definition-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but typically not without some basis in the understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">human condition</a>, where <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/strife" class="extiw" title="wikt:strife">strife</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>) are the true roots of evil. In certain religious contexts, evil has been described as a supernatural force.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Dictionary_Definition_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Dictionary_Definition-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Definitions of evil vary, as does the analysis of its motives.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elements that are commonly associated with personal forms of evil involve <a href="/wiki/Balance_(metaphysics)" title="Balance (metaphysics)">unbalanced</a> behavior, including <a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">anger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revenge" title="Revenge">revenge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hatred" title="Hatred">hatred</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">psychological trauma</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/expediency" class="extiw" title="wikt:expediency">expediency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selfishness" title="Selfishness">selfishness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ignorance" title="Ignorance">ignorance</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Destruction" class="extiw" title="wikt:Destruction">destruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neglect" title="Neglect">neglect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some forms of thought, evil is also sometimes perceived in absolute terms as the <a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">dualistic</a> antagonistic <a href="/wiki/Binary_opposition" title="Binary opposition">binary opposite</a> to good,<sup id="cite_ref-PA131_pp.136-7_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PA131_pp.136-7-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which good should prevail and evil should be defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_O._Ingram_1986._P._148-149_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul_O._Ingram_1986._P._148-149-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In cultures with <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> spiritual influence, both <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">good and evil</a> are perceived as part of an antagonistic duality that itself must be overcome through achieving <i><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_O._Ingram_1986._P._148-149_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul_O._Ingram_1986._P._148-149-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> questions regarding good and evil are subsumed into three major areas of study:<sup id="cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iep.utm.edu-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a>, concerning the nature of good and evil; <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a>, concerning how we ought to behave; and <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>, concerning particular moral issues. While the term is applied to events and conditions without <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agency</a>, the forms of evil addressed in this article presume one or more <b>evildoers</b>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">modern English</a> word <i>evil</i> (<a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">yfel</i></span>) and its <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Übel</i></span> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">euvel</i></span> are widely considered to come from a <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> reconstructed form of <i>*ubilaz</i>, comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a> <i>huwapp-</i> ultimately from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> form <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>*wap-</i></span></span> and suffixed zero-grade form <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>*up-elo-</i></span></span>. Other later Germanic forms include <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">evel</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">ifel</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">ufel</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a> <span title="Old Frisian-language text"><i lang="ofs">evel</i></span> (adjective and noun), <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a> <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ubil</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">ubil</i></span>, and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">ubils</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harper2001_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harper2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chinese_moral_philosophy">Chinese moral philosophy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Confucius#Ethics" title="Confucius">Confucius § Ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taoism#Ethics" title="Taoism">Taoism § Ethics</a></div> <p>Evil is translated as 惡 in Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The duty of the emperor and of his officials is to restrain it, thus preserving the cosmic order.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nature of good and evil was also ascertainable by natural faculties without the need for revelation - "one will not achieve a perfect perception of good and evil if one has not exactly examined the nature and reason of things."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Offenses against the Three Bonds and the Five Constants</b> </p><p>Chinese cosmology, moral philosophy and law regard offenses against the Five Constants with particular abhorrence - anything that diminished the proper relationship between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger, and between mutual friends was a violation of the cosmic order and heinous.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anything that went against the Way embedded in the order of human relationships was considered vile, and invited the displeasure of Heaven and ghosts, who were seen as inflicting retribution through the instrumentality of legal punishments on earth.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese moral and legal philosophy views the violation of family and kinship order with particular abhorrence, considering it especially heinous.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In assessing the degree of evil, not only the severity of the effect against the life, health or dignity of a person is considered, but also the relational distance. </p><p><b>Ten Abominations ("十惡")</b> </p><p>The Ming Legal Code identifies <a href="/wiki/Ten_Abominations" title="Ten Abominations">Ten Abominations</a> - categories of prohibited conduct so abhorrent and heinous that the usual considerations of pardon would not apply<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> - these include plotting rebellion, great sedition, treason, parricide, depravity (the murder of three or more innocent persons or the use of magical curses), great irreverence (lese majeste), lack of filial piety, discord, unrighteousness and incest (fornication with relatives of fourth degree of mourning or less, or relationships with one's father's wife and concubines).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Other views</b> </p><p>As with Buddhism, in <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> there is no direct analogue to the way <i>good and evil</i> are opposed although reference to <i>demonic influence</i> is common in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>. Confucianism's primary concern is with correct social relationships and the behavior appropriate to the learned or superior man. Thus <i>evil</i> would correspond to wrong behavior. Still less does it map into Taoism, in spite of the centrality of <a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">dualism</a> in that system<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Other Wikipedia pages claim that Taoism is non-dualistic (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, but the opposite of the cardinal virtues of Taoism, compassion, moderation, and humility can be inferred to be the analogue of evil in it.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_philosophy">European philosophy</h2></div> <p>In response to the practices of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a> concluded that "the problem of evil would be the fundamental problem of postwar intellectual life in Europe", although such a focus did not come to fruition.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spinoza">Spinoza</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> states </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div><ol><li>By good, I understand that which we certainly know is useful to us.</li><li>By evil, on the contrary, I understand that which we certainly know hinders us from possessing anything that is good.<sup id="cite_ref-ebgb_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebgb-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol></div></blockquote> <p>Spinoza assumes a <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">quasi-mathematical</a> style and states these further propositions which he purports to prove or demonstrate from the above definitions in part IV of his <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-ebgb_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebgb-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Proposition 8 "Knowledge of good or evil is nothing but affect of joy or sorrow in so far as we are conscious of it."</li> <li>Proposition 30 "Nothing can be evil through that which it possesses in common with our nature, but in so far as a thing is evil to us it is contrary to us."</li> <li>Proposition 64 "The knowledge of evil is inadequate knowledge." <ul><li>Corollary "Hence it follows that if the human mind had none but adequate ideas, it would form no notion of evil."</li></ul></li> <li>Proposition 65 "According to the guidance of reason, of two things which are good, we shall follow the greater good, and of two evils, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils_principle" title="Lesser of two evils principle">follow the less</a>."</li> <li>Proposition 68 "If men were born free, they would form no conception of good and evil so long as they were free."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychology">Psychology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carl_Jung">Carl Jung</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>, in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Answer_to_Job" title="Answer to Job">Answer to Job</a></i> and elsewhere, depicted evil as the dark side of God.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People tend to believe evil is something external to them, because they project their <a href="/wiki/Shadow_(psychology)" title="Shadow (psychology)">shadow</a> onto others. Jung interpreted the story of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> as an account of God facing his own shadow.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philip_Zimbardo">Philip Zimbardo</h3></div> <p>In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Zimbardo" title="Philip Zimbardo">Philip Zimbardo</a> suggested that people may act in evil ways as a result of a <a href="/wiki/Collective_identity" title="Collective identity">collective identity</a>. This hypothesis, based on his previous experience from the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a>, was published in the book <i>The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Milgram_experiment">Milgram experiment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></div> <p>In 1961, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Milgram" title="Stanley Milgram">Stanley Milgram</a> began an experiment to help explain how thousands of ordinary, non-deviant, people could have reconciled themselves to a role in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. Participants were led to believe they were assisting in an unrelated experiment in which they had to inflict electric shocks on another person. The experiment unexpectedly found that most could be led to inflict the electric shocks,<sup id="cite_ref-ObedStudy_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ObedStudy-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including shocks that would have been fatal if they had been real.<sup id="cite_ref-Blass1991_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blass1991-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The participants tended to be uncomfortable and reluctant in the role. Nearly all stopped at some point to question the experiment, but most continued after being reassured.<sup id="cite_ref-ObedStudy_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ObedStudy-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 re-assessment of Milgram's work argued that the results should be interpreted with the "engaged <a href="/wiki/Followership" title="Followership">followership</a>" model: that people are not simply obeying the orders of a leader, but instead are willing to continue the experiment because of their desire to support the scientific goals of the leader and because of a lack of identification with the learner.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blass" title="Thomas Blass">Thomas Blass</a> argues that the experiment explains how people can be complicit in roles such as "the dispassionate bureaucrat who may have shipped Jews to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a> with the same degree of routinization as potatoes to Bremerhaven". However, like <a href="/wiki/James_Waller" title="James Waller">James Waller</a>, he argues that it cannot explain an event like the Holocaust. Unlike the perpetrators of the Holocaust, the participants in Milgram's experiment were reassured that their actions would cause little harm and had little time to contemplate their actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Blass1991_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blass1991-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Waller-111_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waller-111-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religions">Religions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abrahamic">Abrahamic</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baháʼí_Faith"><span id="Bah.C3.A1.CA.BC.C3.AD_Faith"></span>Baháʼí Faith</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a> asserts that evil is non-existent and that it is a concept reflecting lack of good, just as cold is the state of no heat, darkness is the state of no light, forgetfulness the lacking of memory, ignorance the lacking of knowledge. All of these are states of lacking and have no real existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Coll._1982_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coll._1982-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, evil does not exist and is relative to man. <a href="/wiki/%CA%BBAbdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1" title="ʻAbdu'l-Bahá">ʻAbdu'l-Bahá</a>, son of the founder of the religion, in <a href="/wiki/Some_Answered_Questions" title="Some Answered Questions">Some Answered Questions</a> states: </p><p>"Nevertheless a doubt occurs to the mind—that is, scorpions and serpents are poisonous. Are they good or evil, for they are existing beings? Yes, a scorpion is evil in relation to man; a serpent is evil in relation to man; but in relation to themselves they are not evil, for their poison is their weapon, and by their sting they defend themselves."<sup id="cite_ref-Coll._1982_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coll._1982-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, evil is more of an intellectual concept than a true reality. Since God is good, and upon creating creation he confirmed it by saying it is Good (Genesis 1:31) evil cannot have a true reality.<sup id="cite_ref-Coll._1982_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coll._1982-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianity">Christianity</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Devil#Christianity" title="Devil">Devil in Christianity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_(1854).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_%281854%29.jpg/170px-Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_%281854%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_%281854%29.jpg/255px-Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_%281854%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_%281854%29.jpg/340px-Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_%281854%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2152" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Devil" title="Devil">devil</a>, in opposition to the will of God, represents evil and tempts Christ, the personification of the character and will of God. <a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Ary Scheffer</a>, 1854.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a> draws its concept of evil from the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testaments</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Bible">Christian Bible</a> exercises "the dominant influence upon ideas about God and evil in the Western world."<sup id="cite_ref-David_Ray_Griffin_2004_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_Ray_Griffin_2004-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Old Testament, evil is understood to be an opposition to God as well as something unsuitable or inferior such as the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Fallen_angel" title="Fallen angel">fallen angels</a> <a href="/wiki/Satan#Christianity" title="Satan">Satan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the New Testament the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> word <i>poneros</i> is used to indicate unsuitability, while <i>kakos</i> is used to refer to opposition to God in the human realm.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Officially, the Catholic Church extracts its understanding of evil from its canonical antiquity and the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, who in <i>Summa Theologica</i> defines evil as the absence or privation of good.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/French-American" class="mw-redirect" title="French-American">French-American</a> theologian <a href="/wiki/Henri_Blocher" title="Henri Blocher">Henri Blocher</a> describes evil, when viewed as a theological concept, as an "unjustifiable reality. In common parlance, evil is 'something' that occurs in the experience that <i>ought not to be</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islam">Islam</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_sin" title="Islamic views on sin">Islamic views on sin</a></div> <p>There is no concept of absolute evil in <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, as a fundamental universal principle that is independent from and equal with good in a dualistic sense.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Quran mentions the <a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">biblical</a> forbidden tree, it never refers to it as the '<a href="/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_of_good_and_evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree of knowledge of good and evil">tree of knowledge of good and evil</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within Islam, it is considered essential to believe that all comes from <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a>, whether it is perceived as good or bad by individuals; and things that are perceived as <i>evil</i> or <i>bad</i> are either natural events (natural disasters or illnesses) or caused by humanity's free will. Much more the behavior of beings with free will, then they disobey God's orders, harming others or putting themselves over God or others, is considered to be evil.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evil does not necessarily refer to evil as an ontological or moral category, but often to harm or as the intention and consequence of an action, but also to unlawful actions.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unproductive actions or those who do not produce benefits are also thought of as evil.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A typical understanding of evil is reflected by <a href="/wiki/Al-Ash%60ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ash`ari">Al-Ash`ari</a> founder of <a href="/wiki/Ash%CA%BFari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashʿari">Asharism</a>. Accordingly, qualifying something as evil depends on the circumstances of the observer. An event or an action itself is neutral, but it receives its qualification by God. Since God is omnipotent and nothing can exist outside of God's power, God's will determine, whether or not something is evil.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rabbinic_Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Satan#Judaism" title="Satan">Satan in Judaism</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and Jewish theology, the existence of evil is presented as part of the idea of <a href="/wiki/Free_will_in_theology" title="Free will in theology">free will</a>: if humans were created to be perfect, always and only doing good, being good would not mean much. For Jewish theology, it is important for humans to have the ability to choose the path of goodness, even in the face of temptation and <i><a href="/wiki/Yetzer_hara" title="Yetzer hara">yetzer hara</a></i> (the inclination to do evil).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Egyptian">Ancient Egyptian</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egyptian religion</a></div> <p>Evil in the religion of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Isfet_(Egyptian_mythology)" title="Isfet (Egyptian mythology)">Isfet</a></i>, "disorder/violence". It is the opposite of <i><a href="/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Maat</a></i>, "order", and embodied by the serpent god <a href="/wiki/Apep" title="Apep">Apep</a>, who routinely attempts to kill the <a href="/wiki/Sun_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun god">sun god</a> <a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a> and is stopped by nearly every other deity. Isfet is not a primordial force, but the consequence of free will and an individual's struggle against the non-existence embodied by Apep, as evidenced by the fact that it was born from Ra's umbilical cord instead of being recorded in the religion's creation myths.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian">Indian</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Extermination_of_Evil_Sendan_Kendatsuba_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Extermination_of_Evil_Sendan_Kendatsuba_crop.jpg/344px-Extermination_of_Evil_Sendan_Kendatsuba_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="344" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Extermination_of_Evil_Sendan_Kendatsuba_crop.jpg/516px-Extermination_of_Evil_Sendan_Kendatsuba_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Extermination_of_Evil_Sendan_Kendatsuba_crop.jpg/688px-Extermination_of_Evil_Sendan_Kendatsuba_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3169" data-file-height="1469" /></a><figcaption>One of the five paintings of <i><a href="/wiki/Extermination_of_Evil" title="Extermination of Evil">Extermination of Evil</a></i> portrays one of the eight guardians of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist law">Buddhist law</a>, Sendan Kendatsuba, banishing evil.</figcaption></figure> <p>The primal duality in Buddhism is between suffering and <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">enlightenment</a>, so the <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil#Buddhism" title="Good and evil">good vs. evil</a> splitting has no direct analogue in it. One may infer from the general teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">catalogued causes</a> of suffering are what correspond in this <a href="/wiki/Belief_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Belief system">belief system</a> to 'evil'.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Practically this can refer to 1) the three selfish emotions—desire, hate and delusion; and 2) to their expression in physical and verbal actions. Specifically, <i>evil</i> means whatever harms or obstructs the causes for happiness in this life, a better rebirth, liberation from samsara, and the true and complete enlightenment of a buddha (samyaksambodhi). </p><p>"What is evil? Killing is evil, lying is evil, slandering is evil, abuse is evil, gossip is evil: envy is evil, hatred is evil, to cling to false doctrine is evil; all these things are evil. And what is the root of evil? Desire is the root of evil, illusion is the root of evil." Gautama Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, 563–483 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h4></div> <p>In Hinduism, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a> or righteousness clearly divides the world into <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil#Hinduism" title="Good and evil">good and evil</a>, and clearly explains that wars have to be waged sometimes to establish and protect Dharma, this war is called <a href="/wiki/Dharmayuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmayuddha">Dharmayuddha</a>. This division of good and evil is of major importance in both the Hindu epics of <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>. The main emphasis in <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> is on bad action, rather than bad people. The Hindu holy text, the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>, speaks of the balance of good and evil. When this balance goes off, divine incarnations come to help to restore this balance.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sikhism">Sikhism</h4></div> <p>In adherence to the core principle of spiritual evolution, the Sikh idea of evil changes depending on one's position on the path to liberation. At the beginning stages of spiritual growth, good and evil may seem neatly separated. Once one's spirit evolves to the point where it sees most clearly, the idea of evil vanishes and the truth is revealed. In his writings <a href="/wiki/Guru_Arjan" title="Guru Arjan">Guru Arjan</a> explains that, because God is the source of all things, what we believe to be evil must too come from God. And because God is ultimately a source of absolute good, nothing truly evil can originate from God.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sikhism, like many other religions, does incorporate a list of "vices" from which suffering, corruption, and abject negativity arise. These are known as the <a href="/wiki/Five_Thieves" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Thieves">Five Thieves</a>, called such due to their propensity to cloud the mind and lead one astray from the prosecution of righteous action.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are:<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moh" title="Moh">Moh</a>, or Attachment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobh" title="Lobh">Lobh</a>, or Greed</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krodh" title="Krodh">Karodh</a>, or Wrath</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaam" title="Kaam">Kaam</a>, or Lust</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hankaar" title="Hankaar">Ahankar</a>, or Egotism</li></ul> <p>One who gives in to the temptations of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Thieves" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Thieves">Five Thieves</a> is known as "<a href="/wiki/Manmukh" title="Manmukh">Manmukh</a>", or someone who lives selfishly and without virtue. Inversely, the "<a href="/wiki/Gurmukh" title="Gurmukh">Gurmukh</a>, who thrive in their reverence toward divine knowledge, rise above vice via the practice of the high virtues of Sikhism. These are:<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selfless_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Selfless Service">Sewa</a>, or selfless service to others.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Nam Simran</a>, or meditation upon the divine name.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Question_of_a_universal_definition">Question of a universal definition</h2></div> <p>A fundamental question is whether there is a universal, transcendent definition of evil, or whether one's definition of evil is determined by one's social or cultural background. <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Abolition_of_Man" title="The Abolition of Man">The Abolition of Man</a></i>, maintained that there are certain acts that are universally considered evil, such as <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>. However, the rape of women, by men, is found in every society, and there are more societies that see at least some versions of it, such as marital rape or punitive rape, as normative than there are societies that see all rape as non-normative (a crime).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In nearly all societies, killing except for defense or duty is seen as murder. Yet the definition of defense and duty varies from one society to another.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social deviance is not uniformly defined across different cultures, and is not, in all circumstances, necessarily an aspect of evil.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanley_Milgram_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley_Milgram-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Defining evil is complicated by its multiple, often ambiguous, common usages: evil is used to describe the whole range of suffering, including that caused by nature, and it is also used to describe the full range of human immorality from the "evil of genocide to the evil of malicious gossip".<sup id="cite_ref-Eve_Garrard_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 321">: 321 </span></sup> It is sometimes thought of as the generic opposite of good. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Singer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcus Singer (page does not exist)">Marcus Singer</a> asserts that these common connotations must be set aside as overgeneralized ideas that do not sufficiently describe the nature of evil.<sup id="cite_ref-Marcus_G._Singer2004_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcus_G._Singer2004-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 185, 186">: 185, 186 </span></sup> </p><p>In contemporary philosophy, there are two basic concepts of evil: a broad concept and a narrow concept. A broad concept defines evil simply as any and all pain and suffering: "any bad state of affairs, wrongful action, or character flaw".<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, it is also asserted that evil cannot be correctly understood "(as some of the utilitarians once thought) [on] a simple hedonic scale on which pleasure appears as a plus, and pain as a minus".<sup id="cite_ref-John_Kemp_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Kemp-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because pain is necessary for survival.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renowned orthopedist and missionary to lepers, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Brand_(physician)" title="Paul Brand (physician)">Dr. Paul Brand</a> explains that leprosy attacks the nerve cells that feel pain resulting in no more pain for the leper, which leads to ever increasing, often catastrophic, damage to the body of the leper.<sup id="cite_ref-Yancey_and_Brand_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yancey_and_Brand-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9, 50–51">: 9, 50–51 </span></sup> Congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP), also known as congenital analgesia, is a neurological disorder that prevents feeling pain. It "leads to ... bone fractures, multiple scars, osteomyelitis, joint deformities, and limb amputation ... Mental retardation is common. Death from hyperpyrexia occurs within the first 3 years of life in almost 20% of the patients."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few with the disorder are able to live into adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evil cannot be simply defined as all pain and its connected suffering because, as Marcus Singer says: "If something is really evil, it can't be necessary, and if it is really necessary, it can't be evil".<sup id="cite_ref-Marcus_G._Singer2004_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcus_G._Singer2004-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 186">: 186 </span></sup> </p><p>The narrow concept of evil involves moral condemnation, therefore it is ascribed only to moral agents and their actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Eve_Garrard_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 322">: 322 </span></sup> This eliminates natural disasters and animal suffering from consideration as evil: according to <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Card" title="Claudia Card">Claudia Card</a>, "When not guided by moral agents, forces of nature are neither "goods" nor "evils". They just are. Their "agency" routinely produces consequences vital to some forms of life and lethal to others".<sup id="cite_ref-Claudia_Card_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claudia_Card-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The narrow definition of evil "picks out only the most morally despicable sorts of actions, characters, events, etc. <i>Evil</i> [in this sense] ... is the worst possible term of opprobrium imaginable”.<sup id="cite_ref-Marcus_G._Singer2004_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcus_G._Singer2004-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eve_Garrard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eve Garrard (page does not exist)">Eve Garrard</a> suggests that evil describes "particularly horrifying kinds of action which we feel are to be contrasted with more ordinary kinds of wrongdoing, as when for example we might say 'that action wasn't just wrong, it was positively evil'. The implication is that there is a qualitative, and not merely quantitative, difference between evil acts and other wrongful ones; evil acts are not just very bad or wrongful acts, but rather ones possessing some specially horrific quality".<sup id="cite_ref-Eve_Garrard_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 321">: 321 </span></sup> In this context, the concept of evil is one element in a full nexus of moral concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Eve_Garrard_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 324">: 324 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_questions">Philosophical questions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approaches">Approaches</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div> <p>Views on the nature of evil belong to the branch of philosophy known as <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>—which in modern philosophy is subsumed into three major areas of study:<sup id="cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iep.utm.edu-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a>, that seeks to understand the nature of ethical <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a>, statements, attitudes, and judgments.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a>, investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a>, concerned with the analysis of particular moral issues in private and public life.<sup id="cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iep.utm.edu-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Usefulness_as_a_term">Usefulness as a term</h3></div> <p>There is debate on how useful the term "evil" is, since it is often associated with spirits and the devil. Some see the term as useless because they say it lacks any real ability to explain what it names. There is also real danger of the harm that being labeled "evil" can do when used in moral, political, and legal contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1–2">: 1–2 </span></sup> Those who support the usefulness of the term say there is a secular view of evil that offers plausible analyses without reference to the supernatural.<sup id="cite_ref-Eve_Garrard_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 325">: 325 </span></sup> Garrard and Russell argue that evil is as useful an explanation as any moral concept.<sup id="cite_ref-Eve_Garrard_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 322–326">: 322–326 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russell2009_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell2009-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Garrard adds that evil actions result from a particular kind of motivation, such as taking pleasure in the suffering of others, and this distinctive motivation provides a partial explanation even if it does not provide a complete explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-Eve_Garrard_51-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eve_Garrard-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 323–325">: 323–325 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russell2009_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell2009-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 268–269">: 268–269 </span></sup> Most theorists agree use of the term evil can be harmful but disagree over what response that requires. Some argue it is "more dangerous to ignore evil than to try to understand it".<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who support the usefulness of the term, such as Eve Garrard and <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_McNaughton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David McNaughton (page does not exist)">David McNaughton</a>, argue that the term evil "captures a distinct part of our moral phenomenology, specifically, 'collect[ing] together those wrongful actions to which we have ... a response of moral horror'."<sup id="cite_ref-GARRARD_and_MCNAUGHTON_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GARRARD_and_MCNAUGHTON-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Claudia Card asserts it is only by understanding the nature of evil that we can preserve humanitarian values and prevent evil in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If evils are the worst sorts of moral wrongs, social policy should focus limited energy and resources on reducing evil over other wrongs.<sup id="cite_ref-Card_2005_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Card_2005-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Card asserts that by categorizing certain actions and practices as evil, we are better able to recognize and guard against responding to evil with more evil which will "interrupt cycles of hostility generated by past evils".<sup id="cite_ref-Card_2005_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Card_2005-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 166">: 166 </span></sup> </p><p>One school of thought holds that no <i>person</i> is evil and that only <i>acts</i> may be properly considered evil. Some theorists define an evil action simply as a kind of action an evil person performs,<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_M._Haybron_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_M._Haybron-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 280">: 280 </span></sup> but just as many theorists believe that an evil character is one who is inclined toward evil acts.<sup id="cite_ref-John_Kekes_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Kekes-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> Luke Russell argues that both evil actions and evil feelings are necessary to identify a person as evil, while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Haybron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Haybron (page does not exist)">Daniel Haybron</a> argues that evil feelings and evil motivations are necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4–4.1">: 4–4.1 </span></sup> </p><p>American psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/M._Scott_Peck" title="M. Scott Peck">M. Scott Peck</a> describes evil as a kind of personal "militant ignorance".<sup id="cite_ref-Liemult_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liemult-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Peck, an evil person is consistently self-deceiving, deceives others, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">psychologically projects</a> his or her evil onto very specific targets,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hates, abuses power, and lies incessantly.<sup id="cite_ref-Liemult_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liemult-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evil people are unable to think from the viewpoint of their victim. Peck considers those he calls evil to be attempting to escape and hide from their own conscience (through self-deception) and views this as being quite distinct from the apparent absence of conscience evident in <a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">sociopaths</a>. He also considers that certain institutions may be evil, using the <a href="/wiki/My_Lai_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="My Lai Massacre">My Lai Massacre</a> to illustrate. By this definition, acts of <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">criminal</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_terrorism" title="State terrorism">state terrorism</a> would also be considered evil. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Necessity">Necessity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Necessary_evil" title="Necessary evil">Necessary evil</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/170px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/255px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/340px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> believed that occasional minor evil could have a positive effect.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> argued that there are cases where a little evil is a positive good. He wrote, "Seek out the society of your boon companions, drink, play, talk bawdy, and amuse yourself. One must sometimes commit a sin out of hate and contempt for <a href="/wiki/The_Devil" class="mw-redirect" title="The Devil">the Devil</a>, so as not to give him the chance to make one scrupulous over mere nothings ... "<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a> theories of <a href="/wiki/Realism_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Realism in international relations">realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neorealism_(international_relations)" title="Neorealism (international relations)">neorealism</a>, sometimes called <i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">realpolitik</a></i> advise politicians to explicitly ban absolute moral and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> considerations from international politics, and to focus on self-interest, political survival, and power politics, which they hold to be more accurate in explaining a world they view as explicitly <a href="/wiki/Amorality" title="Amorality">amoral</a> and dangerous. Political realists usually justify their perspectives by stating that morals and politics should be separated as two unrelated things, as exerting authority often involves doing something not moral. Machiavelli wrote: "there will be traits considered good that, if followed, will lead to ruin, while other traits, considered vices which if practiced achieve security and well being for the prince."<sup id="cite_ref-erragh_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-erragh-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 12em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akrasia" title="Akrasia">Akrasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antagonist" title="Antagonist">Antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archenemy" title="Archenemy">Archenemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">Dystopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banality_of_evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Banality of evil">Banality of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_Emperor_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Evil Emperor (disambiguation)">Evil Emperor (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Evil empire (disambiguation)">Evil empire (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graded_absolutism" title="Graded absolutism">Graded absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_evil" title="Moral evil">Moral evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponerology" title="Ponerology">Ponerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strange_Case_of_Dr_Jekyll_and_Mr_Hyde" title="Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde">Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy_and_the_Bible" title="Theodicy and the Bible">Theodicy and the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villain" title="Villain">Villain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wickedness" title="Wickedness">Wickedness</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.definitions.net/definition/Evil">"What does Evil mean?"</a>. <i>www.definitions.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.definitions.net&rft.atitle=What+does+Evil+mean%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.definitions.net%2Fdefinition%2FEvil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_Ray_Griffin_2004-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-David_Ray_Griffin_2004_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_Ray_Griffin_2004_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2004" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, David Ray (2004) [1976]. <i>God, Power, and Evil: a Process Theodicy</i>. Westminster. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22906-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22906-1"><bdi>978-0-664-22906-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Power%2C+and+Evil%3A+a+Process+Theodicy&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Westminster&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22906-1&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=David+Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_Dictionary_Definition-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Dictionary_Definition_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Dictionary_Definition_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120712193606/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/evil">"Evil"</a>. Oxford University Press. 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/evil">the original</a> on July 12, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Evil&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fevil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ervin Staub. <i>Overcoming evil: genocide, violent conflict, and terrorism</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthewsMatthews2004" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, Caitlin; Matthews, John (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/88706.Walkers_Between_the_Worlds"><i>Walkers Between the Worlds: The Western Mysteries from Shaman to Magus</i></a>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00770DJ3G">B00770DJ3G</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20210917193241/https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/88706.Walkers_Between_the_Worlds">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Walkers+Between+the+Worlds%3A+The+Western+Mysteries+from+Shaman+to+Magus&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB00770DJ3G%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Caitlin&rft.au=Matthews%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.goodreads.com%2Fbook%2Fshow%2F88706.Walkers_Between_the_Worlds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PA131_pp.136-7-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA131_pp.136-7_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Hulster2009" class="citation book cs1">de Hulster, Izaak J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kf9err5bmr4C&q=history+yehud+2008&pg=PA131"><i>Iconographic Exegesis and Third Isaiah</i></a>. Heidelberg, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Mohr_Siebeck_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohr Siebeck Verlag">Mohr Siebeck Verlag</a>. pp. 136–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150029-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150029-9"><bdi>978-3-16-150029-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iconographic+Exegesis+and+Third+Isaiah&rft.place=Heidelberg%2C+Germany&rft.pages=136-37&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck+Verlag&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-16-150029-9&rft.aulast=de+Hulster&rft.aufirst=Izaak+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkf9err5bmr4C%26q%3Dhistory%2Byehud%2B2008%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paul_O._Ingram_1986._P._148-149-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_O._Ingram_1986._P._148-149_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_O._Ingram_1986._P._148-149_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngramStreng1986" class="citation book cs1">Ingram, Paul O.; <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Streng" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Streng">Streng, Frederick John</a> (1986). <i>Buddhist-Christian Dialogue: Mutual Renewal and Transformation</i>. Honolulu: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>. pp. 148–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55635-381-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55635-381-9"><bdi>978-1-55635-381-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist-Christian+Dialogue%3A+Mutual+Renewal+and+Transformation&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pages=148-49&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-1-55635-381-9&rft.aulast=Ingram&rft.aufirst=Paul+O.&rft.au=Streng%2C+Frederick+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iep.utm.edu-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Ethics"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Ethics%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fethics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harper2001-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harper2001_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper,_Douglas2001" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=evil">"Etymology for evil"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etymology+for+evil&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Harper%2C+Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Devil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zdic.net/hant/%E6%81%B6">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"恶"字的解釋 | 漢典"</a>. <i>www.zdic.net</i> (in Chinese (China))<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.zdic.net&rft.atitle=%E2%80%9C%E6%81%B6%E2%80%9D%E5%AD%97%E7%9A%84%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8B+%7C+%E6%BC%A2%E5%85%B8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdic.net%2Fhant%2F%25E6%2581%25B6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiang2011" class="citation book cs1">Jiang, YongLin (2011). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Answer+to+Job+Revisited+%3A+Jung+on+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cgjungpage.org%2Flearn%2Farticles%2Fbook-reviews%2F727-answer-to-job-revisited-jung-on-the-problem-of-evil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Palmquist, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/dow/">Dreams of Wholeness</a>: A course of introductory lectures on religion, psychology and personal growth (Hong Kong: Philopsychy Press, 1997/2008), see especially Chapter XI.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link 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href="http://library.nhsggc.org.uk/mediaAssets/Mental%20Health%20Partnership/Peper%202%2027th%20Nov%20Milgram_Study%20KT.pdf">as PDF.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150404094832/http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/social_dilemmas/fall/Readings/Week_06/milgram.pdf">Archived</a> April 4, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blass1991-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blass1991_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blass1991_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlass1991" class="citation journal cs1">Blass, Thomas (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307085220/http://stanleymilgram.com/pdf/understanding%20behavoir.pdf">"Understanding behavior in the Milgram obedience experiment: The role of personality, situations, and their interactions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</i>. <b>60</b> (3): 398–413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.60.3.398">10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.398</a>. 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Alexander; Reicher, Stephen D.; Birney, Megan E. (September 1, 2014). "Nothing by Mere Authority: Evidence that in an Experimental Analogue of the Milgram Paradigm Participants are Motivated not by Orders but by Appeals to Science". <i>Journal of Social Issues</i>. <b>70</b> (3): 473–488. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjosi.12072">10.1111/josi.12072</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10034%2F604991">10034/604991</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1540-4560">1540-4560</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+Issues&rft.atitle=Nothing+by+Mere+Authority%3A+Evidence+that+in+an+Experimental+Analogue+of+the+Milgram+Paradigm+Participants+are+Motivated+not+by+Orders+but+by+Appeals+to+Science&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=473-488&rft.date=2014-09-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10034%2F604991&rft.issn=1540-4560&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjosi.12072&rft.aulast=Haslam&rft.aufirst=S.+Alexander&rft.au=Reicher%2C+Stephen+D.&rft.au=Birney%2C+Megan+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaslamReicher2017" class="citation journal cs1">Haslam, S. 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"50 Years of "Obedience to Authority": From Blind Conformity to Engaged Followership". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Law_and_Social_Science" title="Annual Review of Law and Social Science">Annual Review of Law and Social Science</a></i>. <b>13</b> (1): 59–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-lawsocsci-110316-113710">10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110316-113710</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Law+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=50+Years+of+%22Obedience+to+Authority%22%3A+From+Blind+Conformity+to+Engaged+Followership&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-78&rft.date=2017-10-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-lawsocsci-110316-113710&rft.aulast=Haslam&rft.aufirst=S.+Alexander&rft.au=Reicher%2C+Stephen+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Waller-111-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Waller-111_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Waller2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Waller" title="James Waller">James Waller</a> (February 22, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5QRHKMa_rqgC&pg=PA111"><i>What Can the Milgram Studies Teach Us...</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(Google Books)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 111–113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199774852" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199774852"><bdi>978-0199774852</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Translated by Barney, Laura Clifford (Repr. ed.). Wilmette, IL: Baháʼí Publ. Trust. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87743-162-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87743-162-6"><bdi>978-0-87743-162-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+answered+questions&rft.place=Wilmette%2C+IL&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD+Publ.+Trust&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-87743-162-6&rft.aulast=Coll&rft.aufirst=%27Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans Schwarz, <i>Evil: A Historical and Theological Perspective</i> (Lima, Ohio: Academic Renewal Press, 2001): 42–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwarz, <i>Evil</i>, 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Aquinas, <i>Summa Theologica</i>, translated by the Fathers of the English Dominican Province (New York: Benziger Brothers, 1947) Volume 3, q. 72, a. 1, p. 902.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henri Blocher, <i>Evil and the Cross</i> (Downers Grove: <a href="/wiki/InterVarsity_Press" title="InterVarsity Press">InterVarsity Press</a>, 1994): 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jane Dammen McAuliffe <i>Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān</i> Brill 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14764-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14764-5">978-90-04-14764-5</a> p. 335</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. 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Koslowski (2013). <i>The Origin and the Overcoming of Evil and Suffering in the World Religions</i> Springer Science & Business Media <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-015-9789-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-015-9789-0">978-94-015-9789-0</a> p. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGurkow" class="citation web cs1">Gurkow, Lazer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/367866/jewish/Why-Did-G-d-Create-Evil.htm">"Why Did G-d Create Evil?"</a>. <i>Chabad</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chabad&rft.atitle=Why+Did+G-d+Create+Evil%3F&rft.aulast=Gurkow&rft.aufirst=Lazer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Flibrary%2Farticle_cdo%2Faid%2F367866%2Fjewish%2FWhy-Did-G-d-Create-Evil.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFrabbifisdel2010" class="citation web cs1">rabbifisdel (2010-07-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://classicalkabbalist.org/blog/?p=7">"The Human Dichotomy: Good and Evil | Classical Kabbalist"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Human+Dichotomy%3A+Good+and+Evil+%7C+Classical+Kabbalist&rft.date=2010-07-08&rft.au=rabbifisdel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclassicalkabbalist.org%2Fblog%2F%3Fp%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kemboly, Mpay (2010). <i>The Question of Evil in Ancient Egypt</i>. London: Golden House Publications.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HyPnrDiBM7cC&pg=PA424"><i>Philosophy of Religion</i></a> Charles Taliaferro, Paul J. Griffiths, eds. Ch. 35, <i>Buddhism and Evil</i> Martin Southwold p. 424</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">'<i><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a><b></b></i></span><i><b> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livingdharma.org/Living.Dharma.Articles/LayOutreachAndMeaningOfEvilPerson-Unno.html"></a></span></b></i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livingdharma.org/Living.Dharma.Articles/LayOutreachAndMeaningOfEvilPerson-Unno.html"><b>Lay Outreach and the Meaning of 'Evil Person</b> Taitetsu Unno</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121018093156/http://www.livingdharma.org/Living.Dharma.Articles/LayOutreachAndMeaningOfEvilPerson-Unno.html">Archived</a> 2012-10-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerumpallikunnel2013" class="citation journal cs1">Perumpallikunnel, K. (2013). "Discernment: The message of the bhagavad-gita". <i><a href="/wiki/Acta_Theologica" title="Acta Theologica">Acta Theologica</a></i>. <b>33</b>: 271. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1032.370">10.1.1.1032.370</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Theologica&rft.atitle=Discernment%3A+The+message+of+the+bhagavad-gita&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=271&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.1032.370%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.aulast=Perumpallikunnel&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh1967" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Gopal (1967). <i>Sri guru-granth sahib [english version]</i>. 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"The Sikh Model of the Person, Suffering, and Healing: Implications for Counselors". <i>International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 33–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AADCO.0000021548.68706.18">10.1023/B:ADCO.0000021548.68706.18</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145256429">145256429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+for+the+Advancement+of+Counselling&rft.atitle=The+Sikh+Model+of+the+Person%2C+Suffering%2C+and+Healing%3A+Implications+for+Counselors&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-46&rft.date=2004-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FB%3AADCO.0000021548.68706.18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145256429%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sandhu&rft.aufirst=Jaswinder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2000" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Arjan (January 2000). "The universal ideal of sikhism". <i>Global Dialogue</i>. <b>2</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Dialogue&rft.atitle=The+universal+ideal+of+sikhism&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2000-01&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Arjan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownHorvath2013" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Jennifer; Horvath, Miranda, eds. (2013). <i>Rape Challenging Contemporary Thinking</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134026395" title="Special:BookSources/9781134026395"><bdi>9781134026395</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rape+Challenging+Contemporary+Thinking&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781134026395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphreyPalmer2013" class="citation book cs1">Humphrey, J.A.; Palmer, S. (2013). <i>Deviant Behavior Patterns, Sources, and Control</i>. 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Oxford University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195181265" title="Special:BookSources/9780195181265"><bdi>9780195181265</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atrocity+Paradigm+A+Theory+of+Evil&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780195181265&rft.aulast=Card&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell2009-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Russell2009_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russell2009_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2009" class="citation journal cs1">Russell, Luke (July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40606922">"He Did It Because He Was Evil"</a>. <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i>. <b>46</b> (3). University of Illinois Press: 268–269. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40606922">40606922</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=He+Did+It+Because+He+Was+Evil&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=268-269&rft.date=2009-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40606922%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40606922&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GARRARD_and_MCNAUGHTON-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GARRARD_and_MCNAUGHTON_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrardMcNaughton2012" class="citation journal cs1">Garrard, Eve; McNaughton, David (2 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-4975.2012.00230.x">"Speak No Evil?"</a>. <i>Midwest Studies in Philosophy</i>. <b>36</b> (1): 13–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4975.2012.00230.x">10.1111/j.1475-4975.2012.00230.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Midwest+Studies+in+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Speak+No+Evil%3F&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-17&rft.date=2012-09-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4975.2012.00230.x&rft.aulast=Garrard&rft.aufirst=Eve&rft.au=McNaughton%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4975.2012.00230.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCard2010" class="citation book cs1">Card, Claudia (2010). <i>Confronting Evils: Terrorism, Torture, Genocide</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. i. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139491709" title="Special:BookSources/9781139491709"><bdi>9781139491709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confronting+Evils%3A+Terrorism%2C+Torture%2C+Genocide&rft.pages=i&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781139491709&rft.aulast=Card&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Card_2005-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Card_2005_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Card_2005_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCard2005" class="citation book cs1">Card, Claudia (2005). <i>The Atrocity Paradigm A Theory of Evil</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195181265" title="Special:BookSources/9780195181265"><bdi>9780195181265</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atrocity+Paradigm+A+Theory+of+Evil&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780195181265&rft.aulast=Card&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel_M._Haybron-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Daniel_M._Haybron_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaybron2002" class="citation journal cs1">Haybron, Daniel M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27903772">"Moral Monsters and Saints"</a>. <i>The Monist</i>. <b>85</b> (2). Oxford University Press: 260–284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist20028529">10.5840/monist20028529</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27903772">27903772</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=Moral+Monsters+and+Saints&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=260-284&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fmonist20028529&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27903772%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Haybron&rft.aufirst=Daniel+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27903772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Kekes-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-John_Kekes_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKekes2005" class="citation book cs1">Kekes, John (2005). <i>The Roots of Evil</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801443688" title="Special:BookSources/9780801443688"><bdi>9780801443688</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roots+of+Evil&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780801443688&rft.aulast=Kekes&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liemult-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liemult_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liemult_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peck, M. Scott. (1983, 1988). <i>People of the Lie: The hope for healing human evil</i>. Century Hutchinson.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peck, 1983/1988, p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peck, M. Scott. (1978, 1992), <i>The Road Less Travelled</i>. Arrow.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Luther, <i>Werke</i>, XX, p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-erragh-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-erragh_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Niccolo Machiavelli, <i>The Prince</i>, Dante University of America Press, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-937832-38-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-937832-38-7">978-0-937832-38-7</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Further reading</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Baumeister, Roy F.</a> (1999). <i>Evil: Inside Human Violence and Cruelty</i>. New York: W.H. Freeman / Owl Book<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Bennett, Gaymon, <a href="/wiki/Martinez_Hewlett" title="Martinez Hewlett">Hewlett, Martinez J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ted_Peters_(theologian)" title="Ted Peters (theologian)">Peters, Ted</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_John_Russell" title="Robert John Russell">Russell, Robert John</a> (2008). <i>The Evolution of Evil</i>. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-56979-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-56979-5">978-3-525-56979-5</a></li> <li>Katz, Fred Emil (1993). <i>Ordinary People and Extraordinary Evil</i>, SUNY Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-1442-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-1442-6">0-7914-1442-6</a>;</li> <li>Katz, Fred Emil (2004). <i>Confronting Evil</i>, SUNY Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-6030-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-6030-4">0-7914-6030-4</a>.</li> <li>Neiman, Susan (2002). <i>Evil in Modern Thought – An Alternative History of Philosophy.</i> Princeton: Princeton University Press. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOppenheimer1996" class="citation book cs1">Oppenheimer, Paul (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evildemonicnewth0000oppe"><i>Evil and the Demonic: A New Theory of Monstrous Behavior</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">New York University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-6193-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-6193-9"><bdi>978-0-8147-6193-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil+and+the+Demonic%3A+A+New+Theory+of+Monstrous+Behavior&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-6193-9&rft.aulast=Oppenheimer&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevildemonicnewth0000oppe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Shermer, M. (2004). <i>The Science of Good & Evil.</i> New York: Time Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-7520-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-7520-8">0-8050-7520-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_MintzJohn_Stauffer2007" class="citation book cs1">Steven Mintz; John Stauffer, eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OatyHcQmLb4C&q=Steven+Mintz"><i>The Problem of Evil: Slavery, Freedom, and the Ambiguities of American Reform</i></a>. University of Massachusetts Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55849-570-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55849-570-8"><bdi>978-1-55849-570-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Evil%3A+Slavery%2C+Freedom%2C+and+the+Ambiguities+of+American+Reform&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-55849-570-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOatyHcQmLb4C%26q%3DSteven%2BMintz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvil" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stapley, A.B. & Elder Delbert L. (1975). <i>Using Our Free Agency</i>. Ensign May: 21<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Stark, Ryan (2009). <i>Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England.</i> Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press. 115–45.</li> <li>Vetlesen, Arne Johan (2005). <i>Evil and Human Agency – Understanding Collective Evildoing</i> New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85694-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85694-2">978-0-521-85694-2</a></li> <li>Wilson, William McF., Julian N. Hartt (2004). <i>Farrer's Theodicy</i>. In David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson (eds), <i>Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of <a href="/wiki/Austin_Farrer" title="Austin Farrer">Austin Farrer</a></i>. New York and London: T & T Clark / Continuum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-567-02510-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-567-02510-1">0-567-02510-1</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/evil" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:evil">evil</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Evil" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Evil">Evil</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Evil" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Evil">Evil</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547g3">Evil</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concept-evil/">"Concept of Evl"</a> entry by Todd Calder in the <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=1229">Good and Evil in (Ultra Orthodox) Judaism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=90617&page=1">ABC News: Looking for Evil in Everyday Life</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070501114400/http://psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-20020101-000004.html">Psychology Today: Indexing Evil</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?178164-1/evil-investigation"><i>Booknotes</i> interview with Lance Morrow on <i>Evil: An Investigation</i>, October 19, 2003.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00545g0">"Good and Evil"</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Leszek Kolakowski and Galen Strawson (<i>In Our Time</i>, Apr. 1, 1999).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547g3">"Evil"</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Jones Erwin, Stefan Mullhall and Margaret Atkins (<i>In Our Time</i>, May 3, 2001)</li></ul> <div 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href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Greater good</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils_principle" title="Lesser of two evils principle">Lesser of two evils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_evil" title="Necessary evil">Necessary evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_wise_monkeys" title="Three wise monkeys">See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_evil" title="Radical evil">Radical evil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this 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href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hamartiology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Christian views on sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imputation_of_sin" title="Imputation of sin">Imputation of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_order_of_God%27s_decrees" title="Logical order of God's decrees">Logical order of God's decrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">Total depravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peccatism" title="Peccatism">Peccatism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background:#ddd;"><div> <ul><li>See also <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Soteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_demonology" title="Christian 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