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h2{margin-top:1em;border-bottom:0;font-size:130%;font-weight:bold;padding:0.15em}.mw-parser-output .pptext-submit{list-style:none;display:inline;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .pptext-whywhat{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;column-gap:2em}.mw-parser-output .pptext-whywhat>div{flex:1 1 400px}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238441935">.mw-parser-output .fmbox{clear:both;margin:0.2em 0;width:100%;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);box-sizing:border-box;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output .fmbox-warning{border:1px solid #bb7070;background-color:#ffdbdb}.mw-parser-output .fmbox-editnotice{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .fmbox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.9em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .fmbox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .fmbox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-protection" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/60px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/80px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="font-weight:bold; font-size:130%;"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div style="text-align: center;">This page is currently semi-protected so that only <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:User_access_levels#Autoconfirmed" title="Wikipedia:User access 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Review the information below for assistance if you do not believe that you have done anything wrong.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <p>The IP address or range 8.222.128.0/17 has been <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Blocking_policy" title="Wikipedia:Blocking policy">blocked</a> by <a href="/wiki/User:L235" title="User:L235">‪L235‬</a> for the following reason(s): </p> <div style="padding:10px; background:var(--background-color-base, white); color:inherit; border:1px #666 solid;"> <div class="user-block colocation-webhost" style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; background-color: #ffefd5; border: 1px solid #AAA; padding: 0.7em;"> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/40px-Server-multiple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/60px-Server-multiple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/80px-Server-multiple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure><b>The <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a> that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a <a href="/wiki/Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">web host provider</a> or <a href="/wiki/Colocation_centre" title="Colocation centre">colocation provider</a>.</b> To prevent abuse, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Open_proxies" title="Wikipedia:Open proxies">web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked</a> from editing Wikipedia. <div style="border-top: 1px solid #AAA; clear: both">You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Open_proxies" title="Wikipedia:Open proxies">proxy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">VPN</a>. <p><b>We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit.</b> For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you are using a corporate internet connection, switch to a different Wi-Fi network. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in. </p><p>If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IP_block_exemption#Requesting_and_granting_exemption" title="Wikipedia:IP block exemption">request an IP block exemption</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">How to appeal if you are confident that your connection does not use a colocation provider's IP address:</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">appeal this block</a> by adding the following text on your <a href="/wiki/Help:Talk_pages" title="Help:Talk pages">talk page</a>: <code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Unblock" title="Template:Unblock">unblock</a>|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. <i>Place any further information here.</i> ~~~~}}</code>. <b>You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated.</b> Your IP address can be determined <span class="plainlinks"><b><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Get_my_IP_address?withJS=MediaWiki:Get-my-ip.js">here</a></b></span>. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Unblock_Ticket_Request_System" title="Wikipedia:Unblock Ticket Request System">unblock ticket request system</a>. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider.</div></div> <p><span class="sysop-show" style="font-size: 85%;"><span style="border:#707070 solid 1px;background-color:#ffe0e0;padding:2px"><b>Administrators:</b></span> The <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IP_block_exemption" title="Wikipedia:IP block exemption">IP block exemption</a> user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CheckUser" title="Wikipedia:CheckUser">CheckUser</a> needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SPI#Quick_CheckUser_requests" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SPI">SPI Quick Checkuser Requests</a>. <b>Unblocking</b> an IP or IP range with this template <b>is highly discouraged</b> without at least contacting the blocking administrator.</span> </p> </div></div> </div> <p>This block will expire on 18:23, 24 August 2026. Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even when blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit your <a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Special:MyTalk">user talk page</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Emailing_users" title="Wikipedia:Emailing users">email</a> administrators and other editors. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>For information on how to proceed, please read the <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block#Common_questions" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">FAQ for blocked users</a></b> and the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">guideline on block appeals</a>. 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Andrew Robinson | title=Einstein in Oxford | date=2024 | publisher=[[Bodleian Library Publishing]] | isbn=978-1-85124-638-0 }}</ref> * [[Brandeis University]] (director, 1946–1947) }}}} | education = [[ETH Zurich]] (Dipl., 1900){{br}}[[University of Zurich]] ([[PhD]], 1905) | doctoral_advisor = [[Alfred Kleiner]] | thesis_title = {{lang|de|Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen}} (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions) | thesis_url = http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/eserv/eth:30378/eth-30378-01.pdf | thesis_year = 1905 | academic_advisors = [[Heinrich Friedrich Weber]] | known_for = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}|{{plainlist| * [[General relativity]] * [[Special relativity]] * [[Photoelectric effect]] * [[Mass–energy equivalence|''E''=''mc''<sup>2</sup> (mass–energy equivalence)]] * [[Planck–Einstein relation|''E''=''hf'' (Planck–Einstein relation)]] * Theory of [[Brownian motion]] * [[Einstein field equations]] * [[Bose–Einstein statistics]] * [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] * [[Gravitational wave]] * [[Cosmological constant]] * [[Unified field theory]] * [[EPR paradox]] * [[Ensemble interpretation]] * [[List of things named after Albert Einstein|List of other concepts]] }}}} | awards = {{plainlist| * [[Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science]] (1920) * [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1921) * [[Matteucci Medal]] (1921) * [[List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1921|ForMemRS (1921)]]<ref name="frs" /> * [[Copley Medal]] (1925)<ref name="frs" /> * [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society|Gold Medal of RAS]] (1926)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ras.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2021-03/Gold%20Medal%202021.pdf |title=The Gold Medal |publisher=[[Royal Astronomical Society]] |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220130005/https://ras.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2021-03/Gold%20Medal%202021.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> * [[Max Planck Medal]] (1929) * [[Member of the National Academy of Sciences|Membership of NAS]] (1942)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001817.html|title=Membership directory|publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]]|access-date=20 December 2021|archive-date=20 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220080311/http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001817.html|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century|''Time'' Person of the Century]] (1999) }} | module = {{Infobox person|child = yes |signature = Albert Einstein signature 1934.svg |module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=03 ALBERT EINSTEIN.ogg|title=Albert Einstein's voice|type=speech|description=Opening of Einstein's speech (11 April 1943) for the [[United Jewish Appeal]] (recording by Radio Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina)}} }} }} {{Albert Einstein series}} '''Albert Einstein''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|n|s|t|aɪ|n}}, {{respell|EYEN|styne}};<ref name="NDxay" /> {{IPA|de|ˈalbɛʁt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn|lang|Albert Einstein german.ogg}}; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born [[theoretical physicist]] who is widely held as one of the most influential [[scientist]]s. Best known for developing the [[theory of relativity]], Einstein also made important contributions to [[quantum mechanics]].<ref name="frs" /><ref name="YangHamilton2010" /> His [[mass–energy equivalence]] formula {{math|1=[[Mass–energy equivalence#Mass–velocity relationship|''E'' = ''mc''<sup>2</sup>]]}}, which arises from [[special relativity]], has been called "the world's most famous equation".<ref name="LnLVo" /> He received the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]].<ref name="Nobel Prize" /> Born in the [[German Empire]], Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, and at the age of seventeen he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss [[ETH Zurich|federal polytechnic school]]. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the [[Swiss Patent Office]]. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the [[University of Zurich]]. In 1914, he moved to [[Berlin]] to join the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]], becoming director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]] in 1917. In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power|Adolf Hitler came to power]] in Germany. Horrified by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] persecution of his fellow Jews,<ref name="zE9Bz" /> Einstein decided to remain in the US.<ref name="BoyerDubofsky2001" /> On the eve of [[World War II]], he endorsed [[Einstein–Szilard letter|a letter]] to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] alerting him to the potential [[German nuclear weapons program]] and recommended that the US begin [[Manhattan Project|similar research]], though he generally viewed the idea of [[nuclear weapon]]s with great dismay.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Albert Einstein on nuclear weapons {{!}} Wise International |url=https://wiseinternational.org/nuclear-monitor/802/albert-einstein-nuclear-weapons |access-date=23 October 2022 |website=wiseinternational.org |archive-date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023091507/https://wiseinternational.org/nuclear-monitor/802/albert-einstein-nuclear-weapons |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1905, he published [[Annus mirabilis papers|four groundbreaking papers]], sometimes described as his ''[[annus mirabilis]]'' (miracle year).{{sfnp|Galison|2000|p=377}} These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained [[Brownian motion]], introduced his special theory of relativity, and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a [[general theory of relativity]] that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate [[gravitation]]. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the [[universe]] as a whole.<ref name="Nobel" /><ref name="NYT-20151124" /> In 1917, he wrote a paper which laid the foundations for the concepts of both [[laser]] and [[maser]], and contained a trove of information that would be beneficial to developments in physics later on.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleppner |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Kleppner |date=2005-02-01 |title=Rereading Einstein on Radiation |url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/58/2/30/904451/Rereading-Einstein-on-RadiationThe-concepts-of |journal=Physics Today |language=en |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=30–33 |doi=10.1063/1.1897520 |bibcode=2005PhT....58b..30K |issn=0031-9228}}</ref> In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to [[statistical mechanics]] and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of [[radiation]], in which light consists of particles, subsequently called [[photon]]s. With the Indian physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], he laid the groundwork for [[Bose-Einstein statistics]]. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice".<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05004-4 |title=Did Einstein really say that? |last=Robinson |first=Andrew |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=30 April 2018 |volume=557 |number=30 |page=30 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4 |bibcode=2018Natur.557...30R |s2cid=14013938 |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109033021/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05004-4 |url-status=live | issn = 0028-0836}}</ref> Second, he attempted to devise a [[unified field theory]] by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include [[electromagnetism]]. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream [[modern physics]]. His intellectual achievements and originality made ''Einstein'' broadly synonymous with ''genius''.<ref name="wordnetweb.princeton.edu" /> In 1999, he was named [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']]'s [[Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century|Person of the Century]].<ref>{{cite magazine| title=Albert Einstein| magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]| date=31 December 1999| url= https://time.com/archive/6598209/albert-einstein/}}</ref> == Life and career == === Childhood, youth and education === {{See also|Einstein family}} [[File:Albert Einstein at the age of three (1882).jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=A young boy with short hair and a round face, wearing a white collar and large bow, with vest, coat, skirt, and high boots. He is leaning against an ornate chair.|Einstein in 1882, age&nbsp;3]] Albert Einstein was born in [[Ulm]],<ref name="Bio" /> in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/12/how-einstein-divided-americas-jews/307763/ |journal=The Atlantic |year=2009 |first=Walter |last=Isaacson |title=How Einstein Divided America's Jews |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126013637/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/12/how-einstein-divided-americas-jews/307763/ |url-status=live }}</ref> His parents, secular [[Ashkenazi Jews]], were [[Hermann Einstein]], a salesman and engineer, and [[Pauline Koch]]. In 1880, the family moved to [[Munich]]'s borough of [[Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt]], where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on [[direct current]].<ref name="Bio" /> He often related a formative event from his youth, when he was sick in bed and his father brought him a [[magnetic compass|compass]]. This sparked his lifelong fascination with [[electromagnetism]]. He realized that "Something deeply hidden had to be behind things."<ref>{{cite book| author=Walter Isaacson| title=Einstein: His Life and Universe| page=13| date=2007}}</ref> Albert attended St. Peter's [[Catholic school|Catholic elementary school]] in Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to the [[Luitpold Gymnasium]], where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2002|pp=[{{GBurl|id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC|p=59}} 59–61]}} In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient, [[alternating current]] alternative.<ref name="EQyag" /> The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first to [[Milan]] and a few months later to [[Pavia]], where they settled in [[Palazzo Cornazzani]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=University of Pavia |title=Einstein, Albert |url=http://musei.unipv.eu/msu/our-museums/historical-figures/albert-einstein/ |website=Museo per la Storia dell'Università di Pavia |publisher=University of Pavia |access-date=7 January 2023}}</ref> Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to study [[electrical engineering]], but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strict [[rote learning]] was harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia.{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=30–31}} While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled "On the Investigation of the State of the [[Aether (classical element)|Ether]] in a Magnetic Field".{{Sfnp|Stachel et al.|2008|loc=vol. 1 (1987), doc. 5}}<ref name="1RgTv" /> Einstein excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus and [[Euclidean geometry]] when he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] before his thirteenth birthday.<ref name="FVfDU" />{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=16}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The God Problem: How a Godless Cosmos Creates |edition=illustrated |first1=Howard |last1=Bloom |publisher=Prometheus Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61614-552-1 |page=294 |url={{GBurl|id=xlEupJb4ojIC}} |access-date=8 August 2020 }} {{cite book| url = {{GBurl|id=xlEupJb4ojIC|pg=PT294}}| title = Extract of page 294| isbn = 978-1-61614-552-1| last1 = Bloom| first1 = Howard| date = 30 August 2012| publisher = Prometheus Books| access-date = 8 August 2020}}</ref> A family tutor, [[Max Talmud]], said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy "had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics&nbsp;... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=17}} Einstein recorded that he had "mastered [[integral]] and [[differential calculus]]" while still just fourteen.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=16}} His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure".{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=17}} [[File:Albert Einstein as a child.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|left|alt=Studio photo of a boy seated in a relaxed posture and wearing a suit, posed in front of a backdrop of scenery.|Einstein in 1893, age&nbsp;14]] {{Cosmology|scientists}} At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy,{{sfnp|Calaprice|Lipscombe|2005|p=8}} Talmud introduced Einstein to [[Kant]]'s ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=17}} [[File:Albert Einstein's exam of maturity grades (color2).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17. The heading translates as "The Education Committee of the Canton of Aargau". His scores were German 5, French 3, Italian 5, History 6, Geography 4, Algebra 6, Geometry 6, Descriptive Geometry 6, Physics 6, Chemistry 5, Natural History 5, Art Drawing 4, Technical Drawing 4. 6 = very good, 5 = good, 4 = sufficient, 3 = insufficient, 2 = poor, 1 = very poor.|Einstein's ''[[Matura]]'' certificate, 1896<ref group=note name=MaturaScore />]] In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for the [[ETH Zurich|federal polytechnic school]] (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test,{{Sfnp|Stachel et al.|2008|loc=vol. 1 (1987), p. 11}} but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics.{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=36–37}} On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at the [[Old Cantonal School Aarau|Argovian cantonal school]] (a [[Gymnasium (school)|''gymnasium'']]) in [[Aarau]], Switzerland, graduating in 1896.<ref name="b250">{{cite journal | last=Hunziker | first=Herbert | title=Albert Einstein's Magic Mountain: An Aarau Education* | journal=Physics in Perspective | volume=17 | issue=1 | date=2015 | issn=1422-6944 | doi=10.1007/s00016-014-0153-5 | pages=55–69| bibcode=2015PhP....17...55H }} ref for: [[Old Cantonal School Aarau]]</ref> While lodging in Aarau with the family of [[Jost Winteler]], he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister, [[Maja Einstein|Maja]], later married Winteler's son Paul.{{Sfnp|Highfield|Carter|1993|pp=21, 31, 56–57}}) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his [[German citizenship|citizenship of the German Kingdom of Württemberg]] in order to avoid [[Conscription in Germany|conscription into military service]].{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|p=40}} The ''[[Matura]]'' (graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him a [[Grading systems by country#Switzerland|top grade of 6]] for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry.{{Sfnp|Stachel et al.|2008|loc=vol. 1 (1987), docs. 21–27}} At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post in [[Olsberg, Aargau|Olsberg]], Switzerland.{{Sfnp|Highfield|Carter|1993|pp=21, 31, 56–57}} The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year old [[Serbs|Serbian]], [[Mileva Marić]]. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers.<ref name="mileva">{{Cite web|last=Gagnon|first=Pauline|date=19 December 2016|title=The Forgotten Life of Einstein's First Wife|url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-forgotten-life-of-einsteins-first-wife/|access-date=17 October 2020|website=Scientific American Blog Network|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017222145/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-forgotten-life-of-einsteins-first-wife/|url-status=live}}</ref> Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein's ''annus mirabilis'' publications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,<ref name="mileva" /><ref name="7HA7H" /><ref name="1zJdH" /> but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all.{{Sfnp|Pais|1994|pp=1–29}}<ref name="xKrMG" />{{Sfnp|Stachel|2002|pp=[{{GBurl|id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC|p=49}} 49–56]}}<ref name="dUxMl" /> === Marriages, relationships and children === [[File:Albert Einstein and his wife Mileva Maric.jpg|thumb|left|Albert Einstein and [[Mileva Marić]] Einstein, 1912]] [[File:Albert Einstein and Elsa Einstein arriving by ship, San Diego, 1930 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Albert Einstein and Elsa Einstein, 1930]] Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents in [[Novi Sad]], she gave birth to a daughter, [[Lieserl Einstein|Lieserl]]. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of [[scarlet fever]] in infancy.<ref name="HBMes" />{{sfnp|Calaprice|Lipscombe|2005|pp=22–23}} Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son [[Hans Albert Einstein|Hans Albert]] was born in [[Bern]], Switzerland. Their son [[Einstein family#Eduard "Tete" Einstein (Albert's second son)|Eduard]] was born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as "misguided" and mourned the "missed life" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be."<ref name="MlQLY" /> In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship with [[Elsa Löwenthal]], who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.{{sfnp|Calaprice|Lipscombe|2005|p=[{{GBurl|id=5eWh2O_3OAQC|p=50}} 50]}}<ref name="dh">{{cite book |last1=Hoffmann |first1=Dieter |title=Einstein's Berlin: In the footsteps of a genius |date=2013 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-1-4214-1040-1 |pages=2–9, 28}}</ref>{{Sfnp|Stachel|1966}} When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.<ref name="mileva" /> Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/06/arts/dark-side-of-einstein-emerges-in-his-letters.html|title=Dark Side of Einstein Emerges in His Letters|first=Dinitia|last=Smith|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 November 1996|access-date=17 August 2020|archive-date=5 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105092333/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/06/arts/dark-side-of-einstein-emerges-in-his-letters.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Stachel|2002|p=[{{GBurl|id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC|p=50}} 50]}} As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Volume 9: The Berlin Years: Correspondence, January 1919 – April 1920 (English translation supplement) page 6|url=https://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/vol9-trans/28|access-date=4 October 2021|website=einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu|archive-date=4 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004033245/https://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/vol9-trans/28|url-status=live}}</ref> Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|loc="Main characters", front matter}}{{Sfnp|Calaprice|Kennefick|Schulmann|2015|p=62}} In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1523626/Einsteins-theory-of-fidelity.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1523626/Einsteins-theory-of-fidelity.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Einstein's theory of fidelity|first=Roger|last=Highfield|date=10 July 2006|work=The Daily Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/17/science/albert-einstein-genius-national-geographic-channel.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418100011/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/17/science/albert-einstein-genius-national-geographic-channel.html |archive-date=18 April 2017 |url-access=limited |title='Genius' Unravels the Mysteries of Einstein's Universe|first=Dennis|last=Overbye|newspaper=The New York Times|date=17 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.natgeotv.com/za/special/genius-albert-einsteins-theory-of-infidelity|title=Genius Albert Einstein's Theory of Infidelity|publisher=NatGeo TV|access-date=9 August 2020|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923010851/https://www.natgeotv.com/za/special/genius-albert-einsteins-theory-of-infidelity|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.jpost.com/health-and-science/getting-up-close-and-personal-with-einstein|title=Getting up close and personal with Einstein|website=The Jerusalem Post &#124; JPost.com|access-date=29 August 2020|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923001654/https://www.jpost.com/Health-and-Science/Getting-up-close-and-personal-with-Einstein|url-status=live}}</ref> Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936.{{Sfnp|Highfield|Carter|1993|p=216}} A volume of Einstein's letters released by [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] in 2006<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/einstein-secret-love-affairs-out/story-QVSHrfMYJzCRcIlbBCJKAM.html|title=Einstein secret love affairs out!|date=13 July 2006|website=Hindustan Times|access-date=17 August 2020|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923115250/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/einstein-secret-love-affairs-out/story-QVSHrfMYJzCRcIlbBCJKAM.html|url-status=live}}</ref> added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graydon |first=Samuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PRSsEAAAQBAJ&dq=Margarete+Lebach&pg=PA199 |title=Einstein in Time and Space: A Life in 99 Particles |date=14 November 2023 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-9821-8512-1 |edition=1 |location=New York |pages=199 |language=en}}</ref> Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna13804030|title=New letters shed light on Einstein's love life|date=11 July 2006|publisher=NBC News|access-date=15 August 2020|archive-date=22 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222022647/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/13804030/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/new-letters-shed-light-einsteins-love-life|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/albert-einstein-may-have-had-the-iq-but-he-needed-to-work-on-his-eq/articleshow/64849211.cms?from=mdr|title=Albert Einstein may have had the IQ, but he needed to work on his EQ|newspaper=The Economic Times|access-date=15 August 2020|archive-date=8 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208134808/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/albert-einstein-may-have-had-the-iq-but-he-needed-to-work-on-his-eq/articleshow/64849211.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptor [[Sergei Konenkov]], created the bronze bust of Einstein at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] at Princeton.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/01/us/love-letters-by-einstein-at-auction.html|title=Love Letters By Einstein at Auction|first=Robin|last=Pogrebin|newspaper=The New York Times|date=1 June 1998|access-date=10 August 2020|archive-date=7 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107053956/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/01/us/love-letters-by-einstein-at-auction.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/einsteins-letters-show-affair-with-spy-1162418.html|title=Einstein's letters show affair with spy|date=2 June 1998|website=The Independent|access-date=10 November 2020|archive-date=16 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116013010/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/einsteins-letters-show-affair-with-spy-1162418.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed with [[schizophrenia]].<ref name="Robinson2015a" /> He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently to [[Burghölzli]], the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich.{{sfnp|Neffe|2007|p=[https://archive.org/details/einsteinbiograph00neff/page/203 203]}} === 1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office === Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics.{{Sfnp|Stachel et al.|2008|loc=vol. 1 (1987), doc. 67}} His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|p=82}} was not followed by the usual sequel of [[conscription in Switzerland|conscription]]; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help of [[Marcel Grossmann]]'s father that he secured a post in [[Bern]] at the [[Swiss Patent Office]],<ref name="ODY5p" />{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=63}} as an [[Patent examiner|assistant examiner – level III]].<ref name="MeZPN" /><ref name="IGEFAQ" /> [[Patent application]]s that landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.<ref name="IGEFAQ" /> His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had "fully mastered machine technology".{{sfnp|Galison|2000|p=370}} It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment.{{sfnp|Galison|2000|p=377}} In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, the [[Olympia Academy]], was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening.{{Sfnp|Highfield|Carter|1993|pp=96–98}} The thinkers whose works they reflected upon included [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Ernst Mach]] and [[David Hume]], all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=79–84}} === 1900–1905: First scientific papers === [[File:Einstein thesis.png|thumb|upright|alt=Cover image of the PhD dissertation of Albert Einstein|Einstein's 1905 dissertation, {{shy|''Eine neue Be|stimm|ung der Mol|e|kül|di|men|si|one'' ("A new deter|mi|na|tion of mo|lec|u|lar di|men|sions")}}]] Einstein's first paper, [[List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein#Journal articles|"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen"]] ("Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journal ''[[Annalen der Physik]]'' in 1901.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1901}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Murrell | first1 = J. N. | last2 = Grobert | first2 = N. | date = January 2002 | doi = 10.1098/rsnr.2002.0169 | issue = 1 | journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London | jstor = 532124 | pages = 89–94 | title = The centenary of Einstein's first scientific paper | volume = 56}}</ref> His 24-page doctoral dissertation{{clarify|reason=Einstein seems to have somehow time-warped from graduating from polytechnic school in 1900 to submitting a doctoral dissertation in 1905; had he been doing course work while also employed as patent examiner, or did this doctoral program work the same way as the patent office, where you submitted your patent application/thesis, and then the examiner either awarded you a patent/PhD or not?|date=October 2024}} also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled "Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen" ("A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905b|loc="Meinem Freunde Herr Dr. Marcel Grossmann gewidmet (Dedicated to my friend, Dr. Marcel Grossmann)"}} and approved by Professor [[Alfred Kleiner]] of the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.){{Sfnp|Einstein|1905b|loc="Meinem Freunde Herr Dr. Marcel Grossmann gewidmet (Dedicated to my friend, Dr. Marcel Grossmann)"}}{{Sfnp|Einstein|1926b|loc=chap. "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions"}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mehra |first=Jagdish |url={{GBurl|id=o1XVCgAAQBAJ}} |title=Golden Age Of Theoretical Physics, The (Boxed Set Of 2 Vols) |date=28 February 2001 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-4492-85-0 |language=en}}</ref> Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in 1905—[[Annus mirabilis papers|his famous papers]] on the [[photoelectric effect]], [[Brownian motion]], his [[special theory of relativity]] and the [[equivalence of mass and energy]]—have led to the year being celebrated as an ''annus mirabilis'' for physics akin to 1666 (the year in which [[Isaac Newton]] experienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=May |first1=Andrew |editor1-last=Clegg |editor1-first=Brian |title=Albert Einstein, in 30-Second Physics: The 50 most fundamental concepts in physics, each explained in half a minute |date=2017 |publisher=Ivy Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-78240-514-6 |pages=108–109}}</ref> === 1908–1933: Early academic career === Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at the [[University of Bern]]. In 1909, a lecture on relativistic [[electrodynamics]] that he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.<ref name="bG2yp" /> Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the German [[Charles-Ferdinand University]] in Prague, a move which required him to become an [[Cisleithania|Austrian]] citizen of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]].{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=164}}<ref name="Itl8r" /> His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lyth |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pRaGDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Einstein%22+%22Prague%22+%22Eleven%22&pg=PA122 |title=The Road to Einstein's Relativity: Following in the Footsteps of the Giants |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-68268-1 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|alt=Head and shoulders shot of a young, moustached man with dark, curly hair wearing a plaid suit and vest, striped shirt, and a dark tie.|thumb|upright=1.1|Einstein in 1904, age&nbsp;25]] [[File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Three young men in suits with high white collars and bow ties, sitting.|[[Olympia Academy]] founders: [[Conrad Habicht]], [[Maurice Solovine]], and Einstein]] In July 1912, he returned to his ''alma mater'', the [[ETH Zurich]], to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred on [[thermodynamics]] and analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat, [[continuum mechanics]] and the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own.<ref name="hXQin" /> In the spring of 1913, two German visitors, [[Max Planck]] and [[Walther Nernst]], called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2002|p=534}} They offered him membership of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], the directorship of the planned [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]] and a chair at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]] that would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.<ref name=dh /> Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2002|p=534}} He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,<ref name="jstor.org">{{Cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1687520 |title=Albert Einstein: His Influence on Physics, Philosophy and Politics JL Heilbron – 1982, Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science |jstor=1687520 |access-date=22 November 2021 |archive-date=22 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122130724/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1687520 |url-status=live }}</ref> and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district of [[Dahlem (Berlin)|Dahlem]] on 1 April 1914.<ref name=dh /> He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter.<ref name="jstor.org"/> The outbreak of the [[First World War]] in July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the "[[Manifesto of the Ninety-Three]]" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic "[[Manifesto to the Europeans]]" instead.{{sfnp|Scheideler|2002|p=333}}{{Sfnp|Weinstein|2015|pp=18–19}} However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of the [[German Physical Society]] in 1916.{{sfnp|Calaprice|Lipscombe|2005|loc=[{{GBurl|id=5eWh2O_3OAQC|pg=PR19}} "Timeline", p. xix]}} When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised.<ref name="EXcH6" /> Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1920,<ref name="3gcYy" /> and a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1921|Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1921]]. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".<ref name="Nobel Prize" /> At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity skeptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community when [[S. N. Bose]] derived the [[Planck spectrum]] in 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 February 2023 |title=Albert Einstein |url=https://www.amacad.org/person/albert-einstein |access-date=13 July 2023 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221194114/https://www.amacad.org/person/albert-einstein |archive-date=21 February 2024}}</ref> Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, the [[Royal Society]]'s [[Copley Medal]], was not hung around Einstein's neck until 1925.<ref name="frs" /> He was elected an International Member of the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1930.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Albert+Einstein&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=13 July 2023 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving the [[Einstein–de Haas effect]], contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of [[Bose–Einstein statistics]].<ref name=dh /> === 1919: Putting general relativity to the test === [[File:19191125 A New Physics Based on Einstein - The New York Times.png|thumb|right| ''The New York Times'' reported confirmation of the bending of light by gravitation after observations (made in [[Príncipe]] and [[Sobral, Ceará|Sobral]]) of the 29 May 1919 eclipse were presented to a joint meeting in London of the [[Royal Society]] and the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] on 6 November 1919.<ref name="NYTimes_19191125" />]] In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of his [[equivalence principle]], which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would be [[Gravitational lens|bent]] by the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun's [[photosphere]] (that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with the [[Riemann curvature tensor]] of a non-Euclidean four-dimensional [[spacetime]]. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, the [[precession of the perihelion of Mercury]] (a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).<ref name=dh /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Weinberg |first1=Steven |title=Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and applications of the general theory of relativity |date=1972 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=9788126517558 |pages=19–20}}</ref> A [[Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919|total eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919]] provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by Sir [[Arthur Eddington]] yielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper, ''[[The Times]]'', printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science&nbsp;– New Theory of the Universe&nbsp;– Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".<ref name="Eddington" /> === 1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame === [[File:Albert Einstein (Nobel).png|thumb|upright|left|Einstein's official portrait after receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics]] With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became "perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-celebrity-scientist-albert-einstein-used-fame-denounce-american-racism-180962356/|last=Francis|first=Matthew|title=How Albert Einstein Used His Fame to Denounce American Racism|date=3 March 2017|publisher=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by Mayor [[John Francis Hylan]], and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.<ref>Falk, Dan, ''[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/one-hundred-years-ago-einstein-was-given-heros-welcome-americas-jews-180977386/ One Hundred Years Ago, Einstein Was Given a Hero's Welcome by America's Jews] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210403140031/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/one-hundred-years-ago-einstein-was-given-heros-welcome-americas-jews-180977386/ |date=3 April 2021 }}'', Smithsonian, 2 April 2021</ref> He spoke several times at [[Columbia University]] and [[Princeton]], and in Washington, he visited the [[White House]] with representatives of the [[National Academy of Sciences]]. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesman [[Viscount Haldane]]. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture at [[King's College London|King's College]].{{Sfnp|Hoffmann|1972|pp=145–148}}{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=499–508}} In July 1921, he published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as had [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] in ''[[Democracy in America]]'' (1835).<ref name="7gwHd" /> He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy."{{sfnp|Holton|1984|p=20}} In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known as [[Ceylon]]). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he met [[Emperor Yoshihito]] and his wife at the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace|Imperial Palace]], with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=307–308}} But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: "[the] intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that "even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary".<ref name="38YkY" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Katz|first=Brigit|title=Einstein's Travel Diaries Reveal His Deeply Troubling Views on Race|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/einsteins-travel-diaries-reveal-his-deeply-troubling-views-race-180969387/|access-date=3 January 2021|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en|archive-date=25 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225201826/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/einsteins-travel-diaries-reveal-his-deeply-troubling-views-race-180969387/|url-status=live}}</ref>) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days in [[Mandatory Palestine]], newly entrusted to British rule by the [[League of Nations]] in the aftermath of the First World War. [[Sir Herbert Samuel]], the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=308}} Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go to [[Stockholm]] in the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.<ref name="oxak7" /> A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him by [[King Alfonso XIII]]. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomist [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]].)<ref name="w74nv" /> === 1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations === [[File:League of Nations Commission 067.tif|thumb|Einstein at a session of the [[International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]] ([[League of Nations]]) of which he was a member from 1922 to 1932]] From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-based [[International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]] of the [[League of Nations]], a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.<ref name="Q5hgx" /><ref name="vNNnX" /> He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists, [[Oskar Halecki]] and [[Giuseppe Motta]]. By persuading Secretary General [[Eric Drummond]] to deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening for [[Gonzague de Reynold]], who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.<ref name="e9Xyh" /> Einstein's former physics professor [[Hendrik Lorentz]] and the Polish chemist [[Marie Curie]] were also members of the committee.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations |journal=Science |date=6 August 1926 |volume=64 |issue=1649 |pages=132–133 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1651869 |access-date=30 May 2022 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|doi=10.1126/science.64.1649.132.b |jstor=1651869 |s2cid=239778182 }}</ref> === 1925: Touring South America === In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-0-8176-4940-1_6|chapter=Science and Ideology in Einstein's Visit to South America in 1925|editor= Lehner, Christoph|editor2=Renn, Jürgen|editor3=Schemmel, Matthias|title=Einstein and the Changing Worldviews of Physics|year=2012|last1=Tolmasquim|first1=Alfredo Tiomno|pages=117–133|isbn=978-0-8176-4939-5}}</ref> Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1017/S0269889708001853|title=Einstein's Unpublished Opening Lecture for His Course on Relativity Theory in Argentina, 1925|year=2008|last1=Gangui|first1=Alejandro|last2=Ortiz|first2=Eduardo L.|journal=Science in Context|volume=21|issue=3|pages=435–450|arxiv=0903.2064|s2cid=54920641}}</ref> with the support of several Argentine scholars, including [[Julio Rey Pastor]], [[Jakob Laub]], and [[Leopoldo Lugones]]. and was financed primarily by the Council of the [[University of Buenos Aires]] and the ''Asociación Hebraica Argentina'' (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution.<ref>{{cite arXiv|eprint=1603.03792|last1=Gangui|first1=Alejandro|last2=Ortiz|first2=Eduardo L.|title=The scientific impact of Einstein's visit to Argentina, in 1925|year=2016|class=physics.hist-ph}}</ref> === 1930–1931: Touring the US === In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at the [[California Institute of Technology]]. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=368}} After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including [[Chinatown, Manhattan|Chinatown]], a lunch with the editors of ''The New York Times'', and a performance of ''Carmen'' at the [[Metropolitan Opera]], where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]] and met [[Nicholas Murray Butler]], the president of [[Columbia University]], who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind".{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=370}} [[Harry Emerson Fosdick]], pastor at New York's [[Riverside Church]], gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=370}} Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at [[Madison Square Garden (1925)|Madison Square Garden]] during a [[Hanukkah]] celebration.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=370}} [[File:Albert Einstein and Charlie Chaplin City Lights premiere 1931.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|left|Einstein with [[Charlie Chaplin]] at the [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] premiere of Chaplin's ''[[City Lights]]'', January 1931]] Einstein next traveled to California, where he met [[Caltech]] president and Nobel laureate [[Robert A. Millikan]]. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced [[pacifist]].{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=373}} During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=374}} This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author [[Upton Sinclair]] and film star [[Charlie Chaplin]], both noted for their pacifism. [[Carl Laemmle]], head of [[Universal Pictures|Universal Studios]], gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy".{{sfnp|Chaplin|1964|p=320}} Chaplin's film ''[[City Lights]]'' was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. [[Walter Isaacson]], Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity".{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=374}} Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis".{{sfnp|Chaplin|1964|p=322}} === 1933: Emigration to the US === [[File:Einstein-cartoon1.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Cartoon of Einstein, who has shed his "Pacifism" wings, standing next to a pillar labeled "World Peace". He is rolling up his sleeves and holding a sword labeled "Preparedness".|Cartoon of Einstein after shedding his "pacifism" wings ([[Charles R. Macauley]], {{circa|1933}})]] In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] under Germany's new chancellor, [[Adolf Hitler]].{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|p=659}}{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=404}} While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the [[California Institute of Technology]] in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the [[Gestapo]] repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Albert Einstein Quits Germany, Renounces Citizenship|url=https://newspapers.ushmm.org/events/albert-einstein-quits-germany-renounces-citizenship|access-date=14 March 2021|website=History Unfolded: US Newspapers and the Holocaust|language=en|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417085304/https://newspapers.ushmm.org/events/albert-einstein-quits-germany-renounces-citizenship|url-status=live}}</ref> He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the [[Enabling Act of 1933|Enabling Act]] on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a ''de facto'' legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in [[Antwerp]], Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a [[Hitler Youth]] camp.<ref name="el4GB" /> ==== Refugee status ==== [[File:Einstein's landing card (5706142737).jpg|thumb|Landing card for Einstein's 26 May 1933 arrival in [[Dover]], England from [[Ostend]], Belgium,<ref name="robinson19" /> enroute to [[Oxford]]<ref name="robinson24" />]] In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service|laws barring Jews from holding any official positions]], including teaching at universities.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} Historian [[Gerald Holton]] describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.{{sfnp|Holton|1984|p=}} A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the [[German Student Union]] in the [[Nazi book burnings]], with Nazi propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}}<ref name="Jerome" /> In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend [[Max Born]], who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "...&nbsp;I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence".{{Sfnp|Einstein|1954|p=197}} Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the [[Academic Assistance Council]], founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politician [[William Beveridge]] to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.<ref name="Albert Hall">{{cite web |url=https://www.royalalberthall.com/about-the-hall/news/2013/october/3-october-1933-albert-einstein-speaks-at-the-hall/ |title=3 October 1933 – Albert Einstein presents his final speech given in Europe, at the Royal Albert Hall |last=Keyte |first=Suzanne |date=9 October 2013 |website=Royal Albert Hall |access-date=20 June 2022}}</ref> He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander [[Oliver Locker-Lampson]], who had become friends with him in the preceding years.<ref name="robinson19">{{cite book| first=Andrew | last=Robinson | author-link=W. Andrew Robinson | title=[[Einstein on the Run]] | publisher=[[Yale University Press]] | isbn=978-0-300-23476-3 | date=2019 }}</ref> Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his [[Cromer]] home in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of [[Roughton, Norfolk]]. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the ''Daily Herald'' on 24 July 1933.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=422}}<ref name="3zIp7" /> [[File:Churchill and Einstein in 1933.jpg|thumb|[[Winston Churchill]] and Einstein at [[Chartwell]] House, 31 May 1933]] Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet [[Winston Churchill]] at his home, and later, [[Austen Chamberlain]] and former Prime Minister [[Lloyd George]].{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=419–420}} Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian [[Martin Gilbert]] notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist [[Frederick Lindemann]], to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.<ref name="Gilbert" /> Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put [[Allies of World War II|the Allies]]' technology ahead of theirs.<ref name="Gilbert" /> Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, [[İsmet İnönü]], to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals".<ref name="aDu8s" /> Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}} In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.<ref name="AP" /> In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.<ref group=note name="gnriE" /><ref name="Guardian" /> Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], US, to become a resident scholar.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}} ==== Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study ==== [[File:Einstein-formal portrait-35 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Einstein taken in 1935 at Princeton]] On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in London, with ''[[The Times]]'' reporting he was wildly cheered throughout.<ref name="Albert Hall" /> Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]],{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=649, 678}} noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.<ref name="Arntzenius2011" /> At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their [[Jewish quota]]s, which lasted until the late 1940s.<ref name="Arntzenius2011" /> Einstein was still undecided about his future. He had offers from several European universities, including [[Christ Church, Oxford]], where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933<ref name="robinson24" /> and was offered a five-year research [[fellowship]] (called a "[[studentship]]" at Christ Church),<ref name="FFt5E" /><ref name="v8v06" /> but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=686–687}} Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.<ref name="mzNc5" /> He was one of the four first selected (along with [[John von Neumann]], [[Kurt Gödel]], and [[Hermann Weyl]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Weyl |first1=Hermann |editor1-last=Pesic |editor1-first=Peter |title=Levels of Infinity: Selected Writings on Mathematics and Philosophy |date=2013 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=9780486266930 |page=5 |url={{GBurl|id=Dd-vAAAAQBAJ}} |access-date=30 May 2022 |quote=By 1933, Weyl... left for the newly-founded Institute for Advanced Studies at Princeton, where his colleagues included Einstein, Kurt Gödel, and John von Neumann.}}</ref>) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. [[Bruria Kaufman]], his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a [[unified field theory]] and to refute the [[Copenhagen interpretation|accepted interpretation]] of [[quantum physics]], both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. The [[Albert Einstein House]] was made a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1976. ==== World War II and the Manhattan Project ==== {{See also|Einstein–Szilárd letter}} [[File:München-2021-Deutsches_Museum-Einstein.jpg|thumb|Marble bust of Einstein at the [[Deutsches Museum]] in [[Munich]]]] In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist [[Leó Szilárd]] attempted to alert [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as [[Edward Teller]] and [[Eugene Wigner]], "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the [[German nuclear energy project|race to build an atomic bomb]], and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=630}}<ref name="o4fkQ" /> To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.<ref name="pRqWK" /> He was asked to lend his support by writing [[Einstein–Szilard letter|a letter]], with Szilárd, to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".<ref name="4Z68g" /> In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the [[Belgian royal family]]<ref name="eZym8" /> and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the [[Manhattan Project]]. For Einstein, "war was a disease&nbsp;... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.<ref name="z73PK" /> In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, [[Linus Pauling]], "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them&nbsp;..."{{Sfnp|Clark|1971|p=752}} In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]], signed [[Russell–Einstein Manifesto|a manifesto]] highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Einstein|first1=Albert|url=https://pugwash.org/1955/07/09/statement-manifesto/|title=The Russell-Einstein Manifesto|last2=Russell|first2=Bertrand|date=9 July 1955|location=London|access-date=9 June 2021|archive-date=1 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301114337/https://pugwash.org/1955/07/09/statement-manifesto/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of the [[World Academy of Art and Science]] (WAAS),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boyko |first1=Hugo |title=Science and the Future of Mankind |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=377 |url=https://www.worldacademy.org/files/publications/Science%20and%20the%20Future%20of%20Mankind.pdf}}</ref> an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. ==== US citizenship ==== [[File:Citizen-Einstein.jpg|thumb|Einstein accepting a [[Citizenship of the United States|US citizenship]] certificate from judge [[Phillip Forman]]]] Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the [[meritocracy]] in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=432}} Einstein joined the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the [[Civil rights movement (1896–1954)|civil rights]] of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease",<ref name="Jerome" /><ref name="smithsonianmag">{{cite news |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-celebrity-scientist-albert-einstein-used-fame-denounce-american-racism-180962356 |title=How Albert Einstein Used His Fame to Denounce American Racism |first=Matthew |last=Francis |date=3 March 2017 |work=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=11 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211150143/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-celebrity-scientist-albert-einstein-used-fame-denounce-american-racism-180962356/ |url-status=live }}</ref> seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next".{{Sfnp|Calaprice|2005|pp=148–149}} As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951.{{sfnp|Robeson|2002|p=565}} When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.<ref name="civil" /> In 1946, Einstein visited [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]] in Pennsylvania, a [[historically black college]], where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include [[Langston Hughes]] and [[Thurgood Marshall]]. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it."<ref name="Jerome_Isis" /> A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.<ref name="civil" /> Einstein has said, "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination".<ref name="smithsonianmag"/> === Personal views === ==== Political views ==== {{Main|Political views of Albert Einstein}} [[File:Einstein Apr.1921 SS Rotterdam 32099.jpg|alt=Casual group shot of four men and two women standing on a brick pavement.|thumb|Albert Einstein and [[Elsa Einstein]] arriving in New York in 1921. Accompanying them are Zionist leaders [[Chaim Weizmann]] (future president of Israel), Weizmann's wife [[Vera Weizmann]], [[Menahem Ussishkin]], and Ben-Zion Mossinson.]] In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of the [[German Democratic Party]], a liberal party.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tobies |first=Renate |url={{Google books|EDm0eQqFUQ4C|page=116|plainurl=yes}} |title=Iris Runge - A Life at the Crossroads of Mathematics, Science, and Industry |publisher=Birkhèauser |year=2012 |isbn=978-3034802512 |location=Basel |pages=116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gimbel |first=Steven |url={{Google books|HvTOBwAAQBAJ|page=111|plainurl=yes}} |title=Einstein - His Space and Times |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0300196719 |location=New Haven |pages=111}}</ref> Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of [[socialism]] and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "[[Why Socialism?]]".{{sfnp|Einstein|1949}}<ref name="LXsUJ" /> His opinions on the [[Bolsheviks]] also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a "well-regulated system of government" and called their rule a "regime of terror and a tragedy in human history". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on [[Vladimir Lenin]]: {{blockquote|In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience.{{sfnp|Rowe|Schulmann|2013|pp=[{{GBurl|id=_X1dAAAAQBAJ|pg=413}} 412, 413]}}}} Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}} He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic [[global government]] that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=487, 494, 550}} He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself."<ref>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4 (February 1948), No. 2 35–37: 'A Reply to the Soviet Scientists, December 1947'</ref> The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages long.<ref name="ixWWZ" /> Einstein was deeply impressed by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come".<ref name="Albano-Müller" /> The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when [[Wilfrid Israel]] took his Indian guest [[V. A. Sundaram]] to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://streams.gandhiserve.org/einstein.html| title = Einstein's letter and Gandhi's answer| access-date = 22 August 2021| archive-date = 9 June 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140609031152/http://streams.gandhiserve.org/einstein.html| url-status = live}}, gandhiserve.org</ref> ==== Relationship with Zionism ==== {{Main|Political views of Albert Einstein#Zionism}} [[File:Albert Einstein Head.jpg|thumb|upright|Einstein in 1947]] Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/25/science/brace-yourself-here-comes-einsteins-year.html|title=Brace Yourself! Here Comes Einstein's Year|quote=Hebrew University ... which he helped found|author=Dennis Overbye|date=25 January 2005|access-date=27 October 2020|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030232656/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/25/science/brace-yourself-here-comes-einsteins-year.html|url-status=live}}</ref> which opened in 1925.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://en.huji.ac.il/history |website=Hebrew University}}</ref> Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the [[World Zionist Organization]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], to help raise funds for the planned university.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=290}} He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as [[malaria]], which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development.{{sfnp|Rowe|Schulmann|2007|p=161}} He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic.{{sfnp|Rowe|Schulmann|2007|p=158}} Einstein was not a [[nationalist]] and opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state.{{sfnp|Rowe|Schulmann|2007|p=33}} He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the [[Aliyah]] could live alongside existing Arabs in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The state of [[Israel]] was established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the [[Zionism|Zionist movement]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Ze'ev |last=Rosenkranz |date=2011 |title=Einstein Before Israel: Zionist Icon Or Iconoclast? |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=4–5 |isbn=978-0-691-14412-2}}</ref> Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister [[David Ben-Gurion]] offered Einstein the largely ceremonial position of [[President of Israel]] at the urging of [[Ezriel Carlebach]].<ref name="Time" /><ref name="Msb2q" /> The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, [[Abba Eban]], who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=522}} Einstein wrote that he was "deeply moved", but "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=522}} ==== Religious and philosophical views ==== [[File:03 ALBERT EINSTEIN.ogg|thumb|Opening of Einstein's speech (11 April 1943) for the United Jewish Appeal (recording by Radio Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina) ---- "Ladies (coughs) and gentlemen, our age is proud of the progress it has made in man's intellectual development. The search and striving for truth and knowledge is one of the highest of man's qualities&nbsp;..."]] {{Main|Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein}} Per [[Lee Smolin]], "I believe what allowed Einstein to achieve so much was primarily a moral quality. He simply cared far more than most of his colleagues that the laws of physics have to explain everything in nature coherently and consistently."<ref>{{cite book| author=Walter Isaacson| title=Einstein: His Life and Universe| date=2007| pages=549–550}}</ref> Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.<ref name="018QJ" /> He said he had sympathy for the impersonal [[pantheistic]] God of [[Spinozism|Baruch Spinoza's philosophy]].{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2008|p=[{{GBurl|id=G_iziBAPXtEC|p=325}} 325]}} He did not believe in a [[personal god]] who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.{{Sfnp|Calaprice|2000|p=218}} He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist",{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2008|p=[{{GBurl|id=cdxWNE7NY6QC|pg=PT390}} 390]}} preferring to call himself an agnostic,{{Sfnp|Calaprice|2010|p=[{{GBurl|id=G_iziBAPXtEC|p=340}} 340]}}<ref name="flickr2687" /> or a "deeply religious nonbeliever".{{Sfnp|Calaprice|2000|p=218}} He wrote that "A spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe—a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort."<ref>{{cite book| author=Walter Isaacson| title=Einstein: His Life and Universe| date=2007| pages=550–551}}</ref> Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious [[Secular humanist|humanist]] and [[Ethical Culture]] groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the [[First Humanist Society of New York]],<ref name="mKToJ" /> and was an honorary associate of the [[Rationalist Association]], which publishes ''[[New Humanist]]'' in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the [[New York Society for Ethical Culture]], he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."{{sfnp|Einstein|1995|p=[{{GBurl|id=9fJkBqwDD3sC|p=62}} 62]}} In a German-language letter to philosopher [[Eric Gutkind]], dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:<blockquote>[[God (word)|The word God]] is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the [[Jewish religion]] like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the [[Jewish people]] to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything '[[Jews as the chosen people|chosen]]' about them.<ref name="xI99y" /></blockquote> Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the [[ProVeg Deutschland#History|German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund)]], he wrote:<blockquote>Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ivu.org/history/northam20a/einstein.html |title=Albert Einstein (1879–1955) |publisher=International Vegetarian Union }}</ref></blockquote> He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: "So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://aretheyvegan.com/alberteinstein/ |title=Was Albert Einstein vegan? |website=AreTheyVegan.com |date=27 March 2020 }}</ref> ==== Love of music ==== [[File:Wanda von Debschitz-Kunowski Albert Einstein beim Geigenspiel 1927.jpg|thumb|Einstein playing the violin (image published in 1927)]] Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: {{blockquote|If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music&nbsp;... I get most joy in life out of music.<ref name="BQH5A" /><ref name="aBOjz" />}} His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into [[German culture]]. According to conductor [[Leon Botstein]], Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age.<ref name="Botstein" /> When he turned 13, he discovered the [[Mozart violin sonatas|violin sonatas of Mozart]], whereupon he became enamored of [[Mozart]]'s compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty".<ref name="Botstein" /> At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing [[Beethoven's violin sonatas (disambiguation)|Beethoven's violin sonatas]]. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight{{' "}}. What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."<ref name="Botstein" /> Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played [[chamber music]] were a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the [[Köchel catalog]] of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by [[Alfred Einstein]], who may have been a distant relation.<ref name="kGuWC" /><ref name="OIn6p" /> In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of [[Beethoven]] and Mozart's works with members of the [[Zoellner Quartet]].<ref name="Times" /><ref name="RR" /> Near the end of his life, when the young [[Juilliard Quartet]] visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation".<ref name="Botstein" /> === Death === On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced [[internal bleeding]] caused by the rupture of an [[abdominal aortic aneurysm]], which had previously been reinforced surgically by [[Rudolph Nissen]] in 1948.<ref name="BXLfp" /> He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it.<ref name="QN45b" /> Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."<ref name="BhiNM" /> He died in the [[Princeton Hospital]] early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.<ref name="YUhsl" /> During the autopsy, the pathologist [[Thomas Stoltz Harvey]] removed [[Einstein's brain]] for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the [[neuroscience]] of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.<ref name="MqyYW" /> Einstein's remains were cremated in [[Trenton, New Jersey]],<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Cosgrove|first1=Benjamin|last2=Morse|first2=Ralph|url=https://www.life.com/history/the-day-albert-einstein-died-a-photographers-story/|magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life]]|title=The Day Albert Einstein Died: A Photographer's Story|date=14 March 2014|access-date=10 March 2021|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319004714/https://www.life.com/history/the-day-albert-einstein-died-a-photographers-story/|url-status=live}}</ref> and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.<ref name="GQrBZ" /><ref name="Obit" /> In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at [[UNESCO]] headquarters, nuclear physicist [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]] summarized his [[Einstein–Oppenheimer relationship|impression of Einstein]] as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness&nbsp;... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."<ref name="aJHxn" /> Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] in Israel.<ref>{{cite news|last=Unna|first=Issachar|date=22 June 2007|title=An Ongoing Power of Attraction|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.4945718|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=16 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616043403/https://www.haaretz.com/1.4945718|url-status=live}}</ref> == Scientific career == Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.<ref name="Bio" /><ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746" /> He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.<ref name="Nobel" /><ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746" /> On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.{{Sfnp|Stachel et al.|2008}}<ref name="NYT-20141204-DB" /> In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the [[Bose–Einstein statistics]], the [[Einstein refrigerator]] and others.<ref name="Instituut-Lorentz" /><ref name="e5xd8" /> === Statistical mechanics === ==== Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics ==== {{Main|Statistical mechanics|thermal fluctuations|statistical physics}} Einstein's first paper{{Sfnp|Einstein|1901}}<ref name="PubList" /> submitted in 1900 to ''[[Annalen der Physik]]'' was on [[capillary attraction]]. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret [[atom]]ic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.<ref name="PubList" /> ==== Theory of critical opalescence ==== {{Main|Critical opalescence}} Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to [[Rayleigh scattering]], which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.<ref name="L2N73" /> Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. === 1905 – ''Annus Mirabilis'' papers === The [[Annus mirabilis papers|''Annus Mirabilis'' papers]] are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]]), [[Brownian motion]], the [[special theory of relativity]], and [[Mass–energy equivalence|''E''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''mc''<sup>2</sup>]] that Einstein published in the ''Annalen der Physik'' scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of [[History of physics#Modern physics|modern physics]] and changed views on [[space]], time, and [[matter]]. The four papers are: {| class=wikitable |- ! Title <small>(translated)</small> !!<small>Area of focus</small> !! Received !! Published !! Significance |- | "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905a}} || Photoelectric effect || 18 March || 9 June || Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts ([[quantum|quanta]]).<ref name="1Jhcb" /> This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.<ref name="oJBvd" /> |- | "On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905c}} || [[Brownian motion]] || 11 May || 18 July || Explained empirical evidence for the [[atomic theory]], supporting the application of [[statistical physics]]. |- | "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905d}} || [[Special relativity]] || 30 June || 26&nbsp;September || Reconciled [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]'s equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.<ref name="RhZ8x" />{{specify|reason=reliable sources claim that he was unaware of those empirical data and was motivated by the transormation properties of Maxwell's Equations.|date=August 2024}} Discredited the concept of a "[[luminiferous ether]]".<ref name="lhfJ9" /> |- | "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905e}} || [[Mass–energy equivalence|{{nowrap|Matter–energy}} equivalence]] || 27&nbsp;September || 21 November || Equivalence of matter and energy, ''E''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''mc''<sup>2</sup>, the existence of "[[rest energy]]", and the basis of nuclear energy. |} === Special relativity === {{Main|History of special relativity}} Einstein's "{{lang|de|Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper}}"{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905d}} ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between [[Maxwell's equations]] (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=178–198}} Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the [[speed of light]]). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to [[Time dilation|slow down]], and the body itself would [[Length contraction|contract]] in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a [[luminiferous aether]]—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.<ref group=note name="aBfxO" /> In his paper on [[mass–energy equivalence]], Einstein produced ''E''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''mc''<sup>2</sup> as a consequence of his special relativity equations.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2002|pp=vi, 15, 90, 131, [{{GBurl|id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC|p=215}} 215]}} Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with [[Max Planck]].<ref group=note name="sBl2q" />{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|pp=382–386}} Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of [[kinematics]] (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, [[Hermann Minkowski]] reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of [[spacetime]]. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 [[general theory of relativity]].{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|pp=151–152}} === General relativity === ==== General relativity and the equivalence principle ==== {{Main|History of general relativity}} {{See also|Theory of relativity|Einstein field equations}} [[File:1919 eclipse positive.jpg|alt=Black circle covering the sun, rays visible around it, in a dark sky.|thumb|upright|[[Arthur Stanley Eddington|Eddington]]'s photograph of a [[solar eclipse]]]] [[General relativity]] (GR) is a [[theory of gravitation]] that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of [[spacetime]] by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern [[astrophysics]]; it provides the foundation for the current understanding of [[black holes]], regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fraknoi |first=Andrew |url=https://openstax.org/details/books/astronomy-2e |title=Astronomy 2e |date=2022 |display-authors=etal |publisher=OpenStax |isbn=978-1-951693-50-3 |edition=2e |oclc=1322188620 |pages=800–815}}</ref> As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within [[special relativity]] was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1923}} Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that [[free fall]] is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the [[equivalence principle]]. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of [[gravitational time dilation]], [[gravitational redshift]] and [[gravitational lensing]].{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|pp=179–183}}{{Sfnp|Stachel et al.|2008|loc=vol. 2: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900–1909|pp=273–274}} In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally.{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|pp=194–195}} ==== Gravitational waves ==== In 1916, Einstein predicted [[gravitational wave]]s,{{sfnp|Einstein|1916}}{{sfnp|Einstein|1918}} ripples in the [[curvature]] of spacetime which propagate as [[wave]]s, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its [[Lorentz invariance]] which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|Newtonian theory of gravitation]], which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting [[neutron stars]], [[PSR B1913+16]].<ref name="natgeo" /> The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.<ref name="natgeo" /><ref name="Tf1T0" /> Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at [[LIGO]] published the [[first observation of gravitational waves]],<ref name="PRL-20160211" /> detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction.<ref name="natgeo" /><ref name="CO6kH" /><ref name="oSmHb" /><ref name="hkKSp" /><ref name="38Msx" /> ==== Hole argument and Entwurf theory ==== While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the [[gauge invariance]] in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norton |first=John |author-link=John D. Norton |date=1984 |title=How Einstein Found His Field Equations: 1912–1915 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757535 |journal=Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=253–316 |doi=10.2307/27757535 |jstor=27757535 |issn=0073-2672}}</ref> In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the [[hole argument]] was mistaken<ref name="sOA9t" /> and abandoned the theory in November 1915. ==== Physical cosmology ==== {{Main|Physical cosmology}} [[File:MillikanLemaitreEinstein.jpg|thumb|right|[[Robert Andrews Millikan|Robert A. Millikan]], [[Georges Lemaître]] and Einstein at the [[California Institute of Technology]] in January 1933]] In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1917a}} He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the [[cosmological constant]], into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of [[Mach's principle]] in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or [[Einstein's static universe]].{{Sfnp|Pais|1994|pp=285–286}}<ref name="iJwuX" /> Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies by [[Edwin Hubble]] in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, the [[Friedmann–Einstein universe]] of 1931{{sfnp|Einstein|1931}}<ref name="cor-2013" /> and the [[Einstein–de Sitter universe]] of 1932.{{sfnp|Einstein|de Sitter|1932}}<ref name="J9Tqu" /> In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory".{{sfnp|Einstein|1931}}<ref name="cor-2013" /><ref name="sxfvo" /> In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter [[George Gamow]] claimed to have received from him. The astrophysicist [[Mario Livio]] has cast doubt on this claim.<ref name="qmmVf" /> In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist [[Cormac O'Raifeartaigh]] discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered a [[steady-state model]] of the universe.<ref name="Tq53z" /><ref name="8pfEk" /> In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.<ref name="cor-steady-state" /><ref name="Einstein's aborted model" /> As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [''sic''] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space." It thus appears that Einstein considered a [[steady-state model]] of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.<ref name="ILjYQ" /><ref name="ThZb0" /> However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.<ref name="cor-steady-state" /><ref name="Einstein's aborted model" /><ref name="7ShC9" /> ==== Energy momentum pseudotensor ==== {{Main|Stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor}} General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. [[Noether's theorem]] allows these quantities to be determined from a [[Lagrangian (field theory)|Lagrangian]] with [[translation invariance]], but [[general covariance]] makes translation invariance into something of a [[gauge symmetry]]. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by [[Emmy Noether|Noether]]'s prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.<ref>{{cite arXiv|first=Nina |last=Byers |author-link=Nina Byers |title=E. Noether's Discovery of the Deep Connection Between Symmetries and Conservation Laws |eprint=physics/9807044 |date=23 September 1998}}</ref> Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by [[Erwin Schrödinger]] and others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists including [[Lev Landau]] and [[Evgeny Lifshitz]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.111.315 |first=J. N. |last=Goldberg |title=Conservation laws in general relativity |year=1958 |journal=Physical Review |volume=111 |number=1 |pages=315–320|bibcode=1958PhRv..111..315G }}</ref> ==== Wormholes ==== In 1935, Einstein collaborated with [[Nathan Rosen]] to produce a model of a [[wormhole]], often called [[Einstein–Rosen bridges]].{{sfnp|Einstein|Rosen|1935}}<ref name="QNjpt" /> His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted [[Schwarzschild black hole]]s to make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable.<ref name="ja7FY" /> ==== Einstein–Cartan theory ==== {{Main|Einstein–Cartan theory}} [[File:Albert Einstein photo 1920.jpg|alt=Einstein, sitting at a table, looks up from the papers he is reading and into the camera.|thumb|upright|Einstein at his office, [[University of Berlin]], 1920]]In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the [[Torsion tensor|torsion]]. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. ==== Equations of motion ==== {{Main|Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations}} In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of [[spacetime]]. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by [[John Archibald Wheeler]] that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve."<ref name="Wheeler">{{Cite book|last=Wheeler|first=John Archibald|url={{GBurl|id=zGFkK2tTXPsC|p=235}}|title=Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics|date=18 June 2010|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-07948-7|language=en|author-link=John Archibald Wheeler}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kersting|first=Magdalena|date=May 2019|title=Free fall in curved spacetime—how to visualise gravity in general relativity|journal=[[Physics Education]] |volume=54|issue=3|pages=035008|doi=10.1088/1361-6552/ab08f5|bibcode=2019PhyEd..54c5008K |s2cid=127471222 |issn=0031-9120|doi-access=free|hdl=10852/74677|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The [[Einstein field equations]] cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The [[geodesic equation]] covers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies follow [[Geodesics in general relativity|lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime]]. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a [[gravitational singularity]], but this claim remains disputed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tamir |first=M |url=http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/9158/1/Tamir_-_Proving_the_Principle.pdf |title=Proving the principle: Taking geodesic dynamics too seriously in Einstein's theory |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics |volume=43 |number=2 |pages=137–154 |year=2012 |doi=10.1016/j.shpsb.2011.12.002|bibcode=2012SHPMP..43..137T }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Malament |first=David |chapter=A Remark About the "Geodesic Principle" in General Relativity |author-link=David Malament |chapter-url=http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/5072/1/GeodesicLaw.pdf |title=Analysis and Interpretation in the Exact Sciences |pages=245–252 |series=The Western Ontario Series in Philosophy of Science |volume=78 |publisher=Springer |year=2012 |editor-last1=Frappier |editor-first1=M. |editor-last2=Brown |editor-first2=D. |editor-last3=DiSalle |editor-first3=R. |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-2582-9_14 |isbn=978-94-007-2581-2 |quote=Though the geodesic principle can be recovered as theorem in general relativity, it is not a consequence of Einstein's equation (or the conservation principle) alone. Other assumptions are needed to derive the theorems in question.}}</ref> === Old quantum theory === {{Main|Old quantum theory}} ==== Photons and energy quanta ==== [[File:Photoelectric effect in a solid - diagram.svg|alt=|thumb|The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.]] In a 1905 paper,{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905a}} Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (''[[quantum|quanta]]''). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with [[Robert Millikan]]'s detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of [[Compton scattering]]. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency ''f'' is associated with a collection of photons with energy ''hf'' each, where ''h'' is the [[Planck constant]]. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the [[photoelectric effect]].{{sfnp|Einstein|1905a}} Light quanta were dubbed ''[[photons]]'' by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1926.<ref>{{cite book| author=Walter Isaacson| title=Einstein: His Life and Universe| date=2007| page=576}}</ref> ==== Quantized atomic vibrations ==== {{Main|Einstein solid}} In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. [[Peter Debye]] refined this model.<ref name="ixm32" /> ==== Bose–Einstein statistics ==== {{Main|Bose–Einstein statistics}} In 1924, Einstein received a description of a [[statistical mechanics|statistical]] model from Indian physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1924}} It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by [[Eric Allin Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] using [[ultracold atom|ultra-cooling]] equipment built at the [[NIST]]–[[JILA]] laboratory at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]].<ref name="nlagl" /> Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of [[boson]]s. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.<ref name="Instituut-Lorentz" /> ==== Wave–particle duality ==== [[File:Albert Einstein 1921 (re-cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Einstein in 1921, photo by Harris & Ewing Studio]] Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a ''[[Privatdozent]]'' at the University of Bern.{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|p=522}} In "''Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung''" ("[[s:Translation:The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation|The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation]]"), on the [[quantization (physics)|quantization]] of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined [[momentum|momenta]] and act in some respects as independent, [[point particle|point-like particles]]. This paper introduced the ''photon'' concept and inspired the notion of [[wave–particle duality]] in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. ==== Zero-point energy ==== In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of [[zero-point energy]] in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant [[Otto Stern]]. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.{{Sfnp|Stachel et al.|2008|loc=vol. 4: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1912–1914|pp=270ff}} ==== Stimulated emission ==== In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' that proposed the possibility of [[stimulated emission]], the physical process that makes possible the [[maser]] and the [[laser]].{{Sfnp|Einstein|1917b}} This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Duncan |first1=Anthony |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1119627546 |title=Constructing quantum mechanics. Volume 1, The scaffold : 1900–1923 |last2=Janssen |first2=Michel |date=2019 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-258422-9 |edition=1st |location=Oxford |pages=133–142 |oclc=1119627546}}</ref> ==== Matter waves ==== Einstein discovered [[Louis de Broglie]]'s work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that [[de Broglie waves]] could explain the [[Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization|quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld]]. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hanle |first=Paul A. |date=July 1979 |title=The Schrödinger-Einstein correspondence and the sources of wave mechanics |url=https://pubs.aip.org/aapt/ajp/article/47/7/644-648/1051199 |journal=American Journal of Physics |language=en |volume=47 |issue=7 |pages=644–648 |doi=10.1119/1.11950 |bibcode=1979AmJPh..47..644H |issn=0002-9505}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raman |first1=V. V. |last2=Forman |first2=Paul |date=1969 |title=Why Was It Schrödinger Who Developed de Broglie's Ideas? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757299 |journal=Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences |volume=1 |pages=291–314 |doi=10.2307/27757299 |jstor=27757299 |issn=0073-2672}}</ref> === Quantum mechanics === ==== Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics ==== [[File:NYT May 4, 1935.jpg|thumb|upright|Newspaper headline on 4 May 1935]] Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice".<ref name="zZ2hS" /> Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete.<ref name="yzZtL" /> ==== Bohr versus Einstein ==== {{Main|Bohr–Einstein debates}} [[File:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein4 by Ehrenfest cr.jpg|upright|alt=Two men sitting, looking relaxed. A dark-haired Bohr is talking while Einstein looks skeptical.|thumb|Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]], 1925]] The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]], who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the [[philosophy of science]].<ref name="Bohr1949" />{{Sfnp|Einstein|1969}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schlosshauer |first1=Maximilian |last2=Kofler |first2=Johannes |last3=Zeilinger |first3=Anton |date=1 August 2013 |title=A snapshot of foundational attitudes toward quantum mechanics |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=222–230 |arxiv=1301.1069 |bibcode=2013SHPMP..44..222S |doi=10.1016/j.shpsb.2013.04.004 |issn=1355-2198 |s2cid=55537196}}</ref> Their debates would influence later [[interpretations of quantum mechanics]]. ==== Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox ==== {{Main|EPR paradox}} Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested a [[Einstein's thought experiments|thought experiment]] in which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as a [[wavefunction]]. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then the [[Schrödinger equation]] provides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be called [[quantum entanglement]], measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true "physical condition" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it.{{sfnp|Howard|1990}}{{sfnp|Harrigan|Spekkens|2010}} A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper with [[Boris Podolsky]] and [[Nathan Rosen]] that laid out what would become known as the [[EPR paradox]].{{Sfnp|Einstein|Podolsky|Rosen|1935}} In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the [[theory of relativity]]. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with [[probability]] equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity." From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables [[Observable#Incompatibility of observables in quantum mechanics|incompatible]] and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality.{{sfnp|Peres|2002}} In 1964, [[John Stewart Bell]] carried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called a [[Bell inequality]]. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are "nonlocal", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.{{sfnp|Mermin|1993}}{{sfnp|Penrose|2007}} Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox "is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least".{{sfnp|Bell|1966}} Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated,{{sfnp|Howard|1990}}{{sfnp|Harrigan|Spekkens|2010}} that paper became among the most influential papers published in ''[[Physical Review]]''. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of [[quantum information theory]].{{Sfnp|Fine|2017}} === Unified field theory === {{Main|Classical unified field theories}} Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his [[unified field theory]] in a ''[[Scientific American]]'' article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".{{Sfnp|Einstein|1950}} His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate the [[strong nuclear force|strong]] and [[weak nuclear force]]s, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of a [[theory of everything]] is one to which his successors still aspire.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goenner |first=Hubert F. M. |date=1 December 2004 |title=On the History of Unified Field Theories |journal=Living Reviews in Relativity |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=2 |doi=10.12942/lrr-2004-2 |doi-access=free |issn=1433-8351 |pmc=5256024 |pmid=28179864|bibcode=2004LRR.....7....2G }}</ref> === Other investigations === {{Main|Einstein's unsuccessful investigations}} Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to [[force]], [[superconductivity]], and other research. === Collaboration with other scientists === [[File:Solvay conference 1927.jpg|thumb|The 1927 [[Solvay Conference]] in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein is in the center.]] In addition to longtime collaborators [[Leopold Infeld]], [[Nathan Rosen]], [[Peter Bergmann]] and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. ==== Einstein–de Haas experiment ==== {{Main|Einstein–de Haas effect}} In 1908, [[Owen Willans Richardson]] predicted that a change in the [[magnetic moment]] of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the [[conservation of angular momentum]] and is strong enough to be observable in [[ferromagnetic materials]].<ref name="Richardson-1908"> {{cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=O. W. |year=1908 |journal=Physical Review |title=A Mechanical Effect Accompanying Magnetization |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1997325 |series=Series I |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=248–253 |bibcode=1908PhRvI..26..248R |doi=10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.26.248 }}</ref> Einstein and [[Wander Johannes de Haas]] published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.<ref name="EdH-1-1915"> {{cite journal |last1=Einstein |first1=A. |last2=de Haas |first2=W. J. |year=1915 |title=Experimenteller Nachweis der Ampereschen Molekularströme |trans-title=Experimental Proof of Ampère's Molecular Currents |language=German |journal=Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen |volume=17 |pages=152–170 }}</ref><ref name="EdH-2-1915"> {{cite journal |last1=Einstein |first1=A. |last2=de Haas |first2=W. J. |year=1915 |title=Experimental proof of the existence of Ampère's molecular currents |journal=Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Proceedings |volume=18 |pages=696–711 |bibcode=1915KNAB...18..696E |url=http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/DL/publications/PU00012546.pdf }}</ref> Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of [[magnetization]] is caused by the alignment ([[Spin polarization|polarization]]) of the [[angular momenta]] of the [[electron]]s in the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the [[Spin (physics)|spin]] and with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated by [[Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz]], wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to the [[Ampère Museum]] in Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=San Miguel |first1=Alfonso |last2=Pallandre |first2=Bernard |date=13 March 2024 |title=Revisiting the Einstein-de Haas experiment: the Ampère Museum's hidden treasure |url=https://www.europhysicsnews.org/images/stories/news/epn_Einstein-de_Haas.pdf |journal=Europhysics News |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=12–14|doi=10.1051/epn/2024409 |bibcode=2024ENews..55...28S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnston |first=Hamish |date=17 March 2024 |title=Einstein's only experiment is found in French museum |url=https://physicsworld.com/einsteins-only-experiment-is-found-in-french-museum/ |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Physics World |language=en-GB}}</ref> ==== Einstein as an inventor ==== In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the [[Einstein refrigerator]]. This [[absorption refrigerator]] was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.<ref name="Goettling" /> On 11 November 1930, {{US patent|1781541}} was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company [[Electrolux]].{{refn |group=note |In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of [[Oxford University]] was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Alok |first=Jha |title=Einstein fridge design can help global cooling |work=The Guardian |date=21 September 2008 |access-date=22 February 2011 |url= https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/sep/21/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110124172925/http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/sep/21/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange |archive-date=24 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,<ref name="patents.google.com">{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/GB303065A/en?oq=GB303065 | title=Electrodynamic movement of fluid metals particularly for refrigerating machines }}</ref> sound reproduction device,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/DE590783C/en | title=Device, in particular for sound reproduction devices, in which changes in electrical current through magnetostriction cause movements of a magnetic body }}</ref> and several other household devices.<ref>Albert Einstein's patents. 2006. World Pat Inf. 28/2, 159–65. M. Trainer. doi: 10.1016/j.wpi.2005.10.012</ref> == Legacy == ===Non-scientific=== [[File:Einstein-Oslofjord (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Left-right: [[Heinrich Jacob Goldschmidt|Heinrich Goldschmidt]], Einstein, [[Ole Colbjørnsen]], [[Jørgen Vogt]], and Ilse Einstein at a picnic in Oslo in 1920.]] While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986<ref name="margot-obituary" />). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's [[Albert Einstein Archives]], told the [[BBC]] that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.<ref name="letters-love" /> Einstein's [[right of publicity]] was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,<ref name="casetext-hebrew-university" /> that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.<ref name="pacermonitor-hebrew-university" /> [[Branded Entertainment Network|Corbis]], successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the [[Trademark|use of his name and associated imagery]], as agent for the university.<ref name="einstein.biz" /> [[Mount Einstein]] in the [[Chugach Mountains]] of [[Alaska]] was named in 1955. Mount Einstein in New Zealand's [[Paparoa Range]] was named after him in 1970 by the [[Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (New Zealand)|Department of Scientific and Industrial Research]].<ref>{{LINZ|id=3694 |name=Mount Einstein |access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref> ===Scientific=== In 1999, a survey of the top 100 physicists voted for Einstein as the "greatest physicist ever", while a survey of rank-and-file physicists gave the top spot to [[Isaac Newton]], with Einstein second.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1999-11-29 |title=Einstein the Greatest |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/541840.stm |access-date=2024-11-19 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Physicist [[Eugene Wigner]] noted that while [[John von Neumann]] had the quickest and acute mind he ever knew, the understanding of Einstein was deeper than von Neumann's, further stating that Einstein's mind was "both more penetrating and more original than von Neumann's."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Szanton |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Hj1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |title=The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner |date=1992 |publisher=Springer US |isbn=978-0-306-44326-8 |location=Boston, MA |pages=58, 170 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-6313-0}}</ref> == In popular culture == {{Main|Albert Einstein in popular culture}} [[File:Albert Einstein sticks his tongue 1951.jpg|thumb|The famous image of Einstein taken by [[International News Service|International News]] photographer [[Arthur Sasse]] in 1951|224x224px]] Einstein became one of the most famous [[Scientific celebrity|scientific celebrities]] after the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Halpern |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Halpern |year=2019 |title=Albert Einstein, celebrity scientist |url=https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4183 |url-status=live |journal=[[Physics Today]] |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=38–45 |doi=10.1063/PT.3.4183 |s2cid=187603798 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414011401/https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4183 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |access-date=21 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Fahy |first=Declan |year=2015 |title=A Brief History Of Scientific Celebrity |url=https://skepticalinquirer.org/2015/07/a-brief-history-of-scientific-celebrity/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=39 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510182647/https://skepticalinquirer.org/2015/07/a-brief-history-of-scientific-celebrity/ |archive-date=10 May 2021 |access-date=21 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Why Einstein Became Famous in America |last=Missner |first=Marshall |journal=[[Social Studies of Science]] |date=May 1985 |volume=15 |number=2|pages=267–291 |doi=10.1177/030631285015002003 |jstor=285389 |s2cid=143398600 }}</ref> Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II, ''[[The New Yorker]]'' published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."<ref name="disguise" /> Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.<ref name="orchestra" /> He is a favorite model for depictions of [[absent-minded professor]]s; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".<ref name="slqbwn" /> Many popular [[quotations]] are often [[False attribution|misattributed]] to him.<ref name="fake-quotes" /><ref name="humiliate-atheist" /> == Awards and honors == {{Main|List of awards and honors received by Albert Einstein}} Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by [[Alfred Nobel]], so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922.<ref name="Nobel Prize" /> [[Einsteinium]], a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death.<ref>{{cite web |title=Einsteinium – Element |url=https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/99/einsteinium |work=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]] |access-date=16 December 2022}}</ref> == Publications == === Scientific === : {{further|List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein}} {{div col|colwidth=35em}} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |year = 1901 |orig-year = Completed 13 December 1900 and manuscript received 16 December 1900 |editor = [[Paul Karl Ludwig Drude]] |publisher = Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth |publication-place = Leipzig, Germany |publication-date = 1 March 1901 |title = Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen |trans-title = Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity |language = de |place = Zurich, Switzerland |journal = [[Annalen der Physik]] |series = Vierte Folge |volume = 4 (all series: 309) |pages = 513–523 |issue = 3 |via = Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (March 2006) |doi = 10.1002/andp.19013090306 |bibcode = 1901AnP...309..513E |url = https://zenodo.org/record/1423995 }} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905a |orig-year = Completed 17 March 1905 and submitted 18 March 1905 |editor = [[Paul Karl Ludwig Drude]] |publisher = Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth |publication-place = Leipzig, Germany |publication-date = 9 June 1905 |title = Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt |trans-title = On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light |language = de |place = Berne, Switzerland |journal= [[Annalen der Physik]] |series = Vierte Folge |volume = 17 (all series: 322) |pages = 132–148 |issue = 6 |via = Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006) |doi = 10.1002/andp.19053220607 |url = http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_17_132-148.pdf |bibcode = 1905AnP...322..132E }} * {{cite thesis |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905b |orig-year = Completed 30 April 1905 |publication-date = 20 July 1905 |work = Dissertationen [[Universität Zürich]] |publisher = Wyss Buchdruckerei |via = [[ETH]] Bibliothek, Zürich (2008) |title = Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen |trans-title = A new determination of molecular dimensions |language = de |place = Berne, Switzerland |type = PhD Thesis |doi = 10.3929/ethz-a-000565688 |hdl = 20.500.11850/139872 |url = http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/eserv/eth:30378/eth-30378-01.pdf }} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905c |orig-year = Manuscript received: 11 May 1905 |editor = [[Paul Karl Ludwig Drude]] |publisher = Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth |publication-place = Leipzig, Germany |publication-date = 18 July 1905 |title = Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen |trans-title = On the Motion&nbsp;– Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat&nbsp;– of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid |language = de |place = Berne, Switzerland |journal = [[Annalen der Physik]] |series = Vierte Folge |volume = 17 (all series: 322) |issue = 8 |pages = 549–560 |via = Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006) |doi = 10.1002/andp.19053220806 |bibcode = 1905AnP...322..549E |hdl = 10915/2785 |hdl-access = free |url = http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/2785 |doi-access = free }} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905d |orig-year = Manuscript received 30 June 1905 |editor = [[Paul Karl Ludwig Drude]] |publisher = Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth |publication-place = Leipzig, Germany |publication-date = 26 September 1905 |title = Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper |trans-title = On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies |language = de |place = Berne, Switzerland |journal = [[Annalen der Physik]] |series = Vierte Folge |volume = 17 (all series: 322) |issue = 10 |pages = 891–921 |via = Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006) |doi = 10.1002/andp.19053221004 |bibcode = 1905AnP...322..891E |hdl = 10915/2786 |hdl-access = free |url = http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/2786 |type = Submitted manuscript }} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905e |orig-year = Manuscript received 27 September 1905 |editor = [[Paul Karl Ludwig Drude]] |publisher = Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth |publication-place = Leipzig, Germany |publication-date = 21 November 1905 |title = Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig? |trans-title = Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? |language = de |place = Berne, Switzerland |journal = [[Annalen der Physik]] |series = Vierte Folge |volume = 18 (all series: 323) |issue = 13 |pages = 639–641 |via = Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006) |doi = 10.1002/andp.19053231314 |bibcode = 1905AnP...323..639E |url = https://zenodo.org/record/1424057 |doi-access = free }} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |year = 1915 |orig-year = Completed 25 November 1915 |publisher = [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften]] |publication-date = 2 December 1915 |publication-place = Berlin, Germany |title = Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation |trans-title = The Field Equations of Gravitation |language = de |journal= Sitzungsberichte 1915 |pages = 844–847 |via = ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, [[Max Planck Institute]] for the History of Science |url = http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/MPIWG:ZZB2HK6W |format = Online page images }} * {{cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |title=Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation |trans-title=Approximate integration of the field equations of gravitation |year=1916 |orig-year = Issued 29 June 1916 |via = SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS) |publisher = [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften]] |place = Berlin, Germany |journal= Sitzungsberichte 1916 |pages = 688–696 |bibcode=1916SPAW.......688E |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916SPAW.......688E |format = Online page images |access-date=24 January 2022}} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1917a |title = Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie |trans-title = Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity |language = de |publisher = [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften]], Berlin |journal=Sitzungsberichte 1917 |url=http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/MPIWG:H428RSAN |format = Online page images }} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1917b |title = Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung |trans-title = On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation |language = de |journal = Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume = 18 |pages = 121–128 |bibcode = 1917PhyZ...18..121E }} * {{cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |title=Über Gravitationswellen |trans-title=About gravitational waves |date=31 January 1918 |journal=Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin |pages=154–167 |bibcode=1918SPAW.......154E |url=https://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=/permanent/echo/einstein/sitzungsberichte/W7ZU8V1E/index.meta |access-date=14 November 2020}} * {{cite speech |last = Einstein |first = Albert |year = 1923 |event = Lecture delivered to the Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, 11 July 1923 |place = Gothenburg |orig-year = First published 1923, in English 1967 |publication-date = 3 February 2015 |title = Grundgedanken und Probleme der Relativitätstheorie |trans-title = Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity |language = de, en |work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921 |publisher = Nobelprice.org |via = Nobel Media AB 2014 |publication-place = Stockholm |url = https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-lecture.html }} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |year = 1924 |title = Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases |trans-title = Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases |language = de |orig-year = Published 10 July 1924 |via = ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, [[Max Planck Institute]] for the History of Science |journal = Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse |pages = 261–267 |url = http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/MPIWG:DRQK5WYB |format = Online page images |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161014072015/http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=%2Fpermanent%2Fecho%2Feinstein%2Fsitzungsberichte%2FPG8B073X%2Findex.meta |archive-date = 14 October 2016 |access-date = 26 February 2015 }} First of a series of papers on this topic. * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 12 March 1926 |orig-year = Cover Date 1 March 1926 |place = Berlin |title = Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flußläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes |trans-title = On [[Baer's law]] and [[meander]]s in the courses of rivers |language = de |journal = Die Naturwissenschaften |volume = 14 |pages = 223–224 |publication-place = Heidelberg, Germany |doi = 10.1007/BF01510300 |bibcode = 1926NW.....14..223E |issue = 11 |s2cid = 39899416 |issn = 1432-1904 }} * {{Cite book |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1926b |title = Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement |place = Berne, Switzerland |publisher = Dover Publications |editor-first = R. |editor-last = Fürth |translator-first=A. D. |translator-last=Cowper |publication-date = 1956 |publication-place = US |isbn = 978-1-60796-285-4 |url = http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/lectures/Rotman_Summer_School_2013/Einstein_1905_docs/Einstein_Dissertation_English.pdf |access-date = 4 January 2015 }} * {{cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |year=1931 |title=Zum kosmologischen Problem der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie |trans-title=On the cosmological problem of the general theory of relativity |journal=Sonderasugabe aus den Sitzungsb. König. Preuss. Akad. |pages=235–237}} * {{cite journal |last1=Einstein |first1=A. |last2=de Sitter |first2=W. |year=1932 |title=On the relation between the expansion and the mean density of the universe |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=18 |issue=3| pages=213–214 |doi=10.1073/pnas.18.3.213| pmid=16587663 |bibcode=1932PNAS...18..213E |pmc=1076193|doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last1=Einstein |first1=Albert |last2=Rosen |first2=Nathan |year=1935 |title=The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |page=73 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.48.73 |bibcode=1935PhRv...48...73E |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite journal |last1 = Einstein |first1 = Albert |last2 = Podolsky |first2 = Boris |last3 = Rosen |first3 = Nathan |date = 15 May 1935 |title = Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? |journal = Physical Review |via = APS Journals |issue = 10 |volume = 47 |pages = 777–780 |orig-year = Received 25 March 1935 |doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.47.777 |bibcode = 1935PhRv...47..777E |doi-access = free |url = https://cds.cern.ch/record/405662 |type = Submitted manuscript }} * {{Cite journal |last = Einstein |first = Albert |year = 1950 |title = On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation |journal = Scientific American |volume = CLXXXII |issue = 4 |pages = 13–17 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0450-13 |bibcode = 1950SciAm.182d..13E }} * {{Cite book |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1954 |title = Ideas and Opinions |place = New York |publisher = Crown Publishers |isbn = 978-0-517-00393-0 |url = https://archive.org/details/ideasopinions00eins }}{{br}}{{Cite book |last=Einstein |first=Albert |author-mask=6 |date=1995 |orig-year=1954 |title=Ideas and Opinions |place=New York |publisher=Three Rivers Press |isbn=978-0-517-88440-9 |url={{GBurl|id=9fJkBqwDD3sC}}}} * {{Cite book |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1969 |title = Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955 |publisher = Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung |location = Munich |language = de |isbn = 978-3-88682-005-4 |others=Commented by Max Born; Preface by Bertrand Russell; Foreword by Werner Heisenberg }} A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, {{ISBN|978-3-88682-005-4}}. * {{Cite book |editor=Stachel, John |editor-link=John Stachel |editor2=Martin J. Klein |editor3=A. J. Kox |editor4=Michel Janssen |editor5=R. Schulmann |editor6=Diana Komos Buchwald |display-editors=etal |date = 21 July 2008 |orig-year = Published between 1987 and 2006 |title = The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein |volume = 1–10 |publisher = [[Princeton University Press]] |url = https://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/ |ref = {{harvid|Stachel et al.|2008}} }} Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project<ref>{{cite web |title=Einstein Papers Project |url=https://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html |publisher=California Institute of Technology |access-date=5 November 2022 |archive-date=5 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105001523/https://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page.<ref>{{cite web |title=Albert Einstein |url=http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/ |publisher=Princeton University Press |access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> {{div col end}} === Others === {{div col|colwidth=35em}} * {{Cite news |last = Einstein |first = Albert |display-authors = etal |date = 4 December 1948 |title = To the editors of ''The New York Times'' |newspaper = [[The New York Times]] |url = http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html |isbn = 978-0-7354-0359-8 |location = Melville, New York |access-date = 25 May 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071217113044/http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html |archive-date = 17 December 2007 |url-status = dead }} * {{cite journal|last=Einstein|first=Albert|date=May 1949|title=Why Socialism?|journal=[[Monthly Review]] |volume=1|issue=1|pages=9–15|editor1-first=Paul|editor1-last=Sweezy|editor2-first=Leo|editor2-last=Huberman |doi=10.14452/MR-001-01-1949-05_3 |url=http://monthlyreview.org/2009/05/01/why-socialism/}}{{br}}{{Cite web |author-mask=6 |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = May 2009 |orig-year= May 1949 |title = Why Socialism? (Reprise) |magazine = [[Monthly Review]] |volume = 61 |issue = 1 (May) |publisher = Monthly Review Foundation |via = MonthlyReview.org |location = New York |url = http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm |access-date = 16 January 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060111081948/http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm| archive-date= 11 January 2006 |url-status=live}} * Einstein, Albert (September 1960). [https://archive.org/download/gandhiwieldsweap00shar/gandhiwieldsweap00shar.pdf Foreword to ''Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories''.] Introduction by Bharatan Kumarappa. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. pp. v–vi. {{OCLC|2325889}}. Foreword originally written in April 1953. * {{Cite book |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1979 |edition = Centennial |title = Autobiographical Notes |place = Chicago |publisher = Open Court |isbn = 978-0-87548-352-8 |others = Paul Arthur Schilpp |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/autobiographical1979eins }} The ''chasing a light beam'' thought experiment is described on pages 48–51. {{div col end}} == See also == {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[Bern Historical Museum]] (Einstein Museum) * [[Einstein notation]] * [[Frist Campus Center]] at [[Princeton University]]{{Snd}} room 302 is associated with Einstein. The center was once the Palmer Physical Laboratory. * [[Heinrich Burkhardt]] * [[Heinrich Zangger]] * [[History of gravitational theory]] * [[List of coupled cousins]] * [[List of German inventors and discoverers]] * [[List of Jewish Nobel laureates]] * [[List of peace activists]] * [[Relativity priority dispute]] * [[Sticky bead argument]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{notelist}} {{reflist|group=note|refs= <ref name=GEcitizen>Until 1913, German citizenship was acquired through citizenship in a constituent state (whose requirements varied); from 1913, uniform citizenship requirements were [[Constitution of the German Empire#Citizenship|set at the national level]].</ref> <ref name=MaturaScore>Einstein's scores on his ''[[Matura]]'' certificate: German 5; French 3; Italian 5; History 6; Geography 4; Algebra 6; Geometry 6; Descriptive Geometry 6; Physics 6; Chemistry 5; Natural History 5; Art Drawing 4; Technical Drawing 4.{{br}}[[Grading systems by country#Switzerland|Scale]]: 6 = very good, 5 = good, 4 = sufficient, 3 = insufficient, 2 = poor, 1 = very poor.</ref> <ref name="gnriE">"Their leaders in Germany have not driven out her cut-throats and her blackguards. She has chosen the cream of her culture and has suppressed it. She has even turned upon her most glorious citizen, Albert Einstein, who is the supreme example of the selfless intellectual...The man, who, beyond all others, approximates a citizen of the world, is without a home. How proud we must be to offer him temporary shelter."</ref> <ref name="aBfxO">In [[s:Translation:On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies|his paper]], Einstein wrote: "The introduction of a 'luminiferous æther' will be proved to be superfluous in so far, as according to the conceptions which will be developed, we shall introduce neither a 'space absolutely at rest' endowed with special properties, nor shall we associate a velocity-vector with a point in which electro-magnetic processes take place."</ref> <ref name="sBl2q">For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in {{harvp|Glick|1987}}.</ref> }} == References == {{reflist|refs= <ref name="Bio">{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html |title=Albert Einstein&nbsp;– Biography |access-date=7 March 2007 |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]]| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070306133522/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html| archive-date= 6 March 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="frs">{{cite journal |last1=Whittaker |first1=E. |author-link=E. T. Whittaker| doi=10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005 |title=Albert Einstein. 1879–1955 |journal=[[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] |volume=1 |pages=37–67 |date=1 November 1955| jstor=769242| doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="YangHamilton2010">{{cite book|first1=Fujia|last1=Yang|first2=Joseph H.|last2=Hamilton|title=Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics|date=2010|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-4277-16-7|page=274}}</ref> <ref name="Nobel">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2011/advanced-physicsprize2011.pdf|title=Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2011. The accelerating universe|publisher=Nobel Media AB|page=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516052710/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2011/advanced-physicsprize2011.pdf|archive-date=16 May 2012|access-date=4 January 2015}}</ref> <ref name="NYT-20151124">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=A Century Ago, Einstein's Theory of Relativity Changed Everything |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/24/science/a-century-ago-einsteins-theory-of-relativity-changed-everything.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/24/science/a-century-ago-einsteins-theory-of-relativity-changed-everything.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited |date=24 November 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=24 November 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> <ref name="BoyerDubofsky2001">{{cite book|author1=Paul S. Boyer|author2=Melvyn Dubofsky|title=The Oxford Companion to United States History|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0|url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508209-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/218 218]}}</ref> <ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746">{{Cite book |editor=Paul Arthur Schilpp |date=1951 |title=Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist |volume=II |publisher=Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition) |location=New York |pages=730–746}}. His non-scientific works include: ''About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein'' (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by [[Sigmund Freud]]), ''The World As I See It'' (1934), ''Out of My Later Years'' (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, ''[[The Evolution of Physics]]'' (1938, co-authored by [[Leopold Infeld]]).</ref> <ref name="wordnetweb.princeton.edu">{{Cite web |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Einstein |title=Result of WordNet Search for Einstein |version=3.1 |publisher=The Trustees of Princeton University |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=28 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828054753/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Einstein |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Robinson2015a">{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|author-link=Walter Isaacson|title=Einstein: A Hundred Years of Relativity|url={{GBurl|id=Px4_CQAAQBAJ|p=144}}|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-16989-7|pages=143–145|access-date=19 July 2016}}</ref>  <ref name="IGEFAQ">{{cite web |title=FAQ about Einstein and the Institute |url=https://www.ige.ch/en/about-us/the-history-of-the-ipi/einstein/faq |publisher=Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, IGE/IPI |location=Berne, Switzerland |date=27 May 2014 |type=official website |access-date=27 March 2015 |archive-date=12 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612105555/https://www.ige.ch/en/about-us/the-history-of-the-ipi/einstein/faq |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="NYTimes_19191125">{{cite news |title=A New Physics, Based on Einstein |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-nov-25-1919-p-17/ |work=The New York Times |date=25 November 1919 |page=17 |access-date=8 June 2019 |archive-date=8 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608033600/https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-nov-25-1919-p-17/ |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> <ref name="Eddington">{{cite journal |last=Andrzej |first=Stasiak |year=2003 |title=Myths in science |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=4 |issue=3 |page=236 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.embor779 |doi-access=free |pmc=1315907}}</ref> <ref name="Jerome">{{cite book|author1=Fred Jerome|author2=Rodger Taylor|title=Einstein on Race and Racism|url={{GBurl|id=4d79VQdOfFUC|pg=PR10}}|year=2006|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3952-2|page=10|access-date=18 June 2015}}</ref> <ref name="Gilbert">Gilbert, Martin. ''Churchill and the Jews'', Henry Holt and Company, N.Y. (2007) pp. 101, 176</ref> <ref name="AP">"Denunciation of German Policy is a Stirring Event", Associated Press, 27 July 1933</ref> <ref name="Guardian">"Stateless Jews: The Exiles from Germany, Nationality Plan", ''The Guardian'' (UK) 27 July 1933</ref> <ref name="Arntzenius2011">{{cite book|first=Linda G.|last=Arntzenius|title=Institute for Advanced Study|url={{GBurl|id=zHHguITir80C|p=19}}|date=2011|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=978-0-7385-7409-7|page=19|access-date=18 June 2015}}</ref> <ref name="Jerome_Isis">{{cite journal|last1=Jerome|first1=Fred|title=Einstein, Race, and the Myth of the Cultural Icon|journal=Isis|date=December 2004|volume=95|issue=4|pages=627–639 |doi=10.1086/430653 |pmid=16011298 |jstor=10.1086/430653 |bibcode=2004Isis...95..627J |s2cid=24738716}}</ref> <ref name="civil">{{cite web| url = http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/| title = Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist| date = 12 April 2007| access-date = 8 June 2014| archive-date = 2 March 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180302182248/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/| url-status = live}}, ''Harvard Gazette'', 12 April 2007</ref> <ref name="Time">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518022224/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 May 2008 |title=ISRAEL: Einstein Declines |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=1 December 1952 |access-date=31 March 2010}}</ref> <ref name="Botstein">{{cite book|author1=Peter Galison|author1-link=Peter Galison|author2=Gerald James Holton|author2-link=Gerald Holton|author3=Silvan S. 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and the quantum theory|url= http://ursula.chem.yale.edu/~batista/classes/vvv/RevModPhys.51.863.pdf|journal= Reviews of Modern Physics|volume= 51|issue= 4|pages= 863–914|doi= 10.1103/RevModPhys.51.863|bibcode= 1979RvMP...51..863P|access-date= 18 November 2019|archive-date= 29 August 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190829151347/http://ursula.chem.yale.edu/~batista/classes/vvv/RevModPhys.51.863.pdf|url-status= live}}</ref> <ref name="margot-obituary">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/12/obituaries/margot-einstein-86-is-dead-stepdaughter-of-physicist.html |title=Obituary |newspaper=The New York Times |date=12 July 1986 |access-date=3 April 2011 |archive-date=10 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910002303/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/12/obituaries/margot-einstein-86-is-dead-stepdaughter-of-physicist.html |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="letters-love">{{cite news |title =Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life |work =[[BBC News]] |url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5168002.stm |access-date =14 March 2007 |date =11 July 2006 |archive-date =2 May 2019 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190502100238/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5168002.stm |url-status =live }}</ref> <ref name="einstein.biz">{{Cite web |url=http://einstein.biz/|title=Einstein|publisher=Corbis Rights Representation|access-date=8 August 2008 |url-status=live| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080819220424/http://einstein.biz/| archive-date= 19 August 2008}}</ref> <ref name="casetext-hebrew-university">{{cite web |date=15 October 2012 |url=https://casetext.com/case/hebrew-univ-of-jerusalem-v-gen-motors-llc |title=United States District Court, Central District of California, Case No. CV10–03790 AHM (JCx) |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=21 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121133844/https://casetext.com/case/hebrew-univ-of-jerusalem-v-gen-motors-llc |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="pacermonitor-hebrew-university">{{cite web |date=15 January 2015 |url=https://www.pacermonitor.com/public/case/944657/The_Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem_v_General_Motors_LLC |title=United States District Court, Central District of California, Case No.: CV-10-3790-AB (JCx) |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725030614/https://www.pacermonitor.com/public/case/944657/The_Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem_v_General_Motors_LLC |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="disguise">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1939/01/14/disguise-2|title=Disguise|first=E.|last=Libman|date=14 January 1939|magazine=The New Yorker|url-access=limited|access-date=15 April 2020|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725014949/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1939/01/14/disguise-2|url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="orchestra">{{cite web |url=http://www.cindymctee.com/einsteins_dream.html |title=Einstein's Dream for orchestra |first=Cindy |last=McTee |publisher=Cindymctee.com |access-date=17 July 2010 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418203004/http://cindymctee.com/einsteins_dream.html |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="fake-quotes">{{cite web|last1=Novak|first1=Matt|title=9 Albert Einstein Quotes That Are Completely Fake|url=https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2015/05/9-albert-einstein-quotes-that-are-totally-fake/|website=Gizmodo|access-date=4 May 2018|date=16 May 2015|archive-date=5 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705004258/https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2015/05/9-albert-einstein-quotes-that-are-totally-fake/|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref name="humiliate-atheist">{{cite web|title=Did Albert Einstein Humiliate an Atheist Professor?|date=29 June 2004 |url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/false-einstein-humiliates-professor/|publisher=Snopes|access-date=4 May 2018|archive-date=4 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104194315/https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/false-einstein-humiliates-professor/|url-status=live}}</ref> }} === Works cited === {{div col|colwidth=35em}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Bell | first1 = J. S. | title = On the problem of hidden variables in quantum mechanics | journal = Reviews of Modern Physics | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 447–452 | year = 1966 | doi = 10.1103/revmodphys.38.447 |bibcode = 1966RvMP...38..447B | osti = 1444158 }} * {{cite book |last=Calaprice |first=Alice |year=2000 |title=The Expanded Quotable Einstein |publisher=Princeton University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Calaprice |first=Alice |year=2005 |title=The New Quotable Einstein |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7921.html |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090622063213/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7921.html |archive-date=22 June 2009}} * {{cite book|last1=Calaprice|first1=Alice|last2=Lipscombe|first2=Trevor|year=2005|title=Albert Einstein: A Biography|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33080-3 |url={{GBurl|id=5eWh2O_3OAQC}}}} * {{cite book |last=Calaprice |first=Alice |year=2010 |title=The Ultimate Quotable Einstein |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3596-6 |url={{GBurl|id=G_iziBAPXtEC}}}} * {{Cite book |last1=Calaprice |first1=Alice |first2=Daniel |last2=Kennefick |first3=Robert |last3=Schulmann |title=An Einstein Encyclopedia |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2015 |bibcode=2016eien.book.....C }} * {{cite book |last=Chaplin |first=Charles |year=1964 |title=Charles Chaplin: My Autobiography |publisher=Simon and Schuster |location=New York}} * {{Cite book |last=Clark |first=Ronald W. |author-link=Ronald W. Clark |date=1971 |title=Einstein: The Life and Times |location=New York |publisher=Avon Books |isbn=978-0-380-44123-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/einstein00rona }} * {{Cite book |last=Fölsing |first=Albrecht |date=1997 |title=Albert Einstein |location=New York |publisher=Penguin Viking |translator-first=Ewald |translator-last=Osers |others=Abridged by Ewald Osers |isbn=978-0-670-85545-2|url=https://archive.org/details/alberteinsteinbi00fols}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Fine |first1=Arthur |title=The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-epr/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2017 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}} * {{cite journal |last=Galison |first=Peter |date=Winter 2000 |title=Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time |journal=Critical Inquiry |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=355–389 |doi=10.1086/448970 |jstor=1344127 |s2cid=144484466}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Glick |editor-first=Thomas F. |year=1987 |title=The Comparative Reception of Relativity |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-277-2498-4}} * {{cite journal|first1=Nicholas |last1=Harrigan |first2=Robert W.|author2-link=Robert Spekkens|last2=Spekkens |title=Einstein, incompleteness, and the epistemic view of quantum states |journal=[[Foundations of Physics]] |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=125 |year=2010 |doi=10.1007/s10701-009-9347-0 |arxiv=0706.2661|bibcode=2010FoPh...40..125H |s2cid=32755624 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Highfield |first1=Roger |author-link=Roger Highfield |last2=Carter |first2=Paul |date=1993 |title=The Private Lives of Albert Einstein |location=London |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=978-0-571-17170-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/privatelivesofal00high_1}} * {{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=Banesh |others=Collaboration with Helen Dukas |date=1972 |title=Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel |location=New York |publisher=Viking Press |isbn=978-0-670-11181-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/alberteinsteincr0000hoff_y3a8 }} * {{cite journal |last=Holton |first=Gerald |title=The migration of physicists to the United States |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |publisher=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science |date=April 1984 |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=18–24 |doi=10.1080/00963402.1984.11459207 |bibcode=1984BuAtS..40d..18H |url={{GBurl|id=prgDAAAAMBAJ|p=18}}}} * {{cite book |last=Howard |first=D. |title=Sixty-Two Years of Uncertainty |chapter="Nicht Sein Kann was Nicht Sein Darf," or the Prehistory of EPR, 1909–1935: Einstein's Early Worries about the Quantum Mechanics of Composite Systems |year=1990 |series=NATO ASI Series |volume=226 |pages=61–111 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-8771-8_6 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-8773-2}} * {{Cite book |last=Isaacson |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Isaacson |date=2007 |title=Einstein: His Life and Universe |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperbacks |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-6473-0}} * {{Cite book |last=Isaacson |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Isaacson |date=2008 |title=Einstein: His Life and Universe |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-1-84739-589-4 |url={{GBurl|id=OzSJgdwk5esC}} }} * {{cite journal | last = Mermin |first = N. David |author-link=N. David Mermin |title = Hidden Variables and the Two Theorems of John Bell | journal = [[Reviews of Modern Physics]] | volume = 65 |pages = 803–15 | number = 3| date = July 1993 | url = http://cqi.inf.usi.ch/qic/Mermin1993.pdf |arxiv=1802.10119|doi = 10.1103/RevModPhys.65.803 |bibcode = 1993RvMP...65..803M |s2cid = 119546199 }} * {{Cite book |last=Neffe |first=Jürgen |title=Einstein: A Biography |translator-first=Shelley |translator-last=Frisch |date=2007 |url={{GBurl|id=B8K6n177ZwcC}} |publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |isbn=978-0-374-14664-1 }} * {{Cite book |last=Pais |first=Abraham|date=1982 |title=[[Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-853907-0 }} * {{Cite book |last=Pais |first=Abraham |date=1994 |title=Einstein Lived Here |url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinlivedher00pais |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-280672-7 }} * {{Cite book|first=Roger |last=Penrose |title=The Road to Reality|year=2007|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-679-77631-4}} * {{cite book |last=Peres |first=Asher |author-link=Asher Peres |title=Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods |pages=149 |publisher=Kluwer |year=2002}} * {{cite book |last=Robeson |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Robeson|year=2002 |title=Paul Robeson Speaks |publisher=Citadel |page=333}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Rowe |editor1-first=David E. |editor2-last=Schulmann |editor2-first=Robert |year=2007 |title=Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12094-2}} * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Rowe |editor1-first=David E. |editor2-last=Schulmann |editor2-first=Robert |year=2013 |title=Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-4828-7 |url={{GBurl|id=_X1dAAAAQBAJ}}}} * {{cite journal | last=Scheideler | first=Britta | title=The Scientist as Moral Authority: Albert Einstein between Elitism and Democracy, 1914–1933 | journal=Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences | year=2002 | volume=32 | issue=2 | pages=319–346 | doi=10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319 | jstor=10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319}} * {{Cite book|last=Stachel |first=John J. |date=1966 |title=Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić |url=http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf |access-date=13 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307015425/http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2008 |url-status=dead}} * {{Cite book |last=Stachel |first=John J. |date=2002 |title=Einstein from 'B' to 'Z' |publisher=Birkhäuser |series=Einstein Studies |volume=9 |isbn=978-0-8176-4143-6 |oclc=237532460}} * {{Cite book|last1=Weinstein|first1=G.|title=General Relativity Conflict and Rivalries: Einstein's Polemics with Physicists|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|location=Newcastle upon Tyne (UK)|isbn=978-1-4438-8362-7 |url={{GBurl|id=LQz5DAAAQBAJ}}}} {{div col end}} == Further reading == {{div col|colwidth=35em}} * {{Cite book |last=Brian |first=Denis |date=1996 |author-link=Denis Brian|title=Einstein: A Life |url=https://archive.org/details/einstein00deni |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley |isbn=978-0471114598}} * {{Cite book |last=Brian |first=Denis |date=2005 |author-link=Denis Brian|title=The Unexpected Einstein: The Real Man Behind the Icon |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley|isbn=978-0471718406}} * {{cite book |last1=Gimbel |first1=Steven |title=Einstein: His Space and Times |date=2015 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300196719}} * {{cite book |last1=Gimbel |first1=Steven |title=Einstein's Jewish Science: Physics at the Intersection of Politics and Religion |date=2012 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-1421405544}} * {{cite book |last1=Gordin |first1=Michael D. |title=Einstein in Bohemia |date=2020 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17737-3 |language=en}} * {{cite EB1922 |wstitle=Einstein, Albert|last1= Lindemann |first1= Frederick Alexander |author-link=Frederick Alexander Lindemann}} * {{Cite book |last=Moring |first=Gary |date=2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00mori_0 |url-access=registration |quote=idiot's guide to Einstein. |title=The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein |edition=1st |location=Indianapolis, Indiana |publisher=Alpha books (Macmillan) |isbn=978-0-02-863180-6}} * {{Cite journal |last=Oppenheimer |first=J. Robert |author-link=J. Robert Oppenheimer |year=1971 |title=On Albert Einstein |pages=8–12, 208 |journal=Science and Synthesis: An International Colloquium Organized by Unesco on the Tenth Anniversary of the Death of Albert Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin |others=Lecture delivered at the UNESCO House in Paris on 13 December 1965}}, or {{Cite news |work=[[The New York Review of Books]] |date=17 March 1966 |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1966/mar/17/on-albert-einstein/?pagination=false |title=On Albert Einstein by Robert Oppenheimer}} * {{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Barry |date=2000 |title=Einstein's Brainchild: Relativity Made Relatively Easy! |url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinsbrainch00barr |url-access=registration |publisher=Prometheus Books |others=Illustrated by Lori Scoffield-Beer |isbn=978-1-59102-522-1}} * {{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Donald W. |title=Einstein's "Other" Theory: The Planck-Bose-Einstein Theory of Heat Capacity |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-691-11826-0}} * {{Cite book |last=Schweber |first=Silvan S. |author-link=Silvan S. Schweber |date=2008 |title=Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius |url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinoppenhei00schw |url-access=registration |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02828-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Stone |first=A. Douglas |date=2013 |title=Einstein and the Quantum |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13968-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinquantumq0000ston}} * {{cite journal |last1=Weinberg |first1=Steven |author-link=Steven Weinberg|title=Einstein's mistakes |journal=Physics Today |year=2005 |volume=58 |issue=11 |pages=31–35 |doi=10.1063/1.2155755 |bibcode=2005PhT....58k..31W |doi-access=free}} {{div col end}} == External links == {{Sister project links|Albert Einstein|wikt=no|n=no|s=Author:Albert Einstein|b=no|voy=no|v=no}} {{Scholia|author}} * {{gutenberg author|id=1630|name=Albert Einstein}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Albert Einstein}} * {{Librivox author |id=1035}} * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Jewish-Figures/Einstein-Albert Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy] Shapell Manuscript Foundation * [http://vault.fbi.gov/Albert%20Einstein Federal Bureau of Investigation file on Albert Einstein] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150828225916/http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein%26music.pdf Einstein and his love of music], ''[[Physics World]]'' * {{Nobelprize}} including the Nobel Lecture 11 July 1923 ''Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity'' * [http://www.alberteinstein.info/ Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811112756/http://www.alberteinstein.info/ |date=11 August 2011 }} ([https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna46785542 MSNBC, 19 March 2012]) * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2745/ Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship] on the [[World Digital Library]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130929151059/http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections%2Ffindingaid&id=41 Albert Einstein Collection] at [[Brandeis University]] * [http://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/ The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein "Digital Einstein"] at [[Princeton University]] * {{PM20|FID=pe/004590}} * [https://www.ias.edu/scholars/einstein Home page of Albert Einstein at The Institute for Advanced Study] * [https://albert.ias.edu/ Albert – The Digital Repository of the IAS], which contains many digitized original documents and photographs * {{IMDb name|0251868}} {{Einstein|state=expanded}} {{Navboxes |title=Links to related articles |list1= {{Copley Medallists 1901–1950}} {{Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1901–1925}} {{1921 Nobel Prize winners}} {{FRS 1921}} {{Relativity}} {{Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century}} }} {{Portal bar|Biography|Judaism|Mathematics|Physics|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Science}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Einstein, Albert}} [[Category:Albert Einstein| ]] [[Category:1879 births]] [[Category:1955 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century German Jews]] [[Category:20th-century American engineers]] [[Category:20th-century American inventors]] [[Category:20th-century American male writers]] 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href="/wiki/Module:GetParameters" title="Module:GetParameters">Module:GetParameters</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:GetParameters&action=edit" title="Module:GetParameters">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Gutenberg" title="Module:Gutenberg">Module:Gutenberg</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Gutenberg&action=edit" title="Module:Gutenberg">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Hatnote" title="Module:Hatnote">Module:Hatnote</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Hatnote&action=edit" title="Module:Hatnote">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Hatnote/styles.css" title="Module:Hatnote/styles.css">Module:Hatnote/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Hatnote/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Hatnote/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Hatnote_list" title="Module:Hatnote list">Module:Hatnote list</a> (<a 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href="/wiki/Module:Lang/data/iana_variants" title="Module:Lang/data/iana variants">Module:Lang/data/iana variants</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Lang/data/iana_variants&action=edit" title="Module:Lang/data/iana variants">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Listen" title="Module:Listen">Module:Listen</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Listen&action=edit" title="Module:Listen">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Listen/styles.css" title="Module:Listen/styles.css">Module:Listen/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Listen/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Listen/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Namespace_detect/config" title="Module:Namespace detect/config">Module:Namespace detect/config</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Namespace_detect/config&action=edit" title="Module:Namespace detect/config">view source</a>) 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title="Module:Navbox">Module:Navbox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbox&action=edit" title="Module:Navbox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbox/configuration" title="Module:Navbox/configuration">Module:Navbox/configuration</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbox/configuration&action=edit" title="Module:Navbox/configuration">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbox/styles.css" title="Module:Navbox/styles.css">Module:Navbox/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbox/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Navbox/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navboxes" title="Module:Navboxes">Module:Navboxes</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navboxes&action=edit" title="Module:Navboxes">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Ns_has_subpages" title="Module:Ns has subpages">Module:Ns has 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href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype/rfd&action=edit" title="Module:Pagetype/rfd">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype/setindex" title="Module:Pagetype/setindex">Module:Pagetype/setindex</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype/setindex&action=edit" title="Module:Pagetype/setindex">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype/softredirect" title="Module:Pagetype/softredirect">Module:Pagetype/softredirect</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype/softredirect&action=edit" title="Module:Pagetype/softredirect">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:ParameterCount" title="Module:ParameterCount">Module:ParameterCount</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:ParameterCount&action=edit" title="Module:ParameterCount">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Parameter_validation" title="Module:Parameter validation">Module:Parameter validation</a> (<a 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title="Module:Portal/images/a">Module:Portal/images/a</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/a&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/a">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/images/aliases" title="Module:Portal/images/aliases">Module:Portal/images/aliases</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/aliases&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/aliases">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/images/b" title="Module:Portal/images/b">Module:Portal/images/b</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/b&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/b">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/images/j" title="Module:Portal/images/j">Module:Portal/images/j</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/j&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/j">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/images/m" title="Module:Portal/images/m">Module:Portal/images/m</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/m&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/m">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/images/o" title="Module:Portal/images/o">Module:Portal/images/o</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/o&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/o">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/images/p" title="Module:Portal/images/p">Module:Portal/images/p</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/p&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/p">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/images/s" title="Module:Portal/images/s">Module:Portal/images/s</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/s&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/s">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal_bar" title="Module:Portal bar">Module:Portal bar</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal_bar&action=edit" title="Module:Portal bar">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal_bar/styles.css" title="Module:Portal bar/styles.css">Module:Portal bar/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal_bar/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Portal bar/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Protection_banner" title="Module:Protection banner">Module:Protection banner</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Protection_banner&action=edit" title="Module:Protection banner">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Protection_banner/config" title="Module:Protection banner/config">Module:Protection banner/config</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Protection_banner/config&action=edit" title="Module:Protection banner/config">view 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href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Separated_entries&action=edit" title="Module:Separated entries">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Side_box" title="Module:Side box">Module:Side box</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Side_box&action=edit" title="Module:Side box">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Side_box/styles.css" title="Module:Side box/styles.css">Module:Side box/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Side_box/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Side box/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Sidebar" title="Module:Sidebar">Module:Sidebar</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Sidebar&action=edit" title="Module:Sidebar">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Sidebar/configuration" title="Module:Sidebar/configuration">Module:Sidebar/configuration</a> (<a 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href="/wiki/Module:Sister_project_links/styles.css" title="Module:Sister project links/styles.css">Module:Sister project links/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Sister_project_links/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Sister project links/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:String" title="Module:String">Module:String</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:String&action=edit" title="Module:String">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:String2" title="Module:String2">Module:String2</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:String2&action=edit" title="Module:String2">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:TableTools" title="Module:TableTools">Module:TableTools</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:TableTools&action=edit" title="Module:TableTools">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Template_wrapper" title="Module:Template 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