CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Written language - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"92e3739e-d88f-4ee8-a1a1-7cfd27b81c7c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Written_language","wgTitle":"Written language","wgCurRevisionId":1240092006,"wgRevisionId":1240092006,"wgArticleId":226990, "wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Written_language","wgRelevantArticleId":226990,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFMode":"stable","wgMFAmc":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachActive":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachUserEligible":false,"wgMFLazyLoadImages":true,"wgMFEditNoticesFeatureConflict":false,"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgMFIsSupportedEditRequest":true,"wgMFScriptPath":"", "wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":true,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgSectionTranslationMissingLanguages":[{"lang":"ace","autonym":"Acèh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ady","autonym":"адыгабзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"alt","autonym":"алтай тил","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"am","autonym":"አማርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ami","autonym":"Pangcah","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"an","autonym":"aragonés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ang","autonym":"Ænglisc","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ann","autonym":"Obolo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"anp","autonym":"अंगिका","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ary","autonym":"الدارجة","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"arz","autonym":"مصرى","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"as","autonym":"অসমীয়া","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ast","autonym":"asturianu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"av","autonym":"авар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"avk","autonym":"Kotava","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"awa","autonym": "अवधी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ay","autonym":"Aymar aru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"azb","autonym":"تۆرکجه","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ba","autonym":"башҡортса","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ban","autonym":"Basa Bali","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bar","autonym":"Boarisch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bbc","autonym":"Batak Toba","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bcl","autonym":"Bikol Central","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bdr","autonym":"Bajau Sama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"be","autonym":"беларуская","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bew","autonym":"Betawi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bg","autonym":"български","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bho","autonym":"भोजपुरी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bi","autonym":"Bislama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bjn","autonym":"Banjar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"blk","autonym":"ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bm","autonym":"bamanankan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bn","autonym":"বাংলা","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bo","autonym":"བོད་ཡིག","dir":"ltr"},{"lang": "bpy","autonym":"বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"br","autonym":"brezhoneg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bs","autonym":"bosanski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"btm","autonym":"Batak Mandailing","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bug","autonym":"Basa Ugi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cdo","autonym":"閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ce","autonym":"нохчийн","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ceb","autonym":"Cebuano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ch","autonym":"Chamoru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"chr","autonym":"ᏣᎳᎩ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ckb","autonym":"کوردی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"co","autonym":"corsu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cr","autonym":"Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"crh","autonym":"qırımtatarca","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cs","autonym":"čeština","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cu","autonym":"словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cy","autonym":"Cymraeg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dag","autonym": "dagbanli","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dga","autonym":"Dagaare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"din","autonym":"Thuɔŋjäŋ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dsb","autonym":"dolnoserbski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dtp","autonym":"Kadazandusun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dv","autonym":"ދިވެހިބަސް","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"dz","autonym":"ཇོང་ཁ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ee","autonym":"eʋegbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"eml","autonym":"emiliàn e rumagnòl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fat","autonym":"mfantse","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ff","autonym":"Fulfulde","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fj","autonym":"Na Vosa Vakaviti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fon","autonym":"fɔ̀ngbè","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frp","autonym":"arpetan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frr","autonym":"Nordfriisk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fur","autonym":"furlan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gag","autonym":"Gagauz","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gan","autonym":"贛語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gcr","autonym":"kriyòl gwiyannen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gl","autonym":"galego","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"glk", "autonym":"گیلکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"gn","autonym":"Avañe'ẽ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gom","autonym":"गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gor","autonym":"Bahasa Hulontalo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gpe","autonym":"Ghanaian Pidgin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gu","autonym":"ગુજરાતી","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guc","autonym":"wayuunaiki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gur","autonym":"farefare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guw","autonym":"gungbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gv","autonym":"Gaelg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ha","autonym":"Hausa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hak","autonym":"客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"haw","autonym":"Hawaiʻi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"he","autonym":"עברית","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"hi","autonym":"हिन्दी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hif","autonym":"Fiji Hindi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hr","autonym":"hrvatski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hsb","autonym":"hornjoserbsce","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ht","autonym":"Kreyòl ayisyen","dir": "ltr"},{"lang":"hu","autonym":"magyar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hy","autonym":"հայերեն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hyw","autonym":"Արեւմտահայերէն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ia","autonym":"interlingua","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iba","autonym":"Jaku Iban","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ie","autonym":"Interlingue","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ig","autonym":"Igbo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"igl","autonym":"Igala","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ilo","autonym":"Ilokano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"io","autonym":"Ido","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"it","autonym":"italiano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iu","autonym":"ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jam","autonym":"Patois","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jv","autonym":"Jawa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ka","autonym":"ქართული","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kaa","autonym":"Qaraqalpaqsha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kab","autonym":"Taqbaylit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbd","autonym":"адыгэбзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbp","autonym":"Kabɩyɛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kcg","autonym":"Tyap" ,"dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kg","autonym":"Kongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kge","autonym":"Kumoring","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ki","autonym":"Gĩkũyũ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kk","autonym":"қазақша","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kl","autonym":"kalaallisut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"km","autonym":"ភាសាខ្មែរ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kn","autonym":"ಕನ್ನಡ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ko","autonym":"한국어","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"koi","autonym":"перем коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"krc","autonym":"къарачай-малкъар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ks","autonym":"कॉशुर / کٲشُر","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ku","autonym":"kurdî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kus","autonym":"Kʋsaal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kv","autonym":"коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kw","autonym":"kernowek","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ky","autonym":"кыргызча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lad","autonym":"Ladino","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lb","autonym":"Lëtzebuergesch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lez","autonym":"лезги", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lg","autonym":"Luganda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"li","autonym":"Limburgs","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lij","autonym":"Ligure","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lld","autonym":"Ladin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lmo","autonym":"lombard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ln","autonym":"lingála","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lo","autonym":"ລາວ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lt","autonym":"lietuvių","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ltg","autonym":"latgaļu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mad","autonym":"Madhurâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mai","autonym":"मैथिली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"map-bms","autonym":"Basa Banyumasan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mdf","autonym":"мокшень","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mg","autonym":"Malagasy","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mhr","autonym":"олык марий","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mi","autonym":"Māori","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"min","autonym":"Minangkabau","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mn","autonym":"монгол","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mni","autonym":"ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mnw","autonym": "ဘာသာမန်","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mos","autonym":"moore","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mr","autonym":"मराठी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mrj","autonym":"кырык мары","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mt","autonym":"Malti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mwl","autonym":"Mirandés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"my","autonym":"မြန်မာဘာသာ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"myv","autonym":"эрзянь","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mzn","autonym":"مازِرونی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nah","autonym":"Nāhuatl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nan","autonym":"閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nap","autonym":"Napulitano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nb","autonym":"norsk bokmål","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds","autonym":"Plattdüütsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds-nl","autonym":"Nedersaksies","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ne","autonym":"नेपाली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"new","autonym":"नेपाल भाषा","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nia","autonym":"Li Niha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nqo","autonym":"ߒߞߏ","dir": "rtl"},{"lang":"nr","autonym":"isiNdebele seSewula","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nso","autonym":"Sesotho sa Leboa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ny","autonym":"Chi-Chewa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"oc","autonym":"occitan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"om","autonym":"Oromoo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"or","autonym":"ଓଡ଼ିଆ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"os","autonym":"ирон","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pa","autonym":"ਪੰਜਾਬੀ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pag","autonym":"Pangasinan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pam","autonym":"Kapampangan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pap","autonym":"Papiamentu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcd","autonym":"Picard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcm","autonym":"Naijá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pdc","autonym":"Deitsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pms","autonym":"Piemontèis","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pnb","autonym":"پنجابی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"pwn","autonym":"pinayuanan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"qu","autonym":"Runa Simi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rm","autonym":"rumantsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rn","autonym":"ikirundi","dir": "ltr"},{"lang":"rsk","autonym":"руски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rue","autonym":"русиньскый","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rup","autonym":"armãneashti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rw","autonym":"Ikinyarwanda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sa","autonym":"संस्कृतम्","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sah","autonym":"саха тыла","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sat","autonym":"ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sc","autonym":"sardu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"scn","autonym":"sicilianu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sco","autonym":"Scots","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sd","autonym":"سنڌي","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"se","autonym":"davvisámegiella","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sg","autonym":"Sängö","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sgs","autonym":"žemaitėška","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sh","autonym":"srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shi","autonym":"Taclḥit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shn","autonym":"ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"si","autonym":"සිංහල","dir":"ltr"},{ "lang":"sk","autonym":"slovenčina","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"skr","autonym":"سرائیکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"sl","autonym":"slovenščina","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sm","autonym":"Gagana Samoa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"smn","autonym":"anarâškielâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sn","autonym":"chiShona","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"so","autonym":"Soomaaliga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sr","autonym":"српски / srpski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"srn","autonym":"Sranantongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ss","autonym":"SiSwati","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"st","autonym":"Sesotho","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"stq","autonym":"Seeltersk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"su","autonym":"Sunda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"szl","autonym":"ślůnski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tay","autonym":"Tayal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tcy","autonym":"ತುಳು","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tdd","autonym":"ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"te","autonym":"తెలుగు","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tet","autonym":"tetun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tg","autonym": "тоҷикӣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"th","autonym":"ไทย","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ti","autonym":"ትግርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tk","autonym":"Türkmençe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tly","autonym":"tolışi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tn","autonym":"Setswana","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"to","autonym":"lea faka-Tonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tpi","autonym":"Tok Pisin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"trv","autonym":"Seediq","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ts","autonym":"Xitsonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tt","autonym":"татарча / tatarça","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tum","autonym":"chiTumbuka","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tw","autonym":"Twi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ty","autonym":"reo tahiti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tyv","autonym":"тыва дыл","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"udm","autonym":"удмурт","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ur","autonym":"اردو","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"uz","autonym":"oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ve","autonym":"Tshivenda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vec","autonym":"vèneto","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vep" ,"autonym":"vepsän kel’","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vls","autonym":"West-Vlams","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vo","autonym":"Volapük","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vro","autonym":"võro","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wa","autonym":"walon","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"war","autonym":"Winaray","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wo","autonym":"Wolof","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wuu","autonym":"吴语","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xal","autonym":"хальмг","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xh","autonym":"isiXhosa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xmf","autonym":"მარგალური","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yi","autonym":"ייִדיש","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"yo","autonym":"Yorùbá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yue","autonym":"粵語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"za","autonym":"Vahcuengh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zgh","autonym":"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zu","autonym":"isiZulu","dir":"ltr"}],"wgSectionTranslationTargetLanguages":["ace","ady","alt","am","ami","an","ang","ann","anp","ar","ary","arz","as","ast","av","avk","awa","ay", "az","azb","ba","ban","bar","bbc","bcl","bdr","be","bew","bg","bho","bi","bjn","blk","bm","bn","bo","bpy","br","bs","btm","bug","ca","cdo","ce","ceb","ch","chr","ckb","co","cr","crh","cs","cu","cy","da","dag","de","dga","din","diq","dsb","dtp","dv","dz","ee","el","eml","eo","es","et","eu","fa","fat","ff","fi","fj","fo","fon","fr","frp","frr","fur","fy","gag","gan","gcr","gl","glk","gn","gom","gor","gpe","gu","guc","gur","guw","gv","ha","hak","haw","he","hi","hif","hr","hsb","ht","hu","hy","hyw","ia","iba","ie","ig","igl","ilo","io","is","it","iu","ja","jam","jv","ka","kaa","kab","kbd","kbp","kcg","kg","kge","ki","kk","kl","km","kn","ko","koi","krc","ks","ku","kus","kv","kw","ky","lad","lb","lez","lg","li","lij","lld","lmo","ln","lo","lt","ltg","lv","mad","mai","map-bms","mdf","mg","mhr","mi","min","mk","ml","mn","mni","mnw","mos","mr","mrj","ms","mt","mwl","my","myv","mzn","nah","nan","nap","nb","nds","nds-nl","ne","new","nia","nl","nn","nqo","nr","nso","ny","oc","om","or","os","pa", "pag","pam","pap","pcd","pcm","pdc","pl","pms","pnb","ps","pt","pwn","qu","rm","rn","ro","rsk","rue","rup","rw","sa","sah","sat","sc","scn","sco","sd","se","sg","sgs","sh","shi","shn","si","sk","skr","sl","sm","smn","sn","so","sq","sr","srn","ss","st","stq","su","sv","sw","szl","ta","tay","tcy","tdd","te","tet","tg","th","ti","tk","tl","tly","tn","to","tpi","tr","trv","ts","tt","tum","tw","ty","tyv","udm","ur","uz","ve","vec","vep","vi","vls","vo","vro","wa","war","wo","wuu","xal","xh","xmf","yi","yo","yue","za","zgh","zh","zu"],"isLanguageSearcherCXEntrypointEnabled":true,"mintEntrypointLanguages":["ace","ast","azb","bcl","bjn","bh","crh","ff","fon","ig","is","ki","ks","lmo","min","sat","ss","tn","vec"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q1149626","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false,"wgMinervaPermissions":{"watchable":true,"watch":false},"wgMinervaFeatures":{"beta":false,"donate":true,"mobileOptionsLink":true,"categories":false,"pageIssues":true,"talkAtTop":true,"historyInPageActions":false,"overflowSubmenu":false,"tabsOnSpecials":true,"personalMenu":false,"mainMenuExpanded":false,"echo":true,"nightMode":true},"wgMinervaDownloadNamespaces":[0]};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.content.styles.images":"ready","mediawiki.hlist":"ready","skins.minerva.codex.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.icons":"ready","skins.minerva.amc.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","mobile.init.styles":"ready","ext.relatedArticles.styles":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready", "ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","skins.minerva.scripts","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups","mobile.init","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.relatedArticles.readMore.bootstrap","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.entrypoints.mffrequentlanguages","ext.cx.entrypoints.languagesearcher.init","mw.externalguidance.init","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.relatedArticles.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cmediawiki.hlist%7Cmobile.init.styles%7Cskins.minerva.amc.styles%7Cskins.minerva.codex.styles%7Cskins.minerva.content.styles.images%7Cskins.minerva.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=minerva"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#eaecf0"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg/1200px-A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1576"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg/800px-A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1051"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg/640px-A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="841"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes, minimum-scale=0.25, maximum-scale=5.0"> <meta property="og:title" content="Written language - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="manifest" href="/w/api.php?action=webapp-manifest"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_language"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Written_language rootpage-Written_language stable issues-group-B skin-minerva action-view skin--responsive mw-mf-amc-disabled mw-mf"><div id="mw-mf-viewport"> <div id="mw-mf-page-center"> <a class="mw-mf-page-center__mask" href="#"></a> <header class="header-container header-chrome"> <div class="minerva-header"> <nav class="navigation-drawer toggle-list view-border-box"> <input type="checkbox" id="main-menu-input" class="toggle-list__checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-labelledby="mw-mf-main-menu-button"> <label role="button" for="main-menu-input" id="mw-mf-main-menu-button" aria-hidden="true" data-event-name="ui.mainmenu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet toggle-list__toggle"> </label> <div id="mw-mf-page-left" class="menu view-border-box"> <ul id="p-navigation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--home" href="/wiki/Main_Page" data-mw="interface"> Home </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--random" href="/wiki/Special:Random" data-mw="interface"> Random </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--nearby" href="/wiki/Special:Nearby" data-event-name="menu.nearby" data-mw="interface"> Nearby </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-personal" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--login" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Written+language" data-event-name="menu.login" data-mw="interface"> Log in </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="pt-preferences" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--settings" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:MobileOptions&returnto=Written+language" data-event-name="menu.settings" data-mw="interface"> Settings </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-donation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--donate" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en&utm_key=minerva" data-event-name="menu.donate" data-mw="interface"> Donate </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="hlist"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--about" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" data-mw="interface"> About Wikipedia </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--disclaimers" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" data-mw="interface"> Disclaimers </a> </li> </ul> </div> <label class="main-menu-mask" for="main-menu-input"></label> </nav> <div class="branding-box"> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </a> </div> <form action="/w/index.php" method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Written language</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Written_language" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Written_language" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Written+language" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Page_numbers_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article cites its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">sources</a> but does not provide <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CITEHOW" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:CITEHOW">page references</a>. You can help by providing page numbers for existing citations. (July 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> A written language is the representation of a <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> by means of <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a>. This involves the use of visual symbols, known as <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a>, to represent linguistic units such as <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syllables" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllables">syllables</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a>. However, written language is not merely <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken</a> or <a href="/wiki/Signed_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Signed language">signed language</a> written down, though it can approximate that. Instead, it is a separate system with its own norms, structures, and stylistic conventions, and it often evolves differently than its corresponding spoken or signed language. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg/170px-A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg/255px-A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg/340px-A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2898" data-file-height="3807"></a><figcaption>Specimen of typefaces used to write numerous languages – from the 1728 <a href="/wiki/Cyclop%C3%A6dia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences">Cyclopædia</a> by letter founder <a href="/wiki/William_Caslon" title="William Caslon">William Caslon</a></figcaption></figure> Written languages serve as crucial tools for communication, enabling the recording, preservation, and transmission of information, ideas, and culture across time and space. The <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> of a written language comprises the norms by which it is expected to function, including rules regarding spelling and typography. A society's use of written language generally has a profound impact on its social organization, cultural identity, and technological profile. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Relationship_with_spoken_and_signed_language">1 Relationship with spoken and signed language</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Grammar">1.1 Grammar</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Information_packaging">1.2 Information packaging</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Vocabulary">1.3 Vocabulary</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Origins">2.1 Origins</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Influence_on_society">3 Influence on society</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Literacy_and_social_mobility">3.1 Literacy and social mobility</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Marshall_McLuhan's_perspective">3.2 Marshall McLuhan's perspective</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Diglossia_and_digraphia">3.3 Diglossia and digraphia</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Orthography">4 Orthography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#See_also">5 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References">6 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Works_cited">6.1 Works cited</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Further_reading">7 Further reading</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Relationship_with_spoken_and_signed_language">Relationship with spoken and signed language</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Relationship with spoken and signed language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_the_spoken,_written,_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg/220px-Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="280"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 118px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg/220px-Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="118" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg/330px-Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg/440px-Diagram_of_the_spoken%2C_written%2C_and_signed_modalities_of_language.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The relationship between spoken, written, and signed modes of language, as modeled by Beatrice Primus et al.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid202217Primus20036-1">[1]</a> While many spoken or signed languages are not written, there are no written languages without a spoken counterpart that they originally emerged to record.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">signing</a> are three distinct modalities of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>; each has unique characteristics and conventions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChafe1994-2">[2]</a> When discussing properties common to the modes of language, the individual speaking, signing, or writing will be referred to as the sender, and the individual listening, viewing, or reading as the receiver; senders and receivers together will be collectively termed agents. The spoken, signed, and written modes of language mutually influence one another, with the boundaries between conventions for each being fluid—particularly in informal written contexts like taking quick notes or posting on social media.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Spoken and signed language is typically more immediate, reflecting the local context of the conversation and the emotions of the agents, often via paralinguistic cues like <a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">body language</a>. Utterances are typically less premeditated, and are more likely to feature informal vocabulary and shorter sentences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiber1988-4">[4]</a> They are also primarily used in dialogue, and as such include elements that facilitate <a href="/wiki/Turn-taking" title="Turn-taking">turn-taking</a>; these including <a href="/wiki/Prosodic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosodic">prosodic</a> features such as trailing off and <a href="/wiki/Filler_(linguistics)" title="Filler (linguistics)">fillers</a> that indicate the sender has not yet finished their turn. Errors encountered in spoken and signed language include <a href="/wiki/Disfluencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfluencies">disfluencies</a> and hesitation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid202222-5">[5]</a> By contrast, written language is typically more structured and formal. While speech and signing are transient, writing is permanent. It allows for planning, revision, and editing, which can lead to more complex sentences and a more extensive vocabulary. Written language also has to convey meaning without the aid of tone of voice, facial expressions, or body language, which often results in more explicit and detailed descriptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETannen1982-6">[6]</a> While a speaker can typically be identified by the quality of their voice, the author of a written text is often not obvious to a reader only analyzing the text itself. Writers may nevertheless indicate their identity via the graphical characteristics of their <a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">handwriting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuba%C4%87ius2023306-7">[7]</a> Written languages generally change more slowly than their spoken or signed counterparts. As a result, the written form of a language may retain archaic features or spellings that no longer reflect contemporary speech.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELerer2007-8">[8]</a> Over time, this divergence may contribute to a dynamic of diglossia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar">Grammar</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Grammar" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> There are too many grammatical differences to address, but here is a sample. In terms of <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a> types, written language is predominantly declarative (e.g. It's red.) and typically contains fewer <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperatives</a> (e.g. Make it red.), <a href="/wiki/Interrogatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogatives">interrogatives</a> (e.g. Is it red?), and exclamatives (e.g. How red it is!) than spoken or signed language. <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">Noun phrases</a> are generally predominantly <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">third person</a>, but they are even more so in written language. <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">Verb phrases</a> in spoken English are more likely to be in <a href="/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms" title="Uses of English verb forms">simple aspect</a> than in perfect or progressive aspect, and almost all of the past perfect verbs appear in written fiction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999461-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_packaging">Information packaging</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Information packaging" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Information_packaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Information packaging">Information packaging</a> is the way that information is packaged within a sentence, that is the linear order in which information is presented. For example, On the hill, there was a tree has a different informational structure than There was a tree on the hill. While, in English, at least, the second structure is more common, the first example is relatively much more common in written language than in spoken language. Another example is that a construction like it was difficult to follow him is relatively more common in written language than in spoken language, compared to the alternative packaging to follow him was difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmolka2017-10">[10]</a> A final example, again from English, is that the <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a> is relatively more common in writing than in speaking.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999938-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vocabulary" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Written language typically has higher <a href="/wiki/Lexical_density" title="Lexical density">lexical density</a> than spoken or signed language, meaning there is a wider range of vocabulary used and individual words are less likely to be repeated. It also includes fewer first and second-person pronouns and fewer interjections. Written English has fewer verbs and more nouns than spoken English, but even accounting for that, verbs like think, say, know, and guess appear relatively less commonly with a content clause complement (e.g. I think that it's OK.) in written English than in spoken English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999668-12">[12]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></div> Writing developed independently in a handful of different locations, namely <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and Egypt (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3200 – c. 3100 BCE), <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1250 BCE), and <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1 CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2004-13">[13]</a> Scholars mark the difference between <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a> and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> with the invention of the first written language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth1997-14">[14]</a> The first writing can be dated back to the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> era, with clay tablets being used to keep track of livestock and commodities. The first example of written language can be dated to <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, at the end of the 4th millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng1982-15">[15]</a> An ancient Mesopotamian poem tells a tale about the invention of writing: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat, the Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there had been no putting words on clay.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Enmerkar_and_the_Lord_of_Aratta" title="Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta">Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1986-16">[16]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Origins" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg/220px-Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1700"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 208px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg/220px-Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="208" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg/330px-Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg/440px-Sales_contract_Shuruppak_Louvre_AO3766.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A clay tablet with cuneiform writing</figcaption></figure> The origins of written language are tied to the development of human civilization. The earliest forms of writing were born out of the necessity to record commerce, historical events, and cultural traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2007-17">[17]</a> The first known true writing systems were developed during the early <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> (late 4th millennium BCE) in ancient <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, present-day southern Iraq. This system, known as <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Pictographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictographic">pictographic</a> at first, but later evolved into an alphabet, a series of wedge-shaped signs used to represent language <a href="/wiki/Phonemically" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemically">phonemically</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> At roughly the same time, the system of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> was developing in the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> valley, also evolving from pictographic proto-writing to include phonemic elements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1997-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> developed a form of writing known as the <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600 BCE, although its precise nature remains undeciphered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola1994-20">[20]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese script">Chinese script</a>, one of the oldest continuously used writing systems in the world, originated around the late 2nd millennium BCE, evolving from <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">oracle bone script</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994-21">[21]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Influence_on_society">Influence on society</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Influence on society" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> The development and use of written language has had profound impacts on human societies, influencing everything from social organization and cultural identity to technology and the dissemination of knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng1982-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 427 – 348 BCE), through the voice of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, expressed concerns in the dialogue "<a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a>" that a reliance on writing would weaken one's ability to memorize and understand, as written words would "create forgetfulness in the learners' souls, because they will not use their memories". He further argued that written words, being unable to answer questions or clarify themselves, are inferior to the living, interactive discourse of oral communication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid20226-22">[22]</a> Written language facilitates the preservation and transmission of culture, history, and knowledge across time and space, allowing societies to develop complex systems of law, administration, and education.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1986-16">[16]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] For example, the invention of writing in ancient Mesopotamia enabled the creation of detailed legal codes, like the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth1997-14">[14]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The advent of digital technology has revolutionized written communication, leading to the emergence of new written genres and conventions, such as interactions via <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>. This has implications for social relationships, education, and professional communication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2006-23">[23]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literacy_and_social_mobility">Literacy and social mobility</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Literacy and social mobility" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a> is the ability to read and write. From a graphemic perspective, this ability requires the capability of correctly recognizing or reproducing graphemes, the smallest units of written language. Literacy is a key driver of <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a>. Firstly, it underpins success in formal education, where the ability to comprehend textbooks, write essays, and interact with written instructional materials is fundamental. High literacy skills can lead to better academic performance, opening doors to higher education and specialized training opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] In the job market, proficiency in written language is often a determinant of employment opportunities. Many professions require a high level of literacy, from drafting reports and proposals to interpreting technical manuals. The ability to effectively use written language can lead to higher paying jobs and upward career progression.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Literacy enables additional ways for individuals to participate in civic life, including understanding news articles and political debates to navigating legal documents.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] However, disparities in literacy rates and proficiency with written language can contribute to <a href="/wiki/Social_inequalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Social inequalities">social inequalities</a>. Socio-economic status, race, gender, and geographic location can all influence an individual's access to quality literacy instruction. Addressing these disparities through inclusive and equitable education policies is crucial for promoting social mobility and reducing inequality.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marshall_McLuhan's_perspective">Marshall McLuhan's perspective</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Marshall McLuhan's perspective" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Canadian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a> (1911–1980) primarily presented his ideas about written language in <a href="/wiki/The_Gutenberg_Galaxy" title="The Gutenberg Galaxy">The Gutenberg Galaxy</a> (1962). Therein, McLuhan argued that the invention and spread of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, and the shift from <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> to written culture that it spurred, fundamentally changed the nature of human society. This change, he suggested, led to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, and other aspects of modernity.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> McLuhan proposed that written language, especially as reproduced in large quantities by the printing press, contributed to a linear and sequential mode of thinking, as opposed to the more holistic and contextual thinking fostered by oral cultures. He associated this linear mode of thought with a shift towards more detached and objective forms of reasoning, which he saw as characteristic of the modern age. Furthermore, he theorized about the effects of different media on human consciousness and society. He famously asserted that "<a href="/wiki/The_medium_is_the_message" title="The medium is the message">the medium is the message</a>", meaning that the form of a medium embeds itself in any message it would transmit or convey, creating a symbiotic relationship by which the medium influences how the message is perceived. While McLuhan's ideas are influential, they have also been critiqued and debated. Some scholars argue that he overemphasized the role of the medium (in this case, written language) at the expense of the content of communication.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> It has also been suggested that his theories are overly deterministic, not sufficiently accounting for the ways in which people can use and interpret media in varied ways.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diglossia_and_digraphia">Diglossia and digraphia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Diglossia and digraphia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">Diglossia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digraphia" title="Digraphia">Digraphia</a></div> Diglossia is a sociolinguistic phenomenon where two distinct varieties of a language – often one spoken and one written – are used by a single language community in different social contexts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson1959325%E2%80%93340-31">[31]</a> The "high variety", often the written language, is used in formal contexts, such as literature, formal education, or official communications. This variety tends to be more standardized and conservative, and may incorporate older or more formal vocabulary and grammar.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The "low variety", often the spoken language, is used in everyday conversation and informal contexts. It is typically more dynamic and innovative, and may incorporate regional dialects, slang, and other informal language features.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Diglossic situations are common in many parts of the world, including the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, where the high <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> variety coexists with other, low <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">varieties of Arabic</a> local to specific regions.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Diglossia can have significant implications for language education, literacy, and sociolinguistic dynamics within a language community.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Analogously, <a href="/wiki/Digraphia" title="Digraphia">digraphia</a> occurs when a language may be written in different scripts. For example, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a> may be written using either the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic">Cyrillic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> may be written in <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Urdu_alphabet" title="Urdu alphabet">Urdu alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002231%E2%80%93232-36">[36]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Orthography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div> Writing systems can be broadly classified into several types based on the units of language they correspond with: namely logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996-37">[37]</a> They are distinct from <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> with technical applications, which are not used as writing as such. For example, notation systems for signed languages like <a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a> been developed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalea2014-38">[38]</a> but it is not universally agreed that these constitute a written form of the sign language in themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletis202069-39">[39]</a> Orthography comprises the rules and conventions for writing a given language,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2008-40">[40]</a> including how its graphemes are understood to correspond with speech. In some orthographies, there is a one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes, as in <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenezky1999-41">[41]</a> These are known as shallow orthographies. In contrast, orthographies like that of English and French are considered deep orthographies due to the complex relationships between sounds and symbols.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts201396-42">[42]</a> For instance, in English, the phoneme /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ can be represented by the graphemes ⟨f⟩ as in ⟨fish⟩, ⟨ph⟩ as in ⟨phone⟩, or ⟨gh⟩ as in ⟨enough⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKesslerTreiman2005120%E2%80%93134-43">[43]</a> Orthographies also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, word breaks, and emphasis. They may also include specific conventions for representing foreign words and names, and for handling spelling changes to reflect changes in pronunciation or meaning over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarney1994-44">[44]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign-language_writing_aid" title="Foreign-language writing aid">Foreign-language writing aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphocentrism" title="Graphocentrism">Graphocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems" title="History of ancient numeral systems">History of ancient numeral systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_account" title="List of languages by first written account">List of languages by first written account</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_disorders" title="List of language disorders">List of language disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">List of writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">Literary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text linguistics</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202217Primus20036-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid202217Primus20036_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 17; <a href="#CITEREFPrimus2003">Primus (2003)</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChafe1994-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChafe1994_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChafe1994">Chafe (1994)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBaron2008" class="citation book cs1">Baron, Naomi S. (2008). Always On: Language in an Online and Mobile World. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531305-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531305-5"><bdi>978-0-19-531305-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Always+On%3A+Language+in+an+Online+and+Mobile+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-531305-5&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=Naomi+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiber1988-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiber1988_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBiber1988">Biber (1988)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202222-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid202222_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETannen1982-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETannen1982_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTannen1982">Tannen (1982)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESubaćius2023306-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuba%C4%87ius2023306_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSuba%C4%87ius2023">Subaćius (2023)</a>, p. 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELerer2007-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELerer2007_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLerer2007">Lerer (2007)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999461-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999461_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999">Biber et al. (1999)</a>, p. 461. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmolka2017-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmolka2017_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmolka2017">Smolka (2017)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999938-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999938_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999">Biber et al. (1999)</a>, p. 938. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999668-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999668_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999">Biber et al. (1999)</a>, p. 668. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2004-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2004_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHouston2004">Houston (2004)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth1997-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth1997_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth1997_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoth1997">Roth (1997)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng1982-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng1982_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng1982_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOng1982">Ong (1982)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1986-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoody1986">Goody (1986)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2007-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2007_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2007">Robinson (2007)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2004" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Harriet (2004). Sumer and the Sumerians. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53338-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53338-6"><bdi>978-0-521-53338-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sumer+and+the+Sumerians&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53338-6&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Harriet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1997-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1997_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1997">Schmandt-Besserat (1997)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola1994-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParpola1994_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParpola1994">Parpola (1994)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoltz1994">Boltz (1994)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid20226-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid20226_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletisD%C3%BCrscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2006-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2006_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrystal2006">Crystal (2006)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnow2002" class="citation book cs1">Snow, C. (2002). Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension. Rand Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-3105-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-3105-1"><bdi>978-0-8330-3105-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+for+Understanding%3A+Toward+an+R%26D+Program+in+Reading+Comprehension&rft.pub=Rand+Corporation&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-3105-1&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandt2001" class="citation book cs1">Brandt, Deborah (2001). Literacy in American Lives. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00306-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00306-3"><bdi>978-0-521-00306-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literacy+in+American+Lives&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00306-3&rft.aulast=Brandt&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine2013" class="citation book cs1">Levine, P. (2013). We Are the Ones We Have Been Waiting For: The Promise of Civic Renewal in America. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993942-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993942-8"><bdi>978-0-19-993942-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Are+the+Ones+We+Have+Been+Waiting+For%3A+The+Promise+of+Civic+Renewal+in+America&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993942-8&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorskiSapp2018" class="citation book cs1">Gorski, P. C.; Sapp, J. L. (2018). Case Studies on Diversity and Social Justice Education. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-71072-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-71072-5"><bdi>978-1-351-71072-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Case+Studies+on+Diversity+and+Social+Justice+Education&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-351-71072-5&rft.aulast=Gorski&rft.aufirst=P.+C.&rft.au=Sapp%2C+J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeech1963" class="citation journal cs1">Leech, G. N. (1963). "The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man". The Modern Language Review (Book review). 58 (4): 542. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-7937">0026-7937</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3719923">3719923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Modern+Language+Review&rft.atitle=The+Gutenberg+Galaxy%3A+The+Making+of+Typographic+Man&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=542&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3719923%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0026-7937&rft.aulast=Leech&rft.aufirst=G.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLister2009" class="citation book cs1">Lister, Martin (2009). New Media: A Critical Introduction. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43161-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43161-3"><bdi>978-0-415-43161-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Media%3A+A+Critical+Introduction&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-43161-3&rft.aulast=Lister&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarey2008" class="citation book cs1">Carey, James W. (2008). "Overcoming Resistance to Cultural Studies". In Carey, James W.; Adam, G. Stuart (eds.). Communication as Culture (Rev. ed.). pp. 96–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203928912-12">10.4324/9780203928912-12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-92891-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-92891-2"><bdi>978-0-203-92891-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Overcoming+Resistance+to+Cultural+Studies&rft.btitle=Communication+as+Culture&rft.pages=96-112&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203928912-12&rft.isbn=978-0-203-92891-2&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson1959325–340-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerguson1959325%E2%80%93340_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFerguson1959">Ferguson (1959)</a>, pp. 325–340. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson1996" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Richard A. (1996). Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29668-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29668-7"><bdi>978-0-521-29668-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociolinguistics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29668-7&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomaine1995" class="citation book cs1">Romaine, S. (1995). Bilingualism. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19539-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19539-9"><bdi>978-0-631-19539-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bilingualism&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19539-9&rft.aulast=Romaine&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadawiCarterGully2003" class="citation book cs1">Badawi, Elsald; Carter, Mike G.; Gully, Adam (2003). Modern Written Arabic: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66749-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66749-4"><bdi>978-0-415-66749-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Written+Arabic%3A+A+Comprehensive+Grammar&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-66749-4&rft.aulast=Badawi&rft.aufirst=Elsald&rft.au=Carter%2C+Mike+G.&rft.au=Gully%2C+Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers-Scotton2006" class="citation book cs1">Myers-Scotton, Carol (2006). Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21936-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21936-1"><bdi>978-0-631-21936-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multiple+Voices%3A+An+Introduction+to+Bilingualism&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21936-1&rft.aulast=Myers-Scotton&rft.aufirst=Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002231–232-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002231%E2%80%93232_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, pp. 231–232. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDanielsBright1996">Daniels & Bright (1996)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalea2014-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalea2014_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalea2014">Galea (2014)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletis202069-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletis202069_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeletis2020">Meletis (2020)</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2008-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2008_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrystal2008">Crystal (2008)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenezky1999-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVenezky1999_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVenezky1999">Venezky (1999)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts201396-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts201396_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2013">Roberts (2013)</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKesslerTreiman2005120–134-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKesslerTreiman2005120%E2%80%93134_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKesslerTreiman2005">Kessler & Treiman (2005)</a>, pp. 120–134. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarney1994-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarney1994_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarney1994">Carney (1994)</a>. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Works cited" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiber1988" class="citation book cs1">Biber, Douglas (1988). Variation Across Speech and Writing. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42556-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42556-8"><bdi>978-0-521-42556-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Variation+Across+Speech+and+Writing&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42556-8&rft.aulast=Biber&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999" class="citation book cs1">———; Johansson, Stig; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, S.; Finegan, Edward (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-23725-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-23725-4"><bdi>978-0-582-23725-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Grammar+of+Spoken+and+Written+English&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-582-23725-4&rft.aulast=Biber&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft.au=Johansson%2C+Stig&rft.au=Leech%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Conrad%2C+S.&rft.au=Finegan%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1994" class="citation book cs1">Boltz, William G. (1994). The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System. American Oriental Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-940490-78-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-940490-78-1"><bdi>0-940490-78-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Chinese+Writing+System&rft.pub=American+Oriental+Society&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-940490-78-1&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorgwaldtJoyce2013" class="citation book cs1">Borgwaldt, Susanne R.; Joyce, Terry, eds. (2013). Typology of Writing Systems. Benjamins current topics. Vol. 51. John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-0270-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-0270-3"><bdi>978-90-272-0270-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Typology+of+Writing+Systems&rft.series=Benjamins+current+topics&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-90-272-0270-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Roberts, David. "A tone orthography typology". In <a href="#CITEREFBorgwaldtJoyce2013">Borgwaldt & Joyce (2013)</a>, pp. 85–112.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarney1994" class="citation book cs1">Carney, Edward (1994). A Survey of English Spelling. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-00668-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-00668-3"><bdi>978-1-138-00668-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Survey+of+English+Spelling&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-138-00668-3&rft.aulast=Carney&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023" class="citation book cs1">Condorelli, Marco; Rutkowska, Hanna, eds. (2023). The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography. Cambridge handbooks in language and linguistics. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48731-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48731-3"><bdi>978-1-108-48731-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Historical+Orthography&rft.series=Cambridge+handbooks+in+language+and+linguistics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-108-48731-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Subaćius, Giedrius. "Materiality of writing". In <a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, pp. 305–323.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2006" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (2006). Language and the Internet. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86859-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86859-4"><bdi>978-0-521-86859-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+the+Internet&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86859-4&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChafe1994" class="citation book cs1">Chafe, Wallace (1994). Discourse, Consciousness, and Time: The Flow and Displacement of Conscious Experience in Speaking and Writing. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-10054-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-10054-8"><bdi>978-0-226-10054-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discourse%2C+Consciousness%2C+and+Time%3A+The+Flow+and+Displacement+of+Conscious+Experience+in+Speaking+and+Writing&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-226-10054-8&rft.aulast=Chafe&rft.aufirst=Wallace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2008" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (2008). Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5296-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5296-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-5296-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Linguistics+and+Phonetics&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-5296-9&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanielsBright1996" class="citation book cs1">Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7"><bdi>978-0-19-507993-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Writing+Systems&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507993-7&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Peter+T.&rft.au=Bright%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson1959" class="citation journal cs1">Ferguson, Charles A. (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00437956.1959.11659702">"Diglossia"</a>. Word. 15 (2): 325–340. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00437956.1959.11659702">10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239352211">239352211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Word&rft.atitle=Diglossia&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=325-340&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00437956.1959.11659702&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239352211%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00437956.1959.11659702&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Florian_Coulmas" title="Florian Coulmas">Coulmas, Florian</a> (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78217-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78217-3"><bdi>978-0-521-78217-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Systems%3A+An+Introduction+to+Their+Linguistic+Analysis&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78217-3&rft.aulast=Coulmas&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalea2014" class="citation thesis cs1">Galea, Maria (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/10451785">SignWriting (SW) of Maltese Sign Language (LSM) and its development into an orthography: Linguistic considerations</a> (PhD thesis). University of Malta. Retrieved 4 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=SignWriting+%28SW%29+of+Maltese+Sign+Language+%28LSM%29+and+its+development+into+an+orthography%3A+Linguistic+considerations&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Malta&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Galea&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F10451785&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoody1986" class="citation book cs1">Goody, John (1986). The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33962-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33962-9"><bdi>978-0-521-33962-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Writing+and+the+Organization+of+Society&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-33962-9&rft.aulast=Goody&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2004" class="citation book cs1">Houston, Stephen D. (2004). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0"><bdi>978-0-521-83861-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Writing%3A+Script+Invention+as+History+and+Process&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83861-0&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKesslerTreiman2005" class="citation book cs1">Kessler, Brett; Treiman, Rebecca (2005). "Writing Systems and Spelling Development". In Snowling, Margaret J.; Hulme, Charles (eds.). The Science of Reading: A Handbook. Blackwell. pp. 120–134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1488-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1488-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-1488-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing+Systems+and+Spelling+Development&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Reading%3A+A+Handbook&rft.pages=120-134&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1488-2&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Brett&rft.au=Treiman%2C+Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLerer2007" class="citation book cs1">Lerer, Seth (2007). Inventing English: A Portable History of the Language. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17447-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17447-3"><bdi>978-0-231-17447-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+English%3A+A+Portable+History+of+the+Language&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-17447-3&rft.aulast=Lerer&rft.aufirst=Seth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeletis2020" class="citation book cs1">Meletis, Dimitrios (2020). The Nature of Writing: A Theory of Grapholinguistics. Grapholinguistics and Its Applications. Vol. 3. Brest: Fluxus. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.36824%2F2020-meletis">10.36824/2020-meletis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-9570549-2-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-9570549-2-3"><bdi>978-2-9570549-2-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2681-8566">2681-8566</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Writing%3A+A+Theory+of+Grapholinguistics&rft.place=Brest&rft.series=Grapholinguistics+and+Its+Applications&rft.pub=Fluxus&rft.date=2020&rft.issn=2681-8566&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.36824%2F2020-meletis&rft.isbn=978-2-9570549-2-3&rft.aulast=Meletis&rft.aufirst=Dimitrios&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022" class="citation book cs1">———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-075777-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-075777-4"><bdi>978-3-11-075777-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Systems+and+Their+Use%3A+An+Overview+of+Grapholinguistics&rft.series=Trends+in+Linguistics&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-11-075777-4&rft.aulast=Meletis&rft.aufirst=Dimitrios&rft.au=D%C3%BCrscheid%2C+Christa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOng1982" class="citation book cs1">Ong, Walter J. (1982). Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-416-71380-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-416-71380-0"><bdi>978-0-416-71380-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orality+and+Literacy%3A+The+Technologizing+of+the+Word&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-416-71380-0&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=Walter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParpola1994" class="citation book cs1">Parpola, Asko (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43079-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43079-8"><bdi>0-521-43079-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deciphering+the+Indus+Script&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-521-43079-8&rft.aulast=Parpola&rft.aufirst=Asko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrimus2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Primus, Beatrice (2003). "Zum Silbenbegriff in der Schrift-, Laut- und Gebärdensprache—Versuch einer mediumübergreifenden Fundierung" [On the concept of syllables in written, spoken and sign language—an attempt to provide a cross-medium foundation]. Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft (in German). 22 (1): 3–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzfsw.2003.22.1.3">10.1515/zfsw.2003.22.1.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1613-3706">1613-3706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Sprachwissenschaft&rft.atitle=Zum+Silbenbegriff+in+der+Schrift-%2C+Laut-+und+Geb%C3%A4rdensprache%E2%80%94Versuch+einer+medium%C3%BCbergreifenden+Fundierung&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-55&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fzfsw.2003.22.1.3&rft.issn=1613-3706&rft.aulast=Primus&rft.aufirst=Beatrice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2007" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Andrew (2007). The Story of Writing. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28660-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28660-9"><bdi>978-0-500-28660-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Writing&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-500-28660-9&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth1997" class="citation book cs1">Roth, Martha Tobi (1997). Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Society of Biblical Literature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7885-0378-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7885-0378-8"><bdi>978-0-7885-0378-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+Collections+from+Mesopotamia+and+Asia+Minor&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7885-0378-8&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Martha+Tobi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1997" class="citation book cs1">Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1997). How Writing Came About. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77704-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77704-0"><bdi>978-0-292-77704-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Writing+Came+About&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-292-77704-0&rft.aulast=Schmandt-Besserat&rft.aufirst=Denise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmolka2017" class="citation journal cs1">Smolka, Vladislav (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14712%2F24646830.2017.4">"What Comes First, What Comes Next: Information Packaging in Written and Spoken Language"</a>. Auc Philologica (1): 51–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14712%2F24646830.2017.4">10.14712/24646830.2017.4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2464-6830">2464-6830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Auc+Philologica&rft.atitle=What+Comes+First%2C+What+Comes+Next%3A+Information+Packaging+in+Written+and+Spoken+Language&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=51-61&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14712%2F24646830.2017.4&rft.issn=2464-6830&rft.aulast=Smolka&rft.aufirst=Vladislav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.14712%252F24646830.2017.4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTannen1982" class="citation book cs1">Tannen, Deborah (1982). Spoken and Written Language: Exploring Orality and Literacy. Ablex. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89391-099-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89391-099-0"><bdi>978-0-89391-099-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spoken+and+Written+Language%3A+Exploring+Orality+and+Literacy&rft.pub=Ablex&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-89391-099-0&rft.aulast=Tannen&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenezky1999" class="citation book cs1">Venezky, Richard L. (1999). The American Way of Spelling: The Structure and Origins of American English Orthography. Guilford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-469-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-469-7"><bdi>978-1-57230-469-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Way+of+Spelling%3A+The+Structure+and+Origins+of+American+English+Orthography&rft.pub=Guilford&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-57230-469-7&rft.aulast=Venezky&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas1999" class="citation book cs1">Coulmas, Florian (1999). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21481-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21481-6"><bdi>978-0-631-21481-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Writing+Systems&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21481-6&rft.aulast=Coulmas&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWritten+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Written_language&oldid=1240092006">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Written_language&oldid=1240092006</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Written_language&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 13 August 2024, at 13:51 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskrewe_taal" title="Geskrewe taal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskrewe taal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="لغة مكتوبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة مكتوبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1l%C4%B1_dil" title="Yazılı dil – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yazılı dil" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su-b%C4%ABn-g%C3%AD" title="Su-bīn-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Su-bīn-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llenguatge_escrit" title="Llenguatge escrit – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llenguatge escrit" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriftsprog" title="Skriftsprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skriftsprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschriebene_Sprache" title="Geschriebene Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschriebene Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjakeel" title="Kirjakeel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kirjakeel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%84%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Γραπτή γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γραπτή γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaje_escrito" title="Lenguaje escrito – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguaje escrito" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skribita_lingvo" title="Skribita lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Skribita lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizkuntza_idatzi" title="Hizkuntza idatzi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hizkuntza idatzi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="زبان نوشتاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان نوشتاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriftm%C3%A1l" title="Skriftmál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Skriftmál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langue_%C3%A9crite" title="Langue écrite – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langue écrite" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriuwtaal" title="Skriuwtaal – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skriuwtaal" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_tulis" title="Bahasa tulis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa tulis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritm%C3%A1l" title="Ritmál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ritmál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_ya_maandishi" title="Lugha ya maandishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha ya maandishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_scripta" title="Lingua scripta – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua scripta" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakstu_valoda" title="Rakstu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rakstu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Пишан јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Пишан јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%B4%E0%B4%BF" title="വരമൊഴി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വരമൊഴി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_penulisan" title="Bahasa penulisan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa penulisan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschreven_taal" title="Geschreven taal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschreven taal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B8%E8%A8%98%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E" title="書記言語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="書記言語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriftspr%C3%A5k" title="Skriftspråk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skriftspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriftspr%C3%A5k" title="Skriftspråk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Skriftspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="د ليکلو ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ليکلو ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_pisany" title="Język pisany – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język pisany" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguagem_escrita" title="Linguagem escrita – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Linguagem escrita" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limb%C4%83_scris%C4%83" title="Limbă scrisă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbă scrisă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_e_shkruar" title="Gjuha e shkruar – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha e shkruar" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjoitettu_kieli" title="Kirjoitettu kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kirjoitettu kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriftspr%C3%A5k" title="Skriftspråk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Skriftspråk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_pasulat" title="Wikang pasulat – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang pasulat" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="எழுத்துமொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எழுத்துமொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1_dili" title="Yazı dili – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yazı dili" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Письмова мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Письмова мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF_vi%E1%BA%BFt" title="Ngôn ngữ viết – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngôn ngữ viết" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kir%C3%A4kiil" title="Kiräkiil – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Kiräkiil" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B8%E9%9D%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="書面語 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="書面語" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1wan%C3%AA_nu%C5%9Ft%C4%B1%C5%9Fi" title="Zıwanê nuştışi – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zıwanê nuştışi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%A6%E9%9D%A2%E8%AF%AD" title="书面语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="书面语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 13 August 2024, at 13:51 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-terms-use"><a href="https://foundation.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a></li> <li id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Written_language&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-694cf4987f-t6jnx","wgBackendResponseTime":199,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.902","walltime":"1.049","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6350,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":112776,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":8474,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":145345,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 934.656 1 -total"," 29.80% 278.572 37 Template:Cite_book"," 18.90% 176.680 1 Template:Reflist"," 10.15% 94.878 1 Template:Writing"," 10.09% 94.273 2 Template:Navbox"," 9.29% 86.793 33 Template:Sfnp"," 7.43% 69.445 1 Template:Short_description"," 7.15% 66.864 6 Template:Fix"," 6.08% 56.844 3 Template:Pn"," 5.69% 53.174 1 Template:Pnn"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.613","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9173767,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBadawiCarterGully2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaron2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiber1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiberJohanssonLeechConrad1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoltz1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorgwaldtJoyce2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrandt2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarney1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChafe1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoulmas1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoulmas2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawford2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanielsBright1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerguson1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalea2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoody1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorskiSapp2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHouston2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKesslerTreiman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeech1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLerer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevine2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLister2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeletis2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers-Scotton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOng1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrimus2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomaine1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoth1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmolka2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnow2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSubaćius2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTannen1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenezky1999\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Bsn\"] = 3,\n [\"Circa\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Gpm\"] = 6,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 2,\n [\"IPAslink\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Pn\"] = 3,\n [\"Pnn\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnmp\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 33,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 4,\n [\"Writing\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-qvhjk","timestamp":"20241125134042","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Written language","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Written_language","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1149626","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1149626","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-05-14T13:45:48Z","dateModified":"2024-08-13T13:51:13Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/45\/A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg","headline":"language which has a writing system and a written component"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>