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</div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Umayyad Caliphate</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Umayyad_Caliphate" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li 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block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the corresponding ruling dynasty, see <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style>The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/uːˈmaɪjæd/</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/uːˈmaɪæd/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya)<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> was the second <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a> established after the death of the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[pron 1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">Uthman ibn Affan</a>, the third of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> caliphs, was also a member of the clan. The family established dynastic, hereditary rule with <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a>, the long-time governor of <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Greater Syria</a>, who became caliph after the end of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a> in 661. After Mu'awiya's death in 680, conflicts over the succession resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Fitna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bukhari-6">[5]</a> and power eventually fell to <a href="/wiki/Marwan_I" title="Marwan I">Marwan I</a>, from another branch of the clan. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, with <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> as their capital. <table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Umayyad Caliphate</div><div class="ib-country-names">ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>) Al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">661–750</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Caliphate_720_AD_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph Umar II, c. 720"><img alt="The Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph Umar II, c. 720" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Umayyad_Caliphate_720_AD_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Umayyad_Caliphate_720_AD_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Umayyad_Caliphate_720_AD_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/375px-Umayyad_Caliphate_720_AD_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Umayyad_Caliphate_720_AD_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-Umayyad_Caliphate_720_AD_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550"></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar II</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 720</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> (661–744)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a> (744–750)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> (official in certain regions until 700)</li><li>various regional languages</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">Hereditary</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caliphs#Umayyad_Caliphate_(661%E2%80%93750)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Caliphs">Caliph</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 661–680 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 744–750 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a> (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Hasan%E2%80%93Muawiya_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan–Muawiya treaty">Hasan–Muawiya treaty</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">661</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">750</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">720<a href="#cite_note-Taagepera496-1">[1]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">11,100,000 km2 (4,300,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Dinar</a> (gold coin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">Dirham</a> (silver coin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fals" title="Fals">Fals</a> (copper coin)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Brahman_dynasty_of_Sindh" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahman dynasty of Sindh">Brahman dynasty of Sindh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Barghawata" title="Barghawata">Barghawata</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Nekor" title="Emirate of Nekor">Emirate of Nekor</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Tlemcen" title="Emirate of Tlemcen">Emirate of Tlemcen</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavand dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid Armenia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output 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0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> The Umayyads continued the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>, conquering <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sind_(caliphal_province)" title="Sind (caliphal province)">Sind</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>). At its greatest extent (661–750), the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km2 (4,300,000 sq mi),<a href="#cite_note-Taagepera496-1">[1]</a> making it one of the <a href="/wiki/Largest_empires_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Largest empires in history">largest empires in history</a> in terms of area. The dynasty was <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">toppled</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasids</a> in 750. Survivors of the dynasty established themselves in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> which, in the form of an <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">emirate</a> and then a <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">caliphate</a>, became a world centre of science, medicine, philosophy and invention during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barton2009-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Venable1894-8">[7]</a> The Umayyad Caliphate ruled over a vast multiethnic and multicultural population. Christians, who still constituted a majority of the caliphate's population, and Jews were allowed to practice their own religion but had to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll tax</a>) from which Muslims were exempt. It was A yearly tax levied on non-Muslims who permanently lived in Muslim lands. The amount varied based on the taxpayer's wealth, with the poor, women, children, and elderly exempt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman1999128-9">[8]</a> Muslims were required to pay the <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a>, which was earmarked or hypothecated explicitly for various <a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism#Welfare_state" title="Islamic socialism">alms programmes</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman1999128-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> for the benefit of Muslims or Muslim converts.<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> Under the early Umayyad caliphs, prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious accommodation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Mu'awiya's popularity and solidified Syria as his power base.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> The Umayyad era is often considered the formative period in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Origins">1.1 Origins</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_influence">1.1.1 Early influence</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Caliphate_of_Uthman">1.1.2 Caliphate of Uthman</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#First_Fitna">1.1.3 First Fitna</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Sufyanid_period">1.2 Sufyanid period</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Caliphate_of_Mu'awiya">1.2.1 Caliphate of Mu'awiya</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Succession_of_Yazid_I_and_collapse_of_Sufyanid_rule">1.2.2 Succession of Yazid I and collapse of Sufyanid rule</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Early_Marwanid_period">1.3 Early Marwanid period</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Marwanid_transition_and_end_of_Second_Fitna">1.3.1 Marwanid transition and end of Second Fitna</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Domestic_consolidation_and_centralization">1.3.2 Domestic consolidation and centralization</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Renewal_of_conquests">1.3.3 Renewal of conquests</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Caliphate_of_Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz">1.3.4 Caliphate of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Late_Marwanid_period">1.4 Late Marwanid period</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Caliphate_of_Hisham_and_end_of_expansion">1.4.1 Caliphate of Hisham and end of expansion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Third_Fitna">1.4.2 Third Fitna</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Abbasid_Revolution_and_fall">1.4.3 Abbasid Revolution and fall</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Administration">2 Administration</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Provinces">2.1 Provinces</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Government_workers">2.2 Government workers</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Military">2.3 Military</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Coinage">2.4 Coinage</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Central_diwans">2.5 Central diwans</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Diwan_al-Kharaj">2.5.1 Diwan al-Kharaj</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Diwan_al-Rasa'il">2.5.2 Diwan al-Rasa'il</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Diwan_al-Khatam">2.5.3 Diwan al-Khatam</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Diwan_al-Barid">2.5.4 Diwan al-Barid</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Diwan_al-Qudat">2.5.5 Diwan al-Qudat</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Diwan_al-Jund">2.5.6 Diwan al-Jund</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Social_organization">3 Social organization</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Non-Muslims">3.1 Non-Muslims</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Architecture">4 Architecture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Legacy">5 Legacy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Religious_perspectives">5.1 Religious perspectives</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><a href="#Sunni">5.1.1 Sunni</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-36"><a href="#Shi'a">5.1.2 Shi'a</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-37"><a href="#Bah%C3%A1'%C3%AD">5.1.3 Bahá'í</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#List_of_caliphs">6 List of caliphs</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#See_also">7 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#Notes">8 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#References">9 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Bibliography">10 Bibliography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Further_reading">11 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#External_links">12 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_influence">Early influence</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early influence" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> During the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyads</a> or Banu Umayya were a leading clan of the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a> tribe of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_VidaBosworth2000838-15">[14]</a> By the end of the 6th century, the Umayyads dominated the Quraysh's increasingly prosperous trade networks with <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> and developed economic and military alliances with the <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">nomadic Arab</a> tribes that controlled the northern and central Arabian desert expanses, affording the clan a degree of political power in the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner198151-16">[15]</a> The Umayyads under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Sufyan_ibn_Harb" title="Abu Sufyan ibn Harb">Abu Sufyan ibn Harb</a> were the principal leaders of Meccan opposition to the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, but after the latter captured Mecca in 630, Abu Sufyan and the Quraysh embraced Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200022%E2%80%9323-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192740%E2%80%9341-18">[17]</a> To reconcile his influential Qurayshite tribesmen, Muhammad gave his former opponents, including Abu Sufyan, a stake in the new order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200023-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner198177-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192720-21">[20]</a> Abu Sufyan and the Umayyads relocated to <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, Islam's political centre, to maintain their new-found political influence in the nascent Muslim community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192720%E2%80%9321-22">[21]</a> Muhammad's death in 632 left open the succession of leadership of the Muslim community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200450-23">[22]</a> Leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Ansar_(Islam)" title="Ansar (Islam)">Ansar</a>, the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven after his <a href="/wiki/Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">emigration from Mecca</a> in 622, discussed forwarding their own candidate out of concern that the <a href="/wiki/Muhajirun" title="Muhajirun">Muhajirun</a>, Muhammad's early followers and fellow emigrants from Mecca, would ally with their fellow tribesmen from the former Qurayshite elite and take control of the Muslim state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200451-24">[23]</a> The Muhajirun gave allegiance to one of their own, the early, elderly <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Companions of Muhammad">companion of Muhammad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 632–634), and put an end to Ansarite deliberations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200451%E2%80%9352-25">[24]</a> Abu Bakr was viewed as acceptable by the Ansar and the Qurayshite elite and was acknowledged as <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> (leader of the Muslim community).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200451%E2%80%9353-26">[25]</a> He showed favor to the Umayyads by awarding them command roles in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Syria">Muslim conquest of Syria</a>. One of the appointees was <a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_Abi_Sufyan" title="Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan">Yazid</a>, the son of Abu Sufyan, who owned property and maintained trade networks in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199745-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner1981114-28">[27]</a> Abu Bakr's successor <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 634–644) curtailed the influence of the Qurayshite elite in favor of Muhammad's earlier supporters in the administration and military, but nonetheless allowed the growing foothold of Abu Sufyan's sons in Syria, which was all but conquered by 638.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199760%E2%80%9361-29">[28]</a> When Umar's overall commander of the province <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ubayda_ibn_al-Jarrah" title="Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah">Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah</a> died in 639, he appointed Yazid governor of Syria's <a href="/wiki/Jund_Dimashq" title="Jund Dimashq">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Palestine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Jordan</a> districts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199760%E2%80%9361-29">[28]</a> Yazid died shortly after and Umar appointed his brother <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya</a> in his place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199761-30">[29]</a> Umar's exceptional treatment of Abu Sufyan's sons may have stemmed from his respect for the family, their burgeoning alliance with the powerful <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kalb" title="Banu Kalb">Banu Kalb</a> tribe as a counterbalance to the influential <a href="/wiki/Himyar" title="Himyar">Himyarite</a> settlers in <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> who viewed themselves as equals to the Quraysh in nobility, or the lack of a suitable candidate at the time, particularly amid the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Amwas" title="Plague of Amwas">plague of Amwas</a> which had already killed Abu Ubayda and Yazid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199761-30">[29]</a> Under Mu'awiya's stewardship, Syria remained domestically peaceful, organized and well-defended from its former <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> rulers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200462%E2%80%9364-31">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caliphate_of_Uthman">Caliphate of Uthman</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Caliphate of Uthman" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg/260px-Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="314" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="521"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 314px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg/260px-Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg.png" data-width="260" data-height="314" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg/390px-Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg/520px-Syria_in_the_9th_century.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Islamic Syria</a> (Bilad al-Sham), the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate. The founder of the Umayyad Caliphate, <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a>, had originally been governor of the <a href="/wiki/Junds" class="mw-redirect" title="Junds">junds</a> (military districts) of <a href="/wiki/Jund_Dimashq" title="Jund Dimashq">Damascus</a> (Dimashq) and <a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Jordan</a> (al-Urdunn) in 639 before gaining authority over the rest of Syria's junds during the caliphate of <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a> (644–656), a member of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad family</a></figcaption></figure> Umar's successor, <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">Uthman ibn Affan</a>, was a wealthy Umayyad and early Muslim convert with marital ties to Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199780-32">[31]</a> He was elected by the <a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">shura</a> council, composed of Muhammad's cousin <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Zubayr_ibn_al-Awwam" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam">al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talha_ibn_Ubayd_Allah" title="Talha ibn Ubayd Allah">Talha ibn Ubayd Allah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" title="Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas">Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Awf" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf">Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf</a>, all of whom were close, early companions of Muhammad and belonged to the Quraysh.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199780-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192745-33">[32]</a> He was chosen over Ali because he would ensure the concentration of state power into the hands of the Quraysh, as opposed to Ali's determination to diffuse power among all of the Muslim factions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200470-34">[33]</a> From early in his reign, Uthman displayed explicit favouritism to his kinsmen, in stark contrast to his predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199780-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192745-33">[32]</a> He appointed his family members as governors over the regions successively conquered under Umar and himself, namely much of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, i.e. Iraq and Iran, and the former Byzantine territories of Syria and Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192745-33">[32]</a> In Medina, he relied extensively on the counsel of his Umayyad cousins, the brothers <a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_al-Hakam" title="Al-Harith ibn al-Hakam">al-Harith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marwan_ibn_al-Hakam" class="mw-redirect" title="Marwan ibn al-Hakam">Marwan ibn al-Hakam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200475-35">[34]</a> According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Wilferd Madelung</a>, this policy stemmed from Uthman's "conviction that the house of Umayya, as the core clan of Quraysh, was uniquely qualified to rule in the name of Islam".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199780-32">[31]</a> Uthman's nepotism provoked the ire of the Ansar and the members of the shura.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199780-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192745-33">[32]</a> In 645/46, he added the <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)" title="Al-Jazira (caliphal province)">Jazira</a> (Upper Mesopotamia) to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship and granted the latter's request to take possession of all Byzantine crown lands in Syria to help pay his troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200463-36">[35]</a> He had the surplus taxes from the wealthy provinces of <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> and Egypt forwarded to the treasury in Medina, which he used at his personal disposal, frequently disbursing its funds and war booty to his Umayyad relatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199780%E2%80%9381-37">[36]</a> Moreover, the lucrative Sasanian crown lands of Iraq, which Umar had designated as communal property for the benefit of the <a href="/wiki/Amsar" title="Amsar">Arab garrison towns</a> of Kufa and <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, were turned into caliphal crown lands to be used at Uthman's discretion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199781-38">[37]</a> Mounting resentment against Uthman's rule in Iraq and Egypt and among the Ansar and Quraysh of Medina culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Uthman" title="Assassination of Uthman">killing of the caliph</a> in 656. In the assessment of the historian <a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Hugh N. Kennedy</a>, Uthman was killed because of his determination to centralize control over the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">caliphate</a>'s government by the traditional elite of the Quraysh, particularly his Umayyad clan, which he believed possessed the "experience and ability" to govern, at the expense of the interests, rights and privileges of many early Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200475-35">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Fitna">First Fitna</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: First Fitna" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> After Uthman's assassination, Ali was recognized as caliph in Medina, though his support stemmed from the Ansar and the Iraqis, while the bulk of the Quraysh was wary of his rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200475-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997141-39">[38]</a> The first challenge to his authority came from the Qurayshite leaders al-Zubayr and Talha, who had opposed Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyad clan but feared that their own influence and the power of the Quraysh, in general, would dissipate under Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200475%E2%80%9376-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200027-41">[40]</a> Backed by one of Muhammad's wives, <a href="/wiki/A%27isha" class="mw-redirect" title="A'isha">A'isha</a>, they attempted to rally support against Ali among the troops of Basra, prompting the caliph to leave for Iraq's other garrison town, Kufa, where he could better confront his challengers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200476-42">[41]</a> Ali defeated them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Camel" title="Battle of the Camel">Battle of the Camel</a>, in which al-Zubayr and Talha were slain and A'isha consequently entered self-imposed seclusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200476-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192753-43">[42]</a> Ali's sovereignty was thereafter recognized in Basra and Egypt and he established Kufa as the caliphate's new capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192753-43">[42]</a> Although Ali was able to replace Uthman's governors in Egypt and Iraq with relative ease, Mu'awiya had developed a solid power-base and an effective military against the Byzantines from the Arab tribes of Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200476-42">[41]</a> Mu'awiya did not claim the caliphate but was determined to retain control of Syria and opposed Ali in the name of avenging his kinsman Uthman, accusing the caliph of culpability in his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200476,_78-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192755%E2%80%9356-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997190-46">[45]</a> Ali and Mu'awiya fought to a stalemate at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin" title="Battle of Siffin">Battle of Siffin</a> in early 657. Ali agreed to settle the matter with Mu'awiya by arbitration, though the talks failed to achieve a resolution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1993265-47">[46]</a> The decision to arbitrate fundamentally weakened Ali's political position as he was forced to negotiate with Mu'awiya on equal terms, while it drove a significant number of Ali's supporters, who became known as the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a>, to revolt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200479-48">[47]</a> Ali's coalition steadily disintegrated and many Iraqi tribal nobles secretly defected to Mu'awiya, while the latter's ally <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" title="Amr ibn al-As">Amr ibn al-As</a> ousted Ali's governor from Egypt in July 658.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1993265-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200480-49">[48]</a> In July 660 Mu'awiya was formally recognized as caliph in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> by his Syrian tribal allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1993265-47">[46]</a> Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite dissident in January 661.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199359-50">[49]</a> His son <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan</a> succeeded him but abdicated in return for compensation upon Mu'awiya's arrival to Iraq with his Syrian army in the summer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1993265-47">[46]</a> At that point, Mu'awiya entered Kufa and received the allegiance of the Iraqis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192759-51">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sufyanid_period">Sufyanid period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sufyanid period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caliphate_of_Mu'awiya">Caliphate of Mu'awiya</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Caliphate of Mu'awiya" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader,_663_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader%2C_663_AD.png/220px-Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader%2C_663_AD.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="326"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 135px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader%2C_663_AD.png/220px-Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader%2C_663_AD.png" data-width="220" data-height="135" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader%2C_663_AD.png/330px-Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader%2C_663_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader%2C_663_AD.png/440px-Greek_Muawiya_inscription_of_Hammat_Gader%2C_663_AD.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoring <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> bathhouses at <a href="/wiki/Hammat_Gader" class="mw-redirect" title="Hammat Gader">Hammat Gader</a> near <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> in 663, the only known epigraphic attestation to Mu'awiya's rule in Syria</figcaption></figure> The recognition of Mu'awiya in Kufa, referred to as the "year of unification of the community" in the Muslim traditional sources, is generally considered the start of his caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1993265-47">[46]</a> With his accession, the political capital and the caliphal treasury were transferred to <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, the seat of Mu'awiya's power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192759%E2%80%9360-52">[51]</a> Syria's emergence as the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate was the result of Mu'awiya's twenty-year entrenchment in the province, the geographic distribution of its relatively large Arab population throughout the province in contrast to their seclusion in garrison cities in other provinces, and the domination of a single tribal confederation, the Kalb-led <a href="/wiki/Quda%27a" title="Quda'a">Quda'a</a>, as opposed to the wide array of competing tribal groups in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting2000a842-53">[52]</a> The long-established, formerly Christian Arab tribes in Syria, having been integrated into the military of the Byzantine Empire and their <a href="/wiki/Ghassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghassanid">Ghassanid</a> client kings, were "more accustomed to order and obedience" than their Iraqi counterparts, according to the historian <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wellhausen" title="Julius Wellhausen">Julius Wellhausen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192755-54">[53]</a> Mu'awiya relied on the powerful Kalbite chief <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bahdal" title="Ibn Bahdal">Ibn Bahdal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kinda_(tribe)" title="Kinda (tribe)">Kindite</a> nobleman <a href="/wiki/Shurahbil_ibn_Simt" title="Shurahbil ibn Simt">Shurahbil ibn Simt</a> alongside the Qurayshite commanders <a href="/wiki/Al-Dahhak_ibn_Qays_al-Fihri" title="Al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri">al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Khalid" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid">Abd al-Rahman</a>, the son of the prominent general <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>, to guarantee the loyalty of the key military components of Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200486%E2%80%9387-55">[54]</a> Mu'awiya preoccupied his core Syrian troops in nearly annual or bi-annual land and sea raids against Byzantium, which provided them with battlefield experience and war spoils, but secured no permanent territorial gains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi1992247-56">[55]</a> Toward the end of his reign the caliph entered a thirty-year truce with Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 668–685),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200487%E2%80%9388-57">[56]</a> obliging the Umayyads to pay the Empire an annual tribute of gold, horses and slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELilie197681%E2%80%9382-58">[57]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg/220px-Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="392"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 108px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg/220px-Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="108" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg/330px-Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg/440px-Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Sasanian_coinage" title="Arab–Sasanian coinage">Arab-Sasanian</a>-style Umayyad coin minted under <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a> rule in <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> in 675/76 in the name of the Umayyad governor <a href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Ziyad" title="Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad">Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad</a>. The latter's governorship later spanned all of the eastern caliphate. His father <a href="/wiki/Ziyad_ibn_Abihi" title="Ziyad ibn Abihi">Ziyad ibn Abihi</a> was adopted as a half-brother by Mu'awiya I, who made him his practical viceroy over the eastern caliphate.</figcaption></figure> Mu'awiya's main challenge was reestablishing the unity of the Muslim community and asserting his authority and that of the caliphate in the provinces amid the political and social disintegration of the First Fitna.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200482-59">[58]</a> There remained significant opposition to his assumption of the caliphate and to a strong central government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200482%E2%80%9383-60">[59]</a> The garrison towns of Kufa and Basra, populated by the Arab immigrants and troops who arrived during the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">conquest of Iraq in the 630s–640s</a>, resented the transition of power to Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200483-61">[60]</a> They remained divided, nonetheless, as both cities competed for power and influence in Iraq and its eastern dependencies and remained divided between the Arab tribal nobility and the early Muslim converts, the latter of whom were divided between the pro-<a href="/wiki/Alids" title="Alids">Alids</a> (loyalists of Ali) and the Kharijites, who followed their own strict interpretation of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200483-61">[60]</a> The caliph applied a decentralized approach to governing Iraq by forging alliances with its tribal nobility, such as the Kufan leader <a href="/wiki/Al-Ash%27ath_ibn_Qays" title="Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays">al-Ash'ath ibn Qays</a>, and entrusting the administration of Kufa and Basra to highly experienced members of the <a href="/wiki/Thaqif" class="mw-redirect" title="Thaqif">Thaqif</a> tribe, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mughira_ibn_Shu%27ba" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba">al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba</a> and the latter's protege <a href="/wiki/Ziyad_ibn_Abihi" title="Ziyad ibn Abihi">Ziyad ibn Abihi</a> (whom Mu'awiya adopted as his half-brother), respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200483%E2%80%9385-62">[61]</a> In return for recognizing his suzerainty, maintaining order, and forwarding a token portion of the provincial tax revenues to Damascus, the caliph let his governors rule with practical independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200483-61">[60]</a> After al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to the governorship of Basra, making Ziyad the practical viceroy over the eastern half of the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200485-63">[62]</a> Afterward, Ziyad launched a concerted campaign to firmly establish Arab rule in the vast <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a> region east of Iran and restart the Muslim conquests in the surrounding areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200486-64">[63]</a> Not long after Ziyad's death, he was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Ziyad" title="Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad">Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200486-64">[63]</a> Meanwhile, Amr ibn al-As ruled Egypt from the provincial capital of <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a> as a virtual partner of Mu'awiya until his death in 663, after which loyalist governors were appointed and the province became a practical appendage of Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200487-65">[64]</a> Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> (central North Africa) was launched by the commander <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a> in 670, which extended Umayyad control as far as <a href="/wiki/Byzacena" title="Byzacena">Byzacena</a> (modern southern Tunisia), where Uqba founded the permanent Arab garrison city of <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2007209-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristides2000790-67">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Succession_of_Yazid_I_and_collapse_of_Sufyanid_rule">Succession of Yazid I and collapse of Sufyanid rule</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Succession of Yazid I and collapse of Sufyanid rule" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png/250px-Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="980"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png/250px-Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png" data-width="250" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png/375px-Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png/500px-Sufyanid_dynasty_genealogy.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Genealogical tree of the Sufyanids. The names in red indicate caliphs.</figcaption></figure> In contrast to Uthman, Mu'awiya restricted the influence of his Umayyad kinsmen to the governorship of Medina, where the dispossessed Islamic elite, including the Umayyads, was suspicious or hostile toward his rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200483-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927135-68">[67]</a> However, in an unprecedented move in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own son, <a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yazid I</a>, as his successor in 676, introducing hereditary rule to caliphal succession and, in practice, turning the office of the caliph into a kingship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuri201122%E2%80%9323-69">[68]</a> The act was met with disapproval or opposition by the Iraqis and the Hejaz-based Quraysh, including the Umayyads, but most were bribed or coerced into acceptance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200488-70">[69]</a> Yazid acceded after Mu'awiya's death in 680 and almost immediately faced a challenge to his rule by the Kufan partisans of Ali who had invited Ali's son and Muhammad's grandson <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn</a> to stage a revolt against Umayyad rule from Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200488%E2%80%9389-71">[70]</a> An army mobilized by Iraq's governor Ibn Ziyad intercepted and killed Husayn outside Kufa at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala" title="Battle of Karbala">Battle of Karbala</a>. Although it stymied active opposition to Yazid in Iraq, the killing of Muhammad's grandson left many Muslims outraged and significantly increased Kufan hostility toward the Umayyads and sympathy for the family of Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200489-72">[71]</a> The next major challenge to Yazid's rule emanated from the Hejaz where <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_al-Zubayr" title="Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr">Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr</a>, the son of al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and grandson of Abu Bakr, advocated for a shura among the Quraysh to elect the caliph and rallied opposition to the Umayyads from his headquarters in Islam's holiest sanctuary, the <a href="/wiki/Ka%27aba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ka'aba">Ka'aba</a> in Mecca.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200489-72">[71]</a> The Ansar and Quraysh of Medina also took up the anti-Umayyad cause and in 683 expelled the Umayyads from the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200489%E2%80%9390-73">[72]</a> Yazid's Syrian troops routed the Medinans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Harra" title="Battle of al-Harra">Battle of al-Harra</a> and subsequently plundered Medina before <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_(683)" title="Siege of Mecca (683)">besieging Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200490-74">[73]</a> The Syrians withdrew upon news of Yazid's death in 683, after which Ibn al-Zubayr declared himself caliph and soon after gained recognition in most provinces of the caliphate, including Iraq and Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960a55-75">[74]</a> In Syria Ibn Bahdal secured the succession of Yazid's son and appointed successor <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_II" title="Mu'awiya II">Mu'awiya II</a>, whose authority was likely restricted to Damascus and Syria's southern districts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200490-74">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1993268-76">[75]</a> Mu'awiya II had been ill from the beginning of his accession, with al-Dahhak assuming the practical duties of his office, and he died in early 684 without naming a successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuri201123%E2%80%9324-77">[76]</a> His death marked the end of the Umayyads' Sufyanid ruling house, called after Mu'awiya I's father Abu Sufyan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_VidaBosworth2000838%E2%80%93839-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[a]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Marwanid_period">Early Marwanid period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early Marwanid period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marwanid_transition_and_end_of_Second_Fitna">Marwanid transition and end of Second Fitna</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Marwanid transition and end of Second Fitna" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Map of the Middle East with shaded areas indicating the territorial control of the main political actors of the Second Muslim Civil War" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg/330px-Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="215" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="1225"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 215px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg/330px-Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg.png" data-alt="Map of the Middle East with shaded areas indicating the territorial control of the main political actors of the Second Muslim Civil War" data-width="330" data-height="215" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg/495px-Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg/660px-Second_Fitna_Territorial_Control_Map_ca_686.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of the caliphate during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Fitna</a> in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 686. The area shaded in red represents the approximate territory of the Umayyads, while the areas shaded in blue, green and yellow respectively represent the territories of the <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>-based caliph <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_al-Zubayr" title="Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr">Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr</a>, the pro-Alid ruler of <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> <a href="/wiki/Mukhtar_al-Thaqafi" title="Mukhtar al-Thaqafi">Mukhtar al-Thaqafi</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a> </figcaption></figure> Umayyad authority nearly collapsed in their Syrian stronghold after the death of Mu'awiya II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200490%E2%80%9391-82">[80]</a> Al-Dahhak in Damascus, the <a href="/wiki/Qays" title="Qays">Qays</a> tribes in <a href="/wiki/Jund_Qinnasrin" title="Jund Qinnasrin">Qinnasrin</a> (northern Syria) and the Jazira, the <a href="/wiki/Judham" class="mw-redirect" title="Judham">Judham</a> in Palestine, and the Ansar and South Arabians of Homs all opted to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrone199445-83">[81]</a> Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the leader of the Umayyads expelled to Syria from Medina, was prepared to submit to Ibn al-Zubayr as well but was persuaded to forward his candidacy for the caliphate by Ibn Ziyad. The latter had been driven out of Iraq and strove to uphold Umayyad rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200490%E2%80%9391-82">[80]</a> During a summit of pro-Umayyad Syrian tribes, namely the Quda'a and their Kindite allies, organized by Ibn Bahdal in the old Ghassanid capital of <a href="/wiki/Jabiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabiya">Jabiya</a>, Marwan was elected caliph in exchange for economic privileges to the loyalist tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200491-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrone199446-84">[82]</a> At the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_Rahit_(684)" title="Battle of Marj Rahit (684)">Battle of Marj Rahit</a> in August 684, Marwan led his tribal allies to a decisive victory against a much larger Qaysite army led by al-Dahhak, who was slain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200491-79">[78]</a> Not long after, the South Arabians of Homs and the Judham joined the Quda'a to form the tribal confederation of <a href="/wiki/Yaman_(tribal_group)" title="Yaman (tribal group)">Yaman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrone199446-84">[82]</a> Marj Rahit led to the long-running <a href="/wiki/Qays%E2%80%93Yaman_rivalry" title="Qays–Yaman rivalry">conflict between the Qays and Yaman</a> coalitions. The Qays regrouped in the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphrates river">Euphrates river</a> fortress of <a href="/wiki/Circesium" title="Circesium">Circesium</a> under <a href="/wiki/Zufar_ibn_al-Harith_al-Kilabi" title="Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi">Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi</a> and moved to avenge their losses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927201%E2%80%93202-85">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200133-86">[84]</a> Although Marwan regained full control of Syria in the months following the battle, the inter-tribal strife undermined the foundation of Umayyad power: the Syrian army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927182-87">[85]</a> In 685, Marwan and Ibn Bahdal expelled the <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Utba_al-Fihri" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Utba al-Fihri">Zubayrid governor of Egypt</a> and replaced him with Marwan's son <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Aziz_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan">Abd al-Aziz</a>, who would rule the province until his death in 704/05.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200492%E2%80%9393-88">[86]</a> Another son, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Marwan" title="Muhammad ibn Marwan">Muhammad</a>, was appointed to suppress Zufar's rebellion in the Jazira.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200492-89">[87]</a> Marwan died in April 685 and was succeeded by his eldest son <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200493-90">[88]</a> Although Ibn Ziyad attempted to restore the Syrian army of the Sufyanid caliphs, persistent divisions along Qays–Yaman lines contributed to the army's massive rout and Ibn Ziyad's death at the hands of the pro-Alid forces of <a href="/wiki/Mukhtar_al-Thaqafi" title="Mukhtar al-Thaqafi">Mukhtar al-Thaqafi</a> of Kufa at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khazir" title="Battle of Khazir">Battle of Khazir</a> in August 686.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200132%E2%80%9333-91">[89]</a> The setback delayed Abd al-Malik's attempts to reestablish Umayyad authority in Iraq,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200133-86">[84]</a> while pressures from the Byzantine Empire and raids into Syria by the Byzantines' <a href="/wiki/Mardaite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardaite">Mardaite</a> allies compelled him to sign a peace treaty with Byzantium in 689 which substantially increased the Umayyads' annual tribute to the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon1969220%E2%80%93222-92">[90]</a> During his siege of Circesium in 691, Abd al-Malik reconciled with Zufar and the Qays by offering them privileged positions in the Umayyad court and army, signaling a new policy by the caliph and his successors to balance the interests of the Qays and Yaman in the Umayyad state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200497%E2%80%9398-93">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon1969174%E2%80%93176,_206%E2%80%93208-94">[92]</a> With his unified army, Abd al-Malik marched against the Zubayrids of Iraq, having already secretly secured the defection of the province's leading tribal chiefs, and defeated Iraq's ruler, Ibn al-Zubayr's brother <a href="/wiki/Mus%27ab_ibn_al-Zubayr" title="Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr">Mus'ab</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maskin" title="Battle of Maskin">Battle of Maskin</a> in 691.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200133-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon1969235%E2%80%93239-95">[93]</a> Afterward, the Umayyad commander <a href="/wiki/Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusuf" title="Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf">al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_(692)" title="Siege of Mecca (692)">besieged Mecca</a> and killed Ibn al-Zubayr in 692, marking the end of the Second Fitna and the reunification of the caliphate under Abd al-Malik's rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200498-96">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Domestic_consolidation_and_centralization">Domestic consolidation and centralization</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Domestic consolidation and centralization" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Umayyad_gold_dinar,_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik,_695_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/First_Umayyad_gold_dinar%2C_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik%2C_695_CE.jpg/180px-First_Umayyad_gold_dinar%2C_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik%2C_695_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1173" data-file-height="1161"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 178px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/First_Umayyad_gold_dinar%2C_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik%2C_695_CE.jpg/180px-First_Umayyad_gold_dinar%2C_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik%2C_695_CE.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/First_Umayyad_gold_dinar%2C_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik%2C_695_CE.jpg/270px-First_Umayyad_gold_dinar%2C_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik%2C_695_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/First_Umayyad_gold_dinar%2C_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik%2C_695_CE.jpg/360px-First_Umayyad_gold_dinar%2C_Caliph_Abd_al-Malik%2C_695_CE.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Abd al-Malik introduced an independent Islamic currency, the <a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">gold dinar</a>, in 693, which originally depicted a human figure, likely the caliph, as shown in this coin minted in 695. In 697, the figural depictions were replaced solely by Qur'anic and other Islamic inscriptions</figcaption></figure> Iraq remained politically unstable and the garrisons of Kufa and Basra had become exhausted by warfare with Kharijite rebels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b76-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200133-86">[84]</a> In 694 Abd al-Malik combined both cities as a single province under the governorship of al-Hajjaj, who oversaw the suppression of the Kharijite revolts in Iraq and Iran by 698 and was subsequently given authority over the rest of the eastern caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201687-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927231-99">[97]</a> Resentment among the Iraqi troops towards al-Hajjaj's methods of governance, particularly his death threats to force participation in the war efforts and his reductions to their stipends, culminated with a mass Iraqi rebellion against the Umayyads in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700. The leader of the rebels was the Kufan nobleman <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Ash%27ath" title="Ibn al-Ash'ath">Ibn al-Ash'ath</a>, grandson of al-Ash'ath ibn Qays.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201687%E2%80%9388-100">[98]</a> Al-Hajjaj defeated Ibn al-Ash'ath's rebels at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dayr_al-Jamajim" title="Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim">Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim</a> in April.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201688-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200134-102">[100]</a> The suppression of the revolt marked the end of the Iraqi muqātila as a military force and the beginning of Syrian military domination of Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b77-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200134-102">[100]</a> Iraqi internal divisions, and the utilization of more disciplined Syrian forces by Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj, voided the Iraqis' attempt to reassert power in the province.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201688-101">[99]</a> To consolidate Umayyad rule after the Second Fitna, the Marwanids launched a series of centralization, <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> measures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201685-104">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200062-105">[103]</a> To prevent further rebellions in Iraq, al-Hajjaj founded a permanent Syrian garrison in <a href="/wiki/Wasit" title="Wasit">Wasit</a>, situated between Kufa and Basra, and instituted a more rigorous administration in the province.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201688-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200134-102">[100]</a> Power thereafter derived from the Syrian troops, who became Iraq's ruling class, while Iraq's Arab nobility, religious scholars and mawālī became their virtual subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201688-101">[99]</a> The surplus from the agriculturally rich <a href="/wiki/Sawad" title="Sawad">Sawad</a> lands was redirected from the muqātila to the caliphal treasury in Damascus to pay the Syrian troops in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200134-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201685-104">[102]</a> The system of military pay established by Umar, which paid stipends to veterans of the earlier Muslim conquests and their descendants, was ended, salaries being restricted to those in active service.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201689-106">[104]</a> The old system was considered a handicap on Abd al-Malik's executive authority and financial ability to reward loyalists in the army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201689-106">[104]</a> Thus, a professional army was established during Abd al-Malik's reign whose salaries derived from tax proceeds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201689-106">[104]</a> In 693, the Byzantine gold <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus</a> was replaced in Syria and Egypt with the <a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">dinar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b77-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199428,_94-107">[105]</a> Initially, the new coinage contained depictions of the caliph as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community and its supreme military commander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199428-108">[106]</a> This image proved no less acceptable to Muslim officialdom and was replaced in 696 or 697 with image-less coinage inscribed with Qur'anic quotes and other Muslim religious formulas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199428,_94-107">[105]</a> In 698/699, similar changes were made to the silver <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirhams</a> issued by the Muslims in the former Sasanian Persian lands of the eastern caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199494-109">[107]</a> Arabic replaced <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Persian</a> as the language of the dīwān in Iraq in 697, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> in the Syrian dīwān in 700, and Greek and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> in the Egyptian dīwān in 705/706.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199428,_94-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200063-110">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuri1965324-111">[109]</a> Arabic ultimately became the sole official language of the Umayyad state,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199494-109">[107]</a> but the transition in faraway provinces, such as Khurasan, did not occur until the 740s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200063%E2%80%9364-112">[110]</a> Although the official language was changed, Greek and Persian-speaking bureaucrats who were versed in Arabic kept their posts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927219%E2%80%93220-113">[111]</a> According to Gibb, the decrees were the "first step towards the reorganization and unification of the diverse tax-systems in the provinces, and also a step towards a more definitely Muslim administration".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b77-103">[101]</a> Indeed, it formed an important part of the Islamization measures that lent the Umayyad Caliphate "a more ideological and programmatic coloring it had previously lacked", according to Blankinship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199495-114">[112]</a> In 691/692, Abd al-Malik completed the <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohns2003424%E2%80%93426-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElad199945-116">[114]</a> It was possibly intended as a monument of victory over the Christians that would distinguish Islam's uniqueness within the common <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic">Abrahamic</a> setting of Jerusalem, home of the two older Abrahamic faiths, Judaism and Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabar1986299-117">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200060-118">[116]</a> An alternative motive may have been to divert the religious focus of Muslims in the Umayyad realm from the Ka'aba in Zubayrid Mecca (683–692), where the Umayyads were routinely condemned during the Hajj.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabar1986299-117">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohns2003425%E2%80%93426-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200060-118">[116]</a> In Damascus, Abd al-Malik's son and successor <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">al-Walid I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 705–715) confiscated the cathedral of <a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">St. John the Baptist</a> and founded the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Great Mosque</a> in its place as a "symbol of the political supremacy and moral prestige of Islam", according to historian Nikita Elisséeff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEliss%C3%A9eff1965801-120">[118]</a> Noting al-Walid's awareness of architecture's propaganda value, historian Robert Hillenbrand calls the Damascus mosque a "victory monument" intended as a "visible statement of Muslim supremacy and permanence".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillenbrand199471%E2%80%9372-121">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renewal_of_conquests">Renewal of conquests</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Renewal of conquests" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">Muslim conquest of Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Hispania">Muslim conquest of Hispania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxiana" title="Muslim conquest of Transoxiana">Muslim conquest of Transoxiana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_campaigns_in_India" title="Umayyad campaigns in India">Umayyad campaigns in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caliphate_750.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Old map of western Eurasia and northern Africa showing the expansion of the Caliphate from Arabia to cover most of the Middle East, with the Byzantine Empire outlined in green" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Caliphate_750.jpg/300px-Caliphate_750.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="250" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="834"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 250px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Caliphate_750.jpg/300px-Caliphate_750.jpg" data-alt="Old map of western Eurasia and northern Africa showing the expansion of the Caliphate from Arabia to cover most of the Middle East, with the Byzantine Empire outlined in green" data-width="300" data-height="250" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Caliphate_750.jpg/450px-Caliphate_750.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Caliphate_750.jpg/600px-Caliphate_750.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The expansion of the Muslim Caliphate until 750, from <a href="/wiki/William_R._Shepherd" class="mw-redirect" title="William R. Shepherd">William R. Shepherd</a>'s Historical Atlas. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style> Muslim state at the death of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"> Expansion under the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"> Expansion under the Umayyad Caliphate <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></div></figcaption></figure> Under al-Walid I the Umayyad Caliphate reached its greatest territorial extent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201690-122">[120]</a> The war with the Byzantines had resumed under his father after the civil war,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b77-103">[101]</a> with the Umayyads defeating the Byzantines at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sebastopolis" title="Battle of Sebastopolis">Battle of Sebastopolis</a> in 692.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b77-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELilie1976110%E2%80%93112-123">[121]</a> The Umayyads frequently raided Byzantine Anatolia and Armenia in the following years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b77-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELilie1976112%E2%80%93116-124">[122]</a> By 705, Armenia was annexed by the caliphate along with the principalities of <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Iberia" title="Principality of Iberia">Iberia</a>, which collectively became the province of <a href="/wiki/Arminiya" title="Arminiya">Arminiya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship1994107-125">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETer-Ghewondyan197620%E2%80%9321-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELilie1976113%E2%80%93115-127">[125]</a> In 695–698 the commander <a href="/wiki/Hassan_ibn_al-Nu%27man_al-Ghassani" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani">Hassan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani</a> restored Umayyad control over Ifriqiya after defeating the Byzantines and Berbers there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi201014-128">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbi1971271-129">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(698)" title="Battle of Carthage (698)">Carthage was captured</a> and destroyed in 698,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b77-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbi1971271-129">[127]</a> signaling "the final, irretrievable end of <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Roman power in Africa</a>", according to Kennedy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2007217-130">[128]</a> Kairouan was firmly secured as a launchpad for later conquests, while the port town of <a href="/wiki/Medina_of_Tunis" title="Medina of Tunis">Tunis</a> was founded and equipped with an arsenal on Abd al-Malik's orders to establish a strong Arab fleet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb1960b77-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbi1971271-129">[127]</a> Hassan ibn al-Nu'man continued the campaign against the Berbers, defeating them and killing their leader, the warrior queen <a href="/wiki/Al-Kahina" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Kahina">al-Kahina</a>, between 698 and 703.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi201014-128">[126]</a> His successor in Ifriqiya, <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a>, subjugated the Berbers of the <a href="/wiki/Hawwara" title="Hawwara">Hawwara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zenata" title="Zenata">Zenata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kutama" title="Kutama">Kutama</a> confederations and advanced into the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> (western North Africa), conquering <a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sous" title="Sous">Sus</a> in 708/709. Musa's Berber <a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">mawla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a>, invaded the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Hispania</a> (the Iberian Peninsula) in 711 and within five years most of <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Hispania was conquered</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201690-122">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEL%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al1993643-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi201015-132">[130]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_(possibly_Multan)_mint._Dated_AH_97_(AD_715-6).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_%28possibly_Multan%29_mint._Dated_AH_97_%28AD_715-6%29.jpg/300px-Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_%28possibly_Multan%29_mint._Dated_AH_97_%28AD_715-6%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="827" data-file-height="406"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_%28possibly_Multan%29_mint._Dated_AH_97_%28AD_715-6%29.jpg/300px-Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_%28possibly_Multan%29_mint._Dated_AH_97_%28AD_715-6%29.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_%28possibly_Multan%29_mint._Dated_AH_97_%28AD_715-6%29.jpg/450px-Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_%28possibly_Multan%29_mint._Dated_AH_97_%28AD_715-6%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_%28possibly_Multan%29_mint._Dated_AH_97_%28AD_715-6%29.jpg/600px-Umayyad_Caliphate_coinage_temp_Suleiman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_%28possibly_Multan%29_mint._Dated_AH_97_%28AD_715-6%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Umayyad coinage in India, from the time of the first <a href="/wiki/Caliphal_province_of_Sind" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphal province of Sind">Governor of Sind</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Qasim">Muhammad ibn Qasim</a>. Minted in India "<a href="/wiki/Al-Hind" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hind">al-Hind</a>" (possibly in the city of <a href="/wiki/Multan" title="Multan">Multan</a>), dated AH 97 (715–716 CE): obverse circular legend "in the name of Allah, struck this dirham in <a href="/wiki/Al-Hind" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hind">al-Hind</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_%28detail%29.jpg/20px-India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="301"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20px;height: 14px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_%28detail%29.jpg/20px-India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_%28detail%29.jpg" data-width="20" data-height="14" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_%28detail%29.jpg/30px-India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_%28detail%29.jpg/40px-India_in_Abd_al-Malik_al-Hind_coin_715_CE_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" class="extiw" title="ary:لهند">لهند</a> l'Hind) in the year seven and ninety".</figcaption></figure> Al-Hajjaj managed the eastern expansion from Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2002127-133">[131]</a> His lieutenant governor of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslim" title="Qutayba ibn Muslim">Qutayba ibn Muslim</a>, launched numerous campaigns against <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> (Central Asia), which had been a largely impenetrable region for earlier Muslim armies, between 705 and 715.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2002127-133">[131]</a> Despite the distance from the Arab garrison towns of Khurasan, the unfavorable terrain and climate and his enemies' numerical superiority,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927438-134">[132]</a> Qutayba, through his persistent raids, gained the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> in 706–709, <a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Khwarazm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> in 711–712 and <a href="/wiki/Farghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Farghana">Farghana</a> in 713.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2002127-133">[131]</a> He established Arab garrisons and tax administrations in Samarkand and Bukhara and demolished their <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple">fire temples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927437%E2%80%93438-135">[133]</a> Both cities developed as future centers of Islamic and Arabic learning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927438-134">[132]</a> Umayyad suzerainty was secured over the rest of conquered Transoxiana through tributary alliances with local rulers, whose power remained intact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201690%E2%80%9391-136">[134]</a> From 708/709, al-Hajjaj's kinsman <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_al-Qasim_al-Thaqafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi">Muhammad ibn al-Qasim</a> conquered northwestern South Asia and established out of this new territory the <a href="/wiki/Sind_(caliphal_province)" title="Sind (caliphal province)">province of Sind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDietrich197141-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201691-138">[136]</a> The massive war spoils netted by the conquests of Transoxiana, Sind and Hispania were comparable to the amounts accrued in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> during the reign of Caliph Umar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199482-139">[137]</a> Al-Walid I's successor, his brother <a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik">Sulayman</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 715–717), continued his predecessors' <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarist</a> policies, but expansion mostly ground to a halt during his reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEisener1997821-140">[138]</a> The deaths of al-Hajjaj in 714 and Qutayba in 715 left the Arab armies in Transoxiana in disarray. For the next 25 years, no further eastward conquests were undertaken and the Arabs lost territory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb192354-141">[139]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang Chinese</a> defeated the Arabs at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aksu_(717)" title="Battle of Aksu (717)">Battle of Aksu</a> in 717, forcing their withdrawal to <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith199388%E2%80%9389-142">[140]</a> Meanwhile, in 716, the governor of Khurasan, <a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_al-Muhallab" title="Yazid ibn al-Muhallab">Yazid ibn al-Muhallab</a>, attempted to conquer the principalities of <a href="/wiki/Jurjan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurjan">Jurjan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a> along the southern <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian</a> coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975198%E2%80%93199-143">[141]</a> His Khurasani and Iraqi troops were reinforced by Syrians, marking their first deployment to Khurasan, but the Arabs' initial successes were reversed by the local Iranian coalition of <a href="/wiki/Farrukhan_the_Great" title="Farrukhan the Great">Farrukhan the Great</a>. Afterward, the Arabs withdrew in return for a tributary agreement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1993-144">[142]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Medieval illustration showing cavalry sallying from a city and routing an enemy army" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg/220px-47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1120"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg/220px-47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg" data-alt="Medieval illustration showing cavalry sallying from a city and routing an enemy army" data-width="220" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg/330px-47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg/440px-47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A 14th-century illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">siege of Constantinople</a></figcaption></figure> On the Byzantine front, Sulayman took up his predecessor's project to capture Constantinople with increased vigor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997344-145">[143]</a> His brother <a href="/wiki/Maslama_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik">Maslama</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">besieged the Byzantine capital</a> from the land,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers198939%E2%80%9340-146">[144]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Hubayra_al-Fazari" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari">Umar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari</a> launched a naval campaign against the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEisener1997821-140">[138]</a> The Byzantines destroyed the Umayyad fleets and defeated Maslama's army, prompting his withdrawal to Syria in 718.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997347%E2%80%93348-147">[145]</a> The massive losses incurred during the campaign led to a partial retrenchment of Umayyad forces from the captured Byzantine frontier districts,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199433%E2%80%9334-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELilie1976132%E2%80%93133-149">[147]</a> but already in 720, Umayyad raids against Byzantium recommenced. Nevertheless, the goal of conquering Constantinople was effectively abandoned, and the frontier between the two empires stabilized along the line of the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Taurus_Mountains" title="Anti-Taurus Mountains">Anti-Taurus Mountains</a>, over which both sides continued to launch regular raids and counter-raids during the next centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship1994117%E2%80%93121-150">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELilie1976143%E2%80%93144,_158%E2%80%93162-151">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caliphate_of_Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz">Caliphate of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Caliphate of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Contrary to expectations of a son or brother succeeding him, Sulayman had nominated his cousin, <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz" title="Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a>, as his successor and he took office in 717. After the Arabs' severe losses in the offensive against Constantinople, Umar drew down Arab forces on the caliphate's war fronts, though <a href="/wiki/Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a> in modern France was conquered during his reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2000821-152">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199433%E2%80%9334-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927268%E2%80%93269-153">[151]</a> To maintain stronger oversight in the provinces, Umar dismissed all his predecessors' governors, his new appointees being generally competent men he could control. To that end, the massive viceroyalty of Iraq and the east was broken up.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2000821-152">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004106-154">[152]</a> Umar's most significant policy entailed fiscal reforms to equalize the status of the Arabs and mawali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199431-155">[153]</a> thus remedying a long-standing issue which threatened the Muslim community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004107-156">[154]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> (poll tax) on the mawali was eliminated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200077-157">[155]</a> Hitherto, the jizya, which was traditionally reserved for the non-Muslim majorities of the caliphate, continued to be imposed on non-Arab converts to Islam, while all Muslims who cultivated conquered lands were liable to pay the kharaj (land tax). Since avoidance of taxation incentivized both mass conversions to Islam and abandonment of land for migration to the garrison cities, it put a strain on tax revenues, especially in Egypt, Iraq and Khurasan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200077%E2%80%9379-158">[156]</a> Thus, "the Umayyad rulers had a vested interest in preventing the conquered peoples from accepting Islam or forcing them to continue paying those taxes from which they claimed exemption as Muslims", according to Hawting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200078-159">[157]</a> To prevent a collapse in revenue, the converts' lands would become the property of their villages and remain liable for the full rate of the kharaj.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004107-156">[154]</a> In tandem, Umar intensified the Islamization drive of his Marwanid predecessors, enacting measures to distinguish Muslims from non-Muslims and inaugurating Islamic <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclasm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199432-160">[158]</a> His position among the Umayyad caliphs is unusual, in that he became the only one to have been recognized in subsequent Islamic tradition as a genuine caliph (khalifa) and not merely as a worldly king (malik).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2002107-161">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Marwanid_period">Late Marwanid period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Late Marwanid period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> After the death of Umar II, another son of Abd al-Malik, <a href="/wiki/Yazid_II" title="Yazid II">Yazid II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 720–724) became caliph. Not long after his accession, another mass revolt against Umayyad rule was staged in Iraq, this time by the prominent statesman <a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_al-Muhallab" title="Yazid ibn al-Muhallab">Yazid ibn al-Muhallab</a>. The latter declared a holy war against the Umayyads, took control of Basra and Wasit and gained the support of the Kufan elite. The caliph's Syrian army defeated the rebels and pursued and nearly eliminated the influential <a href="/wiki/Muhallabid" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhallabid">Muhallabids</a>, marking the suppression of the last major Iraqi revolt against the Umayyads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen1927313%E2%80%93318-162">[160]</a> Yazid II reversed Umar II's equalization reforms, reimposing the jizya on the mawali, which sparked revolts in Khurasan in 721 or 722 that persisted for some twenty years and met strong resistance among the Berbers of Ifriqiya, where the Umayyad governor was assassinated by his discontented Berber guards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELammensBlankinship2002311-163">[161]</a> Warfare on the frontiers was also resumed, with renewed annual raids against the Byzantines and the <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a> in <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship199487-164">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caliphate_of_Hisham_and_end_of_expansion">Caliphate of Hisham and end of expansion</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Caliphate of Hisham and end of expansion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Resafa,_Sergiopolis_3,_Syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Resafa%2C_Sergiopolis_3%2C_Syria.jpg/220px-Resafa%2C_Sergiopolis_3%2C_Syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Resafa%2C_Sergiopolis_3%2C_Syria.jpg/220px-Resafa%2C_Sergiopolis_3%2C_Syria.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Resafa%2C_Sergiopolis_3%2C_Syria.jpg/330px-Resafa%2C_Sergiopolis_3%2C_Syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Resafa%2C_Sergiopolis_3%2C_Syria.jpg/440px-Resafa%2C_Sergiopolis_3%2C_Syria.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The city of <a href="/wiki/Resafa" title="Resafa">Resafa</a>, site of Hisham's palace and court</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/220px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2219"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 241px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/220px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="241" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/330px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/440px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Musicians and hunting cavalier, circa 730 CE. Floor fresco from Hisham's <a href="/wiki/Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Gharbi" title="Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi">Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi</a>, Syria. National Museum, Damascus.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a></figcaption></figure> The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph was <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 724–743), whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion. Hisham established his court at <a href="/wiki/Resafa" title="Resafa">Resafa</a> in northern Syria, which was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids into <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, but also in a major defeat (the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Akroinon" title="Battle of Akroinon">Battle of Akroinon</a>), and did not lead to any significant territorial expansion. From the caliphate's north-western African bases, a series of raids on coastal areas of the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> paved the way to the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">permanent occupation of most of Iberia</a> by the Umayyads (starting in 711), and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_invasion_of_Gaul" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic invasion of Gaul">on into south-eastern Gaul</a> (last stronghold at Narbonne in 759). Hisham's reign witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> in 732. Arab expansion had already been limited following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Toulouse_(721)" title="Battle of Toulouse (721)">Battle of Toulouse</a> in 721. In 739 a major <a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a> broke out in North Africa, which was probably the largest military setback in the reign of Caliph Hisham. From it emerged some of the first Muslim states outside the caliphate. It is also regarded as the beginning of Moroccan independence, as <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> would never again come under the rule of an eastern caliph or any other foreign power until the 20th century. It was followed by the collapse of Umayyad authority in al-Andalus. In <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, the Umayyad armies were defeated by the south Indian <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya dynasty</a> and by the north Indian <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Pratiharas</a>, stagnating further eastward Arab expansion.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caliphate_740-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caliphate_740-en.svg/300px-Caliphate_740-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3516" data-file-height="1904"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 162px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caliphate_740-en.svg/300px-Caliphate_740-en.svg.png" data-width="300" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caliphate_740-en.svg/450px-Caliphate_740-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caliphate_740-en.svg/600px-Caliphate_740-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Umayyad Caliphate in 740 CE</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab–Khazar Wars">confrontation</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a> peaked under Hisham: the Arabs established <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a> as a major military base and launched several invasions of the northern Caucasus, but failed to subdue the nomadic Khazars. The conflict was arduous and bloody, and the Arab army even suffered a major defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_Ardabil" title="Battle of Marj Ardabil">Battle of Marj Ardabil</a> in 730. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the future Marwan II, finally ended the war in 737 with a massive invasion that is reported to have reached as far as the <a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a>, but the Khazars remained unsubdued. Hisham suffered still worse defeats in the east, where his armies attempted to subdue both <a href="/wiki/Tokharistan" title="Tokharistan">Tokharistan</a>, with its centre at <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, with its centre at <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>. Both areas had already been partially conquered but remained difficult to govern. Once again, a particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs, especially the <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdians</a> of Transoxiana. Following the Umayyad defeat in the "<a href="/wiki/Day_of_Thirst" title="Day of Thirst">Day of Thirst</a>" in 724, Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al-Sulami, governor of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a>, promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues. Discontent among the Khorasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Defile" title="Battle of the Defile">Battle of the Defile</a> in 731. In 734, <a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Surayj" title="Al-Harith ibn Surayj">al-Harith ibn Surayj</a> led a revolt that received broad backing from Arabs and natives alike, capturing Balkh but failing to take <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>. After this defeat, al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved. The problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_Fitna">Third Fitna</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Third Fitna" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Fitna" title="Third Fitna">Third Fitna</a></div> Hisham was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_II" title="Al-Walid II">Al-Walid II</a> (743–744), the son of Yazid II. Al-Walid is reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion, a reputation that may be confirmed by the decoration of the so-called "desert palaces" (including <a href="/wiki/Qasr_Amra" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasr Amra">Qusayr Amra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khirbat_al-Mafjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Khirbat al-Mafjar">Khirbat al-Mafjar</a>) that have been attributed to him. He quickly attracted the enmity of many, both by executing a number of those who had opposed his accession and by persecuting the <a href="/wiki/Al-Qadariyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qadariyya">Qadariyya</a>. In 744, <a href="/wiki/Yazid_III" title="Yazid III">Yazid III</a>, a son of al-Walid I, was proclaimed caliph in Damascus, and his army tracked down and killed al-Walid II. Yazid III has received a certain reputation for piety and may have been sympathetic to the Qadariyya. He died a mere six months into his reign. Yazid had appointed his brother, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_of_Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrahim of Umayyad">Ibrahim</a>, as his successor, but <a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a> (744–750), the grandson of Marwan I, led an army from the northern frontier and entered Damascus in December 744, where he was proclaimed caliph. Marwan immediately moved the capital north to <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. A rebellion soon broke out in Syria, perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital, and in 746 Marwan razed the walls of <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> and Damascus in retaliation. Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran, who put forth first <a href="/wiki/Al-Dahhak_ibn_Qays_al-Shaybani" title="Al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Shaybani">Dahhak ibn Qays</a> and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs. In 747, Marwan managed to reestablish control of Iraq, but by this time a more serious threat had arisen in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abbasid_Revolution_and_fall">Abbasid Revolution and fall</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Abbasid Revolution and fall" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Revolt.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Revolt.png/300px-Revolt.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1507" data-file-height="945"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Revolt.png/300px-Revolt.png" data-width="300" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Revolt.png/450px-Revolt.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Revolt.png/600px-Revolt.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The caliphate at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> revolt, before the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">Battle of the Zab</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Hashimiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashimiyya">Hashimiyya</a> movement (a sub-sect of the <a href="/wiki/Kaysanites_Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaysanites Shia">Kaysanites Shia</a>), led by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> family, overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were members of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Hashim</a> clan, rivals of the Umayyads, but the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim, a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family, and before dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of <a href="/wiki/Mukhtar" title="Mukhtar">Mukhtar</a>, who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. Beginning around 719, Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan. Their campaign was framed as one of proselytism (<a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">dawah</a>). They sought support for a "member of the family" of Muhammad, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non-Arabs (<a href="/wiki/Mawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawali">mawali</a>), although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement. Around 746, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a> assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. In 747, he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Standard" title="Black Standard">black flag</a>. He soon established control of Khurasan, expelling its Umayyad governor, <a href="/wiki/Nasr_ibn_Sayyar" title="Nasr ibn Sayyar">Nasr ibn Sayyar</a>, and dispatched an army westwards. Kufa fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, the last Umayyad stronghold in Iraq, <a href="/wiki/Wasit" title="Wasit">Wasit</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Wasit" title="Siege of Wasit">placed under siege</a>, and in November of the same year <a href="/wiki/As-Saffah" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Saffah">Abul Abbas as-Saffah</a> was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January 750 the two forces met in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">Battle of the Zab</a>, and the Umayyads were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August, Marwan was killed in Egypt.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some Umayyads in Syria continued to resist the takeover. The Umayyad princes <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muhammad_al-Sufyani" title="Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani">Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani</a>, al-Abbas ibn Muhammad, and Hashim ibn Yazid launched revolts in Syria and the Islamic–Byzantine frontier around late 750, but they were defeated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb200147%E2%80%9350-169">[167]</a> The victors desecrated the tombs of the Umayyads in Syria, sparing only that of <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar II</a>, and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered to receive pardons, and all were massacred. One grandson of Hisham, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a>, survived, escaped across North Africa, and established an emirate in <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>). In a claim unrecognized outside of al-Andalus, he maintained that the Umayyad Caliphate, the true, authentic caliphate, more legitimate than the Abbasids, was continued through him in <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a>. It was to survive for centuries. Some Umayyads also survived in Syria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb200143-170">[168]</a> and their descendants would once more attempt to restore their old regime during the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">Fourth Fitna</a>. Two Umayyads, <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Umaytir_al-Sufyani" title="Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani">Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani</a> and Maslama ibn Ya'qub, successively seized control of Damascus from 811 to 813, and declared themselves caliphs. However, their rebellions were suppressed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb200156%E2%80%9361-171">[169]</a> Previté-Orton argues that the reason for the decline of the Umayyads was the rapid expansion of Islam. During the Umayyad period, mass conversions brought Persians, Berbers, Copts, and Aramaic to Islam. These mawalis (clients) were often better educated and more civilised than their Arab overlords. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Previté-Orton also argues that the feud between Syria and Iraq further weakened the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrevit%C3%A9-Orton1971vol._1,_p._239-172">[170]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Administration">Administration</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Administration" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> The first four caliphs created a stable administration for the empire, following the practices and administrative institutions of the Byzantine Empire which had ruled the same region previously.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> These consisted of four main governmental branches: political affairs, military affairs, tax collection, and religious administration. Each of these was further subdivided into more branches, offices, and departments. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provinces">Provinces</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Provinces" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchsenwald200457-174">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_workers">Government workers</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Government workers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> As the empire grew, the number of qualified Arab workers was too small to keep up with the rapid expansion of the empire. Therefore, Muawiya allowed many of the local government workers in conquered provinces to keep their jobs under the new Umayyad government. Thus, much of the local government's work was recorded in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>. It was only during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a> that government work began to be regularly recorded in Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchsenwald200457-174">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Military" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Umayyad army was mainly Arab, with its core consisting of those who had settled in urban Syria and the Arab tribes who originally served in the army of the Eastern Roman Empire in Syria. These were supported by tribes in the Syrian desert and in the frontier with the Byzantines, as well as Christian Syrian tribes. Soldiers were registered with the Army Ministry, the Diwan Al-Jaysh, and were salaried. The army was divided into junds based on regional fortified cities.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> The Umayyad Syrian forces specialised in close order infantry warfare, and favoured using a kneeling spear wall formation in battle, probably as a result of their encounters with Roman armies. This was radically different from the original Bedouin style of mobile and individualistic fighting.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2007a-177">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage">Coinage</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Coinage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires relied on money economies before the Muslim conquest and that system remained in effect during the Umayyad period. <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" title="Byzantine coinage">Byzantine coinage</a> was used until 658; Byzantine gold coins were still in use until the monetary reforms <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanchez2015324-178">[176]</a> In addition to this, the Umayyad government began to mint its own coins in Damascus, which were initially similar to pre-existing coins but evolved in an independent direction. These were the first coins minted by a Muslim government in history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchsenwald200457-174">[172]</a> Early Islamic coins re-used Byzantine and Sasanian iconography directly but added new Islamic elements.<a href="#cite_note-:0-179">[177]</a> So-called "Arab-Byzantine" coins replicated Byzantine coins and were minted in Levantine cities before and after the Umayyads rose to power.<a href="#cite_note-:1-180">[178]</a> Some examples of these coins, likely minted in Damascus, copied the coins of Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>, including a depiction of the emperor and his son <a href="/wiki/Heraclius_Constantine" title="Heraclius Constantine">Heraclius Constantine</a>. On the reverse side, the traditional Byzantine cross-on-steps image was modified to avoid any explicitly non-Islamic connotation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-179">[177]</a> In the 690s, under Abd al-Malik's reign, a new period of experimentations began.<a href="#cite_note-:0-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-181">[179]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Sasanian_coinage" title="Arab–Sasanian coinage">"Arab-Sasanian" coins</a> dated between 692 and 696, associated with the mints in Iraq under governor <a href="/wiki/Bishr_ibn_Marwan" title="Bishr ibn Marwan">Bishr ibn Marwan</a>, stopped using the Sasanian image of the <a href="/wiki/Fire_altar" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire altar">fire altar</a> and replaced it with three male figures standing in Arab dress. This was possibly an attempt to depict the act of Muslim prayer or the delivery of the <a href="/wiki/Khutbah" title="Khutbah">khutba</a> (Friday sermon).<a href="#cite_note-:2-181">[179]</a> Another coin minted probably between 695 and 698 features the image of a spear under an arch. This has been variously interpreted as representing a <a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</a> or a "sacral arch", the latter being a late antique motif. The spear is believed to be the spear ('anaza) that Muhammad carried before him when entering the mosque.<a href="#cite_note-:2-181">[179]</a> Between 696 and 699, the caliph introduced a new system of coinage of gold, silver, and bronze.<a href="#cite_note-:0-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-180">[178]</a> The coins generally featured Arabic inscriptions without any images, ending the earlier iconographic traditions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-180">[178]</a> The main gold unit was the <a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">dinar</a> (from Roman <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a>), which was worth 20 silver coins. It was most likely modeled on the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-180">[178]</a> The silver coin was called a <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirham</a> (from Greek <a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">drachma</a>). Its size and shape was based on <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_coins" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian coins">Sasanian coins</a> and they were minted in much larger quantities than in the earlier Byzantine era.<a href="#cite_note-:1-180">[178]</a> The bronze coin was called a <a href="/wiki/Fals" title="Fals">fals or fulus</a> (from Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Follis" title="Follis">follis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:1-180">[178]</a> One group of bronze coins from Palestine,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood200189_(see_footnote_146)-182">[180]</a> dated after the coinage reform of the late 690s, features the image of a seven-branched <a href="/wiki/Menorahs" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorahs">menorah</a> and then later of a five-branched menorah, topped by an Arabic inscription of the <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">shahada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-179">[177]</a> These images may have been based on Christian representations of the menorah<a href="#cite_note-:0-179">[177]</a> or on earlier <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean</a> models.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood200189_(see_footnote_146)-182">[180]</a> The switch to a five-branched version may have been intended to further differentiate this depiction from Jewish and Christian versions.<a href="#cite_note-:0-179">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_diwans">Central diwans</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Central diwans" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Special:EditPage/Umayyad Caliphate">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (March 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> To assist the caliph in administration there were six boards at the centre: Diwan al-Kharaj (the Board of Revenue), Diwan al-Rasa'il (the Board of Correspondence), Diwan al-Khatam (the Board of Signet), Diwan al-Barid (the Board of Posts), Diwan al-Qudat (the Board of Justice) and Diwan al-Jund (the Military Board). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diwan_al-Kharaj">Diwan al-Kharaj</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Diwan al-Kharaj" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Central Board of Revenue administered the entire finances of the empire. It also imposed and collected taxes and disbursed revenue. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diwan_al-Rasa'il">Diwan al-Rasa'il</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Diwan al-Rasa'il" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A regular Board of Correspondence was established under the Umayyads. It issued state missives and circulars to the Central and Provincial Officers. It coordinated the work of all Boards and dealt with all correspondence as the chief secretariat. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diwan_al-Khatam">Diwan al-Khatam</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Diwan al-Khatam" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In order to reduce forgery, Diwan al-Khatam (Bureau of Registry), a kind of state chancellery, was instituted by Mu'awiyah. It used to make and preserve a copy of each official document before sealing and despatching the original to its destination. Thus in the course of time a state archive developed in Damascus by the Umayyads under Abd al-Malik. This department survived till the middle of the Abbasid period. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diwan_al-Barid">Diwan al-Barid</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Diwan al-Barid" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Barid" title="Barid">Barid</a></div> Mu'awiyah introduced the postal service, Abd al-Malik extended it throughout his empire, and Walid made full use of it. Umar bin Abdul-Aziz developed it further by building <a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">caravanserais</a> at stages along the Khurasan highway. Relays of horses were used for the conveyance of dispatches between the caliph and his agents and officials posted in the provinces. The main highways were divided into stages of 12 miles (19 km) each and each stage had horses, donkeys, or camels ready to carry the post. Primarily the service met the needs of government officials, but travellers and their important dispatches were also benefited by the system. The postal carriages were also used for the swift transport of troops. They were able to carry fifty to a hundred men at a time. Under governor <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Umar_al-Thaqafi" title="Yusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi">Yusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi</a>, the postal department of Iraq cost 4,000,000 dirhams a year. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diwan_al-Qudat">Diwan al-Qudat</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Diwan al-Qudat" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the early period of Islam, justice was administered by Muhammad and the orthodox caliphs in person. After the expansion of the Islamic State, Umar al-Faruq had to separate the judiciary from the general administration and appointed the first qadi in Egypt as early as AD 643/23 AH. After 661, a series of judges served in Egypt during the caliphates of Hisham and Walid II. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diwan_al-Jund">Diwan al-Jund</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Diwan al-Jund" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Diwan of Umar, assigning annuities to all Arabs and to the Muslim soldiers of other races, underwent a change in the hands of the Umayyads. The Umayyads meddled with the register and the recipients regarded pensions as the subsistence allowance even without being in active service. Hisham reformed it and paid only to those who participated in the battle. On the pattern of the Byzantine system, the Umayyads reformed their army organization in general and divided it into five corps: the centre, two wings, vanguards, and rearguards, following the same formation while on the march or on a battlefield. Marwan II (740–50) abandoned the old division and introduced the Kurdus (cohort), a small compact body. The Umayyad troops were divided into three divisions: infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Arab troops were dressed and armed in Greek fashion. The Umayyad cavalry used plain and round saddles. The artillery used the arradah (ballista), the manjaniq (mangonel), and the dabbabah or kabsh (battering ram). The heavy engines, siege machines, and baggage were carried on camels behind the army. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Social_organization">Social organization</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Social organization" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Humeima_ivory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Humeima_ivory.jpg/220px-Humeima_ivory.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="328" data-file-height="376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 252px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Humeima_ivory.jpg/220px-Humeima_ivory.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="252" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Humeima_ivory.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ivory (circa 8th century) discovered in the Abbasid homestead in Humeima, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>. The style indicates an origin in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, the base of Hashimiyya military power.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a></figcaption></figure> The Umayyad Caliphate had four main social classes: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Arab">Muslim Arabs</a></li> <li>Muslim non-Arabs (clients of the Muslim Arabs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmis</a> (non-Muslim free persons such as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slaves</a></li></ol> The Muslim Arabs were at the top of the society and saw it as their duty to rule over the conquered areas. The Arab Muslims held themselves in higher esteem than Muslim non-Arabs and generally did not mix with other Muslims. As Islam spread, more and more of the Muslim population consisted of non-Arabs. This caused social unrest, as the new converts were not given the same rights as Muslim Arabs. Also, as conversions increased, tax revenues (peasant tax) from non-Muslims decreased to dangerous lows. These issues continued to worsen until they helped cause the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolt">Abbasid Revolt</a> in the 740s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchsenwald200455%E2%80%9356-184">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Muslims">Non-Muslims</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Non-Muslims" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Non-Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate, which included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and <a href="/wiki/Paganism#Islam_in_Arabia" title="Paganism">pagans</a>, were called <a href="/wiki/Dhimmis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhimmis">dhimmis</a>. They were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens as long as they accepted and acknowledged the political supremacy of the ruling Muslims. More specifically, non-Muslims had to pay a tax, known as <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, which the Muslims did not have to pay; Muslims would instead pay the <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a> tax. If non-Muslims converted to Islam, they would cease paying jizya and would instead pay zakat. Although the Umayyads were harsh when it came to defeating their Zoroastrian adversaries,<a href="#cite_note-ibid1-185">[183]</a> they did offer protection and relative religious tolerance to the Zoroastrians who accepted their authority.<a href="#cite_note-ibid1-185">[183]</a> As a matter of fact, <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar II</a> was reported to have said in one of his letters commanding not to "destroy a synagogue or a church or temple of fire worshippers (meaning the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrians">Zoroastrians</a>) as long as they have reconciled with and agreed upon with the Muslims".<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Fred Donner</a> says that Zoroastrians in the northern parts of Iran were hardly penetrated by the "believers", winning virtually complete autonomy in-return for tribute-tax or jizyah.<a href="#cite_note-ibid2-187">[185]</a> Donner adds "Zoroastrians continued to exist in large numbers in northern and western Iran and elsewhere for centuries after the rise of Islam, and indeed, much of the canon of Zoroastrian religious texts was elaborated and written down during the Islamic period."<a href="#cite_note-ibid2-187">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> and Jews still continued to produce great theological thinkers within their communities, but as time wore on, many of the intellectuals converted to Islam, leading to a lack of great thinkers in the non-Muslim communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchsenwald200456-188">[186]</a> Important Christian writers from the Umayyad period include the theologian <a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a>, bishop <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_of_Maiuma" title="Cosmas of Maiuma">Cosmas of Maiuma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benjamin_I_of_Alexandria" title="Pope Benjamin I of Alexandria">Pope Benjamin I of Alexandria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_of_Nineveh" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac of Nineveh">Isaac of Nineveh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PMBZ-189">[187]</a> Although non-Muslims could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they held many bureaucratic positions within the government. An important example of Christian employment in the Umayyad government is that of <a href="/wiki/Sarjun_ibn_Mansur" title="Sarjun ibn Mansur">Sarjun ibn Mansur</a>. He was a <a href="/wiki/Melkite" title="Melkite">Melkite</a> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> official of the early Umayyad Caliphate. The son of a prominent <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> official of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, he was a favourite of the early Umayyad caliphs <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yazid I</a>, and served as the head of the fiscal administration for <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a> from the mid-7th century until the year 700, when Caliph <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a> dismissed him as part of his efforts to Arabicize the administration of the caliphate. According to the Muslim historians <a href="/wiki/Al-Baladhuri" title="Al-Baladhuri">al-Baladhuri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>, Sarjun was a <a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">mawla</a> of the first <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> caliph, <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 661–680),<a href="#cite_note-191">[b]</a> serving as his "secretary and the person in charge of his business".<a href="#cite_note-PMBZ-189">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony1987216-192">[189]</a> The hagiographies, although less reliable, also assign to him a role in the administration, even as "ruler" (<a href="/wiki/Archon" title="Archon">archon</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Amir" class="mw-redirect" title="Amir">amir</a>), of Damascus and its environs, where he was responsible for collecting the revenue.<a href="#cite_note-PMBZ-189">[187]</a> In this capacity, he is attested in later collections of source material such as that of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mas%27udi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mas'udi">al-Mas'udi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith201631-190">[188]</a> Sarjun ibn Mansur was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_Sa%27d_al-Khushani" title="Sulayman ibn Sa'd al-Khushani">Sulayman ibn Sa'd al-Khushani</a>, another Christian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESprengling1939213-193">[190]</a> Muawiya's marriage to <a href="/wiki/Maysun_bint_Bahdal" title="Maysun bint Bahdal">Maysun bint Bahdal</a> (Yazid's mother) was politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of the <a href="/wiki/Kalb" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalb">Kalb</a> tribe, which was a large <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Orthodox Christian">Syriac Orthodox Christian</a> Arab tribe in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman199972-194">[191]</a> The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1993265-47">[46]</a> After the plague that killed much of the Muslim army in Syria, by marrying Maysun, Muawiyah used the Syriac Orthodox Christians against the Byzantines. Tom Holland writes that Christians, Jews, <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manichaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Manichaeans">Manichaeans</a> were all treated well by Muawiyah.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2013402-195">[192]</a> Muawiyah even restored Edessa's cathedral after it had been toppled by an earthquake.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2013406-196">[193]</a> Holland also writes that, "Savagely though Muawiyah prosecuted his wars against the Romans, yet his subjects, no longer trampled by rival armies, no longer divided by hostile watchtowers, knew only peace at last. Justice flourished in his time, and there was great peace in the regions under his control. He allowed everyone to live as they wanted."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2013402-195">[192]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Architecture" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad architecture</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damascus,_Syria,_The_Umayyad_Mosque,_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg/240px-Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 240px;height: 180px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg/240px-Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg" data-width="240" data-height="180" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg/360px-Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg/480px-Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Great Mosque or Umayyad Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> was constructed on the orders of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a>, begun <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 705 and completed shortly after his death in 715.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood20012-197">[194]</a></figcaption></figure> The Umayyads constructed grand <a href="/wiki/Congregational_mosque" title="Congregational mosque">congregational mosques</a> and palaces within their empire. Most of their surviving monuments are located in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> region, their main base of power. They also continued the existing Muslim policy of building new garrison cities (<a href="/wiki/Amsar" title="Amsar">amsar</a>) in their provinces that served as bases for further expansion.<a href="#cite_note-:16-198">[195]</a> Their most famous constructions include the <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Mosque of Damascus">Great Mosque of Damascus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrevit%C3%A9-Orton1971236-199">[196]</a> while other constructions include the so-called <a href="/wiki/Desert_castles" title="Desert castles">desert palaces</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Khirbat_al-Mafjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Khirbat al-Mafjar">Khirbat al-Majfar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qusayr_%27Amra" title="Qusayr 'Amra">Qusayr 'Amra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:16-198">[195]</a> Among these projects, the construction of the Great Mosque in Damascus reflected the diversity of the empire, as Greek, Persian, Coptic, Indian and Maghrebi craftsmen were recruited to build it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood20012%E2%80%933-200">[197]</a> Under Umayyad patronage, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a> was derived from established <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Sasanian</a> architectural traditions, but it also innovated by combining elements of these styles together, experimenting with new building types, and implementing lavish decorative programs.<a href="#cite_note-:16-198">[195]</a> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_mosaics" title="Byzantine mosaics">Byzantine-style mosaics</a> are prominently featured in both the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus, but the lack of human figures in their imagery was a new trait that demonstrates an Islamic <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam" title="Aniconism in Islam">taboo on figural representation</a> in religious art. Palaces were decorated with floor <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescoes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> carving, and some of these included representations of human figures and animals.<a href="#cite_note-:16-198">[195]</a> Umayyad architecture was thus an important transitional period during which early Islamic architecture and visual culture began to develop its own distinct identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood200122%E2%80%9324-201">[198]</a> The later offshoot of the Umayyad dynasty in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, which ruled the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, also undertook major architectural projects in the Iberian Peninsula such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Mosque of Córdoba">Great Mosque of Córdoba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madinat_al-Zahra" title="Madinat al-Zahra">Madinat al-Zahra</a>, which influenced later <a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">architecture in the western Islamic world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Legacy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png/300px-Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="166" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1304" data-file-height="720"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 166px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png/300px-Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png" data-width="300" data-height="166" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png/450px-Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png/600px-Age-of-caliphs-xtra-space.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of the caliphate's expansion <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750</div></figcaption></figure> The Umayyad caliphate was marked both by territorial expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that such expansion created. Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads tended to favor the rights of the old Arab families, and in particular their own, over those of newly converted Muslims (mawali). Therefore, they held to a less universalist conception of Islam than did many of their rivals. As G.R. Hawting has written, "Islam was in fact regarded as the property of the conquering aristocracy."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting20004-203">[200]</a> During the period of the Umayyads, Arabic became the administrative language and the process of <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> was initiated in the Levant, Mesopotamia, North Africa, and Iberia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus201450-204">[201]</a> State documents and currency were issued in Arabic. Mass conversions also created a growing population of Muslims in the territory of the caliphate. According to one common view, the Umayyads transformed the caliphate from a religious institution (during the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun caliphate</a>) to a dynastic one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrevit%C3%A9-Orton1971236-199">[196]</a> However, the Umayyad caliphs do seem to have understood themselves as the representatives of God on earth, and to have been responsible for the "definition and elaboration of God's ordinances, or in other words the definition or elaboration of Islamic law."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroneHinds198643-205">[202]</a> The Umayyads have met with a largely negative reception from later Islamic historians, who have accused them of promoting a kingship (mulk, a term with connotations of tyranny) instead of a true caliphate (khilafa). In this respect it is notable that the Umayyad caliphs referred to themselves not as khalifat rasul Allah ("successor of the messenger of God", the title preferred by the tradition), but rather as khalifat Allah ("deputy of God"). The distinction seems to indicate that the Umayyads "regarded themselves as God's representatives at the head of the community and saw no need to share their religious power with, or delegate it to, the emergent class of religious scholars."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawting200013-206">[203]</a> In fact, it was precisely this class of scholars, based largely in Iraq, that was responsible for collecting and recording the traditions that form the primary source material for the history of the Umayyad period. In <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">reconstructing this history</a>, therefore, it is necessary to rely mainly on sources, such as the histories of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">Tabari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Yahya_al-Baladhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri">Baladhuri</a>, that were written in the Abbasid court at <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The book Al Muwatta, by Imam Malik, was written in the early Abbasid period in Medina. It does not contain any anti-Umayyad content because it was more concerned with what the Quran and what Muhammad said and was not a history book on the Umayyads.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Even the earliest pro-Shia accounts of al-Masudi are more balanced. Al-Masudi's Ibn Hisham is the earliest Shia account of Muawiyah. He recounted that Muawiyah spent a great deal of time in prayer, in spite of the burden of managing a large empire.<a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a> After killing off most of the Umayyads and destroying the graves of the Umayyad rulers apart from <a href="/wiki/Muawiya_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiya II">Muawiyah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a>, the history books were written during the later Abbasid period are more anti-Umayyad.<a href="#cite_note-208">[205]</a> The books written later in the Abbasid period in Iran are more anti-Umayyad. Iran was Sunni at the time. There was much anti-Arab feeling in Iran after the fall of the Persian empire.<a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a> Modern <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> regards the period of the Umayyads as part of the Arab Golden Age which it sought to emulate and restore.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Umayyad_Caliphate#Dubious" title="Talk:Umayyad Caliphate">discuss</a>] This is particularly true of Syrian nationalists and the present-day state of Syria, centered like that of the Umayyads on Damascus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert201321%E2%80%9324,_39%E2%80%9340-210">[207]</a> The Umayyad banners were white, after the banner of Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHathaway201297-211">[208]</a> it is now one of the four <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colours</a> which appear in various combinations on the flags of most Arab countries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_perspectives">Religious perspectives</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Religious perspectives" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sunni">Sunni</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sunni" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Many Muslims criticized the Umayyads for having too many non-Muslim, former Roman administrators in their government, e.g., St. <a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-212">[209]</a> As the Muslims took over cities, they left the people's political representatives, the Roman tax collectors, and the administrators in the office. The taxes to the central government were calculated and negotiated by the people's political representatives. Both the central and local governments were compensated for the services each provided. Many Christian cities used some of the taxes to maintain their churches and run their own organizations. Later, the Umayyads were criticized by some Muslims for not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-213">[210]</a> Later, when <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz" title="Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a> came to power, he reduced these taxes. He is therefore praised as one of the greatest Muslim rulers after the four <a href="/wiki/Rightly_Guided_Caliphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Rightly Guided Caliphs">Rightly Guided Caliphs</a>. Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam (who lived in 829 and wrote a biography on Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz)<a href="#cite_note-214">[211]</a> stated that the reduction in these taxes stimulated the economy and created wealth but it also reduced the government's budget, including, eventually, the defence budget. The only Umayyad ruler who is unanimously praised by Sunni sources for his devout piety and justice is Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In his efforts to spread <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, he established liberties for the <a href="/wiki/Mawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawali">Mawali</a> by abolishing the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> tax for converts to Islam. Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam stated that Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz also stopped the personal allowance offered to his relatives, stating that he could only give them an allowance if he gave an allowance to everyone else in the empire. After Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was poisoned in 720, successive governments tried to reverse Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz's tax policies, but rebellion resulted.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shi'a">Shi'a</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Shi'a" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The negative view of the Umayyads held by <a href="/wiki/Shias" class="mw-redirect" title="Shias">Shias</a> is briefly expressed in the Shi'a book "Sulh al-Hasan".<a href="#cite_note-Aal-yasin2014-215">[212]</a> According to Shia hadiths, which are not considered authentic by Sunnis, <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> described them as the worst <a href="/wiki/Fitna_(word)" title="Fitna (word)">Fitna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a> In Shia sources, the Umayyad Caliphate is widely described as "tyrannical, anti-Islamic and godless".<a href="#cite_note-217">[214]</a> Shias point out that the founder of the dynasty, Muawiyah, declared himself a caliph in 657 and went to war against Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin, the ruling caliph Ali, clashing at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin" title="Battle of Siffin">Battle of Siffin</a>. Muawiyah also declared his son, Yazid, as his successor in <a href="/wiki/Hasan%E2%80%93Muawiya_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan–Muawiya treaty">breach of a treaty with Hassan</a>, Muhammad's grandson. Another of Muhammad's grandsons, <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a>, would be killed by Yazid in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala" title="Battle of Karbala">Battle of Karbala</a>. Further Shia Imams, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Husayn_Zayn_al-Abidin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin">Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin</a> would be killed at the hands of ruling Umayyad caliphs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bahá'í">Bahá'í</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Bahá'í" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Asked for an explanation of the prophecies in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> (12:3), <a href="/wiki/%60Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="`Abdu'l-Bahá">`Abdu'l-Bahá</a> suggests in <a href="/wiki/Some_Answered_Questions" title="Some Answered Questions">Some Answered Questions</a> that the "great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads",<a href="#cite_note-218">[215]</a> refers to the Umayyad caliphs who "rose against the religion of Prophet Muhammad and against the reality of Ali".<a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[217]</a> The seven heads of the dragon are symbolic of the seven provinces of the lands dominated by the Umayyads: Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxiana. The ten horns represent the ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al-Malik, Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III, which were not accounted for in this interpretation. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="List_of_caliphs">List of caliphs</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: List of caliphs" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty#Genealogical_chart_of_Umayyad_rulers" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty family tree</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayads.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Umayads.svg/250px-Umayads.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="309" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="855" data-file-height="1057"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 309px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Umayads.svg/250px-Umayads.svg.png" data-width="250" data-height="309" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Umayads.svg/375px-Umayads.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Umayads.svg/500px-Umayads.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Genealogical tree of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad family tree">Umayyad family</a>. In blue: Caliph <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Affan">Uthman</a>, one of the four <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> caliphs. In green, the Umayyad caliphs of Damascus. In yellow, the Umayyad emirs of Córdoba. In orange, the Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba. Abd Al-Rahman III was an emir until 929 when he proclaimed himself caliph. Muhammad is included (in caps) to show the kinship of the Umayyads with him. See <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty#Genealogical_chart_of_Umayyad_rulers" title="Umayyad dynasty">interactive version of chart</a></figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Caliphs of Damascus </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Caliph</th> <th>Reign </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Muawiya I ibn Abu Sufyan</a></td> <td>28 July 661 – 27 April 680 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yazid I ibn Muawiyah</a></td> <td>27 April 680 – 11 November 683 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah II">Muawiya II ibn Yazid</a></td> <td>11 November 683 – June 684 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Marwan_I" title="Marwan I">Marwan I ibn al-Hakam</a></td> <td>June 684 – 12 April 685 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a></td> <td>12 April 685 – 8 October 705 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik</a></td> <td>8 October 705 – 23 February 715 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik">Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik</a></td> <td>23 February 715 – 22 September 717 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz" title="Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a></td> <td>22 September 717 – 4 February 720 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yazid_II" title="Yazid II">Yazid II ibn Abd al-Malik</a></td> <td>4 February 720 – 26 January 724 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik</a></td> <td>26 January 724 – 6 February 743 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_II" title="Al-Walid II">al-Walid II ibn Yazid</a></td> <td>6 February 743 – 17 April 744 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yazid_III" title="Yazid III">Yazid III ibn al-Walid</a></td> <td>17 April 744 – 4 October 744 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Walid" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Walid">Ibrahim ibn al-Walid</a></td> <td>4 October 744 – 4 December 744 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II ibn Muhammad</a> (ruled from <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia">Jazira</a>)</td> <td>4 December 744 – 25 January 750 </td></tr> </tbody></table> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sunni_dynasties" title="List of Sunni dynasties">List of Sunni dynasties</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> The eldest surviving Sufyanid, <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_ibn_Utba" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Walid ibn Utba">al-Walid ibn Utba</a>, the son of Mu'awiya I's full brother, died shortly after Mu'awiya II's death, while another paternal uncle of the deceased caliph, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Uthman_ibn_Anbasa_ibn_Abi_Sufyan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uthman ibn Anbasa ibn Abi Sufyan (page does not exist)">Uthman ibn Anbasa ibn Abi Sufyan</a>, who had support from the Kalb of the Jordan district, recognized the caliphate of his maternal uncle Ibn al-Zubayr.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1993268-76">[75]</a> Ibn Bahdal favored Mu'awiya II's brothers, <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid" title="Khalid ibn Yazid">Khalid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Yazid" title="Abd Allah ibn Yazid">Abd Allah</a>, for the succession, but they were viewed as too young and inexperienced by most of the pro-Umayyad tribal nobility in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200491-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuri201124%E2%80%9325-80">[79]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Mu'awiya I was generally favourably disposed towards Christians and, according to <a href="/wiki/Al-Ya%27qubi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ya'qubi">al-Ya'qubi</a>, the first Muslim caliph to employ Christians in administrative positions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith201631-190">[188]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: ٱلْأُمَوِيُّون, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: al-Umawiyyūn, or بَنُو أُمَيَّة, Banū Umayya, 'sons of <a href="/wiki/Umayya_ibn_Abd_Shams" title="Umayya ibn Abd Shams">Umayya</a>'). </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Taagepera496-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera496_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera496_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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ISIM Newsletter. 98 (1): 13–12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201124234127/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/16762/ISIM_1_The_Qur-an-s_Call_to_Alms_Zakat_the_Muslim_Tradition_of_Alms-giving.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ISIM+Newsletter&rft.atitle=The+Qur%27an%27s+Call+to+Alms+Zakat%2C+the+Muslim+Tradition+of+Alms-giving&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-12&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Benthal%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenaccess.leidenuniv.nl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1887%2F16762%2FISIM_1_The_Qur-an-s_Call_to_Alms_Zakat_the_Muslim_Tradition_of_Alms-giving.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavendish2006" class="citation book cs1">Cavendish, Marshall (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j894miuOqc4C">World and Its Peoples</a>. 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Profile Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84765-854-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84765-854-8"><bdi>978-1-84765-854-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230324231228/https://books.google.com/books?id=hTPC09XoKs0C">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2023. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53934-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53934-0"><bdi>978-0-521-53934-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230324231236/https://books.google.com/books?id=F2oLiXT_66EC&pg=PA166">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2023. 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The Arab Empire of the Umayyads, G. Converts and 'People of the Book'"</a>. occawlonline.pearsoned.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/stearns_awl/chapter12/objectives/deluxe-content.html">the original</a> on 21 May 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Student+Resources%2C+Chapter+12%3A+The+First+Global+Civilization%3A+The+Rise+and+Spread+of+Islam%2C+IV.+The+Arab+Empire+of+the+Umayyads%2C+G.+Converts+and+%27People+of+the+Book%27&rft.pub=occawlonline.pearsoned.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foccawlonline.pearsoned.com%2Fbookbind%2Fpubbooks%2Fstearns_awl%2Fchapter12%2Fobjectives%2Fdeluxe-content.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/SermonDetail.php?Sermon=92">the original</a> on 19 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sermon+92%3A+About+the+annihilation+of+the+Kharijites%2C+the+mischief+mongering+of+Umayyads+and+the+vastness+of+his+own+knowledge&rft.pub=nahjulbalagha.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nahjulbalagha.org%2FSermonDetail.php%3FSermon%3D92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharon1983" class="citation book cs1">Sharon, Moshe (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NPvZoG6NtLkC&q=godless+umayyads&pg=PA227">Black Banners from the East: The Establishment of the ʻAbbāsid State : Incubation of a Revolt</a>. JSAI. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-223-501-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-223-501-5"><bdi>978-965-223-501-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230324231233/https://books.google.com/books?id=NPvZoG6NtLkC&q=godless+umayyads&pg=PA227">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Banners+from+the+East%3A+The+Establishment+of+the+%CA%BBAbb%C4%81sid+State+%3A+Incubation+of+a+Revolt&rft.pub=JSAI&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-965-223-501-5&rft.aulast=Sharon&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNPvZoG6NtLkC%26q%3Dgodless%2Bumayyads%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation+12:3&version=NKJV">"Bible"</a>. biblegateway.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170421092633/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation+12:3&version=NKJV">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biblegateway.com&rft.atitle=Bible&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DRevelation%2B12%3A3%26version%3DNKJV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF`Abdu'l-Bahá1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/%60Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="`Abdu'l-Bahá">`Abdu'l-Bahá</a> (1990) [1908]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-13.html#pg69">Some Answered Questions</a>. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87743-190-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87743-190-9"><bdi>978-0-87743-190-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101208051450/http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-13.html#pg69">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2010. Retrieved 19 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Answered+Questions&rft.place=Wilmette%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD+Publishing+Trust&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-87743-190-9&rft.au=%60Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freference.bahai.org%2Fen%2Ft%2Fab%2FSAQ%2Fsaq-13.html%23pg69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF`Abdu'l-Bahá1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/%60Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="`Abdu'l-Bahá">`Abdu'l-Bahá</a> (1990) [1908]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-11.html#pg51">Some Answered Questions</a>. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87743-190-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87743-190-9"><bdi>978-0-87743-190-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120924055253/http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-11.html#pg51">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Answered+Questions&rft.place=Wilmette%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD+Publishing+Trust&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-87743-190-9&rft.au=%60Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freference.bahai.org%2Fen%2Ft%2Fab%2FSAQ%2Fsaq-11.html%23pg51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankinship1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Khalid_Yahya_Blankinship" title="Khalid Yahya Blankinship">Blankinship, Khalid Yahya</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jz0Yy053WS4C">The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads</a>. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1827-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1827-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-1827-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Jih%C3%A2d+State%3A+The+Reign+of+Hish%C4%81m+ibn+%CA%BBAbd+al-Malik+and+the+Collapse+of+the+Umayyads&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7&rft.aulast=Blankinship&rft.aufirst=Khalid+Yahya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJz0Yy053WS4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith1993" class="citation book cs1">Beckwith, Christopher I. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oeI9DwAAQBAJ">The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power Among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese During the Early Middle Ages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02469-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02469-1"><bdi>978-0-691-02469-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tibetan+Empire+in+Central+Asia%3A+A+History+of+the+Struggle+for+Great+Power+Among+Tibetans%2C+Turks%2C+Arabs%2C+and+Chinese+During+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02469-1&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoeI9DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1993" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Bosworth, C.E.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=Mu%CA%BF%C4%81wiya+II&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Muʿāwiya II"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 268–269. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09419-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09419-2"><bdi>978-90-04-09419-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mu%CA%BF%C4%81wiya+II&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+VII%3A+Mif%E2%80%93Naz&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=268-269&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09419-2&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DMu%25CA%25BF%25C4%2581wiya%2BII%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristides2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Christides, Vassilios (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=%CA%BFUkba+b.+N%C4%81fi%CA%BF&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"ʿUkba b. Nāfiʿ"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Peri_J._Bearman" class="mw-redirect" title="Peri J. Bearman">Bearman, P. J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thierry_Bianquis" title="Thierry Bianquis">Bianquis, Th.</a>; <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume X: T–U. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 789–790. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11211-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11211-7"><bdi>978-90-04-11211-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CA%BFUkba+b.+N%C4%81fi%CA%BF&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+X%3A+T%E2%80%93U&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=789-790&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11211-7&rft.aulast=Christides&rft.aufirst=Vassilios&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3D%25CA%25BFUkba%2Bb.%2BN%25C4%2581fi%25CA%25BF%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroneHinds1986" class="citation book cs1">Crone, Patricia; Hinds, Martin (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ow-mV50c2TUC&pg=PA7">God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32185-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-32185-9"><bdi>0-521-32185-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Caliph%3A+Religious+Authority+in+the+First+Centuries+of+Islam&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-521-32185-9&rft.aulast=Crone&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Hinds%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOw-mV50c2TUC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrone1994" class="citation journal cs1">Crone, Patricia (1994). "Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad Period Political Parties?". Der Islam. 71 (1). Walter de Gruyter and Co.: 1–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1994.71.1.1">10.1515/islm.1994.71.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1818">0021-1818</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154370527">154370527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Islam&rft.atitle=Were+the+Qays+and+Yemen+of+the+Umayyad+Period+Political+Parties%3F&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-57&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154370527%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0021-1818&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1994.71.1.1&rft.aulast=Crone&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobb2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_M._Cobb" title="Paul M. 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Brill. pp. 821–822. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11211-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11211-7"><bdi>978-90-04-11211-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CA%BFUmar+%28II%29+b.+%CA%BFAbd+al-%CA%BFAz%C4%ABz&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+X%3A+T%E2%80%93U&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=821-822&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11211-7&rft.aulast=Cobb&rft.aufirst=P.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_1282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobb2001" class="citation book cs1">Cobb, Paul M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC">White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880</a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791448809" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791448809"><bdi>978-0791448809</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Banners%3A+Contention+in+%27Abbasid+Syria%2C+750%E2%80%93880&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0791448809&rft.aulast=Cobb&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2C6KIBw4F9YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDietrich1971" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dietrich, Albert (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=Al-%E1%B8%A4adjdj%C4%81dj+b.+Y%C5%ABsuf&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Al-Ḥadjdjādj b. Yūsuf"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Victor_Louis_M%C3%A9nage" title="Victor Louis Ménage">Ménage, V. L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 39–43. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469525">495469525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-%E1%B8%A4adjdj%C4%81dj+b.+Y%C5%ABsuf&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+III%3A+H%E2%80%93Iram&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=39-43&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469525&rft.aulast=Dietrich&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DAl-%25E1%25B8%25A4adjdj%25C4%2581dj%2Bb.%2BY%25C5%25ABsuf%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonner1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Donner" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred M. Donner">Donner, Fred M.</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l5__AwAAQBAJ">The Early Islamic Conquests</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4787-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4787-7"><bdi>978-1-4008-4787-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Islamic+Conquests&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4787-7&rft.aulast=Donner&rft.aufirst=Fred+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl5__AwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuri1965" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Duri, Abd al-Aziz (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=D%C4%ABw%C4%81n&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Dīwān"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume II: C–G. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 323–327. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469475">495469475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=D%C4%ABw%C4%81n&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+II%3A+C%E2%80%93G&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=323-327&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469475&rft.aulast=Duri&rft.aufirst=Abd+al-Aziz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DD%25C4%25ABw%25C4%2581n%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuri2011" class="citation book cs1">Duri, Abd al-Aziz (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ImIBAwAAQBAJ">Early Islamic Institutions: Administration and Taxation from the Caliphate to the Umayyads and ʿAbbāsids</a>. Translated by Razia Ali. London and Beirut: I. B. Tauris and Centre for Arab Unity Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-060-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-060-6"><bdi>978-1-84885-060-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Islamic+Institutions%3A+Administration+and+Taxation+from+the+Caliphate+to+the+Umayyads+and+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81sids&rft.place=London+and+Beirut&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris+and+Centre+for+Arab+Unity+Studies&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84885-060-6&rft.aulast=Duri&rft.aufirst=Abd+al-Aziz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DImIBAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon1969" class="citation thesis cs1">Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer (August 1969). The Umayyad Caliphate, 65–86/684–705: (A Political Study) (Thesis). London: University of London, SOAS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Umayyad+Caliphate%2C+65%E2%80%9386%2F684%E2%80%93705%3A+%28A+Political+Study%29&rft.inst=University+of+London%2C+SOAS&rft.date=1969-08&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=%27Abd+al-Ameer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisener1997" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Eisener, R. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=Sulaym%C4%81n+b.+%CA%BFAbd+al-Malik&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Malik"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a> & <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Lecomte" title="Gérard Lecomte">Lecomte, G.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume IX: San–Sze. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 821–822. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10422-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10422-8"><bdi>978-90-04-10422-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sulaym%C4%81n+b.+%CA%BFAbd+al-Malik&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+IX%3A+San%E2%80%93Sze&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=821-822&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10422-8&rft.aulast=Eisener&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DSulaym%25C4%2581n%2Bb.%2B%25CA%25BFAbd%2Bal-Malik%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElad1999" class="citation book cs1">Elad, Amikam (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CDz_yctbQVgC">Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship: Holy Places, Ceremonies, Pilgrimage</a> (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10010-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10010-5"><bdi>90-04-10010-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Jerusalem+and+Islamic+Worship%3A+Holy+Places%2C+Ceremonies%2C+Pilgrimage&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=90-04-10010-5&rft.aulast=Elad&rft.aufirst=Amikam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCDz_yctbQVgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElisséeff1965" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Elisséeff, Nikita (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=Dimashk&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Dimashk"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume II: C–G. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 277–291. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469475">495469475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dimashk&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+II%3A+C%E2%80%93G&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=277-291&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469475&rft.aulast=Eliss%C3%A9eff&rft.aufirst=Nikita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DDimashk%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood2001" class="citation book cs1">Flood, Finbarr Barry (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r5f8kxIyykQC">The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture</a>. Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11638-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-11638-9"><bdi>90-04-11638-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Mosque+of+Damascus%3A+Studies+on+the+Makings+of+an+Umayyad+Visual+Culture&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=90-04-11638-9&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Finbarr+Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr5f8kxIyykQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibb1923" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._A._R._Gibb" title="H. A. R. Gibb">Gibb, H. A. R.</a> (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabconquestsinc00gibbuoft">The Arab Conquests in Central Asia</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Asiatic_Society_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland">The Royal Asiatic Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/499987512">499987512</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Conquests+in+Central+Asia&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.date=1923&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F499987512&rft.aulast=Gibb&rft.aufirst=H.+A.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabconquestsinc00gibbuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibb1960a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._A._R._Gibb" title="H. A. R. Gibb">Gibb, H. A. R.</a> (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=%CA%BFAbd+All%C4%81h+ibn+al-Zubayr&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Zubayr"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/H._A._R._Gibb" title="H. A. R. Gibb">Gibb, H. A. R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hendrik_Kramers" title="Johannes Hendrik Kramers">Kramers, J. H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Évariste Lévi-Provençal">Lévi-Provençal, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume I: A–B. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 54–55. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469456">495469456</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CA%BFAbd+All%C4%81h+ibn+al-Zubayr&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+I%3A+A%E2%80%93B&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=54-55&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469456&rft.aulast=Gibb&rft.aufirst=H.+A.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3D%25CA%25BFAbd%2BAll%25C4%2581h%2Bibn%2Bal-Zubayr%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibb1960b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._A._R._Gibb" title="H. A. R. 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Brill. pp. 127–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12756-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12756-2"><bdi>978-90-04-12756-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-Wal%C4%ABd+%28I%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+XI%3A+W%E2%80%93Z&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=127-128&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12756-2&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DAl-Wal%25C4%25ABd%2B%2528I%2529%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. 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Harlow: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-40525-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-40525-7"><bdi>978-0-582-40525-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet+and+the+Age+of+the+Caliphates%3A+The+Islamic+Near+East+from+the+6th+to+the+11th+Century&rft.place=Harlow&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-582-40525-7&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWux0lWbxs1kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. 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Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81740-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81740-3"><bdi>978-0-306-81740-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Arab+Conquests%3A+How+the+Spread+of+Islam+Changed+the+World+We+Live+In&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-306-81740-3&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKBQOAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2007a" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2007a). "1. The Foundations of Conquest". 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Brill. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12756-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12756-2"><bdi>978-90-04-12756-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yaz%C4%ABd+%28II%29+b.+%CA%BFAbd+al-Malik&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+XI%3A+W%E2%80%93Z&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12756-2&rft.aulast=Lammens&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Blankinship%2C+Kh.+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DYaz%25C4%25ABd%2B%2528II%2529%2Bb.%2B%25CA%25BFAbd%2Bal-Malik%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLapidus2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9"><bdi>978-0-521-51430-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51430-9&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkFJNBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. 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Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 198–249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20093-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20093-8"><bdi>0-521-20093-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Minor+Dynasties+of+Northern+Iran&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran%2C+Volume+4%3A+From+the+Arab+Invasion+to+the+Saljuqs&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=198-249&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-521-20093-8&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhvx9jq_2L3EC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelung1993" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Madelung, Wilferd</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dabuyids-the-dynasty-of-espahbads-ruling-tabarestan-until-its-conquest-by-the-muslims-in-144-761">"DABUYIDS"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater" title="Ehsan Yarshater">Yarshater, Ehsan</a> (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume VI/5: Čūb-bāzī–Daf(f) and Dāyera. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 541–544. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56859-003-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56859-003-5"><bdi>978-1-56859-003-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=DABUYIDS&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica%2C+Volume+VI%2F5%3A+%C4%8C%C5%ABb-b%C4%81z%C4%AB%E2%80%93Daf%28f%29+and+D%C4%81yera&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=541-544&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-56859-003-5&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=Wilferd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fdabuyids-the-dynasty-of-espahbads-ruling-tabarestan-until-its-conquest-by-the-muslims-in-144-761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelung1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Madelung, Wilferd</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC">The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56181-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56181-7"><bdi>0-521-56181-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Succession+to+Muhammad%3A+A+Study+of+the+Early+Caliphate&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-56181-7&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=Wilferd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2QKBUwBUWWkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorony1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_G._Morony" title="Michael G. Morony">Morony, Michael G.</a>, ed. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9DHhZ5Wwo_YC">The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XVIII: Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Muʿāwiyah, 661–680 A.D./A.H. 40–60</a>. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-933-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-933-9"><bdi>978-0-87395-933-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+al-%E1%B9%ACabar%C4%AB%2C+Volume+XVIII%3A+Between+Civil+Wars%3A+The+Caliphate+of+Mu%CA%BF%C4%81wiyah%2C+661%E2%80%93680+A.D.%2FA.H.+40%E2%80%9360&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+Series+in+Near+Eastern+Studies.&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-87395-933-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9DHhZ5Wwo_YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalbi1971" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Talbi" title="Mohamed Talbi">Talbi, M.</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=%E1%B8%A4ass%C4%81n+b.+al-Nu%CA%BFm%C4%81n+al-Ghass%C4%81n%C4%AB&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Ḥassān b. al-Nuʿmān al-Ghassānī"</a>. 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Brill. p. 271. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469525">495469525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B8%A4ass%C4%81n+b.+al-Nu%CA%BFm%C4%81n+al-Ghass%C4%81n%C4%AB&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+III%3A+H%E2%80%93Iram&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469525&rft.aulast=Talbi&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3D%25E1%25B8%25A4ass%25C4%2581n%2Bb.%2Bal-Nu%25CA%25BFm%25C4%2581n%2Bal-Ghass%25C4%2581n%25C4%25AB%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOchsenwald2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_L._Ochsenwald" title="William L. 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(1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m15CKZc-TMAC">The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXIV: The Empire in Transition: The Caliphates of Sulaymān, ʿUmar, and Yazīd, A.D. 715–724/A.H. 96–105</a>. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0072-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0072-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-0072-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+al-%E1%B9%ACabar%C4%AB%2C+Volume+XXIV%3A+The+Empire+in+Transition%3A+The+Caliphates+of+Sulaym%C4%81n%2C+%CA%BFUmar%2C+and+Yaz%C4%ABd%2C+A.D.+715%E2%80%93724%2FA.H.+96%E2%80%93105&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+Series+in+Near+Eastern+Studies.&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-0072-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm15CKZc-TMAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrevité-Orton1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Previt%C3%A9-Orton" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles William Previté-Orton">Previté-Orton, C. 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A Chronology Of Islamic History 570–1000 CE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Chronology+Of+Islamic+History+570%E2%80%931000+CE&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Rahman&rft.aufirst=H.U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanchez2015" class="citation book cs1">Sanchez, Fernando Lopez (2015). "The Mining, Minting, and Acquisition of Gold in the Roman and Post-Roman World". In Paul Erdkamp; Koenraad Verboven; Arjan Zuiderhoek (eds.). Ownership and Exploitation of Land and Natural Resources in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191795831" title="Special:BookSources/9780191795831"><bdi>9780191795831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mining%2C+Minting%2C+and+Acquisition+of+Gold+in+the+Roman+and+Post-Roman+World&rft.btitle=Ownership+and+Exploitation+of+Land+and+Natural+Resources+in+the+Roman+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780191795831&rft.aulast=Sanchez&rft.aufirst=Fernando+Lopez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSprengling1939" class="citation journal cs1">Sprengling, Martin (April 1939). "From Persian to Arabic". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 56 (2). The University of Chicago Press: 175–224. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F370538">10.1086/370538</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/528934">528934</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170486943">170486943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Semitic+Languages+and+Literatures&rft.atitle=From+Persian+to+Arabic&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-224&rft.date=1939-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170486943%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F528934%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F370538&rft.aulast=Sprengling&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTer-Ghewondyan1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aram_Ter-Ghevondyan" title="Aram Ter-Ghevondyan">Ter-Ghewondyan, Aram</a> (1976) [1965]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rbedrosian_gmail_Aeba">The Arab Emirates in Bagratid Armenia</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Nina_Garso%C3%AFan" title="Nina Garsoïan">Garsoïan, Nina</a>. Lisbon: <a href="/wiki/Livraria_Bertrand" title="Livraria Bertrand">Livraria Bertrand</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/490638192">490638192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Emirates+in+Bagratid+Armenia&rft.place=Lisbon&rft.pub=Livraria+Bertrand&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F490638192&rft.aulast=Ter-Ghewondyan&rft.aufirst=Aram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frbedrosian_gmail_Aeba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreadgold1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Treadgold, Warren</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC">A History of the Byzantine State and Society</a>. Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2"><bdi>0-8047-2630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Byzantine+State+and+Society&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8047-2630-2&rft.aulast=Treadgold&rft.aufirst=Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnYbnr5XVbzUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellhausen1927" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Wellhausen" title="Julius Wellhausen">Wellhausen, Julius</a> (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabkingdomandit029490mbp">The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall</a>. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/752790641">752790641</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Kingdom+and+Its+Fall&rft.place=Calcutta&rft.pub=University+of+Calcutta&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F752790641&rft.aulast=Wellhausen&rft.aufirst=Julius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabkingdomandit029490mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Ajmi2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Al-Ajmi, Abdulhadi (2014). "The Umayyads". In Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A. (eds.). Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-177-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-177-2"><bdi>978-1-61069-177-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Umayyads&rft.btitle=Muhammad+in+History%2C+Thought%2C+and+Culture%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+the+Prophet+of+God&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-177-2&rft.aulast=Al-Ajmi&rft.aufirst=Abdulhadi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBewley2002" class="citation book cs1">Bewley, Aisha Abdurrahman (2002). Muʻawiya: Restorer of the Muslim Faith. Dar Al Taqwa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781870582568" title="Special:BookSources/9781870582568"><bdi>9781870582568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mu%CA%BBawiya%3A+Restorer+of+the+Muslim+Faith&rft.pub=Dar+Al+Taqwa&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781870582568&rft.aulast=Bewley&rft.aufirst=Aisha+Abdurrahman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoekhoff-van_der_Voort2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Boekhoff-van der Voort, Nicolet (2014). "Umayyad Court". In Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A. (eds.). Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-177-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-177-2"><bdi>978-1-61069-177-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Umayyad+Court&rft.btitle=Muhammad+in+History%2C+Thought%2C+and+Culture%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+the+Prophet+of+God&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-177-2&rft.aulast=Boekhoff-van+der+Voort&rft.aufirst=Nicolet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrone1980" class="citation book cs1">Crone, Patricia (1980). Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521229616" title="Special:BookSources/9780521229616"><bdi>9780521229616</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+on+Horses%3A+The+Evolution+of+the+Islamic+Polity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9780521229616&rft.aulast=Crone&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroneCookCook1977" class="citation book cs1">Crone, Patricia; Cook, M. A.; Cook, Michael (1977). Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. CUP Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521211338" title="Special:BookSources/9780521211338"><bdi>9780521211338</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hagarism%3A+The+Making+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780521211338&rft.aulast=Crone&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Cook%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Cook%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUmayyad+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only 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position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&oldid=1260395424">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&oldid=1260395424</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Umayyad_Caliphate&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 30 November 2024, at 14:53 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omajjadiese_Kalifaat" title="Omajjadiese Kalifaat – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Omajjadiese Kalifaat" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الدولة الأموية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الدولة الأموية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califatu_omeya" title="Califatu omeya – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Califatu omeya" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fm%C9%99vil%C9%99r_xilaf%C9%99ti" title="Əməvilər xilafəti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əməvilər xilafəti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1_%D8%AE%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="اومویلر خیلافتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اومویلر خیلافتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%A4" title="উমাইয়া খিলাফত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উমাইয়া খিলাফত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayya_Khalifah-kok" title="Umayya Khalifah-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Umayya Khalifah-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BC%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%B8%D2%99%D3%99%D1%80_%D1%85%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Өмәүиҙәр хәлифәлеге – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Өмәүиҙәр хәлифәлеге" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Амеядскі халіфат – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Амеядскі халіфат" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Омаядски халифат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Омаядски халифат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emevijski_halifat" title="Emevijski halifat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Emevijski halifat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifiezh_an_Omeiaded" title="Kalifiezh an Omeiaded – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kalifiezh an Omeiaded" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat_Omeia" title="Califat Omeia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Califat Omeia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyade-kalifatet" title="Umayyade-kalifatet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Umayyade-kalifatet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لخلافة لأموية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لخلافة لأموية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyaden-Kalifat" title="Umayyaden-Kalifat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Umayyaden-Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%86%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%8B%CE%B1%CE%B4%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Χαλιφάτο των Ομεϋαδών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χαλιφάτο των Ομεϋαδών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califato_omeya" title="Califato omeya – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Califato omeya" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omajada_kaliflando" title="Omajada kaliflando – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Omajada kaliflando" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omeiatar_Kalifa-herria" title="Omeiatar Kalifa-herria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Omeiatar Kalifa-herria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%DB%8C" title="خلافت اموی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خلافت اموی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat_omeyyade" title="Califat omeyyade – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Califat omeyyade" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cailifeacht_Umayyad" title="Cailifeacht Umayyad – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cailifeacht Umayyad" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califato_omeia" title="Califato omeia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Califato omeia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B4%EC%95%BC_%EC%B9%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%8C%8C%EA%B5%AD" title="우마이야 칼리파국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="우마이야 칼리파국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalifancin_Umayyawa" title="Khalifancin Umayyawa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Khalifancin Umayyawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Օմայյան խալիֆայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օմայյան խալիֆայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A6_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%A4" title="उमय्यद ख़िलाफ़त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उमय्यद ख़िलाफ़त" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omejidski_Kalifat" title="Omejidski Kalifat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Omejidski Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayada_kalifio" title="Umayada kalifio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Umayada kalifio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekhalifahan_Umayyah" title="Kekhalifahan Umayyah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekhalifahan Umayyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ommejadar" title="Ommejadar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ommejadar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califfato_omayyade" title="Califfato omayyade – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Califfato omayyade" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="בית אומיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בית אומיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="ომაიანთა სახალიფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ომაიანთა სახალიფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphatus_Omayadarum" title="Caliphatus Omayadarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Caliphatus Omayadarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umaj%C4%81du_kalif%C4%81ts" title="Umajādu kalifāts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Umajādu kalifāts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omejad%C5%B3_kalifatas" title="Omejadų kalifatas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Omejadų kalifatas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califia_Umaian" title="Califia Umaian – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Califia Umaian" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Омејадски Калифат – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Омејадски Калифат" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifata_Omeiada" title="Kalifata Omeiada – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kalifata Omeiada" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D" title="ഉമവി ഖിലാഫത്ത് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉമവി ഖിലാഫത്ത്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%A4" title="उमय्या खिलाफत – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="उमय्या खिलाफत" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="ომაიანეფიშ სახალიფო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ომაიანეფიშ სახალიფო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الدوله الامويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الدوله الامويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Bani_Umaiyah" title="Kerajaan Bani Umaiyah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan Bani Umaiyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifaat_van_de_Omajjaden" title="Kalifaat van de Omajjaden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kalifaat van de Omajjaden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%83%9E%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A4%E6%9C%9D" title="ウマイヤ朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウマイヤ朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omajadekalifatet" title="Omajadekalifatet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Omajadekalifatet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat_Omeia" title="Califat Omeia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Califat Omeia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damashq_xalifaligi" title="Damashq xalifaligi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Damashq xalifaligi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="اموی خلافت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اموی خلافت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="اموي خلافت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اموي خلافت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat_Umajjad%C3%B3w" title="Kalifat Umajjadów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kalifat Umajjadów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califado_Om%C3%ADada" title="Califado Omíada – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Califado Omíada" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califatul_Omeiad" title="Califatul Omeiad – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Califatul Omeiad" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Омейядский халифат – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Омейядский халифат" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Umayyad Caliphate" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilafeti_Emevi" title="Hilafeti Emevi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hilafeti Emevi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Umayyad Caliphate" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="اموي خلافت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اموي خلافت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umajjovsk%C3%BD_kalif%C3%A1t" title="Umajjovský kalifát – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Umajjovský kalifát" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omajadski_kalifat" title="Omajadski kalifat – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Omajadski kalifat" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowladii_Umawiyiinta" title="Dowladii Umawiyiinta – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dowladii Umawiyiinta" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%88%DA%B5%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%85%DB%95%D9%88%DB%8C" title="دەوڵەتی ئەمەوی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەوڵەتی ئەمەوی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Омејадски калифат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Омејадски калифат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omejadski_Kalifat" title="Omejadski Kalifat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Omejadski Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekhalifahan_Umayyah" title="Kekhalifahan Umayyah – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kekhalifahan Umayyah" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umaijadien_kalifaatti" title="Umaijadien kalifaatti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Umaijadien kalifaatti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyadiska_kalifatet" title="Umayyadiska kalifatet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Umayyadiska kalifatet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiyang_Omeya" title="Dinastiyang Omeya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Dinastiyang Omeya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="உமையா கலீபகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உமையா கலீபகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BC%D3%99%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80_%D1%85%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Өмәвиләр хәлифәте – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Өмәвиләр хәлифәте" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%8C" title="รัฐเคาะลีฟะฮ์อุมัยยะฮ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รัฐเคาะลีฟะฮ์อุมัยยะฮ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%A3%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%91%D0%BD" title="Хилофати Уммавиён – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Хилофати Уммавиён" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emev%C3%AEler" title="Emevîler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" 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