A history of CERN in seven physics milestones

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class="c-article-main-column u-float-left js-main-column" data-track-component="article body"> <div class="c-context-bar u-hide" data-test="context-bar" data-context-bar aria-hidden="true"> <div class="c-context-bar__container u-container" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-context-bar__title"> A history of CERN in seven physics milestones </div> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both js-pdf-download"> <a href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="download-pdf" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use 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data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Maria_Vieites-Diaz-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Maria_Vieites-Diaz-Aff1" data-author-search="Diaz, Maria Vieites" data-corresp-id="c4">Maria Vieites Diaz<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0944-4340"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-0944-4340</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Barbara_Maria-Latacz-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Barbara_Maria-Latacz-Aff1" data-author-search="Latacz, Barbara Maria" data-corresp-id="c5">Barbara Maria Latacz<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2320-1713"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-2320-1713</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Luigi-Dello_Stritto-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Luigi-Dello_Stritto-Aff1" data-author-search="Dello Stritto, Luigi" data-corresp-id="c6">Luigi Dello Stritto<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6700-7950"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-6700-7950</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 7 authors for this article" title="Show all 7 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Petar-Bokan-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Petar-Bokan-Aff1" data-author-search="Bokan, Petar" data-corresp-id="c7">Petar Bokan<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <p class="c-article-info-details" data-container-section="info"> <a data-test="journal-link" href="/natrevphys" data-track="click" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link"><i data-test="journal-title">Nature Reviews Physics</i></a> <b data-test="journal-volume"><span class="u-visually-hidden">volume</span> 6</b>, <span class="u-visually-hidden">pages </span>582–586 (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2024</span>)<a href="#citeas" class="c-article-info-details__cite-as u-hide-print" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </p> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">1125 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">5 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Metrics <span class="u-visually-hidden">details</span></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="u-js-hide" data-component="article-subject-links"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Subjects</h3> <ul class="c-article-subject-list"> <li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/experimental-particle-physics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Experimental particle physics</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/particle-physics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Particle physics</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-body"> <div class="c-article-section__content c-article-section__content--standfirst u-text-bold" lang="en"><p>Over the past 70 years, CERN’s accelerators and experiments have delivered some remarkable results and discoveries, owing to the efforts of generations of physicists. We asked seven of the new generation — all CERN Fellows, in the early stages of their career — to tell us about some of the milestone achievements in the history of their laboratory.</p></div> <noscript> <div class="c-nature-box c-nature-box--side " data-component="entitlement-box"> <p class="c-nature-box__text js-text">You have full access to this article via your institution.</p> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both js-pdf-download"> <a href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="download-pdf" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-download"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </noscript> <div class="js-context-bar-sticky-point-mobile" data-track-context="article body"> <div class="c-nature-box c-nature-box--side u-display-none u-hide-print" aria-hidden="true" data-component="entitlement-box" id=entitlement-box-entitled-mobile > <p class="c-nature-box__text js-text u-display-none" aria-hidden="true"></p> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both js-pdf-download"> <a href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="download-pdf" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-download"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section><div class="c-article-section c-article-section--labelled"><h2 class="c-article-section__title"><span class="js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="question-2">CERN’s first accelerator</span></h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="question-2-content"><p><b>Federica Riti</b>: Visiting CERN is an essential experience for anyone who is passionate about science and innovation; in fact, more than 1,000 visitors are attracted daily. While here, I recommend booking onto one of the most inspiring visits of the entire site: to the Synchrocyclotron (SC), CERN’s first particle accelerator. In 1957 when beams of protons were accelerated to 600 MeV inside the SC for the first time, it marked the beginning of a new phase of major European contributions to particle physics and also paved the way for the incredible machines that exist today.</p><p>At that time, many aspects of the field that are now taken for granted were still unknown, and the SC was able to answer some fundamental physics questions. One of its greatest achievements was the measurement of pion decay to an electron and a neutrino<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Fazzini, T., Fidecaro, G., Merrison, A. W., Paul, H. & Tollestrup, A. V. Electron decay of the pion. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1, 247–249 (1958)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e359">1</a></sup>. The pion-decay rate into electrons was predicted to be about 10,000 times smaller than the rate into muons, making detection very difficult — early experiments, such as those at the Berkeley Synchrocyclotron (at the then Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA), had shown pions decaying only into muons, none into electrons and neutrinos. In 1958, a team working at CERN’s new SC — Tito Fazzini, Giuseppe Fidecaro, Alec Merrison, Helmut Paul and Alvin Tollestrup — decided to investigate. Using a simple but ingenious detector setup, they overcame previous experimental challenges by successfully distinguishing direct electronic decays of the pions from chain decays that involved muons. Eventually, they had observed 40 clear ‘events’ of pions decaying into electrons and neutrinos. This discovery not only confirmed theoretical predictions but was also the first demonstration of CERN’s capability in conducting world-leading research.</p><p>Around the same time, another pioneering experiment took place at the SC, based on an idea from Leon Lederman. This team (which included Georges Charpak, Francis Farley, Richard Garwin and Antonino Zichichi) conducted an experiment whose result still stands six decades later, measuring ‘<i>g</i> minus 2’, which is related to the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon. According to Paul Dirac’s theory, if the muon were a point-like particle, its gyromagnetic ratio <i>g</i> should be exactly 2; however, quantum electrodynamics predicts a slight deviation from this value owing to higher-order effects — so establishing the value of <i>g</i>−2 is crucial in validating the theory. This first measurement<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Charpak, G. et al. Measurement of the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon. Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 128–132 (1961)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e375">2</a></sup> achieved a precision of 2%, which was later improved to 0.4%, aligning well with the theoretical prediction (which was itself very challenging to calculate). It also led to the muon being accepted as a structureless particle, because the <i>g</i>-factor was not perturbed by any additional interactions arising from the composition of the muon. More measurements of <i>g</i>−2 were subsequently made at CERN, but since 1984 experiments have been conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Fermilab in the USA, and the sensitivity of the measurement continually improves.</p><p>From its early days of pioneering discoveries to its present role in leading-edge research, CERN has consistently driven the field of particle physics forwards. The history and achievements of the SC are testament of the spirit of innovation and discovery that defines CERN to this day.</p></div></div></section><section><div class="c-article-section c-article-section--labelled"><h2 class="c-article-section__title"><span class="js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="question-7">The discovery of weak neutral currents</span></h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="question-7-content"><p><b>Philipp Gadow</b>: Behind CERN’s old reception building stands the Gargamelle bubble chamber, a monument to one of the breakthrough discoveries in particle physics: the observation of weak neutral currents<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Hasert, F. J. et al. Search for elastic muon–neutrino electron scattering. Phys. Lett. 46, 121–124 (1973)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e398">3</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Hasert, F. J. et al. Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle neutrino experiment. Phys. Lett. 46, 138–140 (1973)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e401">4</a></sup>. This achievement confirmed a crucial aspect of the electroweak theory and laid the groundwork for the standard model of particle physics.</p><p>In the early 1960s, the V–A theory of weak interactions explained the parity-violating interactions between particles but was beset with inconsistencies, particularly divergences at high energies. To tackle the problem, in 1968, pioneering theoretical physicists Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg put forward a gauge theory called electroweak theory, which postulated a neutral intermediate vector boson or ‘<i>Z</i> particle’ (in addition to two charged bosons, <i>W</i><sup>±</sup>), and consequently proposed the existence of weak neutral currents — that is, interactions mediated by this <i>Z</i> boson. This was a hypothesis awaiting experimental verification, and it came from Gargamelle.</p><p>Gargamelle was a large bubble chamber — 4.8 m long and 2 m in diameter, housing nearly 12 m<sup>3</sup> of heavy-liquid freon — that was exposed to a muon-neutrino beam, derived from the proton beams circulating in CERN’s Proton Synchrotron accelerator. It was designed to detect the scattering of neutrinos by electrons and hadrons (such as protons and neutrons) in the heavy-liquid freon, scatterings mediated by the <i>Z</i> boson that would be evidence for weak neutral currents. From the start of operations in 1970, by July 1973, the Gargamelle team had recorded 166 possible hadronic events (or scatterings), and in December 1972, during a routine analysis of vast numbers of detector images, postgraduate student Franz-Josef Hasert spotted one electron event (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#Fig1">1a</a>) — providing compelling evidence for the elusive neutrino interactions. Unlike the typical tracks left in the bubble chamber by muon neutrinos interacting with hadrons, this particular event showed an isolated electron track moving forwards, creating a distinctive electron shower with electron–positron pairs.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Milestone results from CERN."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1: Milestone results from CERN.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00762-9/MediaObjects/42254_2024_762_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00762-9/MediaObjects/42254_2024_762_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="822"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p><b>a</b>, In 1973, the Gargamelle bubble chamber proved the existence of weak neutral currents: a neutrino interacting with an electron, via the weak neutral current, caused the electron to leave the isolated, almost horizontal track seen at the bottom of this image. <b>b</b>, An early result from the Large Electron Positron collider (measured here by ALEPH, one of four experiments in the accelerator ring) was the cross-section (<i>σ</i>) for the decay of <i>Z</i> bosons to hadrons, as a function of collision energy: the data points, compared with theoretical predictions, conclusively indicate that the number of families of light neutrinos (<i>N</i><sub><i>ν</i></sub>) is three. <b>c</b>, In 2012, the ATLAS and CMS collaborations announced the discovery of the Higgs boson in proton–proton collisions created by the Large Hadron Collider (LHC): this image from CMS captures particle tracks (in yellow) emanating from the interaction region, and small blocks represent energy deposited in the surrounding calorimeters; the two green towers are the signature of two energetic photons created by the decay of a Higgs boson. Credit: CERN.</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The Gargamelle team knew they had something extraordinary. They subjected their finding to rigorous scrutiny, rechecking the calculations and considering all possible backgrounds that could mimic such an event. Their analysis held up, and the discovery was presented in a seminar at CERN in July 1973, igniting both excitement and scepticism within the scientific community. But with further careful analysis, that included a rigorous estimate of the neutron background, most people were convinced.</p><p>For its time, Gargamelle was an enormous undertaking. It was named after the giantess Gargamelle in the works of the French writer François Rabelais, and taming this ‘giantess’ of an experiment demanded extensive international collaboration, between seven European laboratories and also scientists from Japan, Russia and the USA. Although its size and scope are dwarfed by today’s experiments using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the legacy of the Gargamelle experiment is profound. The confirmation of weak neutral currents was a pivotal moment in particle physics, validating electroweak theory, setting the stage for the direct observation of the <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons at CERN in 1983 and marking the experimental inception of the standard model of electroweak interactions.</p></div></div></section><section><div class="c-article-section c-article-section--labelled"><h2 class="c-article-section__title"><span class="js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="question-13">The observation of the <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons</span></h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="question-13-content"><p><b>David Walter</b>: In the late 1970s and early 1980s, data from neutrino-interaction experiments, measurements of the so-called weak mixing angle of the electroweak theory and results from the PETRA electron–positron collider at DESY in Germany all provided constraints on the masses of the <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons. The masses were predicted to be 60–80 GeV for the <i>W</i><sup>±</sup> and 75–92 GeV for the <i>Z</i> — too heavy for these particles to be produced by any collider in operation at that time.</p><p>Back in 1976, David Cline, Carlo Rubbia and Peter McIntyre had proposed to repurpose CERN’s Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) — which delivered proton beams to fixed-target experiments — as a proton–antiproton collider, to enable head-on particle collisions at much higher energies. However, producing large quantities of antiprotons, then focusing them within a beam and maintaining their stability was a major challenge. Key to solving it was to reduce the spread of antiprotons in the beam, using the stochastic cooling technique<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Möhl, D., Petrucci, G., Thorndahl, L. & van der Meer, S. Physics and technique of stochastic cooling. Phys. Rep. 58, 73–102 (1980)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e513">5</a></sup> pioneered by Simon van der Meer in 1972: the position and momentum of the particles are detected and small corrective kicks applied via electromagnetic fields, gradually bringing the antiprotons into a collimated bunch. In 1981, the SPS delivered its first proton–antiproton collisions.</p><p>Two state-of-the-art underground detectors had been designed to collect the collision data. The UA1 experiment — 10 m × 6 m × 6 m in size and weighing around 2,000 tonnes — was led by Rubbia and featured advanced technologies such as a large dipole magnet and a central tracker with high-resolution drift chambers and innovative digital readout. Its central electromagnetic calorimeter, crucial for subsequent discoveries, was economically designed as a lead–scintillator stack. Meanwhile, the UA2 experiment, led by Pierre Darriulat, was optimized for detecting electrons; its simpler calorimetry had spherical projective geometry and almost full solid-angle coverage.</p><p>Both experiments initially targeted the clean <i>W</i>-boson decay into an electron and a neutrino. Their independent search strategies quickly identified five (UA1) and six (UA2) of these clean electron signatures, and in January 1983 the discovery of the <i>W</i> boson was announced<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Arnison, G. et al. (UA1 Collaboration) Experimental observation of isolated large transverse energy electrons with associated missing energy at s = 540 GeV. Phys. Lett. B 122, 103–116 (1983)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e529">6</a></sup>. Later that year, as the data collected by both experiments increased, attention turned to the <i>Z</i> boson, which is produced about 10 times less frequently than the <i>W</i>, and its decay to a final state of two electrons or two muons. The existence of the <i>Z</i> boson was also conclusively proven<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Bagnaia, P. et al. (UA2 Collaboration) Evidence for Z0 → e+e– at the CERN pbar p collider. Phys. Lett. B 129, 130–140 (1983)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e543">7</a></sup>, with clear signatures in both experiments.</p><p>For their pivotal roles in these discoveries, Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1984. This recognition highlighted the critical connection between theoretical predictions and experimental breakthroughs and exemplified CERN’s leading role in the quest to understand the fundamental nature of matter and forces. The breakthroughs were only made possible by the collaborative effort of the UA1, UA2 and accelerator-facility teams, involving hundreds of physicists — in 1983, this was a number on a new scale, but it would soon be exceeded many times over in the era of ‘big science’.</p></div></div></section><section><div class="c-article-section c-article-section--labelled"><h2 class="c-article-section__title"><span class="js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="question-19">The precision era</span></h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="question-19-content"><p><b>María Vieites Díaz</b>: Following the discovery of the <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons, it became a clear priority to study these particles in detail, and CERN pressed ahead with the planning of its next accelerator, the Large Electron Positron (LEP) collider, which operated from 1989 to 2000. In this new ‘precision era’ for electroweak physics, the LEP project would have two stages. First, LEP1, in which the accelerator ran at a centre-of-mass energy of around 91 GeV, in the <i>Z</i>-production mode, enabling precise measurement of the mass of this boson and of the rates of its decays<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="ALEPH Collaborationet al. Precision electroweak measurements on the Z resonance. Phys. Rep. 427, 257–454 (2006)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e568">8</a></sup>. In the second phase, LEP2, the centre-of-mass energy was raised across the range 160–209 GeV, targeting pair production of <i>W</i> bosons and the search for the still undiscovered Higgs boson and aiming to make a precise measurement of the <i>W</i> mass and of the energy-dependent cross-section of <i>WW</i> pair production<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="ALEPH Collaboration, DELPHI Collaboration, L3 Collaboration, OPAL Collaboration, LEP Electroweak Working Group. Electroweak measurements in electron–positron collisions at W–boson-pair energies at LEP. Phys. Rep. 532, 119–244 (2013)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e582">9</a></sup>.</p><p>An early major result from LEP1 concerned the so-called <i>Z</i> line shape (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#Fig1">1b</a>). Fitting cross-section measurements of <i>Z</i> decay into visible final states (pairs of charged leptons or pairs of quarks) at different collision energies produces the resonant shape, whose peak value is the statistically most powerful observable for determining the number of light neutrino species — that is, the number of neutrino species that the <i>Z</i> can decay into, yielding invisible final states. Analysis of LEP1 data proved that the number of light-neutrino families is three and irrefutably excluded neighbouring integer values. This success relied, particularly, on being able to make remarkably accurate measurements of the beam energy and collider luminosity.</p><p>The beam energy was measured using a technique called resonant depolarization. As electrons and positrons circulate in an accelerator, synchrotron radiation tends to align their spins to the magnetic field, resulting in a largely polarized beam. This gives rise to a coherent spin-precession frequency, dependent on the beam energy and the frequency of revolution: by tuning an external electromagnetic field to the spin-precession frequency, the beam can be depolarized, enabling precise measurement of its energy. An impressive accuracy at the level of one in 5 × 10<sup>−6</sup> was achieved for the LEP1 beam energy using this method — sensitive enough to detect beam-orbit variations caused by the tidal forces of the Moon.</p><p>The luminosity (the ratio of the number of events per second to their cross-section) at LEP was computed by comparing the theoretical and measured rates of Bhabha scattering, a well-known small-angle process between electrons and positrons. Experimentally, the major challenge was to deal with the very small angles, which meant that the luminometer had to be extremely well aligned with respect to the beam and its geometrical acceptance known to high accuracy — relative uncertainties of about 0.06% were achieved on both fronts.</p><p>The success story continued into the LEP2 phase, with further scientific progress: first, an improvement in the precision of the <i>W</i>-mass measurement; then, using <i>WW</i> pair production, finding that the structure of the triple-gauge-boson couplings was compatible with the Yang–Mills theory. The astounding precision achieved at LEP also set the path for others, determining the energy scales at which the top quark and the Higgs boson would subsequently be found.</p></div></div></section><section><div class="c-article-section c-article-section--labelled"><h2 class="c-article-section__title"><span class="js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="question-25">Investigating antimatter</span></h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="question-25-content"><p><b>Barbara Maria Latacz</b>: According to our current best understanding, about 1 s after the Big Bang, an imbalance in the formation of particles and antiparticles occurred — this imbalance, in favour of matter over antimatter, led to the creation of our matter Universe. Why this happened is a hot topic in modern fundamental physics, and has inspired researchers to build complex experiments to compare the fundamental properties of antimatter and matter at ultralow energies. CERN, with its famous ‘antimatter factory’, is the field leader.</p><p>CERN’s first achievement came in 1965, when — simultaneously with Brookhaven National Laboratory in the USA — the first complex antimatter system was created. The ‘antideuteron’, consisting of an antineutron and an antiproton, demonstrated that the electromagnetic and nuclear interactions of matter and antimatter appear, to first order, to be similar.</p><p>Next, CERN built a dedicated facility to perform antimatter studies using antiproton beams: the Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR) started operating in 1982 and led to three crucial, complementary successes. First came the formation of antiprotonic atoms, in which one electron is replaced by an antiproton, enabling precise studies of the fundamental properties of the antiproton. Next, atoms of antihydrogen were created — until this point, it had not been clear that antiatoms could be formed at all. And finally there was the electromagnetic trapping of antiprotons, which enabled the first non-destructive study of antimatter systems and opened a plethora of new experimental possibilities using cold antimatter systems. Inspired by these achievements, in 1997, CERN established an upgraded antimatter facility with the Antiproton Decelerator (AD) and, since 2018, the Extra Low Energy Antiproton (ELENA) synchrotron, which provide the world’s only low-energy antiproton beam for the facilitation of antimatter capture.</p><p>The AD–ELENA facility launched a new era in antimatter physics. The precision of many experiments increased by orders of magnitude — such as the measurement by the ASACUSA experiment of the antiproton-to-electron mass ratio using antiprotonic helium, which reached a precision of 0.8 × 10<sup>−9</sup>. Nowadays, antihydrogen is not only routinely produced but also (since 2010) trapped, enabling studies such as the spectroscopy of the 1<i>s</i>–2<i>s</i> state of antihydrogen at the 2 × 10<sup>−12</sup> level by the ALPHA experiment. ASACUSA is producing a beam of antihydrogen, to perform magnetic-field-free measurements of the hyperfine splitting of antihydrogen.</p><p>Using the AD, local tests of the gravitational interaction of antimatter have been performed. The first, in 2022, was the measurement<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Borchert, M. J. et al. A 16-parts-per-trillion measurement of the antiproton-to-proton charge–mass ratio. Nature 601, 53–57 (2022)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e649">10</a></sup> of the antiproton gravitational redshift by the BASE experiment, and then in 2023 the first free-fall of antimatter was observed<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Anderson, E. K. et al. Observation of the effect of gravity on the motion of antimatter. Nature 621, 716–722 (2023)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e653">11</a></sup> by ALPHA. Next, ALPHA and two other experiments, AEgIS and GBAR, are planning to produce ultracold antihydrogen atoms to push the limits on the measurement of the gravitational interaction. Meanwhile, measurements of fundamental properties of single trapped antiprotons — such as the charge-to-mass ratio at 1.6 × 10<sup>−11</sup> precision<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Borchert, M. J. et al. A 16-parts-per-trillion measurement of the antiproton-to-proton charge–mass ratio. Nature 601, 53–57 (2022)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e659">10</a></sup> and the magnetic moment of the antiproton at 1.5 × 10<sup>−9</sup> precision, both by BASE — have become some of the most precise tests of the standard model, probing the theory at an unprecedented energy level of 10<sup>−27</sup> GeV.</p><p>For the future, there are plans to develop even more complex experiments and antimatter systems, such as antihydrogen ions or molecular antihydrogen, at the AD–ELENA facility, and also to transport antiprotons to institutes outside CERN’s antimatter factory to create a wider network of antimatter experiments.</p></div></div></section><section><div class="c-article-section c-article-section--labelled"><h2 class="c-article-section__title"><span class="js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="question-32">The discovery of quark–gluon plasma</span></h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="question-32-content"><p><b>Luigi Dello Stritto:</b> One of the most intriguing properties of the particles that carry colour charge — quarks and gluons — is that they cannot exist in isolation. The strong force between quarks and gluons increases as they move apart, which prevents the separation of quarks and ensures their perpetual binding within colour-neutral hadrons, a phenomenon known as colour confinement.</p><p>Conversely, as quarks and gluons move closer to each other, the interactions between them weaken. In the late 1970s, it was theorized that, under extreme high-energy and high-density conditions, quarks and gluons can be compressed to such an extent that they no longer interact with each other and behave as almost-free particles. The result is a new state of matter known as quark–gluon plasma (QGP), in which free colour charges exist. These unimaginably high temperatures and energy densities were present microseconds after the Big Bang — so studying QGP provides a unique window on the early Universe, enabling us to probe the interactions that governed its evolution and to test quantum chromodynamics, the theory describing the strong interaction.</p><p>But how can such extreme conditions be replicated in a laboratory? A special type of collision is required, known as heavy-ion collisions, in which large nuclei collide at ultra-relativistic energies. Efforts to create QGP in heavy-ion collisions at CERN began in 1994, using the SPS accelerator. Beams of lead ions were accelerated to an energy of 33 TeV and collided with lead or gold targets across seven detectors, each designed to measure various properties of the resulting collisions. Temperatures more than 100,000 times hotter than the core of the Sun and energy densities 20 times higher than ordinary nuclear matter were generated — unprecedented in a laboratory setting.</p><p>The comprehensive data from these SPS experiments provided compelling evidence for the existence of a new state of matter. Key indicators include the enhanced production of hadrons containing strange quarks and the suppression of <i>J</i>/<i>Ψ</i> mesons (bound states of charm and anticharm quarks), both relative to proton-induced collisions in which no QGP is expected to form. The enhanced production of strange hadrons can be attributed to a novel strangeness production mechanism, probably involving the thermal production of strange quarks within the plasma. Meanwhile, the observed suppression of <i>J</i>/<i>Ψ</i> is explained by colour screening in the QGP, which prevents the binding of charm–anticharm quark pairs.</p><p>After years of data-taking and analysis, the discovery of QGP was announced<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Heinz, U. & Jacob, M. Evidence for a new state of matter: an assessment of the results from the CERN lead beam programme. Preprint at 
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 (2000)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e705">12</a></sup> in 2000. But this was only the beginning of a rich heavy-ion programme. Studies continue at the Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory in the USA and at CERN’s LHC. The longer plasma lifetimes and higher initial temperatures and energy densities at these facilities are enabling a more detailed characterization of QGP, examining new observables, such as collective motion and energy-loss mechanisms. Remarkably, it seems that quarks and gluons within a QGP are not free, as initially expected, but instead strongly interact with each other — suggesting that QGP behaves more like a near-perfect fluid with very low viscosity, rather than a weakly interacting gas. Clearly, these studies of QGP through heavy-ion collisions will continue to deepen our understanding of the strong force and the behaviour of matter under extreme conditions.</p></div></div></section><section><div class="c-article-section c-article-section--labelled"><h2 class="c-article-section__title"><span class="js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="question-38">The Higgs boson and the quest for mass</span></h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="question-38-content"><p><b>Petar Bokan:</b> It is said that a great solution requires a great problem — or is it the other way round? In the 1960s, the great problem was that, although the very short range of weak interactions such as β-decay necessitated that their mediators be massive particles, the gauge symmetry proposed to describe the interactions required these particles to be massless gauge bosons, akin to the photon that mediates the electromagnetic interaction.</p><p>Inspired by research on symmetry breaking in superconductivity, in 1964, three independent groups of theorists proposed a great solution. The Brout–Englert–Higgs (BEH) mechanism detailed how gauge bosons acquire mass through spontaneous symmetry breaking while they interact with an as-yet unknown scalar field that permeates the Universe. Any perturbation in this field, which has a non-zero energy even in vacuum, was expected to manifest as a massive new particle, the Higgs boson. The concept was later extended to explain how other elementary particles gain mass through their interaction with the Higgs field.</p><p>It was this BEH mechanism that enabled Glashow, Weinberg and Salam to unify the theories of electromagnetic and weak interactions, leading to the creation of the standard model of particle physics and the prediction of the <i>W</i><sup>±</sup> and <i>Z</i> bosons. When those particles were discovered at CERN, and confirmed to be massive, there then remained the ‘problem’ of finding the Higgs boson. Generations of particle physicists worked tirelessly, at CERN’s LEP collider and Fermilab’s Tevatron, searching for the Higgs boson, setting limits on its mass — and paving the way for eventual success.</p><p>The entire community was confident of its existence. In early 2012, a group of students (including myself), finding the concept abstract, asked their professor, what if the Higgs boson did not exist? The professor smiled, and assured them that something with similar properties must exist. Our student scepticism was short-lived. In July 2012, the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN’s LHC announced the discovery of a particle with a mass around 125 GeV c<sup>−2</sup> and consistent with the properties of the Higgs boson<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Aad, G. et al. (ATLAS Collaboration) Observation of a new particle in the search for the Standard Model Higgs boson with the ATLAS detector at the LHC. Phys. Lett. B 716, 1–29 (2012)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e735">13</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title="Chatrchyan, S. et al. (CMS Collaboration) Observation of a new boson at a mass of 125 GeV with the CMS experiment at the LHC. Phys. Lett. B 716, 30–61 (2012)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d1672532e738">14</a></sup> (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00762-9#Fig1">1c</a>). The excitement was immense, and the event became one of the most widely followed and celebrated scientific achievements of modern times. The 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert for their contribution to formulating the BEH mechanism. The technological sophistication of the ATLAS and CMS experiments, their precision in measuring energies and trajectories of particles and their ability to handle enormous rates of LHC collisions were crucial to this achievement.</p><p>The Higgs boson lies at the core of the standard model, making it the most likely bridge to what exists beyond. Now, its interactions with the heaviest known fundamental particles are being precisely measured — but finding out how the Higgs boson interacts with itself is the next crucial challenge for the CERN community in the coming years. 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publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Petar%20Bokan" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Petar%20Bokan%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p><b>Federica Riti</b> is a CERN Fellow working on the CMS experiment. She obtained her PhD at ETH Zurich, working on lepton flavour universality. Recently, her research has concentrated on investigating rare <i>b</i>-hadron decays to search indirectly for physics beyond the standard model, as well as updating the CMS trigger system for the high-luminosity phase of the LHC.</p><p><b>Philipp Gadow</b> is a CERN Fellow working on the ATLAS experiment. He obtained his PhD at Technical University of Munich and worked as a postdoctoral researcher at DESY, Hamburg. His current research focuses on searches for new particles in rare and complex final states with top quarks with ATLAS, developing machine-learning algorithms for the identification of heavy-flavour jets and silicon detector R&D for future collider facilities.</p><p><b>David Walter</b> is a CERN Fellow working on the CMS experiment. He obtained his PhD at DESY, Hamburg, for his work on top quark physics and luminosity measurements using <i>Z</i> bosons. Currently, he is working on the first CMS measurement of the <i>W</i> boson mass. In the near future, he will focus further on precision measurements of <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons.</p><p><b>María Vieites Díaz</b> is a CERN Fellow working on the LHCb experiment. She obtained her PhD in 2019 from Universidade de Santiago de Compostela and subsequently worked as a postdoctoral researcher at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne and at CERN. Her research focuses on searches in flavour physics for phenomena beyond the standard model, using amplitude analyses of <i>B</i>-meson decays. She is currently working on the measurement of the photon polarization parameter, an observable sensitive to right-handed currents.</p><p><b>Barbara Maria Latacz</b> is a CERN Fellow working in the BASE Collaboration on ultra-precise measurements of the fundamental properties of the antiproton. She obtained her PhD at the University Paris-Saclay on the study of the formation of antihydrogen ions. She joined BASE as a postdoctoral researcher in RIKEN, and has recently focused on developing coherent spectroscopy for measurements of the nuclear magnetic moments of the proton and antiproton. Next, she will take up a position as a Research Scientist at CERN.</p><p><b>Luigi Dello Stritto</b> is a CERN Fellow working on the ALICE experiment. He did his PhD at the Physics Department of the University of Salerno, where he also worked as a postdoctoral researcher before joining CERN. His research focuses on heavy-flavour and jet physics in ultra-relativistic proton–proton and heavy-ion collisions, aiming to unveil the properties of the strong interaction.</p><p><b>Petar Bokan</b> is a CERN Fellow working on the ATLAS experiment. He received his PhD from Uppsala University and the University of Goettingen in 2020. His research focuses on studying the interactions of the Higgs boson, including its self-interaction, which is a crucial test of the standard model and the mechanism of electroweak symmetry breaking. He is also involved in the upgrade and operations of the ATLAS detector.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding authors</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:federica.riti@cern.ch">Federica Riti</a>, <a id="corresp-c2" href="mailto:paul.philipp.gadow@cern.ch">Philipp Gadow</a>, <a id="corresp-c3" href="mailto:david.walter@cern.ch">David Walter</a>, <a id="corresp-c4" href="mailto:maria.vieites.diaz@cern.ch">Maria Vieites Diaz</a>, <a id="corresp-c5" href="mailto:barbara.maria.latacz@cern.ch">Barbara Maria Latacz</a>, <a id="corresp-c6" href="mailto:luigi.dello.stritto@cern.ch">Luigi Dello Stritto</a> or <a id="corresp-c7" href="mailto:petar.bokan@cern.ch">Petar Bokan</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar1">Competing interests</h3> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Additional information"><div class="c-article-section" id="additional-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="additional-information">Additional information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="additional-information-content"><p><b>Publisher’s note</b> Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"><p class="c-article-rights"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="view rights and permissions" data-track-label="link" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?title=A%20history%20of%20CERN%20in%20seven%20physics%20milestones&author=Federica%20Riti%20et%20al&contentID=10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00762-9&copyright=Springer%20Nature%20Limited&publication=2522-5820&publicationDate=2024-09-17&publisherName=SpringerNature&orderBeanReset=true">Reprints and permissions</a></p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="article-info" data-title="About this article"><div class="c-article-section" id="article-info-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="article-info">About this article</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="article-info-content"><div class="c-bibliographic-information"><div class="u-hide-print c-bibliographic-information__column c-bibliographic-information__column--border"><a data-crossmark="10.1038/s42254-024-00762-9" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1038/s42254-024-00762-9" data-track="click" data-track-action="Click Crossmark" data-track-label="link" data-test="crossmark"><img loading="lazy" width="57" height="81" alt="Check for updates. 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