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<input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> <span class="search-box-icon-overlay"><span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--search"></span> </span> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Language 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cdx-message--notice mw-fr-mobile-message-inline"><span class="cdx-message__icon"></span><div class="cdx-message__content">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Special:Badtitle/Message">reviewed</a> on <i>22 November 2024</i>.</div></div></div></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <p>A <b>language family</b> is a group of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a> related through descent from a common ancestor, called the <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> of that family. The term <i>family</i> is a metaphor borrowed from biology, with the <a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">tree model</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> analogous to a <a href="/wiki/Family_tree" title="Family tree">family tree</a>, or to <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic trees</a> of taxa used in evolutionary <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>. Linguists thus describe the <i>daughter languages</i> within a language family as being <i>genetically related</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, with different <a href="/wiki/Regional_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional dialect">regional dialects</a> of the proto-language undergoing different <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">language changes</a> and thus becoming distinct languages over time.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Primary_Human_Languages_Improved_Version.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Primary_Human_Languages_Improved_Version.png/400px-Primary_Human_Languages_Improved_Version.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Primary_Human_Languages_Improved_Version.png/600px-Primary_Human_Languages_Improved_Version.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Primary_Human_Languages_Improved_Version.png/800px-Primary_Human_Languages_Improved_Version.png 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="740"></a><figcaption>2005 map of the contemporary distribution of the world's primary language families</figcaption></figure> <p>One well-known example of a language family is the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, and many others, all of which are descended from <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romance family itself is part of the larger <a href="/wiki/Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European">Indo-European</a> family, which includes many other languages native to <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, all believed to have descended from a common ancestor known as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>. </p><p>A language family is usually said to contain at least two languages, although <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolates</a> — languages that are not related to any other language — are occasionally referred to as families that contain one language. Inversely, there is no upper bound to the number of languages a family can contain. Some families, such as the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a>, contain over 1000.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Language families can be identified from shared characteristics amongst languages. <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">Sound changes</a> are one of the strongest pieces of evidence that can be used to identify a genetic relationship because of their predictable and consistent nature, and through the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> can be used to reconstruct proto-languages. However, languages can also change through <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a> which can falsely suggest genetic relationships. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a> share a great deal of similarities that lead several scholars to believe <a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">they were related</a>. These supposed relationships were later discovered to be derived through language contact and thus they are not truly related.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually though, high amounts of language contact and inconsistent changes will render it essentially impossible to derive any more relationships; even the oldest demonstrable language family, <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a>, is far younger than language itself.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Major_language_families"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Major language families</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Genetic_relationship"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Genetic relationship</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Establishment"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Establishment</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Linguistic_interference_and_borrowing"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Linguistic interference and borrowing</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Complications"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Complications</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Monogenesis"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Monogenesis</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Structure_of_a_family"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Structure of a family</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Dialect_continua"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Dialect continua</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Isolates"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Isolates</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Proto-languages"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Proto-languages</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Visual_representation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Visual representation</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Other_classifications_of_languages"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Other classifications of languages</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Sprachbund"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sprachbund</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Contact_languages"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Contact languages</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Major_language_families">Major language families</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Major language families" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">List of language families</a></div> <p>Estimates of the number of language families in the world may vary widely. According to <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> there are 7,151 <a href="/wiki/Living_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Living language">living human languages</a> distributed in 142 different language families.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Lyle Campbell</a> (2019) identifies a total of 406 independent language families, including isolates.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_2019_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell_2019-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> 27 (2024) lists the following families that contain at least 1% of the 7,164 known languages in the world:<sup id="cite_ref-families24_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-families24-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Niger-Congo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger-Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a> (1,552 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> (1,256 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</a> (481 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> (458 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> (454 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian</a> (384 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a> (382 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a> (210 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Otomanguean</a> (179 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> (167 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-Dai</a> (91 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> (85 languages)</li></ol> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i> 5.0 (2024) lists the following as the largest families, of 7,788 languages (other than <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">unclassifiable languages</a>):<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo</a> (1,410 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> (1,274 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> (586 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> (514 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a> (381 languages)</li> <li>Nuclear <a href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</a> (316 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pama-Nyungan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pama-Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a> (250 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Otomanguean</a> (181 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> (158 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai-Kadai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai-Kadai languages">Tai–Kadai</a> (95 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> (82 languages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a> (77 languages)</li></ol> <p>Language counts can vary significantly depending on what is considered a dialect; for example <a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Lyle Campbell</a> counts only 27 Otomanguean languages, although he, <i>Ethnologue</i> and <i>Glottolog</i> also disagree as to which languages belong in the family. </p><p>The biggest five language families in terms of speakers (Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo and Austronesian) make up five-sixths (almost 83.3%) of the world’s population. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Genetic_relationship">Genetic relationship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Genetic relationship" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>Two languages have a <i>genetic relationship</i>, and belong to the same language family, if both are descended from a common ancestor through the process of <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">language change</a>, or one is descended from the other. The term and the process of language evolution are independent of, and not reliant on, the terminology, understanding, and theories related to <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> in the biological sense, so, to avoid confusion, some linguists prefer the term <i>genealogical relationship</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-francois_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-francois-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 184">: 184 </span></sup> </p><p>There is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that was verified statistically.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Languages interpreted in terms of the putative phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically (by ancestry) as opposed to horizontally (by spatial diffusion).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment">Establishment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Establishment" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative method</a></div> <p>In some cases, the shared derivation of a group of related languages from a common ancestor is directly <a href="/wiki/Attested_language" title="Attested language">attested</a> in the historical record. For example, this is the case for the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance language family</a>, wherein <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> are all descended from Latin, as well as for the <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a> language family, including <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, which have shared descent from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Ancient Norse</a>. Latin and ancient Norse are both attested in written records, as are many intermediate stages between those ancestral languages and their modern descendants. </p><p>In other cases, genetic relationships between languages are not directly attested. For instance, the Romance languages and the North Germanic languages are also related to each other, being subfamilies of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language family">Indo-European language family</a>, since both Latin and Old Norse are believed to be descended from an even more ancient language, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>; however, no direct evidence of Proto-Indo-European or its divergence into its descendant languages survives. In cases such as these, genetic relationships are established through use of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> of linguistic analysis. </p><p>In order to test the hypothesis that two languages are related, the comparative method begins with the collection of pairs of words that are hypothesized to be <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a>: i.e., words in related languages that are derived from the same word in the shared ancestral language. Pairs of words that have similar pronunciations and meanings in the two languages are often good candidates for hypothetical cognates. The researcher must rule out the possibility that the two words are similar merely due to chance, or due to one having <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">borrowed</a> the words from the other (or from a language related to the other). Chance resemblance is ruled out by the existence of large collections of pairs of words between the two languages showing similar patterns of phonetic similarity. Once coincidental similarity and <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">borrowing</a> have been eliminated as possible explanations for similarities in sound and meaning of words, the remaining explanation is common origin: it is inferred that the similarities occurred due to descent from a common ancestor, and the words are actually cognates, implying the languages must be related.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Linguistic_interference_and_borrowing">Linguistic interference and borrowing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Linguistic interference and borrowing" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>When languages are in <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">contact with one another</a>, either of them may influence the other through <a href="/wiki/Language_transfer#Broader_effects_of_language_transfer" title="Language transfer">linguistic interference</a> such as borrowing. For example, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> has influenced <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> has influenced <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> has influenced <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> has influenced <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> in this way. However, such influence does not constitute (and is not a measure of) a genetic relationship between the languages concerned. Linguistic interference can occur between languages that are genetically closely related, between languages that are distantly related (like English and French, which are distantly related <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European languages</a>) and between languages that have no genetic relationship. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complications">Complications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Complications" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Some exceptions to the simple genetic relationship model of languages include <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole languages</a>. </p><p>Mixed languages, pidgins and creole languages constitute special genetic types of languages. They do not descend linearly or directly from a single language and have no single ancestor. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Isolates</a> are languages that cannot be proven to be genealogically related to any other modern language. As a corollary, every language isolate also forms its own language family — a genetic family which happens to consist of just one language. One often cited example is <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>, which forms a language family on its own; but there are many other examples outside Europe. On the global scale, the site <a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a> counts a total of 423 language families in the world, including 184 isolates.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monogenesis">Monogenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Monogenesis" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>One controversial theory concerning the genetic relationships among languages is <a href="/wiki/Proto-Human_language" title="Proto-Human language">monogenesis</a>, the idea that all known languages, with the exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a>, pidgins and <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>, are descendant from a single ancestral language.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If that is true, it would mean all languages (other than pidgins, creoles, and sign languages) are genetically related, but in many cases, the relationships may be too remote to be detectable. Alternative explanations for some basic observed commonalities between languages include developmental theories, related to the biological development of the capacity for language as the child grows from newborn.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Structure_of_a_family">Structure of a family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Structure of a family" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Language_family" title="Special:EditPage/Language family">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A language family is a <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic</a> unit; all its members derive from a common ancestor, and all descendants of that ancestor are included in the family. Thus, the term <i>family</i> is analogous to the biological term <i><a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a></i>. Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, sometimes referred to as "branches" or "subfamilies" of the family; for instance, the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> are a subfamily of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> family. Subfamilies share a more recent common ancestor than the common ancestor of the larger family; <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a>, the common ancestor of the Germanic subfamily, was itself a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>, the common ancestor of the Indo-European family. Within a large family, subfamilies can be identified through "shared innovations": members of a subfamily will share features that represent retentions from their more recent common ancestor, but were not present in the overall proto-language of the larger family. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomists</a> restrict the term <i>family</i> to a certain level, but there is little consensus on how to do so. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into <i>groups</i>, and groups into <i>complexes</i>. A top-level (i.e., the largest) family is often called a <i>phylum</i> or <i>stock</i>. The closer the branches are to each other, the more closely the languages will be related. This means if a branch of a <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> is four branches down and there is also a <a href="/wiki/Sister_language" title="Sister language">sister language</a> to that fourth branch, then the two sister languages are more closely related to each other than to that common ancestral proto-language. </p><p>The term <i><a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">macrofamily</a></i> or <i>superfamily</i> is sometimes applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistic</a> methods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialect_continua">Dialect continua</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dialect continua" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">Dialect continuum</a></div> <p>Some close-knit language families, and many branches within larger families, take the form of <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continua</a> in which there are no clear-cut borders that make it possible to unequivocally identify, define, or count individual languages within the family. However, when the differences between the speech of different regions at the extremes of the continuum are so great that there is no <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> between them, as occurs in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, the continuum cannot meaningfully be seen as a single language. </p><p>A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations. Thus, different sources, especially over time, can give wildly different numbers of languages within a certain family. <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_the_Japonic_languages" title="Classification of the Japonic languages">Classifications of the Japonic family</a>, for example, range from one language (a language isolate with dialects) to nearly twenty—until the classification of <a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryukyuan language">Ryukyuan</a> as separate languages within a <a href="/wiki/Japonic_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Japonic language family">Japonic language family</a> rather than dialects of Japanese, the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese language</a> itself was considered a <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolate</a> and therefore the only language in its family. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isolates">Isolates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Isolates" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolate</a></div> <p>Most of the world's languages are known to be related to others. Those that have no known relatives (or for which family relationships are only tentatively proposed) are called <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolates</a>, essentially language families consisting of a single language. There are an estimated 129 language isolates known today.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>. In general, it is assumed that language isolates have relatives or had relatives at some point in their history but at a time depth too great for linguistic comparison to recover them. </p><p>A language isolate is classified based on the fact that enough is known about the isolate to compare it genetically to other languages but no common ancestry or relationship is found with any other known language.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but the meaning of the word "isolate" in such cases is usually clarified with a <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_modifier" title="Grammatical modifier">modifier</a>. For instance, Albanian and Armenian may be referred to as an "Indo-European isolate". By contrast, so far as is known, the <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque language</a> is an absolute isolate: it has not been shown to be related to any other modern language despite numerous attempts. A language may be said to be an isolate currently but not historically if related but now extinct relatives are attested. The <a href="/wiki/Aquitanian_language" title="Aquitanian language">Aquitanian language</a>, spoken in Roman times, may have been an ancestor of Basque, but it could also have been a sister language to the ancestor of Basque. In the latter case, Basque and Aquitanian would form a small family together. Ancestors are not considered to be distinct members of a family.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-languages">Proto-languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Proto-languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></div> <p>A proto-language can be thought of as a mother language (not to be confused with a <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) being the root from which all languages in the family stem. The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly since most languages have a relatively short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>, a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist <a href="/wiki/August_Schleicher" title="August Schleicher">August Schleicher</a>. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">list of language families</a>. For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called <i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></i>. Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records and so is conjectured to have been spoken before the invention of writing. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Visual_representation">Visual representation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Visual representation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20150714040758!Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20150714040758%21Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg/300px-20150714040758%21Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 212px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20150714040758%21Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg/300px-20150714040758%21Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg.png" data-width="300" data-height="212" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20150714040758%21Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg/450px-20150714040758%21Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20150714040758%21Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg/600px-20150714040758%21Mayan_languages_tree_gl.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>An example of a language tree, containing the Mayan languages</figcaption></figure> <p>A common visual representation of a language family is given by a genetic language tree. The <a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">tree model</a> is sometimes termed a <a href="/wiki/Dendrogram" title="Dendrogram">dendrogram</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>. The family tree shows the relationship of the languages within a family, much as a family tree of an individual shows their relationship with their relatives. There are criticisms to the family tree model. Critics focus mainly on the claim that the internal structure of the trees is subject to variation based on the criteria of classification.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even among those who support the family tree model, there are debates over which languages should be included in a language family. For example, within the dubious <a href="/wiki/Altaic_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Altaic language family">Altaic language family</a>, there are debates over whether the <a href="/wiki/Japonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Japonic">Japonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Koreanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Koreanic">Koreanic</a> languages should be included or not.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Wave_model" title="Wave model">wave model</a> has been proposed as an alternative to the tree model.<sup id="cite_ref-francois_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-francois-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wave model uses <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isoglosses</a> to group language varieties; unlike in the tree model, these groups can overlap. While the tree model implies a lack of contact between languages after derivation from an ancestral form, the wave model emphasizes the relationship between languages that remain in contact, which is more realistic.<sup id="cite_ref-francois_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-francois-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Historical_glottometry" title="Historical glottometry">Historical glottometry</a> is an application of the wave model, meant to identify and evaluate genetic relations in <a href="/wiki/Linkage_(linguistics)" title="Linkage (linguistics)">linguistic linkages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-francois_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-francois-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Other_classifications_of_languages">Other classifications of languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other classifications of languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Language_family" title="Special:EditPage/Language family">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sprachbund">Sprachbund</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sprachbund" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">Sprachbund</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">sprachbund</a> is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures. The similarities between those languages are caused by language contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family. An example of a sprachbund would be the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shared innovations, acquired by borrowing or other means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing with the language family concept. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a>, etc.) might well be "<a href="/wiki/Areal_feature" title="Areal feature">areal features</a>". However, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a> greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, since English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar unique innovations in <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a> that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language. But legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper subdivisions of any large language family. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contact_languages">Contact languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Contact languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgin</a></div> <p>The concept of language families is based on the historical observation that languages develop <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a>, which over time may diverge into distinct languages. However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than familiar biological ancestry, in which species do not crossbreed.<sup id="cite_ref-ListNelson-Sathi2014_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ListNelson-Sathi2014-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is more like the evolution of microbes, with extensive <a href="/wiki/Lateral_gene_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral gene transfer">lateral gene transfer</a>. Quite distantly related languages may affect each other through <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a>, which in extreme cases may lead to languages with no single ancestor, whether they be <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed languages</a>. In addition, a number of <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a> have developed in isolation and appear to have no relatives at all. Nonetheless, such cases are relatively rare and most well-attested languages can be unambiguously classified as belonging to one language family or another, even if this family's relation to other families is not known. </p><p>Language contact can lead to the development of new languages from the mixture of two or more languages for the purposes of interactions between two groups who speak different languages. Languages that arise in order for two groups to communicate with each other to engage in commercial trade or that appeared as a result of colonialism are called <a href="/wiki/Pidgins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgins">pidgin</a>. Pidgins are an example of linguistic and cultural expansion caused by language contact. However, language contact can also lead to cultural divisions. In some cases, two different language speaking groups can feel territorial towards their language and do not want any changes to be made to it. This causes language boundaries and groups in contact are not willing to make any compromises to accommodate the other language.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox metadata"><caption class="infobox-title">Background colors used on Wikipedia for various language families and groups</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #faecc8"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a><br><code>#faecc8</code> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:gold"><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>?<br><code>gold (#ffd700)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #ffddaa"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a>?<br><code>#ffddaa</code> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:goldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan (areal)</a><br><code>goldenrod (#daa520)</code> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #c9ffd9"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a><br><code>#c9ffd9</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:lightgreen"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">Caucasian (areal)</a><br><code>lightgreen (#90ee90)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #a8fe74"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a><br><code>lime (#00ff00)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:mediumspringgreen"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a><br><code>mediumspringgreen (#00fa9a)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:yellowgreen"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic (areal)</a><br><code>yellowgreen (#9acd32)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:darkseagreen"><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Siberian_languages" title="Paleo-Siberian languages">Paleo-Siberian (areal)</a><br><code>darkseagreen (#8fbc8f)</code> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:salmon"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a><br><code>salmon (#fa8072)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #f2ceee"><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a><br><code>#f2ceee</code> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:lavender"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a><br><code>lavender (#e6e6fA)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:lightcoral"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a><br><code>lightcoral (#f08080)</code> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:pink"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a><br><code>pink (#ffc0cb)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #fd79da"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan (areal)</a><br><code>#fd79da</code> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #eba9ee"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian (areal)</a><br><code>#eba9ee</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #c99fee"><a href="/wiki/Andamanese_languages" title="Andamanese languages">Andamanese (areal)</a><br><code>#c99fee</code> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:lightcyan">Eskaleut<br><code>lightcyan (#e0ffff)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:lightskyblue"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a><br><code>lightskyblue (#87cefa)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #80bfff"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a><br><code>#80bfff</code> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #99ddff"><a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Dene%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" title="Dene–Yeniseian languages">Dene–Yeniseian</a>?)<br><code>#99ddff</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #c0dde6"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">American (areal)</a><br><code>#c0dde6</code> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:tan"><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a><br><code>tan (#d2b48c)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #dddddd"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolate</a><br><code>#dddddd</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:silver"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign language</a><br><code>silver (#c0c0c0)</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color: #114057; color:white"><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Constructed language</span></a><br><code>#114057</code> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background-color:white"><a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified</a><br><code>white (#fffff)</code> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">Comparative linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">Endangered language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Language death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_revived_languages" title="List of revived languages">List of revived languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_language_system" title="Global language system">Global language system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">ISO 639-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">List of language families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">List of languages by number of native speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Human_language" title="Proto-Human language">Proto-Human language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">Sprachbund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">Tree model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Tongue_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Father Tongue hypothesis">Father Tongue hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farming/language_dispersal_hypothesis" title="Farming/language dispersal hypothesis">Farming/language dispersal hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">Vernacular</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, as opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> used as a literary language.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRoweLevine2015" class="citation book cs1">Rowe, Bruce M.; Levine, Diane P. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ePQ5CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA340"><i>A Concise Introduction to Linguistics</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 340–341. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34928-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34928-0"><bdi>978-1-317-34928-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Dallas, Texas: SIL International, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/aust1307">"Family: Austronesian"</a>. <i>Glottolog 5.0</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2010" class="citation journal cs1">Campbell, Lyle (24 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3765%2Fbls.v36i1.3900">"Language Isolates and Their History, or, What's Weird, Anyway?"</a>. <i>Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society</i>. <b>36</b> (1): 16–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3765%2Fbls.v36i1.3900">10.3765/bls.v36i1.3900</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2377-1666">2377-1666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Meeting+of+the+Berkeley+Linguistics+Society&rft.atitle=Language+Isolates+and+Their+History%2C+or%2C+What%27s+Weird%2C+Anyway%3F&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=16-31&rft.date=2010-08-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3765%2Fbls.v36i1.3900&rft.issn=2377-1666&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3765%252Fbls.v36i1.3900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALanguage+family" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomfield1994" class="citation book cs1">Bloomfield, Leonard (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gfrd-On5iFwC"><i>Language</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1196-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1196-8"><bdi>81-208-1196-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=81-208-1196-8&rft.aulast=Bloomfield&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGfrd-On5iFwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALanguage+family" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edzard, Lutz. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UAFVgdGljl4C">Polygenesis, Convergence, and Entropy: An Alternative Model of Linguistic Evolution Applied to Semitic Linguistics</a></i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis Manaster Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell. Telling General Linguists about Altaic. <i>Journal of Linguistics</i> 35.1 (1999): 65–98. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalyanFrançois2018" class="citation book cs1">Kalyan, Siva; François, Alexandre (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/Kalyan-Francois_2018_Freeing-Comparative-Method-from-Tree-model.pdf">"Freeing the Comparative Method from the tree model: A framework for Historical Glottometry"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Kikusawa, Ritsuko; Reid, Laurie (eds.). <i>Let's Talk about Trees: Genetic Relationships of Languages and Their Phylogenic Representation</i>. Senri Ethnological Studies. Vol. 98. Ōsaka: National Museum of Ethnology. pp. 59–89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Freeing+the+Comparative+Method+from+the+tree+model%3A+A+framework+for+Historical+Glottometry&rft.btitle=Let%27s+Talk+about+Trees%3A+Genetic+Relationships+of+Languages+and+Their+Phylogenic+Representation&rft.place=%C5%8Csaka&rft.series=Senri+Ethnological+Studies&rft.pages=59-89&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Ethnology&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Kalyan&rft.aufirst=Siva&rft.au=Fran%C3%A7ois%2C+Alexandre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falex.francois.online.fr%2Fdata%2FKalyan-Francois_2018_Freeing-Comparative-Method-from-Tree-model.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALanguage+family" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2017" class="citation web cs1">Joseph, Brian (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/e-learning/LSAInstitute--BalkanSprachbundSlides.pdf">"The Balkan Sprachbund"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>linguisticsociety.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=linguisticsociety.org&rft.atitle=The+Balkan+Sprachbund&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguisticsociety.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fe-learning%2FLSAInstitute--BalkanSprachbundSlides.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALanguage+family" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ListNelson-Sathi2014-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ListNelson-Sathi2014_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFListNelson-SathiGeislerMartin2014" class="citation journal cs1">List, Johann-Mattis; Nelson-Sathi, Shijulal; Geisler, Hans; Martin, William (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3910147">"Networks of lexical borrowing and lateral gene transfer in language and genome evolution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BioEssays" title="BioEssays">BioEssays</a></i>. <b>36</b> (2): 141–150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.201300096">10.1002/bies.201300096</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0265-9247">0265-9247</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3910147">3910147</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24375688">24375688</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioEssays&rft.atitle=Networks+of+lexical+borrowing+and+lateral+gene+transfer+in+language+and+genome+evolution&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=141-150&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3910147%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0265-9247&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24375688&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbies.201300096&rft.aulast=List&rft.aufirst=Johann-Mattis&rft.au=Nelson-Sathi%2C+Shijulal&rft.au=Geisler%2C+Hans&rft.au=Martin%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3910147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALanguage+family" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/languages-contact">"Languages in Contact | Linguistic Society of America"</a>. <i>www.linguisticsociety.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.linguisticsociety.org&rft.atitle=Languages+in+Contact+%7C+Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguisticsociety.org%2Fresource%2Flanguages-contact&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALanguage+family" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoas1911" class="citation book cs1">Boas, Franz (1911). <i>Handbook of American Indian languages</i>. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Vol. 1. Washington: <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>, Bureau of American Ethnology. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-5017-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-5017-7"><bdi>0-8032-5017-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+American+Indian+languages&rft.place=Washington&rft.series=Bureau+of+American+Ethnology%2C+Bulletin+40&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution%2C+Bureau+of+American+Ethnology&rft.date=1911&rft.isbn=0-8032-5017-7&rft.aulast=Boas&rft.aufirst=Franz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALanguage+family" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Boas, Franz. (1922). <i>Handbook of American Indian languages</i> (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington, D.C.: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).</li> <li>Boas, Franz. (1933). <i>Handbook of American Indian languages</i> (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.</li> <li>Campbell, Lyle. (1997). <i>American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509427-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509427-1">0-19-509427-1</a>.</li> <li>Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). <i>The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment</i>. Austin: University of Texas Press.</li> <li>Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). <i>Languages</i>. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-16-048774-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-16-048774-9">0-16-048774-9</a>.</li> <li>Goddard, Ives. (1999). <i>Native languages and language families of North America</i> (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-9271-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-9271-6">0-8032-9271-6</a>.</li> <li>Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). <i>Ethnologue: Languages of the world</i> (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55671-159-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-55671-159-X">1-55671-159-X</a>. (Online version: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com">Ethnologue: Languages of the World</a>).</li> <li>Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). <i>The Languages of Africa</i> (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.</li> <li>Harrison, K. David. (2007) <i>When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge</i>. New York and London: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Mithun, Marianne. (1999). <i>The languages of Native North America</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23228-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-23228-7">0-521-23228-7</a> (hbk); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29875-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29875-X">0-521-29875-X</a>.</li> <li>Ross, Malcolm. (2005). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rspas.anu.edu.au/linguistics/mdr/Papuan%20Pasts%20paper.pdf">Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040608222723/http://rspas.anu.edu.au/linguistics/mdr/Papuan%20Pasts%20paper.pdf">Archived</a> 8 June 2004 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". In: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Pawley" title="Andrew Pawley">Andrew Pawley</a>, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, <i>Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples</i> (PDF)</li> <li>Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). <i>A guide to the world's languages</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press.</li> <li>Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). <i>Handbook of North American Indians</i> (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).</li> <li>Voegelin, C. F. & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). <i>Classification and index of the world's languages</i>. New York: Elsevier.</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muturzikin.com/countries.htm">Linguistic maps</a> (from Muturzikin)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/">Ethnologue</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://multitree.org/">The Multitree Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.proel.org/index.php?pagina=mundo">Lenguas del mundo</a> (World Languages)</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Comparative Swadesh list tables of various language families</a> (from Wiktionary)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php">Most similar languages</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div></section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language_family&oldid=1259011125">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language_family&oldid=1259011125</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Language_family&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="Womtelo" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1732313844"> <span>Last edited on 22 November 2024, at 22:17</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalfamilie" title="Taalfamilie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Taalfamilie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachfamilie" title="Sprachfamilie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sprachfamilie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="أسرة لغات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أسرة لغات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familias_ling%C3%BCisticas" title="Familias lingüisticas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Familias lingüisticas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_lling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Familia llingüística – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Familia llingüística" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%27%E1%BA%BDngu%C3%A9ra_aty" title="Ñe'ẽnguéra aty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe'ẽnguéra aty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%86%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BB_%D1%85%D1%8A%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="МацӀазул хъизан – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="МацӀазул хъизан" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="دیل عائیله‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="دیل عائیله‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="ভাষা পরিবার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভাষা পরিবার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AD-h%C4%93" title="Gí-hē – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gí-hē" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="भाषा परिवार – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भाषा परिवार" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamilya_nin_tataramon" title="Pamilya nin tataramon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pamilya nin tataramon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Езиково семейство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Езиково семейство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezi%C4%8Dke_porodice_i_jezici" title="Jezičke porodice i jezici – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Jezičke porodice i jezici" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familh_yezho%C3%B9" title="Familh yezhoù – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Familh yezhoù" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fam%C3%ADlia_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Família lingüística – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Família lingüística" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazykov%C3%A1_rodina" title="Jazyková rodina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jazyková rodina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mhuri_ye_mutauro" title="Mhuri ye mutauro – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mhuri ye mutauro" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teulu_ieithyddol" title="Teulu ieithyddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Teulu ieithyddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprogfamilie" title="Sprogfamilie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sprogfamilie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%AF_%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فاميلة د لوغات – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="فاميلة د لوغات" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachfamilie" title="Sprachfamilie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sprachfamilie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keelkond" title="Keelkond – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keelkond" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Γλωσσική οικογένεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλωσσική οικογένεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_de_lenguas" title="Familia de lenguas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Familia de lenguas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingva_familio" title="Lingva familio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lingva familio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizkuntza_familia" title="Hizkuntza familia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hizkuntza familia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="خانواده زبانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خانواده زبانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Language family" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famille_de_langues" title="Famille de langues – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Famille de langues" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalfamylje" title="Taalfamylje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Taalfamylje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_teangacha" title="Fine teangacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fine teangacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynney_%C3%A7hengey" title="Kynney çhengey – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Kynney çhengey" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_de_linguas" title="Familia de linguas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Familia de linguas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%AE-ne" title="Ngî-ne – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngî-ne" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B4%EC%A1%B1" title="어족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="어족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A8%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D6%84" title="Լեզվաընտանիք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեզվաընտանիք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="भाषा-परिवार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भाषा-परिवार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezi%C4%8Dna_porodica" title="Jezična porodica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jezična porodica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaro" title="Linguaro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Linguaro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamilia_ti_pagsasao" title="Pamilia ti pagsasao – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pamilia ti pagsasao" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa" title="Rumpun bahasa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familias_linguistic" title="Familias linguistic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Familias linguistic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungum%C3%A1la%C3%A6tt" title="Tungumálaætt – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tungumálaætt" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famiglia_linguistica" title="Famiglia linguistica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Famiglia linguistica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%97%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA" title="משפחת שפות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משפחת שפות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulawarga_basa" title="Kulawarga basa – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kulawarga basa" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%BE_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%83%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7" title="ಭಾಷಾ ವಂಶವೃಕ್ಷ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭಾಷಾ ವಂಶವೃಕ್ಷ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ენათა ოჯახები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ენათა ოჯახები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malbata_ziman%C3%AE" title="Malbata zimanî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Malbata zimanî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_linguarum" title="Familia linguarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Familia linguarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valodu_saime" title="Valodu saime – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Valodu saime" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalb%C5%B3_%C5%A1eimos" title="Kalbų šeimos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kalbų šeimos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fam%C3%ACggia_lengo%C3%ACstica" title="Famìggia lengoìstica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Famìggia lengoìstica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spraokfemielje" title="Spraokfemielje – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Spraokfemielje" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyelvcsal%C3%A1d" title="Nyelvcsalád – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nyelvcsalád" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="भाषा परिवार – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="भाषा परिवार" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Јазично семејство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јазично семејство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianakaviam-piteny" title="Fianakaviam-piteny – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fianakaviam-piteny" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%BE" title="ഭാഷാഗോത്രങ്ങൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭാഷാഗോത്രങ്ങൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B3" title="भाषाकुळ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भाषाकुळ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ნინეფიშ ფანიეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნინეფიშ ფანიეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keluarga_bahasa" title="Keluarga bahasa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keluarga bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%AF" title="ဘာသာစကား မိသားစု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘာသာစကား မိသားစု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalfamilie" title="Taalfamilie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taalfamilie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="भाषा परिवार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भाषा परिवार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BF" title="भाय् माचाछि – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="भाय् माचाछि" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="語族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="語族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%AB_%DF%9E%DF%90%DF%99%DF%8D%DF%A1%DF%8A" title="ߞߊ߲߫ ߞߐߙߍߡߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߞߊ߲߫ ߞߐߙߍߡߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A4kefamiili" title="Spräkefamiili – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Spräkefamiili" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5kfamilie" title="Språkfamilie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Språkfamilie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5kfamiliar" title="Språkfamiliar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Språkfamiliar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillar_oilasi" title="Tillar oilasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tillar oilasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਪਰਿਵਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਪਰਿਵਾਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C_%D9%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="بولی ٹبر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بولی ٹبر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famia_lingw%C3%ADstiko" title="Famia lingwístiko – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Famia lingwístiko" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%98%D8%A8%DB%90_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D" title="د ژبې کورنۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ژبې کورنۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famije_lengh%C3%ACstiche" title="Famije lenghìstiche – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Famije lenghìstiche" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famili_bilong_tokples" title="Famili bilong tokples – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Famili bilong tokples" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spraakfamilie" title="Spraakfamilie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Spraakfamilie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodzina_j%C4%99zykowa" title="Rodzina językowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rodzina językowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fam%C3%ADlia_lingu%C3%ADstica" title="Família linguística – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Família linguística" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familie_de_limbi" title="Familie de limbi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Familie de limbi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhibavipnaski_familiya" title="Chhibavipnaski familiya – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Chhibavipnaski familiya" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimaykunap_ayllun" title="Rimaykunap ayllun – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rimaykunap ayllun" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Языкова родина – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Языкова родина" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8C%D1%8F" title="Языковая семья – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Языковая семья" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%83" title="भाषाकुटुम्बः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="भाषाकुटुम्बः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B8%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%BD" title="ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ ᱜᱷᱟᱨᱚᱸᱡᱽ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ ᱜᱷᱟᱨᱚᱸᱡᱽ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leid_faimly" title="Leid faimly – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Leid faimly" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sproakgruppe" title="Sproakgruppe – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Sproakgruppe" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familjet_e_Gjuh%C3%ABve" title="Familjet e Gjuhëve – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Familjet e Gjuhëve" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%88_%DA%AA%D9%BD%D9%86%D8%A8" title="ٻولي جو ڪٽنب – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ٻولي جو ڪٽنب" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazykov%C3%A1_rodina" title="Jazyková rodina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jazyková rodina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%8E%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="خێزانی زمانەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خێزانی زمانەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Језичка породица – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Језичка породица" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezi%C4%8Dne_porodice_i_jezici" title="Jezične porodice i jezici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jezične porodice i jezici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kielikunta" title="Kielikunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kielikunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5kfamilj" title="Språkfamilj – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Språkfamilj" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamilya_ng_wika" title="Pamilya ng wika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pamilya ng wika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D,_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மொழிகளும், மொழிக் குடும்பங்களும் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மொழிகளும், மொழிக் குடும்பங்களும்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawacult_n_tutlayin" title="Tawacult n tutlayin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tawacult n tutlayin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="భాషా కుటుంబము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భాషా కుటుంబము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2" title="ตระกูลภาษา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตระกูลภาษา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Оилаи забонҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Оилаи забонҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dil_ailesi" title="Dil ailesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dil ailesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BC%27%D1%8F" title="Мовна сім'я – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мовна сім'я" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="لسانی خاندان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="لسانی خاندان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahhaeh" title="Vahhaeh – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vahhaeh" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_h%E1%BB%87" title="Ngữ hệ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ hệ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiilkund" title="Kiilkund – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Kiilkund" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="语系 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="语系" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="語系 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="語系" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyey_z%C4%B1wanan" title="Keyey zıwanan – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Keyey zıwanan" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taelfemieljes" title="Taelfemieljes – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Taelfemieljes" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B3%BB%E5%B1%9E%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="语言系属分类 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="语言系属分类" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 November 2024, at 22:17<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless 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