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href="#Unifying_multiple_bureaucracies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Unifying multiple bureaucracies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unifying_multiple_bureaucracies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_question_and_Italian_diaspora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_question_and_Italian_diaspora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Southern question and Italian diaspora </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_question_and_Italian_diaspora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberal_era_(1861–1922)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberal_era_(1861–1922)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Liberal era (1861–1922) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Liberal_era_(1861–1922)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Liberal era (1861–1922) subsection </button> <ul 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href="#Giovanni_Giolitti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Giovanni Giolitti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Giovanni_Giolitti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_upheavals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_upheavals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Political upheavals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_upheavals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Colonial empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I_and_failure_of_the_liberal_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I_and_failure_of_the_liberal_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 World War I and failure of the liberal state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I_and_failure_of_the_liberal_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prelude_to_war_and_internal_dilemma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prelude_to_war_and_internal_dilemma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Prelude to war and internal dilemma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prelude_to_war_and_internal_dilemma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy's_war_effort" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy's_war_effort"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 Italy's war effort </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy's_war_effort-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy's_territorial_settlements_and_the_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy's_territorial_settlements_and_the_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.3 Italy's territorial settlements and the reaction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy's_territorial_settlements_and_the_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fascist_regime,_World_War_II,_and_Civil_War_(1922–1946)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fascist_regime,_World_War_II,_and_Civil_War_(1922–1946)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Fascist regime, World War II, and Civil War (1922–1946) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fascist_regime,_World_War_II,_and_Civil_War_(1922–1946)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Fascist regime, World War II, and Civil War (1922–1946) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Fascist_regime,_World_War_II,_and_Civil_War_(1922–1946)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mussolini_in_war_and_postwar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mussolini_in_war_and_postwar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Mussolini in war and postwar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mussolini_in_war_and_postwar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-March_on_Rome_and_the_Fascist_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#March_on_Rome_and_the_Fascist_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 March on Rome and the Fascist government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-March_on_Rome_and_the_Fascist_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italianization_of_the_non-Italian_population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italianization_of_the_non-Italian_population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Italianization of the non-Italian population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italianization_of_the_non-Italian_population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Roman_question" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Roman_question"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 End of the Roman question </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Roman_question-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_welfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_welfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Social welfare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_welfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Police_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Police_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Police state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Police_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Foreign politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_Laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_Laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Racial Laws </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_Laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_years_of_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_years_of_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Early years of World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_years_of_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_Fascist_regime,_Civil_War_and_Liberation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_Fascist_regime,_Civil_War_and_Liberation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Fall of Fascist regime, Civil War and Liberation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_Fascist_regime,_Civil_War_and_Liberation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-fascism_against_Mussolini's_regime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-fascism_against_Mussolini's_regime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 Anti-fascism against Mussolini's regime </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-fascism_against_Mussolini's_regime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1946)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1946)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 End of the Kingdom of Italy (1946) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-End_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1946)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle End of the Kingdom of Italy (1946) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1946)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1946_Italian_institutional_referendum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 1946 Italian institutional referendum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1946_Italian_institutional_referendum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps_of_progressive_territorial_formation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps_of_progressive_territorial_formation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Maps of progressive territorial formation of the Kingdom of Italy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps_of_progressive_territorial_formation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology_of_national_coats_of_arms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology_of_national_coats_of_arms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Chronology of national coats of arms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology_of_national_coats_of_arms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul 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class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Italy" title="Category:History of Italy">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History of Italy</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Old map of Italian peninsula"><img alt="Old map of Italian peninsula" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg/150px-1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg/225px-1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg/300px-1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4584" data-file-height="6272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistoric Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic civilization</a> (18th–3rd c. BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a> (12th–6th c. BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> (8th–3rd c. BC)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> (753 BC–509 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> (509 BC–27 BC) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman expansion in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">Populares</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">Optimates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> (27 BC–286 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> (286 AD–476 AD) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy" title="Praetorian prefecture of Italy">Praetorian prefecture of Italy</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Romano-Barbarian Kingdoms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer's</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 476–493</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 493–553</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 435–534</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 568–774</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Frankish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 774–962</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)#Imperial_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 962–1801</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantine reconquest of Italy</a> (6th–8th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a> in southern Italy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> (14th–16th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> (1494–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic revival</a> (1545–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Mid-16th c. to early 19th c.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleonic</a> Italy (1801–1814)</li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Risorgimento</a> (1815–1871)</li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Young_Italy" title="Young Italy">Young Italy</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Monarchy</a> (1861–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a> (1882–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy in World War I</a> (1914–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascism</a> (1922–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy in World War II</a> (1940–1945)</li> <li>Fascist <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Partisans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Italian Civil War</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> (1946–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a> (1970s–1980s) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a> (1986–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a> (1992–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> (2007–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_European_migrant_crisis" title="2015 European migrant crisis">European migrant crisis</a> (2014–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2020–present)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railway</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline</a> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Italy" title="Template:History of Italy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Italy" title="Template talk:History of Italy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Italy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Italy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> This article covers the history of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: Regno d'Italia) was a state that existed from 17 March 1861, when <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Sardinia</a> was <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">proclaimed King of Italy</a>, until 2 June 1946, when civil discontent led to an <a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">institutional referendum</a> to abandon the monarchy and form the modern <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian Republic</a>. The state resulted from a decades-long process, the <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Risorgimento</a>, of consolidating the different states of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a> into a single state. That process was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">Savoy</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, which can be considered Italy's legal <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_states" title="Succession of states">predecessor state</a>. In 1866, Italy <a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">declared war</a> on <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a> in alliance with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> and received the region of <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a> following their victory. Italian troops <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">entered Rome</a> in 1870, ending <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power</a>. Italy entered into a <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> with the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> in 1882, following strong disagreements with <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> about their respective colonial expansions. Although relations with <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> became very friendly, the alliance with <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> remained purely formal, due in part to Italy's desire to acquire <a href="/wiki/Trentino" title="Trentino">Trentino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a> from Austria-Hungary. As a result, Italy accepted the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a> invitation to join the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied Powers</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, as the western powers promised territorial compensation (at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>) for participation that was more generous than Vienna's offer in exchange for Italian neutrality. Victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. In 1922, <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> became prime minister of Italy, ushering in an era of <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a> government known as "<a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy</a>". The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascists" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascists">Italian Fascists</a> imposed totalitarian rule and crushed the political and intellectual opposition while promoting economic modernization, traditional social values, and a <a href="/wiki/Rapprochement" title="Rapprochement">rapprochement</a> with the Roman Catholic Church through the <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateran Treaties">Lateran Treaties</a> which created the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a> as a rump sovereign replacement for the Papal States. In the late 1930s, the Fascist government began a more aggressive foreign policy. This included <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">war against Ethiopia</a>, launched from <a href="/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Italian Eritrea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>, which resulted in its <a href="/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia" title="Italian Ethiopia">annexation</a>;<a href="#cite_note-fhdh-1">[1]</a> confrontations with the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, leading to sanctions; growing economic <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">autarky</a>; and the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Steel" title="Pact of Steel">Pact of Steel</a>. Fascist Italy became a leading member of the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. By 1943, the German-Italian defeat on multiple fronts and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">landings in Sicily</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">fall of the Fascist regime</a>. Mussolini was placed under arrest by order of the King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III" title="Victor Emmanuel III">Victor Emmanuel III</a>. The new government signed an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">armistice</a> with the Allies in September 1943. German forces occupied northern and central Italy, setting up the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a>, a collaborationist <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> still led by Mussolini and his Fascist loyalists. As a consequence, the country descended into <a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">civil war</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italian Co-belligerent Army</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">resistance movement</a> contending with the <a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Army" title="National Republican Army">Social Republic's forces</a> and its German allies. Shortly after the war and the country's liberation, civil discontent led to the <a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">institutional referendum</a> on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Republic">Italian Republic</a>, the present-day Italian state. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Italian_unification_(1814–1870)">Italian unification (1814–1870)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Italian unification (1814–1870)">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian-unification.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/220px-Italian-unification.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/330px-Italian-unification.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/440px-Italian-unification.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Animated map of the Italian unification from 1829 to 1871</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a> was the political and social process that unified different states of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_peninsula" title="Italian peninsula">Italian peninsula</a> into the single nation of Italy. It is difficult to pin down exact dates for the beginning and end of Italian reunification, but most scholars agree that it began with the end of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleonic</a> rule and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> in 1815, and approximately ended with the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> in 1871, though the last <a href="/wiki/Irredentism" title="Irredentism">"città irredente"</a> did not join the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> until the Italian victory in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. As Napoleon's reign began to fail, other national monarchs he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding those nationalistic sentiments, setting the stage for the revolutions to come. Among these monarchs were the viceroy of Italy, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Beauharnais" title="Eugène de Beauharnais">Eugène de Beauharnais</a>, who tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the Kingdom of Italy, and <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a>, who called for Italian patriots' help for the unification of Italy under his rule.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (1815) was convened to redraw the European continent. In Italy, the Congress restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, either directly ruled or strongly influenced by the prevailing European powers, particularly Austria. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/150px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/225px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/300px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="2509" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times<a href="#cite_note-scholar_and_patriot-3">[3]</a> and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds",<a href="#cite_note-Garibaldi_on_Encyclopædia_Britannica-4">[4]</a> who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led to Italian unification</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg/150px-Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg/225px-Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg/300px-Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>, highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement</figcaption></figure> In 1820, Spaniards successfully <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain#Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">revolted</a> over disputes about their Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. Inspired by the Spaniards (who, in 1812, had created their constitution), a regiment in the army of the <a href="/wiki/Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Sicilies">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a>, a Carbonaro (member of the secret republican organization),<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies">Ferdinand I</a>, agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, though, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>. Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting known revolutionaries. Many supporters of revolution in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, including the scholar <a href="/wiki/Michele_Amari" title="Michele Amari">Michele Amari</a>, were forced into exile during the decades that followed.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a> was <a href="/wiki/Santorre_di_Santarosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Santorre di Santarosa">Santorre di Santarosa</a>, who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>. The Piedmont revolt started in <a href="/wiki/Alessandria" title="Alessandria">Alessandria</a>, where troops adopted the green, white, and red <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">tricolore</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpine Republic</a>. The king's regent, prince <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Albert of Sardinia">Charles Albert</a>, acting while the king <a href="/wiki/Charles_Felix_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Felix of Sardinia">Charles Felix</a> was away, approved a new <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> to appease the revolutionaries, but when the king returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>. Di Santarosa's troops were defeated, and the would-be Piedmontese revolutionary fled to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> At the time, the struggle for Italian unification was perceived to be waged primarily against the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburgs</a>, since they directly controlled the predominantly Italian-speaking northeastern part of present-day Italy and were the single most powerful force against unification. The Austrian Empire vigorously repressed nationalist sentiment growing on the Italian peninsula, as well as in the other parts of Habsburg domains. Austrian Chancellor Franz Metternich, an influential diplomat at the Congress of Vienna, stated that the word Italy was nothing more than "a geographic expression."<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; and perhaps the most famous of proto-nationalist works was <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Betrothed_(Manzoni_novel)" title="The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)">I Promessi Sposi (The Betrothed)</a>. Some read this novel as a thinly veiled allegorical critique of Austrian rule. The novel was published in 1827 and extensively revised in the following years. The 1840 version of I Promessi Sposi used a standardized version of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Tuscan dialect</a>, a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it. Those in favour of unification also faced opposition from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>, particularly after failed attempts to broker a confederation with the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, which would have left the Papacy with some measure of autonomy over the region. The pope at the time, <a href="/wiki/Pius_IX" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius IX">Pius IX</a>, feared that giving up power in the region could mean the persecution of Italian Catholics.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Even among those who wanted to see the peninsula unified into one country, different groups could not agree on what form a unified state would take. <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gioberti" title="Vincenzo Gioberti">Vincenzo Gioberti</a>, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under rulership of the Pope. His book, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians, was published in 1843 and created a link between the Papacy and the Risorgimento. Many leading revolutionaries wanted a republic, but eventually it was a <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">king</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">chief minister</a> who had the power to unite the Italian states as a monarchy. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg/220px-Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg/330px-Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg/440px-Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Holograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Holograph">Holographic</a> copy of 1847 of <a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Il Canto degli Italiani</a>, the Italian <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a> since 1946</figcaption></figure> One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the <a href="/wiki/Carbonari" title="Carbonari">Carbonari</a> (charcoal-burners), a secret organization formed in southern Italy early in the 19th century. Inspired by the principles of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, its members were mainly drawn from the middle class and intellectuals. After the Congress of Vienna divided the Italian peninsula among the European powers, the Carbonari movement spread into the Papal States, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Modena">Duchy of Modena</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a>. The revolutionaries were so feared that the reigning authorities passed an ordinance condemning to death anyone who attended a Carbonari meeting. The society, however, continued to exist and was at the root of many of the political disturbances in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The Carbonari condemned <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858. Many leaders of the unification movement were at one time members of this organization. (Note: Napoleon III, as a young man, fought on the side of the 'Carbonari'.) In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song <a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Il Canto degli Italiani</a>, the Italian <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a> since 1946, took place.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Il Canto degli Italiani, written by <a href="/wiki/Goffredo_Mameli" title="Goffredo Mameli">Goffredo Mameli</a> set to music by <a href="/wiki/Michele_Novaro" title="Michele Novaro">Michele Novaro</a>, is also known as the Inno di Mameli, after the author of the lyrics, or Fratelli d'Italia, from its <a href="/wiki/Incipit" title="Incipit">opening line</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Statuto_fondamentale_del_regno.pdf&page=27" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statuto_fondamentale_del_regno.pdf/page27-220px-Statuto_fondamentale_del_regno.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statuto_fondamentale_del_regno.pdf/page27-330px-Statuto_fondamentale_del_regno.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statuto_fondamentale_del_regno.pdf/page27-440px-Statuto_fondamentale_del_regno.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="1754" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II</a> assumes the title of <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">king of Italy</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">law n. 4671 of 17 March 1861 of the Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, that sanctioned the birth of the unified <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></figcaption></figure> Two prominent radical figures in the unification movement were <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>. The more conservative constitutional monarchic figures included the <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Count of Cavour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II</a>, who would later become the first <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Italy">king of a united Italy</a>. Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could – and therefore should – be unified and formulated his program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. After Mazzini's release in 1831, he went to <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, where he organized a new political society called <a href="/wiki/Young_Italy_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Italy (historical)">La Giovine Italia (Young Italy)</a>. The new society, whose motto was "God and the People," sought the unification of Italy. The creation of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of concerted efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a> to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, the <a href="/wiki/Statuto_Albertino" title="Statuto Albertino">Statuto Albertino</a> was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848, under liberal pressure. Under the same pressure, the <a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First Italian War of Independence</a> was declared on Austria. After initial success the war took a turn for the worse and the Kingdom of Sardinia lost. Garibaldi, a native of <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a> (then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia), participated in an uprising in <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a> in 1834, was sentenced to death, and escaped to South America. He spent fourteen years there, taking part in several wars, and returned to Italy in 1848. After the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a>, the apparent leader of the Italian unification movement was Italian nationalist <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>. He was popular amongst southern Italians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith199715-12">[12]</a> Garibaldi led the Italian republican drive for unification in southern Italy, but the northern Italian monarchy of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Piedmont-Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia">Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia</a> whose government was led by <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a>, also had the ambition of establishing a united Italian state. Although the kingdom had no physical connection to Rome (deemed the natural capital of Italy), the kingdom had successfully challenged <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second Italian War of Independence</a>, liberating <a href="/wiki/Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lombardy–Venetia">Lombardy–Venetia</a> from Austrian rule. On the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Plombi%C3%A8res_Agreement" title="Plombières Agreement">Plombières Agreement</a>, the Kingdom of Sardinia ceded <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a> to France, an event that caused the <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a>, that was the emigration of a quarter of the <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_Italians" title="Niçard Italians">Niçard Italians</a> to Italy.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The kingdom also had established important alliances which helped it improve the possibility of Italian unification, such as <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a> and France in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> was elected in 1871 in Nice at the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(France)" title="National Assembly (France)">National Assembly</a> where he tried to promote the annexation of his hometown to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">newborn Italian unitary state</a>, but he was prevented from speaking.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Because of this denial, between 1871 and 1872 there were riots in Nice, promoted by the Garibaldini and called "<a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_Vespers" title="Niçard Vespers">Niçard Vespers</a>",<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> which demanded the annexation of the city and its area to Italy.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Fifteen Nice people who participated in the rebellion were tried and sentenced.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unifying_multiple_bureaucracies">Unifying multiple bureaucracies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Unifying multiple bureaucracies">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_Italy_1943.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kingdom_of_Italy_1943.png/220px-Kingdom_of_Italy_1943.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kingdom_of_Italy_1943.png/330px-Kingdom_of_Italy_1943.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kingdom_of_Italy_1943.png/440px-Kingdom_of_Italy_1943.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4690" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> at its greatest extent in 1943, during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_France" title="Italian occupation of France">annexation of territories from France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>. The territories annexed by the latter are the area constituting the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Ljubljana" title="Province of Ljubljana">province of Ljubljana</a>, the area merged with the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Fiume" title="Province of Fiume">province of Fiume</a> and the areas making up the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Dalmatia" title="Governorate of Dalmatia">Governorate of Dalmatia</a></figcaption></figure> A major challenge for the prime ministers of the new Kingdom of Italy was integrating the political and administrative systems of the seven different major components into a unified set of policies. The different regions were proud of their historical patterns and could not easily be fitted into the Sardinian model. Cavour started planning but died before it was fully developed – indeed, the challenges of administration of various bureaucracies are thought to have hastened his death. The easiest challenge was to harmonize the administrative bureaucracies of Italy's regions. They practically all followed the Napoleonic precedent, so harmonization was straightforward. The second challenge was to develop a parliamentary system. Cavour and most liberals up and down the peninsula highly admired the British system, so it became the model for Italy to this day. Harmonizing the Army and Navy was much more complex, chiefly because the systems of recruiting soldiers and selecting and promoting officers were so different and needed to be grandfathered over decades. The disorganization helps explain why the Italian naval performance in the 1866 war was so abysmal. The military system was slowly integrated over several decades. Uniforming the several diverse education systems proved complicated as well. Shortly before his death, Cavour appointed <a href="/wiki/Francesco_De_Sanctis" class="mw-redirect" title="Francesco De Sanctis">Francesco De Sanctis</a> as minister of education. De Sanctis was an eminent scholar from the University of Naples who proved an able and patient administrator. The addition of Veneto in 1866 and Rome in 1870 further complicated the challenges of bureaucratic coordination.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_question_and_Italian_diaspora">Southern question and Italian diaspora</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Southern question and Italian diaspora">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brigandage_in_Southern_Italy_after_1861" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861">Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Italian diaspora</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carmine_Crocco1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Carmine_Crocco1.jpg/150px-Carmine_Crocco1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Carmine_Crocco1.jpg/225px-Carmine_Crocco1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Carmine_Crocco1.jpg/300px-Carmine_Crocco1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="1227" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carmine_Crocco" title="Carmine Crocco">Carmine Crocco</a></figcaption></figure> The transition was not smooth for the south (the "<a href="/wiki/Mezzogiorno" class="mw-redirect" title="Mezzogiorno">Mezzogiorno</a>"). The path to unification and modernization created a divide between Northern and Southern Italy called <a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a>. People condemned the South for being "backwards" and barbaric, when in truth, compared to Northern Italy, "where there was backwardness, the lag, never excessive, was always more or less compensated by other elements".<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Of course, there had to be some basis for singling out the South like Italy did. The entire region south of Naples was afflicted with numerous deep economic and social liabilities.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> However, many of the South's political problems and its reputation of being "passive" or lazy (politically speaking) was due to the new government (that was born out of Italy's want for development) that alienated the South and prevented the people of the South from any say in important matters. However, on the other hand, transportation was difficult, soil fertility was low with extensive erosion, deforestation was severe, many businesses could stay open only because of high protective tariffs, large estates were often poorly managed, most peasants had only very small plots, and there was chronic unemployment and high crime rates.<a href="#cite_note-Roland_Sarti_2004_pp_567-21">[21]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Italian_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Map_of_the_Italian_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/310px-Map_of_the_Italian_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Map_of_the_Italian_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/465px-Map_of_the_Italian_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Map_of_the_Italian_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/620px-Map_of_the_Italian_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2192" data-file-height="1135" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Italian diaspora</a> in the world</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%89migration_italienne_par_r%C3%A9gions_1876-1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%C3%89migration_italienne_par_r%C3%A9gions_1876-1915.jpg/310px-%C3%89migration_italienne_par_r%C3%A9gions_1876-1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%C3%89migration_italienne_par_r%C3%A9gions_1876-1915.jpg/465px-%C3%89migration_italienne_par_r%C3%A9gions_1876-1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%C3%89migration_italienne_par_r%C3%A9gions_1876-1915.jpg/620px-%C3%89migration_italienne_par_r%C3%A9gions_1876-1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="701" /></a><figcaption>Emigration of Italians from 1876-1915</figcaption></figure> Cavour decided the basic problem was poor government, and believed that could be remedied by strict application of the Piedmonese legal system. The main result was an upsurge in <a href="/wiki/Brigandage_in_the_Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigandage in the Two Sicilies">brigandage</a>, which turned into a bloody civil war that lasted almost ten years. The insurrection reached its peak mainly in <a href="/wiki/Basilicata" title="Basilicata">Basilicata</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a>, headed by the brigands <a href="/wiki/Carmine_Crocco" title="Carmine Crocco">Carmine Crocco</a> and Michele Caruso.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> With the end of the southern riots, there was a heavy outflow of millions of peasants in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Italian diaspora</a>, especially to the United States and South America. Others relocated to the northern industrial cities such as Genoa, Milan and Turin, and sent money home.<a href="#cite_note-Roland_Sarti_2004_pp_567-21">[21]</a> The first Italian diaspora began around 1880, two decades after the <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Unification of Italy</a>, and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_under_Fascism_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy under Fascism (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pozzetta,_George_E._1992-23">[23]</a> Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land as <a href="/wiki/Mezzadria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mezzadria">mezzadria</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a> flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a>, conditions were harsh.<a href="#cite_note-Pozzetta,_George_E._1992-23">[23]</a> Until the 1860s to 1950s, most of Italy was a <a href="/wiki/Rural_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural society">rural society</a> with many small towns and cities and almost no modern industry in which land management practices, especially in the South and the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeastern Italy">Northeast</a>, did not easily convince farmers to stay on the land and to work the soil.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-24">[24]</a> Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions after <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Italy's_Many_Diasporas-26">[26]</a> The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread" (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: pane e lavoro, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[ˈpaːne e llaˈvoːro]</a>).<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2016_-_Vittoriano_(Rome)_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/2016_-_Vittoriano_%28Rome%29_07.jpg/170px-2016_-_Vittoriano_%28Rome%29_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/2016_-_Vittoriano_%28Rome%29_07.jpg/255px-2016_-_Vittoriano_%28Rome%29_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/2016_-_Vittoriano_%28Rome%29_07.jpg/340px-2016_-_Vittoriano_%28Rome%29_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>One of the two braziers that burn perpetually on the sides of the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Unknown_Soldier_(Italy)" title="Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)">tomb of the Italian Unknown Soldier</a> at <a href="/wiki/Altare_della_Patria" class="mw-redirect" title="Altare della Patria">Altare della Patria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. At their base there is a plaque bearing the inscription Gli italiani all'estero alla Madre Patria ("Italians abroad to the Motherland")</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a> broke down the feudal land system, which had survived in the south since the Middle Ages, especially where land had been the inalienable property of aristocrats, religious bodies or the king. The breakdown of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, however, and redistribution of land did not necessarily lead to small farmers in the south winding up with land of their own or land they could work and make profit from. Many remained landless, and plots grew smaller and smaller and so less and less productive, as land was subdivided amongst heirs.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-24">[24]</a> Between 1860 and World War I, 9 million Italians left permanently of a total of 16 million who emigrated, most travelling to North or South America.<a href="#cite_note-Hatton-28">[28]</a> The numbers may have even been higher; 14 million from 1876 to 1914, according to another study. Annual emigration averaged almost 220,000 in the period 1876 to 1900, and almost 650,000 from 1901 through 1915. Prior to 1900 the majority of Italian immigrants were from northern and central Italy. Two-thirds of the migrants who left Italy between 1870 and 1914 were men with traditional skills. Peasants were half of all migrants before 1896.<a href="#cite_note-Italy's_Many_Diasporas-26">[26]</a> The bond of the emigrants with their mother country continued to be very strong even after their departure. Many Italian emigrants made donations to the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Altare_della_Patria" class="mw-redirect" title="Altare della Patria">Altare della Patria</a> (1885–1935), a part of the monument dedicated to King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II of Italy</a>, and in memory of that, the inscription of the plaque on the two burning braziers perpetually at the Altare della Patria next to the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Unknown_Soldier_(Italy)" title="Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)">tomb of the Italian Unknown Soldier</a>, reads "Gli italiani all'estero alla Madre Patria" ("Italians abroad to the Motherland").<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegorical</a> meaning of the flames that burn perpetually is linked to their symbolism, which is centuries old, since it has its origins in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">cult of the dead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fiamma-30">[30]</a> A fire that burns eternally symbolizes that the memory, in this case of the sacrifice of the Unknown Soldier and the <a href="/wiki/Fatherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatherland">bond of the country of origin</a>, is perpetually alive in Italians, even in those who are far from their country, and will never fade.<a href="#cite_note-fiamma-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liberal_era_(1861–1922)">Liberal era (1861–1922)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Liberal era (1861–1922)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:305px;max-width:305px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:141px;max-width:141px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:VictorEmmanuel2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/VictorEmmanuel2.jpg/139px-VictorEmmanuel2.jpg" decoding="async" width="139" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/VictorEmmanuel2.jpg/209px-VictorEmmanuel2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/VictorEmmanuel2.jpg/278px-VictorEmmanuel2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="908" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:160px;max-width:160px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tuminello,_Lodovico_(1824-1907)_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tuminello%2C_Lodovico_%281824-1907%29_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg/158px-Tuminello%2C_Lodovico_%281824-1907%29_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Tuminello%2C_Lodovico_%281824-1907%29_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="268" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a>, leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">1st king</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">1st Prime Minister</a> of unified Italy</div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Italy became a nation-state</a> belatedly on 17 March 1861, when most of the states of the peninsula were united under king <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>, which ruled over <a href="/wiki/Piedmont_(Italy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Piedmont (Italy)">Piedmont</a>. The architects of Italian unification were <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a>, the Chief Minister of Victor Emmanuel, and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, a general and national hero. In 1866, Prussian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> offered Victor Emmanuel II an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a>. In exchange Prussia would allow Italy to annex Austrian-controlled <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>. King Emmanuel agreed to the alliance and the <a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a> began. The victory against Austria allowed Italy to annex Venice. The one major obstacle to Italian unity remained Rome. In 1870, France started the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> and brought home its soldiers in Rome, where they had kept the pope in power. Italy marched in to take over the Papal State. Italian unification was completed, and the capital was moved from Florence to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Some of the states that had been targeted for unification (<a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">terre irredente</a>), <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige" class="mw-redirect" title="Trentino-Alto Adige">Trentino-Alto Adige</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a>, did not join the Kingdom of Italy until 1918 after Italy defeated <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> in the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>. For this reason, historians sometimes describe the unification period as continuing past 1871, including activities during the late 19th century and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Front_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Front (World War I)">First World War</a> (1915–1918), and reaching completion only with the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Villa_Giusti" title="Armistice of Villa Giusti">Armistice of Villa Giusti</a> on 4 November 1918. This more expansive definition of the unification period is the one presented at the <a href="/wiki/Central_Museum_of_the_Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Museum of the Risorgimento">Central Museum of the Risorgimento</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Altare_della_Patria" class="mw-redirect" title="Altare della Patria">Altare della Patria</a> in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marco_Minghetti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Marco_Minghetti.jpg/150px-Marco_Minghetti.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Marco_Minghetti.jpg/225px-Marco_Minghetti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Marco_Minghetti.jpg/300px-Marco_Minghetti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Marco Minghetti</a></figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a>, industrialisation and modernisation began in the last part of the 19th century. The <a href="/wiki/Mezzogiorno" class="mw-redirect" title="Mezzogiorno">south</a>, at the same time, was overpopulated, forcing millions of people to <a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">search for a better life abroad</a>. It is estimated that around one million Italian people moved to other European countries such as France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium and <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, and to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>. Parliamentary democracy developed considerably in the 19th century. The Sardinian <a href="/wiki/Statuto_Albertino" title="Statuto Albertino">Statuto Albertino</a> of 1848, extended to the whole <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> in 1861, provided for basic freedoms, but the electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting. Italy's political arena was sharply divided between broad camps of left and right which created frequent deadlock and attempts to preserve governments, which led to instances such as conservative Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Marco Minghetti</a> enacting economic reforms to appease the opposition such as the nationalization of railways. In 1876, Minghetti lost power and was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Democrat</a> <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Agostino Depretis</a>, who began a period of political dominance in the 1880s, but continued attempts to appease the opposition to hold power. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agostino_Depretis">Agostino Depretis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Agostino Depretis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agostino_Depretis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Agostino_Depretis.jpg/150px-Agostino_Depretis.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Agostino_Depretis.jpg/225px-Agostino_Depretis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Agostino_Depretis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Agostino Depretis</a>.</figcaption></figure> The results of the 1876 election resulted in only four representatives from the right being elected, allowing the government to be dominated by <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Agostino Depretis</a>. Despotic and corrupt actions are believed to be the key means in which Depretis managed to keep support in southern Italy. Depretis put through authoritarian measures, such as banning public meetings, placing "dangerous" individuals in internal exile on remote penal islands across Italy, and adopting militarist policies. Depretis enacted controversial legislation for the time, such as abolishing arrest for debt, making elementary education free and compulsory while ending compulsory religious teaching in elementary schools.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The first government of Depretis collapsed after his dismissal of his interior minister, and ended with his resignation in 1877. The second government of Depretis started in 1881. Depretis' goals included widening suffrage in 1882 and increasing the tax intake from Italians by expanding the minimum requirements of who could pay taxes and the creation of a new electoral system called which resulted in large numbers of inexperienced deputies in the Italian parliament.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In 1887, Depretis was finally pushed out of office after years of political decline. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Depretis_e_il_trasformismo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Depretis_e_il_trasformismo.jpg/220px-Depretis_e_il_trasformismo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Depretis_e_il_trasformismo.jpg/330px-Depretis_e_il_trasformismo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Depretis_e_il_trasformismo.jpg/440px-Depretis_e_il_trasformismo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>A cartoon about Depretis, accusing him of being a <a href="/wiki/Chameleon" title="Chameleon">chameleonic</a> politician</figcaption></figure> Depretis was the founder and the main proponent of <a href="/wiki/Trasformismo" title="Trasformismo">Trasformismo</a> ("Transformism"), a method of making a flexible <a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">centrist</a> coalition of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> which isolated the extremes of the <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right</a>. The process was initiated in 1883, when he moved to the right and <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_reshuffle" title="Cabinet reshuffle">reshuffled his government</a> to include <a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Marco Minghetti</a>'s conservatives. This was a move Depretis had been considering for a while before 1883. The aim was to ensure a stable government that would avoid weakening the institutions by extreme shifts to the left or right. Depretis felt that a secure government could ensure calm in Italy. At this time middle class politicians were more concerned with making deals with each other and less about political philosophies and principles. Large coalitions were formed, with members being bribed to join them. The liberals, the main political group, was tied together by informal "gentleman's agreements", but these were always in matters of enriching themselves. Indeed, actual governing did not seem to be happening at all, but since only 2 million men had franchises, most of these wealthy landowners did not have to concern themselves with such things as improving the lives of the people they were supposedly representing democratically. However trasformismo fed into the debates that the Italian parliamentary system was weak and actually failing; it ultimately became associated with <a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">corruption</a>. It was perceived as the sacrifice of principles and policies for short term gain. The system of trasformismo was little loved and seemed to be creating a huge gap between 'Legal' (parliamentary and political) Italy, and 'Real' Italy where the politicians became increasingly isolated. This system brought almost no advantages, illiteracy remained the same in 1912 as before the unification era, and backward economic policies, combined with poor sanitary conditions, continued to prevent the country's rural areas from improving. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Francesco_Crispi">Francesco Crispi</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Francesco Crispi">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg/150px-Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg/225px-Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg/300px-Francesco_Crispi_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi">Francesco Crispi</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi">Francesco Crispi</a> (1818–1901) was prime minister for a total of six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896. Historian R.J.B. Bosworth says of his foreign policy that Crispi:<blockquote>Pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with his suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa, ... In what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life (he was perhaps a trigamist) and personal finances...were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></blockquote> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poster_FIAT_by_Giovanni_Carpanetto.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Poster_FIAT_by_Giovanni_Carpanetto.png/140px-Poster_FIAT_by_Giovanni_Carpanetto.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Poster_FIAT_by_Giovanni_Carpanetto.png/210px-Poster_FIAT_by_Giovanni_Carpanetto.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Poster_FIAT_by_Giovanni_Carpanetto.png/280px-Poster_FIAT_by_Giovanni_Carpanetto.png 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="966" /></a><figcaption>1899 <a href="/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat">FIAT</a> advertisement</figcaption></figure> Crispi had been in the Depretis cabinet minister and was once a Garibaldi republican. Crispi's major concerns before during 1887–91 was protecting Italy from Austria-Hungary. Crispi worked to build Italy as a great world power through increased military expenditures, advocation of expansionism, and trying to win Germany's favor even by joining the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> which included both Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882 which remained officially intact until 1915. While helping Italy develop strategically, he continued trasformismo and was authoritarian, once suggesting the use of martial law to ban opposition parties. Despite being authoritarian, Crispi put through liberal policies such as the Public Health Act of 1888 and establishing tribunals for redress against abuses by the government.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The overwhelming attention paid to foreign policy alienated the agricultural community which needed help. Both radical and conservative forces in the Italian parliament demanded that the government investigate how to improve agriculture in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The investigation which started in 1877 and was released eight years later, showed that agriculture was not improving, that landowners were swallowing up revenue from their lands and contributing almost nothing to the development of the land. There was aggravation by lower class Italians to the break-up of communal lands which benefited only landlords. Most of the workers on the agricultural lands were not peasants but short-term labourers who at best were employed for one year. Peasants without stable income were forced to live off meager food supplies, disease was spreading rapidly, plagues were reported, including a major <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> epidemic which killed at least 55,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg/180px-Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg/270px-Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg/360px-Crispi_ritratto_intero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Crispi during his last years</figcaption></figure> The Italian government could not deal with the situation effectively due to the mass overspending of the Depretis government that left Italy in huge debt. Italy also suffered economically because of overproduction of grapes for their vineyards in the 1870s and 1880s when France's vineyard industry was suffering from vine disease caused by insects. Italy during that time prospered as the largest exporter of wine in Europe but following the recovery of France in 1888, southern Italy was overproducing and had to split in two which caused greater unemployment and bankruptcies.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Crispi was a colourful and intensely patriotic character. He was a man of enormous energy but with a violent temper. His whole life, public and private, was turbulent, dramatic and marked by a succession of bitter personal hostilities.<a href="#cite_note-seton47-41">[41]</a> According to some Crispi's "fiery pride, almost insane touchiness and indifference to sound methods of government" were due to his Albanian inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-wright61-42">[42]</a> Although he began life as a revolutionary and democratic figure, his premiership was authoritarian and he showed disdain for Italian liberals. He was born as a firebrand and died as a firefighter.<a href="#cite_note-rep131212-43">[43]</a> At the end of the 19th century, Crispi was the dominant figure of Italian politics for a decade. He was saluted by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a> as 'the great patriot'. He was a more scrupulous statesman than Cavour, a more realistic conspirator than Mazzini, a more astute figure than Garibaldi. His death resulted in lengthier obituaries in Europe's press than for any Italian politician since Cavour.<a href="#cite_note-history-44">[44]</a> As prime minister in the 1880s and 1890s, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Salisbury</a>. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democratic liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister and ally and admirer of Bismarck. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_colonialism">Early colonialism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early colonialism">edit</a>]</div> In the late 19th and early 20th century, Italy attempted to join the Great Powers in acquiring colonies, though it found this difficult due to resistance and unprofitable due to heavy military costs and the lesser economic value of spheres of influence remaining when Italy began to colonize. A number of colonial projects were undertaken by the government. These were done to gain support of Italian nationalists and imperialists, who wanted to rebuild a Roman Empire. Already, there were large Italian communities in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>. Italy first attempted to gain colonies by entering a variety of failed negotiations with other world powers to make colonial concessions. Another approach by Italy was to investigate uncolonized, undeveloped lands by sending missionaries to them. The most promising and realistic lands for colonization were parts of Africa. Italian missionaries had already established a foothold at <a href="/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a> in the 1830s and had entered deep into Ethiopia.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> During the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> by Britain and France in the 1850s, Cavour believed that this presented an opportunity for Italian access to the East and had wanted the Italian merchant marine to take advantage of the Suez Canal's creation. Following Cavour's initiative, a man named <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sapeto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sapeto (page does not exist)">Sapeto</a> was given permission by the Rubattino shipping company to use a ship to establish a station in east Africa as a means of creating a route to the east. Sapeto landed at the Bay of <a href="/wiki/Assab" title="Assab">Assab</a>, a part of modern-day Eritrea in 1869. One year later, the land was purchased from the local Sultan by the Rubattino shipping company acting on the behalf of the Italian government. In 1882, Assab officially became an Italian territory, making it Italy's first colony. Though Tunisia would have been a preferable target because of its close proximity to Italy, the threat of reaction by the French made the attempt too dangerous to pursue. Italy could not afford the threat of war, as its industry was not developed. Assab stood as the start of the small colonial adventures that Italy would initially undertake.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cartolina_dei_Carabinieri_Reali_spedita_dalla_Colonia_Eritrea_dell%27Asmara_(1907).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cartolina_dei_Carabinieri_Reali_spedita_dalla_Colonia_Eritrea_dell%27Asmara_%281907%29.jpg/220px-Cartolina_dei_Carabinieri_Reali_spedita_dalla_Colonia_Eritrea_dell%27Asmara_%281907%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cartolina_dei_Carabinieri_Reali_spedita_dalla_Colonia_Eritrea_dell%27Asmara_%281907%29.jpg/330px-Cartolina_dei_Carabinieri_Reali_spedita_dalla_Colonia_Eritrea_dell%27Asmara_%281907%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cartolina_dei_Carabinieri_Reali_spedita_dalla_Colonia_Eritrea_dell%27Asmara_%281907%29.jpg/440px-Cartolina_dei_Carabinieri_Reali_spedita_dalla_Colonia_Eritrea_dell%27Asmara_%281907%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="431" /></a><figcaption>Postcard from <a href="/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Italian Eritrea</a></figcaption></figure> On 5 February 1885, taking advantage of Egypt's conflict with Britain, Italian soldiers landed at Massawa in present-day <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, shortly after the fall of Egyptian rule in Khartoum. As was key in Italian foreign policy, the British backed Italy's taking of Massawa from the Egyptians as it aided their occupation efforts.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In 1888, Italy annexed Massawa by force, allowing it to pursue its creation of the colony of Italian Eritrea. In 1885, Italy offered Britain military support for the occupation of Egyptian Sudan, but the British decided that they did not need Italian support to crush the remainder of Egypt, as the forces of Sudanese Muslim rebel <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad" title="Muhammad Ahmad">Muhammad Ahmad</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad" title="Muhammad Ahmad">Mahdist</a> army in Sudan, already had crushed remaining Egyptian forces, and Ethiopia's (then called Abyssinia) intervention in Sudan also aided the British.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Italy's earlier intervention in Assab set off tensions with Ethiopia, which had territorial aims on Assab, and Italy's official annexation of Ethiopian-claimed Massawa in 1888 increased tensions further. In 1889, Ethiopia's Emperor <a href="/wiki/Yohannes_IV_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Yohannes IV of Ethiopia">Yohannes IV</a> died in battle in Sudan, <a href="/wiki/Menelik_II" title="Menelik II">Menelik II</a> replaced Yohannes as Emperor. Menelik believed he could negotiate with Italy to avoid war and in error allowed Italy's claim to Massawa. Menelik made another serious blunder when he signed an agreement which declared that Ethiopia would work alongside the King of Italy in its dealings with foreign powers, which the Italians interpreted to declare that Ethiopia had in effect made itself a protectorate of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-Barclay73-p32-49">[49]</a> Menelik opposed the Italian interpretation and the differences between the two states grew. In October 1889, Menelik met with a Russian officer who was sent to discuss merging the Russian and Abyssinian orthodox churches, but Menelik was more concerned over Italy's massing army in Eritrea.<a href="#cite_note-Barclay73-p32-49">[49]</a> The meeting was used by Menelik to show unity between Ethiopia and Russia against Italian interests in the area.<a href="#cite_note-Barclay73-p32-49">[49]</a> Russia's own interests in East Africa led Russia's government to send large amounts of modern weaponry to the Ethiopians to hold back an Italian invasion. In response, Britain decided to back the Italians to challenge Russian influence in Africa and declared that all of Ethiopia was within the sphere of Italian interest. On the verge of war, Italian militarism and nationalism reached a peak, with Italians flocking to the Italian army, hoping to take part in the upcoming war.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In 1895, Ethiopia abandoned its agreement to follow Italian foreign policy, and Italy used the renunciation as a reason to invade Ethiopia, with the support of the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The Italian and British army failed on the battlefield of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Adowa">Adowa</a>, as the Ethiopians were numerical superior and supported by Russia and France with modern weapons; the sheer large numbers of the Ethiopian warriors forced Italy eventually to retreat into Eritrea.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Ethiopia would remain independent from Italy and other colonial powers until it was occupied in 1936 but then subsequently liberated after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Giovanni_Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Giovanni Giolitti">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giovanni_Giolitti_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Giovanni_Giolitti_2.jpg/170px-Giovanni_Giolitti_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Giovanni_Giolitti_2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="226" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a></figcaption></figure> In 1892, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a> became Prime Minister of Italy for his first term. Though his first government quickly collapsed a year later, Giolitti returned in 1903 to lead Italy's government during a fragmented reign that lasted until 1914. Giolitti had spent his earlier life as a civil servant, and then took positions within the cabinets of Crispi. Giolitti was the first long-term Italian Prime Minister in many years and was so because he mastered the political concept of trasformismo by manipulating, coercing and bribing officials to his side. In elections during Giolitti's government, voting fraud was common, and Giolitti helped improve voting only in well-off, more supportive areas, while attempting to isolate and intimidate poor areas where opposition was strong.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> On May 5, 1898, workers in Milan organized a strike to demonstrate against the government of <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Starrabba_di_Rudin%C3%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio Starrabba di Rudinì">Antonio Starrabba di Rudinì</a>, holding it responsible for the general increase of prices and for the famine that was affecting the country. In response infantry, cavalry and artillery were brought into the city and General <a href="/wiki/Fiorenzo_Bava_Beccaris" title="Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris">Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris</a> <a href="/wiki/Bava_Beccaris_massacre" title="Bava Beccaris massacre">ordered his troops to fire on demonstrators</a>. According to the government, there were 118 dead and 450 wounded. King <a href="/wiki/Umberto_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Umberto I">Umberto I</a> praised the General and awarded him the medal of <a href="/wiki/Grande_Ufficiale_dell%27Ordine_Militare_dei_Savoia" class="mw-redirect" title="Grande Ufficiale dell'Ordine Militare dei Savoia">Grande Ufficiale dell'Ordine Militare dei Savoia</a>. The decoration exacerbated the Italian population's indignation. On the other hand, Antonio di Rudinì was forced to resign in July 1898. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Underwood_%26_Underwood_%C2%A9_1906_No._10495_-_Messina_-_The_once_beautiful_Water-front_after_the_earthquake_dett.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Underwood_%26_Underwood_%C2%A9_1906_No._10495_-_Messina_-_The_once_beautiful_Water-front_after_the_earthquake_dett.jpg/220px-Underwood_%26_Underwood_%C2%A9_1906_No._10495_-_Messina_-_The_once_beautiful_Water-front_after_the_earthquake_dett.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Underwood_%26_Underwood_%C2%A9_1906_No._10495_-_Messina_-_The_once_beautiful_Water-front_after_the_earthquake_dett.jpg/330px-Underwood_%26_Underwood_%C2%A9_1906_No._10495_-_Messina_-_The_once_beautiful_Water-front_after_the_earthquake_dett.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Underwood_%26_Underwood_%C2%A9_1906_No._10495_-_Messina_-_The_once_beautiful_Water-front_after_the_earthquake_dett.jpg/440px-Underwood_%26_Underwood_%C2%A9_1906_No._10495_-_Messina_-_The_once_beautiful_Water-front_after_the_earthquake_dett.jpg 2x" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="866" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/1908_Messina_earthquake" title="1908 Messina earthquake">1908 Messina earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> On 29 July 1900, at <a href="/wiki/Monza" title="Monza">Monza</a>, King Umberto I was assassinated by the anarchist <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Bresci" title="Gaetano Bresci">Gaetano Bresci</a> who claimed he had come directly from America to avenge the victims of the repression, and the offense given by the decoration awarded to General Bava Beccaris. Southern Italy was in terrible shape prior to and during Giolitti's tenure as prime minister. Four-fifths of southern Italians were illiterate and the dire situation there ranged from problems of large numbers of absentee landlords to rebellion and even starvation.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Corruption was such a large problem that Giolitti himself admitted that there were places "where the law does not operate at all".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Natural disasters like earthquakes and landslides were a common source of destruction in southern Italy, often killing hundreds of people in each disaster, and southern Italy's poverty made repair work very difficult to do. Giolitti's small response to the major <a href="/wiki/1908_Messina_earthquake" title="1908 Messina earthquake">earthquake in Messina in 1908</a> was blamed for the high number of deaths which numbered at 50,000 people. The Messina earthquake infuriated southern Italians who claimed that Giolitti favoured the rich north over them. One study released in 1910 examined tax rates in north, central and southern Italy indicated that northern Italy with 48% of the nation's wealth paid 40% of the nation's taxes, while the south with 27% of the nation's wealth paid 32% of the nation's taxes.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2987" data-file-height="1967" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_Monument" title="Victor Emmanuel II Monument">Victor Emmanuel II Monument</a> in Rome, a national symbol of Italy celebrating the first king of the unified country, and resting place of the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Unknown_Soldier_(Italy)" title="Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)">Italian Unknown Soldier</a> since the end of World War I. It was inaugurated in 1911, on the occasion of the 50th <a href="/wiki/Anniversary_of_the_unification_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniversary of the unification of Italy">anniversary of the unification of Italy</a></figcaption></figure> According to his biographer Alexander De Grand, Giolitti was Italy's most notable prime minister after <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-grand4-57">[57]</a> Like Cavour, Giolitti came from Piedmont; like other leading Piedmontese politicians, he combined a <a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">pragmatism</a> with an <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> faith in <a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">progress</a> through material advancement. An able bureaucrat, he had little sympathy for the <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> that had inspired much of the <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a>. He tended to see discontent as rooted in frustrated self-interest and believed that most opponents had their price and could be transformed eventually into allies.<a href="#cite_note-duggan362-58">[58]</a> The primary objective of Giolittian politics was to govern from the <a href="/wiki/Political_centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Political centre">political centre</a> with slight and well controlled fluctuations, now in a <a href="/wiki/Conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative">conservative</a> direction, then in a <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a> one, trying to preserve the institutions and the existing social order.<a href="#cite_note-grand4-57">[57]</a> Critics from the <a href="/wiki/Political_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Political right">political right</a> considered him a socialist due to the courting of <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> votes in parliament in exchange for political favours; writing for the <a href="/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera" title="Corriere della Sera">Corriere della Sera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Albertini" title="Luigi Albertini">Luigi Albertini</a> mockingly described Giolitti as "the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Order_of_the_Most_Holy_Annunciation" title="Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation">Most Holy Annunciation</a>" after his <a href="/wiki/Dronero" title="Dronero">Dronero</a> speech advocating Italy's neutrality during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Socialists</a>. Critics from the <a href="/wiki/Political_left" class="mw-redirect" title="Political left">political left</a> called him ministro della malavita ("Minister of the Underworld"), a term coined by the historian <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini" title="Gaetano Salvemini">Gaetano Salvemini</a>, accusing him of winning elections with the support of criminals.<a href="#cite_note-grand4-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-sarti46-59">[59]</a> According to one study, Giolitti represented a new kind of liberalism, noting that "Giolitti's ability to muster the votes in the Chamber for the reforms he deemed necessary established him as the undisputed political leader of Italy for over a decade. His program of reforms also made him the most significant Italian practitioner of European New Liberalism. Giolitti did not contribute theoretical works to this new intellectual current, but he put into practice several of the tenets of New Liberalism before some of the theorists of the intellectual current had shown awareness of them."<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_upheavals">Political upheavals</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Political upheavals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vincenzo_Ottorino_Gentiloni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Vincenzo_Ottorino_Gentiloni.jpg/170px-Vincenzo_Ottorino_Gentiloni.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Vincenzo_Ottorino_Gentiloni.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ottorino_Gentiloni" title="Ottorino Gentiloni">Ottorino Gentiloni</a>. When the Pope lifted the ban on Catholic participation in politics in 1913, and the electorate was expanded, he collaborated with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gentiloni_pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentiloni pact">Gentiloni pact</a>.</figcaption></figure> Politics were in turmoil. The expansion of the electorate from 3 million to 8.5 million voters in 1912 brought in many workers and peasants, with gains for the Socialist and Catholic forces. New interest groups became better organized, with local organizations and influential newspapers, such as the Catholics, the nationalists, the farmers and the sugar growers. Giolitti lost his once-powerful hold on the press. During Giolitti's three-year absence, the Italian liberal establishment weakened with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a>. The nationalists were becoming a popular movement with popular leadership figures such as <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Corradini" title="Enrico Corradini">Enrico Corradini</a> and the revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio" title="Gabriele D'Annunzio">Gabriele D'Annunzio</a>. Nationalists began demanding the return of Italian-populated territories in Austria, demanded Croatian-populated Dalmatia, spoke of the need for Italy to expand territorially into Africa, particularly Libya. Giolitti negotiated with the nationalists demands and began planning an invasion of Ottoman Turkish-held Libya.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Catholic_Electoral_Union" title="Italian Catholic Electoral Union">Italian Catholic Electoral Union</a> (Unione elettorale cattolica italiana) was formed in 1905 to coordinate Catholic voters. It was formed in 1905 after the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/Opera_dei_Congressi" title="Opera dei Congressi">Opera dei Congressi</a> following the encyclical Il fermo proposito of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a>. The Union was headed in 1909–16 by Count <a href="/wiki/Ottorino_Gentiloni" title="Ottorino Gentiloni">Ottorino Gentiloni</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Gentiloni_pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentiloni pact">Gentiloni pact</a> of 1913 brought many new Catholic voters into politics, where they supported the Liberal party of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a>. By the terms of the pact, the Union directed Catholic voters to Giolitti supporters who agreed to favor the Church's position on such key issues as funding private Catholic schools, and blocking a law allowing divorce.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> However the Socialists divided over Italy's conquest of Libya in 1911–12. Meanwhile, the nationalists grew in power. The Gentiloni pact brought new Catholic support to the Liberals, who were thus moving to more conservative positions. Increasingly the Radicals and Socialists on the Left rejected Giolitti, especially his pro-Catholic policies. In October 1913 he formed a new government with the clericals. Giolitti stepped down and the new government was headed by Antonio Salandra, a right-wing conservative.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Until 1922, Italy was a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> with a parliament; in 1913, the first universal male suffrage election was held. The so-called <a href="/wiki/Statuto_Albertino" title="Statuto Albertino">Statuto Albertino</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Albert of Sardinia">Carlo Alberto</a> conceded in 1848 remained unchanged, even if the kings usually abstained from abusing their extremely large powers (for example, senators were not elected but chosen by the king). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_empire">Colonial empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Colonial empire">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Libia-1911-Tripoli-conquista-bandiera-verde-del-profeta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Libia-1911-Tripoli-conquista-bandiera-verde-del-profeta.jpg/220px-Libia-1911-Tripoli-conquista-bandiera-verde-del-profeta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Libia-1911-Tripoli-conquista-bandiera-verde-del-profeta.jpg/330px-Libia-1911-Tripoli-conquista-bandiera-verde-del-profeta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Libia-1911-Tripoli-conquista-bandiera-verde-del-profeta.jpg/440px-Libia-1911-Tripoli-conquista-bandiera-verde-del-profeta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1244" /></a><figcaption>Postcard of the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1911, Giolitti's government agreed to sending forces to occupy Libya. Italy declared war on the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> which held <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> as a colony. The war ended only a year later, but the occupation resulted in acts of extreme discrimination towards Libyans such as the forced deportation of Libyans to the <a href="/wiki/Tremiti_Islands" title="Tremiti Islands">Tremiti Islands</a> in October 1911 and by 1912, a third of these Libyan refugees had died due to lack of food supplies and shelter from the Italian occupation forces.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Italian control of the area was weak, leading to twenty years of conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Senussi" class="mw-redirect" title="Senussi">Senussi</a> religious order which was the main political and religious authority in the Libyan hinterlands. The invasion of Libya did mark a turn in direction for the opposition to the Italian government, revolutionaries became divided, some adopting nationalist lines, while others retaining socialist lines.<a href="#cite_note-Bosworth05-p49-65">[65]</a> The annexation of Libya caused nationalists to advocate Italy's domination of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> by occupying <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> as well as the Adriatic coastal region of <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bosworth05-p49-65">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian_empire_1914.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Italian_empire_1914.png/330px-Italian_empire_1914.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Italian_empire_1914.png/495px-Italian_empire_1914.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Italian_empire_1914.png/660px-Italian_empire_1914.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Italy and its colonial possessions at the time of the outbreak of WWI. The area between British Egypt and the firmly held Italian territories is the region of southern <a href="/wiki/Italian_Cyrenaica" title="Italian Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a> which was under dispute of ownership between Italy and the UK, and was officially conquered by Italy in 1931</figcaption></figure> While the success of the Libyan War improved the status of the nationalists, it did not help Giolitti's administration as a whole. The war radicalized the Italian Socialist Party with anti-war revolutionaries led by future-Fascist dictator <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> calling for violence to bring down the government. Giolitti could no longer rely on the dwindling reformist socialist elements and was forced to concede even further to the right, Giolitti dropped all anticlericalism and reached out to clericals which alienated his moderate liberal base leaving him with an unsteady coalition which collapsed in 1914. By the end of his tenure, Italians detested him and the liberal establishment for the fraudulent elections, the divided society, and the failure and corruption of trasformiso organized governments. Giolitti would return as prime minister only briefly in 1920, but the era of liberalism was effectively over in Italy. Italian colonial ventures began with the acquisition of the ports of <a href="/wiki/Asseb" class="mw-redirect" title="Asseb">Asseb</a> in 1869 and <a href="/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a> in <a href="/wiki/1885_in_Italy" title="1885 in Italy">1885</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>. These areas were claimed by <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> at the time, and when Ethiopia went into turmoil at the death of <a href="/wiki/Yohannes_IV_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Yohannes IV of Ethiopia">Emperor Yohannes IV</a> Italy moved into the northern Ethiopian highlands. However, further expansion was checked by a revival of Ethiopian power under <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Menelik_II_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia">Emperor Menelik II</a> which led to the defeat of Italian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adua" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Adua">battle of Adua</a>. However, Italy was still able to secure the northern highlands in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wuchale" title="Treaty of Wuchale">Treaty of Wuchale</a>, ending its conflict with Ethiopia until 1935. Around the same time Italy began to colonize <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>. It avoided the other powers carving out domains in that area but gradually gained the southern Somali coast beginning with the Sultanate of <a href="/wiki/Hobyo" title="Hobyo">Hobyo</a> and the Sultanate of <a href="/wiki/Majeerteen" title="Majeerteen">Majeerteen</a> in 1888 and continuing with gradual acquisitions until 1925 when <a href="/wiki/Chisimayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chisimayu">Chisimayu</a> Region belonging to the British protectorate of Zanzibar was given to Italy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I_and_failure_of_the_liberal_state">World War I and failure of the liberal state</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: World War I and failure of the liberal state">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Italian entry into World War I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Front_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Front (World War I)">Italian Front (World War I)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Military history of Italy during World War I</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War I)">Italian Campaign (World War I)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prelude_to_war_and_internal_dilemma">Prelude to war and internal dilemma</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Prelude to war and internal dilemma">edit</a>]</div> In the lead-up to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the Kingdom of Italy faced many short- and long-term problems in determining its allies and objectives. Italy's recent success in occupying <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> had sparked tension with its <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> allies, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, because both countries had been seeking closer relations with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. In Munich, Germans reacted to Italy's aggression by singing anti-Italian songs.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Italy's relations with <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> were also in bad shape: France felt betrayed by Italy's support of Prussia in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>, opening the possibility of war erupting between the two countries.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Italy's relations with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> had also been impaired by constant Italian demands for more recognition on the international stage following the occupation of Libya and its demands that other nations accept its spheres of influence in Eastern Africa and the Mediterranean Sea.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europa_1914-mobilisatie.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Europa_1914-mobilisatie.GIF/350px-Europa_1914-mobilisatie.GIF" decoding="async" width="350" height="430" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Europa_1914-mobilisatie.GIF/525px-Europa_1914-mobilisatie.GIF 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Europa_1914-mobilisatie.GIF/700px-Europa_1914-mobilisatie.GIF 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="884" /></a><figcaption>Number of soldiers mobilized and killed in World War I</figcaption></figure> In the Mediterranean Sea, Italy's relations with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Kingdom of Greece</a> were aggravated when Italy occupied the Greek-populated <a href="/wiki/Dodecanese" title="Dodecanese">Dodecanese</a> Islands, including <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, from 1912 to 1914. The Ottoman Empire had formerly controlled these islands. Italy and Greece were also in open rivalry over the desire to occupy <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> King Victor Emmanuel III himself was uneasy about Italy pursuing distant colonial adventures and said that Italy should prepare to take back Italian-populated land from <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> as the "completion of the Risorgimento".<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> This idea put Italy at odds with Austria-Hungary. A major hindrance to Italy's decision on what to do about the war was the political instability throughout Italy in 1914. After the formation of the government of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Salandra" title="Antonio Salandra">Antonio Salandra</a> in March 1914, the government attempted to win the support of nationalists. It moved to the political right.<a href="#cite_note-multiref9-71">[71]</a> At the same time, the left became more repulsed by the government after the killing of three anti-militarist demonstrators in June.<a href="#cite_note-multiref9-71">[71]</a> Many elements of the left including <a href="/wiki/Syndicalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Syndicalists">syndicalists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anarchists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchists">anarchists</a> protested against this and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a> declared a <a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">general strike</a> in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The protests that ensued became known as "<a href="/wiki/Red_Week_(Italy)" title="Red Week (Italy)">Red Week</a>" as leftists rioted and various acts of civil disobedience occurred in major cities and small towns such as seizing railway stations, cutting telephone wires and burning tax-registers.<a href="#cite_note-multiref9-71">[71]</a> However, only two days later the strike was officially called off, though the civil strife continued. Militarist nationalists and anti-militarist leftists fought on the streets until the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Royal_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Royal Army">Italian Royal Army</a> forcefully restored calm after using thousands of men to put down the various protesting forces.<a href="#cite_note-multiref9-71">[71]</a> Following the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a> by Austria-Hungary in 1914, World War I broke out. Despite Italy's official alliance with Germany and membership in the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a>, the Kingdom of Italy initially remained neutral, claiming that the Triple Alliance was only for defensive purposes.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gabriele_D%27Annunzio_(2).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio_%282%29.png/150px-Gabriele_D%27Annunzio_%282%29.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio_%282%29.png/225px-Gabriele_D%27Annunzio_%282%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio_%282%29.png 2x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio" title="Gabriele D'Annunzio">Gabriele D'Annunzio</a>, national <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</a> (vate) of Italy and a prominent nationalist revolutionary who was a supporter of Italy joining the action in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></figcaption></figure> In Italy, society was divided over the war: Italian socialists generally opposed the war and supported <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>, while nationalists militantly supported the war. Long-time nationalists <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio" title="Gabriele D'Annunzio">Gabriele D'Annunzio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Federzoni" title="Luigi Federzoni">Luigi Federzoni</a>, together with a former socialist journalist and new convert to nationalist sentiment, future Fascist dictator <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>, demanded that Italy join the war. For nationalists, Italy had to maintain its alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> to gain colonial territories at the expense of France. For the liberals, the war presented Italy a long-awaited opportunity to use an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente</a> to gain certain Italian-populated and other territories from Austria-Hungary, which had long been part of Italian patriotic aims since unification. In 1915, relatives of Italian revolutionary and republican hero <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> died on the battlefield of France, where they had volunteered to fight. Federzoni used the memorial services to declare the importance of Italy joining the war and to warn the monarchy of the consequences of continued disunity in Italy if it did not: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Italy has awaited this since 1866 her truly a national war, to feel unified, at last, renewed by the unanimous action and identical sacrifice of all her sons. Today, while Italy still wavers before the necessity imposed by history, the name of Garibaldi, resanctified by blood, rises again to warn her that she will not be able to defeat the revolution save by fighting and winning her national war. – Luigi Federzoni, 1915<a href="#cite_note-multiref10-74">[74]</a></blockquote> Mussolini used his new newspaper <a href="/wiki/Il_Popolo_d%27Italia" title="Il Popolo d'Italia">Il Popolo d'Italia</a> and his strong oratorical skills to urge a broad political audience – ranging from right-wing nationalists to patriotic revolutionary leftists – to support Italy's entry into the war to gain back Italian-populated territories from Austria-Hungary, by saying "enough of <a href="/wiki/Italian_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian North Africa">Libya</a>, and on to <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>".<a href="#cite_note-multiref10-74">[74]</a> Although the left was traditionally opposed to war, Mussolini claimed that this time it was in their interest to join the war to tear down the aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern" class="mw-redirect" title="Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern</a> dynasty of Germany which he claimed was the enemy of all European workers.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Mussolini and other nationalists warned the Italian government that Italy must join the war or face revolution and called for violence against pacifists and neutralists.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png/220px-Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png/330px-Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png/440px-Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png 2x" data-file-width="1114" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption>Territories promised to Italy by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London (1915)</a>, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige" class="mw-redirect" title="Trentino-Alto Adige">Trentino-Alto Adige</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> (tan), and the <a href="/wiki/Sne%C5%BEnik_(plateau)" title="Snežnik (plateau)">Snežnik Plateau</a> area (green). Dalmatia, after the WWI, however, was not assigned to Italy but to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></figcaption></figure> With nationalist sentiment firmly on the side of reclaiming Italian territories of Austria-Hungary, Italy entered negotiations with the Triple Entente. The negotiations ended successfully in April 1915 when the <a href="/wiki/London_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="London Pact">London Pact</a> was brokered with the Italian government. The pact ensured Italy the right to attain all Italian-populated lands it wanted from Austria-Hungary, as well as concessions in the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan Peninsula">Balkan Peninsula</a> and suitable compensation for any territory gained by the United Kingdom and France from Germany in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-firstworldwar.com-77">[77]</a> The proposal fulfilled the desires of Italian nationalists and Italian imperialism and was agreed to. Italy joined the Triple Entente in its war against Austria-Hungary. The reaction in Italy was divided: former prime minister <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a> was furious over Italy's decision to go to war against its former allies, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Giolitti claimed that Italy would fail in the war, predicting high numbers of mutinies, Austro-Hungarian occupation of even more Italian territory and that the failure would produce a catastrophic rebellion that would destroy the liberal-democratic monarchy and the liberal-democratic secular institutions of the state.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a> was an influential semi-secret force in Italian politics with a strong presence among professionals and the middle class across Italy, as well as among the leadership in parliament, public administration, and the army. The two main organization were the Grand Orient and the Grand Lodge of Italy. They had 25,000 members in 500 or more lodges. Freemasons took on the challenge of mobilizing the press, public opinion, and the leading political parties in support of Italy's joining the war as an ally of France and Great Britain. In 1914-15 they temporarily dropped their traditional pacifistic rhetoric and adopted the objectives of the nationalists. Freemasonry had historically promoted cosmopolitan universal values, and by 1917 onwards they reverted to their internationalist stance and pressed for the creation of a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> to promote a new post-war universal order based upon the peaceful coexistence of independent and democratic nations.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interventisti_Bologna_1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Interventisti_Bologna_1914.jpg/220px-Interventisti_Bologna_1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Interventisti_Bologna_1914.jpg/330px-Interventisti_Bologna_1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Interventisti_Bologna_1914.jpg/440px-Interventisti_Bologna_1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1165" data-file-height="848" /></a><figcaption>A pro-war demonstration in <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, 1914</figcaption></figure> Italy entered into the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> in 1915 also with the aim of completing national unity with the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige" class="mw-redirect" title="Trentino-Alto Adige">Trentino-Alto Adige</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a>: for this reason, the Italian intervention in the First World War is also considered the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Italian_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Italian War of Independence">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification of Italy</a>, whose military actions began during the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">revolutions of 1848</a> with the <a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First Italian War of Independence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a> (1870), almost the whole of Italy was united in a single state, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a>. However, the so-called "irredent lands" were missing, that is, Italian-speaking, geographically or historically Italian lands that were not yet part of the unitary state. Among the irredent lands still belonging to <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> were usually indicated as such: <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a> (with the city of <a href="/wiki/Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiume">Fiume</a>), <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">Trentino-Alto Adige</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a> movement, which aimed at the reunification of the aforementioned with the motherland and therefore their consequent <a href="/wiki/Irredentism" title="Irredentism">redemption</a>, was active precisely between the last decades of the 19th century and the early 20th century. It was precisely in the irredentist sphere that the theme of the need for a "Fourth Italian War of Independence" against Austria-Hungary began to develop in the last decades of the 19th century,<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> when Italy was still firmly incorporated in the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a>; also the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> was seen, in the irredentist context, as part of this theme<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy's_war_effort">Italy's war effort</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Italy's war effort">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcia_nella_valle_dell%27Isonzo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Marcia_nella_valle_dell%27Isonzo.jpg/220px-Marcia_nella_valle_dell%27Isonzo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Marcia_nella_valle_dell%27Isonzo.jpg/330px-Marcia_nella_valle_dell%27Isonzo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Marcia_nella_valle_dell%27Isonzo.jpg/440px-Marcia_nella_valle_dell%27Isonzo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto" title="Battle of Caporetto">Battle of Caporetto</a>, fought in October and November 1917, the greatest defeat in Italian military history.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Generalissimo" title="Generalissimo">Generalissimo</a> <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cadorna" title="Luigi Cadorna">Luigi Cadorna</a> was forced to resign after the defeat, being replaced by <a href="/wiki/Armando_Diaz" title="Armando Diaz">Armando Diaz</a> as <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Italian_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the Italian Army">Chief of Staff of the Italian Army</a><a href="#cite_note-britannicaCaporetto-87">[87]</a></figcaption></figure> The front on the Austro-Hungarian border was 650 km (400 mi) long, stretching from the <a href="/wiki/Stelvio_Pass" title="Stelvio Pass">Stelvio</a> Pass to the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a>. Italian forces were numerically superior but this advantage was negated by the difficult terrain. Further, the Italians lacked strategic and tactical leadership. The Italian commander-in-chief was <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cadorna" title="Luigi Cadorna">Luigi Cadorna</a>, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault whose tactics cost the lives of hundreds of thousands of Italian soldiers. His plan was to attack on the <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">Isonzo front</a>, with the dream of breaking over the <a href="/wiki/Karst_Plateau" title="Karst Plateau">Karst Plateau</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Carniola" title="Carniola">Carniolan</a> Basin, taking <a href="/wiki/Ljubljana" title="Ljubljana">Ljubljana</a> and threatening the Austro-Hungarian Empire's capital <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. It was a Napoleonic plan, which had no realistic chance of success in an age of barbed wire, machine guns, and indirect artillery fire, combined with hilly and mountainous terrain.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The first shells were fired in the dawn of 24 May 1915 against the enemy positions of <a href="/wiki/Cervignano_del_Friuli" title="Cervignano del Friuli">Cervignano del Friuli</a>, which was captured a few hours later. On the same day the Austro-Hungarian fleet bombarded the railway stations of <a href="/wiki/Manfredonia" title="Manfredonia">Manfredonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancona" title="Ancona">Ancona</a>. The first Italian casualty was Riccardo Di Giusto. The main effort was to be concentrated in the <a href="/wiki/Isonzo" class="mw-redirect" title="Isonzo">Isonzo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vipava_Valley" title="Vipava Valley">Vipava</a> valleys and on the <a href="/wiki/Karst_Plateau" title="Karst Plateau">Karst Plateau</a>, in the direction of Ljubljana. The Italian troops had some initial successes, but as in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>, the campaign soon evolved into <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a>. The main difference was that the trenches had to be dug in the Alpine rocks and glaciers instead of in the mud, and often up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) of altitude. The outset of the campaign against Austria-Hungary looked to initially favor Italy: Austria-Hungary's army was spread to cover its fronts with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> and Italy had a numerical superiority against the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army" title="Austro-Hungarian Army">Austro-Hungarian Army</a>. However, this advantage was never fully utilized because Italian military commander <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cadorna" title="Luigi Cadorna">Luigi Cadorna</a> insisted on a dangerous frontal assault against Austria-Hungary in an attempt to occupy the Slovenian plateau and <a href="/wiki/Ljubljana" title="Ljubljana">Ljubljana</a>. This assault would put the Italian army not far away from Austria-Hungary's imperial capital, <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">eleven offensives</a> with an enormous loss of life and the final victory of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>, the Italian campaign to take Vienna collapsed. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Su-gli-argini-del-piave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Su-gli-argini-del-piave.jpg/220px-Su-gli-argini-del-piave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Su-gli-argini-del-piave.jpg/330px-Su-gli-argini-del-piave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Su-gli-argini-del-piave.jpg/440px-Su-gli-argini-del-piave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1259" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Italian propaganda poster depicting the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Piave_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Piave River">Battle of the Piave River</a>, fought in June 1918. This battle, won by Italy, was the beginning of the end of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></figcaption></figure> Upon entering the war, geography was also difficult for Italy as its border with Austria-Hungary was along mountainous terrain. In May 1915, Italian forces at 400,000 men along the border outnumbered the Austrian and Germans almost four to one.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> However, Austrian defences hold off the Italian offensive.<a href="#cite_note-Seton-91">[91]</a> The battles with the Austro-Hungarian Army along the Alpine foothills in trench warfare were drawn-out, long engagements with little progress.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Italian officers were poorly trained in contrast to the Austro-Hungarian and <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">German</a> armies, Italian artillery was inferior to the Austrian machine guns, and the Italian forces had a dangerously low supply of ammunition; this shortage would continually hamper attempts to make advances into Austrian territory.<a href="#cite_note-Seton-91">[91]</a> This combined with the constant replacement of officers by Cadorna resulted in few officers gaining the experience necessary to lead military missions.<a href="#cite_note-multiref12-93">[93]</a> In the first year of the war, poor conditions on the battlefield led to cholera outbreaks, causing many Italian soldiers to die.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_2-94">[94]</a> Despite these serious problems, Cadorna refused to back down on the strategy of offence. Naval battles occurred between the Italian Royal Navy (<a href="/wiki/Regia_Marina" title="Regia Marina">Regia Marina</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Navy" title="Austro-Hungarian Navy">Austro-Hungarian Navy</a>. The Austro-Hungarian fleet outclassed Italy's warships, and the situation was made direr for Italy in that both the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> and the (British) <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> were not sent into the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a>. Their respective governments viewed the Adriatic Sea as "far too dangerous to operate in due to the concentration of the Austro-Hungarian fleet there".<a href="#cite_note-Seton_2-94">[94]</a> Morale fell among Italian soldiers who lived a tedious life when not on the front lines, as they were forbidden to enter theaters or bars, even when on leave. However, alcohol was made freely available to the soldiers when battles were about to occur. Groups of soldiers worked to create improvized whorehouses.<a href="#cite_note-multiref14-95">[95]</a> To maintain morale, the Italian army had propaganda lectures on the importance of the war to Italy, especially to retrieve <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a> from Austria-Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-multiref14-95">[95]</a> Some of these lectures were carried out by popular nationalist war proponents such as <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio" title="Gabriele D'Annunzio">Gabriele D'Annunzio</a>. D'Annunzio himself would participate in several paramilitary raids on Austrian positions along the Adriatic Sea coastline during the war and temporarily lost his sight after an air raid.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Prominent pro-war advocate <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> was prevented from giving lectures by the government, most likely because of his revolutionary socialist past.<a href="#cite_note-multiref14-95">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian_Arditi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Italian_Arditi.jpg/220px-Italian_Arditi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Italian_Arditi.jpg/330px-Italian_Arditi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Italian_Arditi.jpg/440px-Italian_Arditi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Arditi" title="Arditi">Arditi</a> corps in 1918. More than 650,000 Italian soldiers died on the battlefields of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Italian government became increasingly aggravated in 1915 with the passive nature of the <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Serbia" title="Military history of Serbia">Serbian army</a>, which had not engaged in a serious offensive against Austria-Hungary for months.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The Italian government blamed Serbian military inactiveness for allowing the Austro-Hungarians to muster their armies against Italy.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_3-98">[98]</a> Cadorna suspected that Serbia was attempting to negotiate an end to fighting with Austria-Hungary and addressed this to foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sidney Sonnino</a>, who himself bitterly claimed that Serbia was an unreliable ally.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_3-98">[98]</a> Relations between Italy and Serbia became so cold that the other Allied nations were forced to abandon the idea of forming a united Balkan front against Austria-Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_3-98">[98]</a> In negotiations, Sonnino remained prepared to allow <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_(region)" title="Bosnia (region)">Bosnia</a> to join Serbia, but refused to discuss the fate of <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, which was claimed both by Italy and by <a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavists</a> in Serbia.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_3-98">[98]</a> As Serbia fell to the Austro-Hungarian and German forces in 1915, Cadorna proposed sending 60,000 men to land in <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> to help the Serbs now in exile in Greece and the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Albania" title="Principality of Albania">Principality of Albania</a> to fight off the opposing forces, but the Italian government's bitterness to Serbia resulted in the proposal being rejected.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_3-98">[98]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_General_Armando_Diaz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Portrait_of_General_Armando_Diaz.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_General_Armando_Diaz.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Portrait_of_General_Armando_Diaz.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_General_Armando_Diaz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Portrait_of_General_Armando_Diaz.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_General_Armando_Diaz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Armando_Diaz" title="Armando Diaz">Armando Diaz</a>, Chief of Staff of the Italian Army since November 1917, halted the Austro-Hungarian advance along the Piave River and launched counter-offensives which led to a decisive victory on the Italian Front. He is celebrated as one of the greatest generals of World War I.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></figcaption></figure> In the spring of 1916, Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in the Altopiano of Asiago, towards <a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padova</a>, in their <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Asiago" title="Battle of Asiago">Strafexpedition</a>, but were defeated by the Italians. In August, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Doberd%C3%B2" title="Battle of Doberdò">Battle of Doberdò</a>, the Italians also captured the town of Gorizia; the front remained static for over a year. At the same time, Italy faced a shortage of warships, increased attacks by submarines, soaring freight charges threatening the ability to supply food to soldiers, lack of raw materials and equipment, and Italians faced high wartime taxes.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Austro-Hungarian and German forces had gone deep into Northern Italian territory. Finally, in November 1916, Cadorna ceased offensive operations and began a defensive approach. In 1917, France, the United Kingdom and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> offered to send troops to Italy to help it fend off the offensive of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>. Still, the Italian government refused as Sonnino did not want Italy to be seen as a <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> and preferred isolation as the more brave alternative.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Italy also wanted to keep <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a> out of the war as the Italian government feared that, should Greece the Allies, it would move to annex Italian-claimed Albania.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_4-102">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelist</a> pro-war advocates in Greece failed to succeed in pressuring <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I_of_Greece" title="Constantine I of Greece">Constantine I of Greece</a> to bring Italy into the conflict, and Italian aims on Albania remained unthreatened.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_4-102">[102]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liberazione_di_Trieste.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Liberazione_di_Trieste.jpg/220px-Liberazione_di_Trieste.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Liberazione_di_Trieste.jpg/330px-Liberazione_di_Trieste.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Liberazione_di_Trieste.jpg/440px-Liberazione_di_Trieste.jpg 2x" data-file-width="982" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>Italian troops landing in <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>, 3 November 1918, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Battle of Vittorio Veneto">Battle of Vittorio Veneto</a>. The Italian victory in this battle<a href="#cite_note-victory-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> marked the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Villa_Giusti" title="Armistice of Villa Giusti">end of the war on the Italian Front</a>, secured the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> and contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with Germany">end of the World War I</a> just one week later.<a href="#cite_note-Luden-106">[106]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> collapsed in 1917 <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_(1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution (1917)">Russian Revolution</a>, eventually resulting in the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a> <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> regime of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>. The resulting marginalization of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> allowed for more Austro-Hungarian and German forces to arrive on the front against Italy. Internal dissent against the war grew with increasingly poor economic and social conditions in Italy due to the strain of the war. Much of the profit of the war was being made in the cities, while rural areas were losing income.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The number of men available for agricultural work had fallen from 4.8 million to 2.2 million, though with the help of women, agricultural production managed to be maintained at 90% of its pre-war total during the war.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_5-108">[108]</a> Many pacifists and internationalist Italian socialists turned to Bolshevism and advocated negotiations with the workers of Germany and Austria-Hungary to help end the war and bring about Bolshevik revolutions.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_5-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Avanti!_(Italian_newspaper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avanti! (Italian newspaper)">Avanti!</a>, the newspaper of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a>, declared: "Let the bourgeoisie fight its war".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Leftist women in Northern Italian cities led protests demanding action against the high cost of living and demanding an end to the war.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> in May 1917, communist revolutionaries organized and engaged in rioting, calling for an end to the war and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_6-111">[111]</a> The Italian Army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face communists and anarchists who fought violently until 23 May, when the Army gained control of the city with almost 50 people killed (three of which were Italian soldiers) and over 800 people arrested.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_6-111">[111]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trento_3_novembre_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Trento_3_novembre_1918.jpg/220px-Trento_3_novembre_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Trento_3_novembre_1918.jpg/330px-Trento_3_novembre_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Trento_3_novembre_1918.jpg/440px-Trento_3_novembre_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>Italian cavalry in <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a> on 3 November 1918, after the victorious <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Battle of Vittorio Veneto">Battle of Vittorio Veneto</a></figcaption></figure> After the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto" title="Battle of Caporetto">Battle of Caporetto</a> in 1917, Italian forces were forced far back into Italian territory as far as the Piave river. The humiliation led to the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Vittorio Emanuele Orlando</a> as prime minister, who managed to solve some of Italy's wartime problems. Orlando abandoned the previous isolationist approach to the war and increased coordination with the Allies. The convoy system was introduced to fend off submarine attacks and allowed Italy to end food shortages from February 1918 onward. Also, Italy received more raw materials from the Allies.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The new Italian chief of staff, <a href="/wiki/Armando_Diaz" title="Armando Diaz">Armando Diaz</a>, ordered the Army to defend the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Monte_Grappa" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Monte Grappa">Monte Grappa</a> summit, where fortified defences were constructed; despite numerically inferior, the Italians managed to repel the Austro-Hungarian and German Army. 1918 also saw the beginning of the official suppression of enemy aliens. The Italian government increasingly suppressed the Italian socialists. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Piave_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Piave River">Battle of the Piave River</a>, the Italian Army managed to hold off the Austro-Hungarian and German armies. The opposing armies repeatedly failed afterwards in major battles such as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Grappa" title="Battle of Monte Grappa">Battle of Monte Grappa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Battle of Vittorio Veneto">Battle of Vittorio Veneto</a>. After four days, the Italian Army defeated the Austro-Hungarian Army in the latter battle, aided by British and French divisions and the fact that the Imperial-Royal Army started to melt away as news arrived that the constituent regions of the Dual Monarchy had declared independence. Austria-Hungary ended the fighting against Italy with the armistice on 4 November 1918, one week before the 11 November armistice on the armistice on the Western front. The Italian victory,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> which was announced by the <a href="/wiki/Bollettino_della_Vittoria" title="Bollettino della Vittoria">Bollettino della Vittoria</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bollettino_della_Vittoria_Navale" title="Bollettino della Vittoria Navale">Bollettino della Vittoria Navale</a>. In November 1918, after the surrender of Austria-Hungary, Italy occupied militarily <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">Trentino Alto-Adige</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kvarner_Gulf" title="Kvarner Gulf">Kvarner Gulf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, all Austro-Hungarian territories. On the Dalmatian coast, Italy established the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Dalmatia#The_first_Governorate_of_Dalmatia" title="Governorate of Dalmatia">Governorate of Dalmatia</a>, which had the provisional aim of ferrying the territory towards full integration into the Kingdom of Italy, progressively importing national legislation in place of the previous one. The administrative capital was <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zara</a>. The Governorate of Dalmatia was evacuated following the Italo-Yugoslav agreements which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_(1920)" title="Treaty of Rapallo (1920)">Treaty of Rapallo</a> (1920). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacrario_militare_di_Redipuglia_agosto_2014.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sacrario_militare_di_Redipuglia_agosto_2014.JPG/220px-Sacrario_militare_di_Redipuglia_agosto_2014.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sacrario_militare_di_Redipuglia_agosto_2014.JPG/330px-Sacrario_militare_di_Redipuglia_agosto_2014.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sacrario_militare_di_Redipuglia_agosto_2014.JPG/440px-Sacrario_militare_di_Redipuglia_agosto_2014.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3080" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Redipuglia_War_Memorial" title="Redipuglia War Memorial">Redipuglia War Memorial</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fogliano_Redipuglia" title="Fogliano Redipuglia">Redipuglia</a>, with the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Prince_Emanuele_Filiberto,_Duke_of_Aosta_(1869%E2%80%931931)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (1869–1931)">Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta</a> in the foreground, nicknamed the Undefeated Duke for having reported numerous victories in the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> without ever being defeated on the battlefield.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> This War Memorial is the resting place of 100,187 Italian soldiers killed between 1915 and 1917 in the <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">eleven battles</a> fought on the Karst and <a href="/wiki/Isonzo_front" class="mw-redirect" title="Isonzo front">Isonzo front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></figcaption></figure> The Italian government was infuriated by the <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a> of <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the United States">President of the United States</a>, as advocating national <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> which meant that Italy would not gain Dalmatia as had been promised in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_7-118">[118]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliament of Italy">Parliament of Italy</a>, nationalists condemned Wilson's fourteen points as betraying the Treaty of London, while socialists claimed that Wilson's points were valid and claimed the Treaty of London was an offense to the rights of <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Seton_7-118">[118]</a> Negotiations between Italy and the Allies, particularly the new Yugoslav delegation (replacing the Serbian delegation), agreed to a trade off between Italy and the new <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Kingdom of Yugoslavia</a>, which was that Dalmatia, despite being claimed by Italy, would be accepted as Yugoslav, while <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>, claimed by Yugoslavia, would be accepted as Italian.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> During the war, the Italian Royal Army increased in size from 15,000 men in 1914 to 160,000 men in 1918, with 5 million recruits in total entering service during the war.<a href="#cite_note-multiref12-93">[93]</a> This came at a terrible cost: by the end of the war, Italy had lost 700,000 soldiers and had a budget deficit of twelve billion lira. Italian society was divided between the majority of pacifists who opposed Italian involvement in the war and the minority of pro-war nationalists who had condemned the Italian government for not having immediately gone to war with Austria-Hungary in 1914. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy's_territorial_settlements_and_the_reaction">Italy's territorial settlements and the reaction</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Italy's territorial settlements and the reaction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain">Treaty of Saint-Germain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon" title="Treaty of Trianon">Treaty of Trianon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_four.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Big_four.jpg/220px-Big_four.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Big_four.jpg/330px-Big_four.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Big_four.jpg/440px-Big_four.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2616" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption>Italian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Vittorio Emanuele Orlando</a> (2nd from left) at the World War I peace negotiations in <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Versailles</a> with <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (from left)</figcaption></figure> As the war came to an end, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Prime_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Prime Minister">Italian Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Vittorio Emanuele Orlando</a> met with <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">British Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France" title="Prime Minister of France">Prime Minister of France</a> <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> and <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">United States President</a> <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Versailles</a> to discuss how the borders of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> should be redefined to help avoid a future European war. The talks provided little territorial gain to Italy because, during the peace talks, Wilson promised freedom to all European nationalities to form their nation-states. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> did not assign <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> to Italy as had been promised in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a>. Furthermore, the British and French decided to divide the German overseas colonies into their mandates, with Italy receiving none of them. Italy also gained no territory from the breakup of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, despite a proposal being issued to Italy by the United Kingdom and France during the war, only to see these nations carve up the Ottoman Empire between themselves (also exploiting the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a>). Despite this, Orlando agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which caused uproar against his government. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)">Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye</a> (1919) and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_(1920)" title="Treaty of Rapallo (1920)">Treaty of Rapallo</a> (1920) allowed the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">Trentino Alto-Adige</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kvarner_Gulf" title="Kvarner Gulf">Kvarner</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zara</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg/220px-Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg/330px-Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg/440px-Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>Residents of <a href="/wiki/Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiume">Fiume</a> cheering the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Impresa_di_Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Impresa di Fiume">Gabriele D'Annunzio and his Legionari</a> in September 1919, when Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants</figcaption></figure> Furious over the peace settlement, the Italian nationalist poet <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio" title="Gabriele D'Annunzio">Gabriele D'Annunzio</a> led disaffected war veterans and nationalists to form the <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume" title="Free State of Fiume">Free State of Fiume</a> in September 1919. His popularity among nationalists led him to be called <a href="/wiki/Il_Duce" class="mw-redirect" title="Il Duce">Il Duce</a> ("The Leader"), and he used black-shirted paramilitary in his assault on Fiume. The leadership title of Duce and the blackshirt paramilitary uniform would later be adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism">Fascist</a> movement of <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>. The demand for the Italian annexation of Fiume spread to all sides of the political spectrum, including Mussolini's Fascists.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> D'Annunzio's stirring speeches drew Croat nationalists to his side and also kept contact with the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army" title="Irish Republican Army">Irish Republican Army</a> and Egyptian nationalists.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome_(1924)" title="Treaty of Rome (1924)">Treaty of Rome</a> (1924) led to the annexation of the city of <a href="/wiki/Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiume">Fiume</a> to Italy. Italy did not receive other territories promised by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London (1915)</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, so this outcome was denounced as a <a href="/wiki/Mutilated_victory" title="Mutilated victory">mutilated victory</a>. The rhetoric of mutilated victory was adopted by <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> and led to the <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">rise of</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_fascism" title="Italian fascism">Italian fascism</a>, becoming a key point in the <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_Fascist_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda of Fascist Italy">propaganda of Fascist Italy</a>. Historians regard mutilated victory as a "political myth", used by fascists to fuel <a href="/wiki/Italian_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian imperialism">Italian imperialism</a> and obscure the successes of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Italy">liberal Italy</a> in the aftermath of World War I.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Italy also gained a permanent seat in the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>'s executive council. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fascist_regime,_World_War_II,_and_Civil_War_(1922–1946)">Fascist regime, World War II, and Civil War (1922–1946)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fascist regime, World War II, and Civil War (1922–1946)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mussolini_in_war_and_postwar">Mussolini in war and postwar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mussolini in war and postwar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy (1922–1943)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fascist_and_anti-Fascist_violence_in_Italy_(1919%E2%80%931926)" title="Fascist and anti-Fascist violence in Italy (1919–1926)">Fascist and anti-Fascist violence in Italy (1919–1926)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_mezzobusto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Mussolini_mezzobusto.jpg/170px-Mussolini_mezzobusto.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Mussolini_mezzobusto.jpg/255px-Mussolini_mezzobusto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Mussolini_mezzobusto.jpg/340px-Mussolini_mezzobusto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1603" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>, who titled himself <a href="/wiki/Duce" title="Duce">Duce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">ruled the country from 1922 to 1943</a></figcaption></figure> In 1914, <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> was forced out of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a> after calling for Italian intervention in the war against <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>. Before World War I, Mussolini had opposed military conscription, protested against Italy's occupation of Libya and was the editor of the Socialist Party's official newspaper, <a href="/wiki/Avanti!_(Italian_newspaper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avanti! (Italian newspaper)">Avanti!</a>, but over time he simply called for revolution without mentioning class struggle.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-123">[123]</a> In 1914, Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from <a href="/wiki/Italian_Ansaldo_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Ansaldo company">Ansaldo</a> (an armaments firm) and other companies to create his newspaper, <a href="/wiki/Il_Popolo_d%27Italia" title="Il Popolo d'Italia">Il Popolo d'Italia</a>, which at first attempted to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied Powers</a>, eager to draw Italy to the war, helped finance the newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Later, after the war, this publication would become the official newspaper of the Fascist movement. During the war, Mussolini served in the Army and was wounded once.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Following the end of the war and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> in 1919, Mussolini created the <a href="/wiki/Fasci_di_Combattimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasci di Combattimento">Fasci di Combattimento</a> or Combat League. It was originally dominated by patriotic socialist and <a href="/wiki/Syndicalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Syndicalist">syndicalist</a> veterans who opposed the pacifist policies of the Italian Socialist Party. This early Fascist movement had a platform more inclined to the left, promising social revolution, proportional representation in elections, women's suffrage (partly realized in 1925) and dividing rural private property held by estates.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> They also differed from later Fascism by opposing <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_1997,_pp._284-129">[129]</a> Mussolini claimed that "we are libertarians above all, loving liberty for everyone, even for our enemies" and said that freedom of thought and speech were among the "highest expressions of human civilization."<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> On 15 April 1919, the Fascists made their debut in political violence when a group of members from the Fasci di Combattimento attacked the offices of Avanti!. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biennio_rosso_settembre_1920_Milano_operai_armati_occupano_le_fabbriche.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/Biennio_rosso_settembre_1920_Milano_operai_armati_occupano_le_fabbriche.jpg/220px-Biennio_rosso_settembre_1920_Milano_operai_armati_occupano_le_fabbriche.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/Biennio_rosso_settembre_1920_Milano_operai_armati_occupano_le_fabbriche.jpg/330px-Biennio_rosso_settembre_1920_Milano_operai_armati_occupano_le_fabbriche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/Biennio_rosso_settembre_1920_Milano_operai_armati_occupano_le_fabbriche.jpg/440px-Biennio_rosso_settembre_1920_Milano_operai_armati_occupano_le_fabbriche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1460" data-file-height="1304" /></a><figcaption>Armed workers occupying factories in Milan, September 1920, during the <a href="/wiki/Biennio_Rosso" title="Biennio Rosso">Biennio Rosso</a></figcaption></figure> At the same time, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Biennio_Rosso" title="Biennio Rosso">Biennio Rosso</a> (red biennium) took place in the two years following the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">first world war</a> in a context of economic crisis, high unemployment and political instability. The 1919–20 period was characterized by mass strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land and factory occupations. In <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Workers_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Workers councils">workers councils</a> were formed and many <a href="/wiki/Factory_occupations" class="mw-redirect" title="Factory occupations">factory occupations</a> took place under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-syndicalist">anarcho-syndicalists</a>. The agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the <a href="/wiki/Padan_plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Padan plain">Padan plain</a> and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922_%282%29.jpg/220px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922_%282%29.jpg/330px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922_%282%29.jpg/440px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1344" data-file-height="878" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> (second from left) and his Fascist <a href="/wiki/Blackshirts" title="Blackshirts">Blackshirts</a> in 1920</figcaption></figure> On 15 April 1919, the Fascists made their debut in political violence when a group of members from the Fasci di Combattimento attacked the offices of Avanti!. But they found little public support, and in the <a href="/wiki/1919_Italian_general_election" title="1919 Italian general election">elections of November 1919</a>, the Fascists suffered a heavy defeat, accompanied by a rapid loss of membership.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_1997,_pp._284-129">[129]</a> In response, Mussolini moved the organization away from the left and turned the revolutionary movement into an electoral movement in 1921 named the Partito Nazionale Fascista (<a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a>). The party echoed the nationalist themes of D'Annunzio and rejected parliamentary democracy while still operating within it in order to destroy it. Mussolini changed his original revolutionary policies, such as moving away from anti-clericalism to supporting the Roman Catholic Church and abandoned his public opposition to the monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_2-131">[131]</a> Support for the Fascists began to grow in 1921, and pro-Fascist army officers began taking arms and vehicles from the army to use in counter-revolutionary attacks on socialists.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> In 1920, Giolitti came back as prime minister in an attempt to solve the deadlock. One year later, Giolitti's government had become unstable, and a growing socialist opposition further endangered his government. Giolitti believed that the Fascists could be toned down and used to protect the state from the socialists. He decided to include Fascists on his electoral list for the 1921 elections.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_2-131">[131]</a> In the elections, the Fascists did not make large gains. Still, Giolitti's government failed to gather a large enough coalition to govern and offered the Fascists placements in his government. The Fascists rejected Giolitti's offers, forcing him to resign as his coalition no longer had enough support in parliament.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Many descendants of those who had served Garibaldi's revolutionaries during unification were won over to Mussolini's nationalist revolutionary ideals.<a href="#cite_note-:0-134">[134]</a> His advocacy of <a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">corporatism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">futurism</a> had attracted advocates of the "third way",<a href="#cite_note-:0-134">[134]</a> but most importantly, he had won over politicians like Facta and Giolitti. He did not condemn him for his Blackshirts' mistreatment of socialists.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="March_on_Rome_and_the_Fascist_government">March on Rome and the Fascist government</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: March on Rome and the Fascist government">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg/220px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg/330px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg/440px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> during the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a> in 1922</figcaption></figure> In October 1922, Mussolini took advantage of a general strike by workers and announced his demands to the government to give the Fascist Party political power or face a coup. With no immediate response, a small number of Fascists began a long trek across Italy to Rome, which was known as the "<a href="/wiki/March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a>", claiming to Italians that Fascists intended to restore law and order. Mussolini himself did not participate until the very end of the march, with D'Annunzio being hailed as the leader of the march until it was learned that he had been pushed out of a window and severely wounded in a failed <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassination</a> attempt, depriving him of the possibility of leading an actual coup d'état orchestrated by an organization founded by himself. Under the leadership of Mussolini, the Fascists demanded Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Facta" title="Luigi Facta">Luigi Facta</a>'s resignation and that Mussolini be named prime minister. Although the Italian Army was far better armed than the Fascist paramilitaries, the Italian government under King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel III of Italy">Vittorio Emmanuele III</a> faced a political crisis. The King was forced to decide which of the two rival movements in Italy would form the new government: Mussolini's Fascists or the anti-royalist <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a>, ultimately deciding to endorse the Fascists.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg/150px-Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg/225px-Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg/300px-Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Socialist leader <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti" title="Giacomo Matteotti">Giacomo Matteotti</a> was murdered a few days after he openly denounced Fascist violence during the 1924 elections</figcaption></figure> Upon taking power, Mussolini formed a coalition with nationalists and liberals. In 1923, Mussolini's coalition passed the electoral <a href="/wiki/Acerbo_Law" title="Acerbo Law">Acerbo Law</a>, which assigned two thirds of the seats to the party that achieved at least 25% of the vote. The Fascist Party used violence and intimidation to achieve the threshold in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_general_election,_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian general election, 1924">1924 election</a>, thus obtaining control of Parliament. Socialist deputy <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti" title="Giacomo Matteotti">Giacomo Matteotti</a> was assassinated after calling for a nullification of the vote because of the irregularities. The parliament opposition, mainly comprising the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party" title="Italian Liberal Party">Italian Liberal Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_People%27s_Party_(1919)" title="Italian People's Party (1919)">Italian People's Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party" title="Italian Communist Party">Italian Communist Party</a>, responded to Matteotti's assassination with the <a href="/wiki/Aventine_Secession_(20th_century)" title="Aventine Secession (20th century)">Aventine Secession</a>, or with the withdrawal of parliamentarians from the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Kingdom_of_Italy)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Kingdom of Italy)">Chamber of Deputies</a> in 1924–25. The secession was named after the <a href="/wiki/First_secessio_plebis" title="First secessio plebis">Aventine Secession</a> in ancient Rome. This act of protest heralded the assumption of total power by <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> and his <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a> and the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a> <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorship</a> in Italy. It was unsuccessful in opposing the National Fascist Party, and after two years the Chamber of Deputies ruled that the 123 Aventine deputies had forfeited their positions. In the following years, many of the "Aventinian" deputies were forced into exile or imprisoned. Over the next four years, Mussolini eliminated nearly all checks and balances on his power. On 24 December 1925, he passed a law that declared he was responsible to the king alone, making him the sole person able to determine Parliament's agenda. Local governments were dissolved, and appointed officials (called "Podestà") replaced elected mayors and councils. In 1928, all political parties were banned, and parliamentary elections were replaced by plebiscites in which the Grand Council of Fascism nominated a single list of 400 candidates. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:268px;max-width:268px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Fasces_lictoriae.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Fasces_lictoriae.svg/80px-Fasces_lictoriae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Fasces_lictoriae.svg/120px-Fasces_lictoriae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Fasces_lictoriae.svg/160px-Fasces_lictoriae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="946" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Fasces" title="Fasces">fasces</a>, symbol of fascism</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1929-1943).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1943%29.svg/180px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1943%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1943%29.svg/270px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1943%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1943%29.svg/360px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1943%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1860" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Italy during fascism</div></div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan" title="Christopher Duggan">Christopher Duggan</a>, using private diaries and letters, and secret police files, argues that Mussolini enjoyed a strong, wide base of popular support among ordinary people across Italy. Mussolini elicited emotional responses unique in modern Italian history, and kept his popularity despite the military reverses after 1940. Duggan argues that his regime exploited Mussolini's appeal and forged a cult of personality that served as the model that was emulated by dictators of other fascist regimes of the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> In summary, historian <a href="/wiki/Stanley_G._Payne" title="Stanley G. Payne">Stanley G. Payne</a> says that Fascism in Italy was: <dl><dd>A primarily political dictatorship. The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy. ... The Fascist militia was placed under military control. The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders, nor was a major new police elite created. There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience. Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed. The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italianization_of_the_non-Italian_population">Italianization of the non-Italian population</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Italianization of the non-Italian population">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dialetti_Italia_1939.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Dialetti_Italia_1939.png/220px-Dialetti_Italia_1939.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Dialetti_Italia_1939.png/330px-Dialetti_Italia_1939.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Dialetti_Italia_1939.png/440px-Dialetti_Italia_1939.png 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Italian languages</a> before 1939 according to Clemente Merlo and Carlo Tagliavini. The solid black line is the pre-war political border (1939)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Incendio_dell%27Hotel_Balkan.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Incendio_dell%27Hotel_Balkan.jpeg/220px-Incendio_dell%27Hotel_Balkan.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Incendio_dell%27Hotel_Balkan.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="238" /></a><figcaption>Burning of <a href="/wiki/Narodni_dom" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodni dom">Narodni dom</a></figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a> there was a forced policy of <a href="/wiki/Italianization" title="Italianization">Italianization</a> of the Slav population in the 1920s and 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> In addition, there were acts of fascist violence not hampered by the authorities, such as the torching of the <a href="/wiki/Narodni_dom" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodni dom">Narodni dom</a> (National House) in Pola and Trieste carried out at night by Fascists with the connivance of the police (13 July 1920). The situation deteriorated further after <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> came to power (1922). In March 1923 the prefect of the Julian March prohibited the use of Croatian and Slovene in the administration, whilst their use in law courts was forbidden by Royal decree on 15 October 1925. The activities of Croatian and Slovenian societies and associations (Sokol, reading rooms, etc.) had already been forbidden during the occupation, but specifically so later with the Law on Associations (1925), the Law on Public Demonstrations (1926) and the Law on Public Order (1926). All Slovenian and Croatian societies and sporting and cultural associations had to cease every activity in line with a decision of provincial fascist secretaries dated 12 June 1927. On a specific order from the prefect of Trieste on 19 November 1928 the Edinost political society was also dissolved. Croatian and Slovenian co-operatives in Istria, which at first were absorbed by the Pula or Trieste Savings Banks, were gradually liquidated.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> At the same time, the Kingdom of Jugoslavia attempted a policy of forced <a href="/wiki/Croatisation" title="Croatisation">Croatisation</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Italian minority in Dalmatia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The majority of the Italian Dalmatian minority decided to transfer in the Kingdom of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Governatorate_of_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Governatorate of Dalmatia">Italian annexation of Dalmatia in World War II</a>, it was caught in the ethnic violence towards non-Italians during fascist repression. What remained of the Italian community in Dalmatia fled the area after World War II during the <a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a>:<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> from 1947, after the war, Dalmatian Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation,<a href="#cite_note-books.google.fr-145">[145]</a> which gave them little option other than emigration.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> In 1919, at the time of its annexation, <a href="/wiki/South_Tyrol" title="South Tyrol">South Tyrol</a> was inhabited by almost 90% <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> speakers.<a href="#cite_note-Provincial_Statistics_Institute_of_the_Autonomous_Province_of_South_Tyrol-149">[149]</a> In October 1923, the use of the Italian language became mandatory (although not exclusive) on all levels of federal, provincial and local government.<a href="#cite_note-Steininger,_23-24-150">[150]</a> Regulations by the fascist authorities required that all kinds of signs and public notices be in Italian only. Maps, postcards and other graphic material had to show Italian place names.<a href="#cite_note-Steininger,_23-24-150">[150]</a> In September 1925, Italian became the sole permissible language in courts of law.<a href="#cite_note-Steininger,_23-24-150">[150]</a> The government created incentives to encourage immigration of native Italians to South Tyrol. Under the 1939 <a href="/wiki/South_Tyrol_Option_Agreement" title="South Tyrol Option Agreement">South Tyrol Option Agreement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and Benito Mussolini determined the status of the <a href="/wiki/German_people" class="mw-redirect" title="German people">German people</a> living in the province. They either had to opt for emigration to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> or stay in Italy and become fully Italianized. Because of the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, this agreement was never fully implemented and most ethnic Germans remained or returned at the end of the war. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_Roman_question">End of the Roman question</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: End of the Roman question">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg/220px-Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg/330px-Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg/440px-Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>Vatican and Italian delegations prior to signing the <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a> was one component of the Lateran Pacts of 1929, agreements between the Kingdom of Italy under King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel III of Italy">Victor Emmanuel III of Italy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> under <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pope Pius XI</a> to settle the long-standing <a href="/wiki/Roman_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Question">Roman Question</a>. The treaty and associated pacts were named after the <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Palace" title="Lateran Palace">Lateran Palace</a> where they were signed on 11 February 1929,<a href="#cite_note-SignDate-151">[151]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy">Italian parliament</a> ratified them on 7 June 1929. The treaty recognized <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Independent_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent state">independent state</a> under the sovereignty of the Holy See. The Italian government also agreed to give the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> financial compensation for the loss of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> In 1948, the Lateran Treaty was recognized in the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution of Italy</a> as regulating the relations between the state and the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-constitution7-153">[153]</a> The treaty was significantly revised in 1984, ending the status of Catholicism as the sole state religion. During the <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">unification of Italy</a> in the mid-19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> resisted incorporation into the new nation, even as all the other Italian countries, except for <a href="/wiki/San_Marino" title="San Marino">San Marino</a>, joined it; <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Cavour</a>'s dream of proclaiming the Kingdom of Italy from the steps of <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a> did not come to pass. The nascent Kingdom of Italy invaded and occupied <a href="/wiki/Romagna" title="Romagna">Romagna</a> (the eastern portion of the Papal States) in 1860, leaving only <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Latium</a> in the pope's domains. Latium, including Rome itself, was <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">occupied</a> and annexed in 1870. For the following sixty years, relations between the Papacy and the Italian government were hostile, and the status of the pope became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Roman_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Question">Roman Question</a>". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_welfare">Social welfare</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Social welfare">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gitaalittoria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Gitaalittoria.jpg/220px-Gitaalittoria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Gitaalittoria.jpg/330px-Gitaalittoria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Gitaalittoria.jpg/440px-Gitaalittoria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1839" data-file-height="1353" /></a><figcaption>Group of the <a href="/wiki/Opera_Nazionale_Dopolavoro" title="Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro">Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro</a> (OND) visiting <a href="/wiki/Littoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Littoria">Littoria</a> in 1933</figcaption></figure> A major success in social policy in Fascist Italy was the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Opera_Nazionale_Dopolavoro" title="Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro">Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro</a> (OND) or "National After-work Program" in 1925. The OND was the state's largest recreational organizations for adults.<a href="#cite_note-Pauley_3-154">[154]</a> The Dopolavoro was so popular that by the 1930s all towns in Italy had a Dopolavoro clubhouse and the Dopolavoro was responsible for establishing and maintaining 11,000 sports grounds, over 6,400 libraries, 800 movie houses, 1,200 theaters and over 2,000 orchestras.<a href="#cite_note-Pauley_3-154">[154]</a> Membership was voluntary and nonpolitical. In the 1930s, under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Achille_Starace" title="Achille Starace">Achille Starace</a>, the OND became primarily recreational, concentrating on sports and other outings. It is estimated that by 1936 the OND had organized 80% of salaried workers.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Nearly 40% of the industrial workforce had been recruited into the Dopolavoro by 1939 and the sports activities proved popular with large numbers of workers. The OND had the largest membership of any of the mass Fascist organizations in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The enormous success of the Dopolavoro in Fascist Italy prompted Nazi Germany to create its own version of the Dopolavoro, the <a href="/wiki/Kraft_durch_Freude" class="mw-redirect" title="Kraft durch Freude">Kraft durch Freude</a> (KdF) or "Strength through Joy" program, which was even more successful than the Dopolavoro.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Another organization the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) was widely popular and provided young people with access to clubs, dances, sports facilities, radios, concerts, plays, circuses and outdoor hikes at little or no cost. It sponsored tournaments and sports festivals.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Between 1928 and 1930 the government introduced <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pensions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">sick pay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Annual_leave" title="Annual leave">paid holidays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Farrell-159">[159]</a> In 1933, the government established <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">unemployment benefits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Farrell-159">[159]</a> At the end of the 1930s, 13 million Italians were enrolled in the state <a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">health insurance</a> scheme and by 1939 social security expenditure accounted for 21 per cent of government spending.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> In 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">40-hour working week</a> was introduced and workers were expected to spend Saturday afternoons engaged in sporting, paramilitary and political activities.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-Koon-162">[162]</a> This was called <a href="/wiki/Sabato_fascista" title="Sabato fascista">Sabato fascista</a> ("Fascist Saturday") and was aimed mainly at the young; exceptions were granted in special cases but not for those under 21.<a href="#cite_note-Koon-162">[162]</a> According to Tracy H. Koon, this scheme failed as most Italians preferred to spend Saturday as a day of rest.<a href="#cite_note-Koon-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Police_state">Police state</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Police state">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09843,_Mussolini_in_Mailand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09843%2C_Mussolini_in_Mailand.jpg/200px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09843%2C_Mussolini_in_Mailand.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09843%2C_Mussolini_in_Mailand.jpg/300px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09843%2C_Mussolini_in_Mailand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09843%2C_Mussolini_in_Mailand.jpg/400px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09843%2C_Mussolini_in_Mailand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Mussolini in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, 1930</figcaption></figure> For security of the regime, Mussolini advocated complete state authority and created the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale ("National Security Volunteer Militia") in 1923, which are commonly referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Blackshirts" title="Blackshirts">Blackshirts</a>" for the color of their uniforms. Most of the Blackshirts were members from the <a href="/wiki/Fasci_di_Combattimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasci di Combattimento">Fasci di Combattimento</a>. A secret police force called the Organizzazione di Vigilanza Repressione dell'Antifascismo ("Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism") or <a href="/wiki/OVRA" title="OVRA">OVRA</a> was created in 1927. It was led by <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Bocchini" title="Arturo Bocchini">Arturo Bocchini</a> to crack down on opponents of the regime and Mussolini (there had been several near-miss assassination attempts on Mussolini's life in his early years in power). Although the OVRA were responsible for far fewer deaths than the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a> (SS) in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> or the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, they were nevertheless highly effective in terrorizing political opponents. One of their most notorious methods of torture involved physically forcing opponents of Fascism to swallow <a href="/wiki/Castor_oil" title="Castor oil">castor oil</a>, which would cause severe diarrhea and dehydration, leaving the victim in a physically debilitated state that occasionally resulted in death.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> To combat <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime_in_Italy" title="Organized crime in Italy">Italian organized crime</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Cosa_Nostra" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosa Nostra">Cosa Nostra</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicilia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/%27Ndrangheta" title="'Ndrangheta">'Ndrangheta</a> in Calabria, the Fascist government gave special powers in 1925 to <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Mori" title="Cesare Mori">Cesare Mori</a>, the prefect of <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> These powers gave him the ability to prosecute <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Mafia" title="Sicilian Mafia">the Mafia</a>, forcing many Mafiosi to flee abroad (many to the United States) or risk being jailed.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> However, Mori was fired when he began to investigate Mafia links within the Fascist regime and was removed from his position in 1929, when the Fascist regime declared that the threat of the Mafia had been eliminated. Mori's actions weakened the Mafia, but did not destroy them. From 1929 to 1943 the Fascist regime completely abandoned its previously aggressive measures against the Mafia, and the Mafiosi were left relatively undisturbed.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_politics">Foreign politics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Foreign politics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg/220px-RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg/330px-RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg/440px-RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="824" /></a><figcaption>Italian ethnic regions claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a> in the 1930s: * Green: <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Nice" title="Italian irredentism in Nice">Nice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Switzerland" title="Italian irredentism in Switzerland">Ticino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Dalmatia" title="Italian irredentism in Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> * Red: <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Malta" title="Italian irredentism in Malta">Malta</a> * Violet: <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Corsica" title="Italian irredentism in Corsica">Corsica</a> * <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Savoy" title="Italian irredentism in Savoy">Savoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corfiot_Italians#Corfiot_Italians_and_the_Risorgimento" title="Corfiot Italians">Corfu</a> were later claimed</figcaption></figure> Lee identifies three major themes in Mussolini's foreign-policy. The first was a continuation of the foreign-policy objectives of the preceding Liberal regime. Liberal Italy had allied itself with Germany and Austria, and had great ambitions in the Balkans and North Africa. Ever since it had been badly defeated in Ethiopia in 1896, there was a strong demand for seizing that country. Second was a profound disillusionment after the heavy losses of the First World War. The small territorial gains from Austria were not enough to compensate for the war's terrible costs; other countries especially Poland and Yugoslavia received much more and Italy felt cheated. Third was Mussolini's promise to restore the pride and glory of the old <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Italian Fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a> by incorporating <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italia Irredenta</a> (unredeemed Italy) into the state of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1922-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-172">[172]</a> To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Dalmatia" title="Italian irredentism in Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized <a href="/wiki/South_Slavs" title="South Slavs">South Slavic</a> descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries, similarly to <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Istria" title="Italian irredentism in Istria">Istria</a>, via the Roman Empire and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> To the south of Italy, the Fascists claimed <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Malta" title="Italian irredentism in Malta">Malta</a>, which belonged to the United Kingdom, and <a href="/wiki/Corfiot_Italians#Corfiot_Italians_and_the_Risorgimento" title="Corfiot Italians">Corfu</a>, which instead belonged to Greece, to the north claimed <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Switzerland" title="Italian irredentism in Switzerland">Italian Switzerland</a>, while to the west claimed <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Corsica" title="Italian irredentism in Corsica">Corsica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Nice" title="Italian irredentism in Nice">Nice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Savoy" title="Italian irredentism in Savoy">Savoy</a>, which belonged to France.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the island's italianità.<a href="#cite_note-Davide_Rodogno_2006._P._88-177">[177]</a> The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds.<a href="#cite_note-Davide_Rodogno_2006._P._88-177">[177]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_aims_Europe_1936.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Italy_aims_Europe_1936.png/220px-Italy_aims_Europe_1936.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Italy_aims_Europe_1936.png/330px-Italy_aims_Europe_1936.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Italy_aims_Europe_1936.png/440px-Italy_aims_Europe_1936.png 2x" data-file-width="1090" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Ambitions of fascist Italy in Europe in 1936. Legend:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Metropolitan Italy and dependent territories;</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">Client states</a>;</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Claimed territories to be annexed;</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Territories to be transformed into client states.</div> <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, which was a client state, was considered a territory to be annexed.</figcaption></figure> Mussolini promised to bring Italy back as a <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> in Europe, building a "New Roman Empire" and holding power over the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Fascist_Italy" title="Propaganda in Fascist Italy">propaganda</a>, Fascists used the ancient Roman motto "<a href="/wiki/Mare_Nostrum" title="Mare Nostrum">Mare Nostrum</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "Our Sea") to describe the Mediterranean. For this reason the Fascist regime engaged in <a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">interventionist foreign policy</a> in Europe. In 1923, the Greek island of <a href="/wiki/Corfiot_Italians#Corfiot_Italians_and_the_Risorgimento" title="Corfiot Italians">Corfu</a> was briefly occupied by Italy, after the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Tellini" title="Enrico Tellini">General Tellini</a> in Greek territory. In 1925, <a href="/wiki/Albanian_Republic_(1925%E2%80%931928)" title="Albanian Republic (1925–1928)">Albania</a> came under heavy Italian influence as a result of the <a href="/wiki/First_and_Second_Treaties_of_Tirana" class="mw-redirect" title="First and Second Treaties of Tirana">Tirana Treaties</a>, which also gave Italy a stronger position in the Balkans.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Relations with France were mixed. The Fascist regime planned to regain Italian-populated areas of France.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_3-179">[179]</a> With the rise of Nazism, it became more concerned of the potential threat of Germany to Italy. Due to concerns of German expansionism, Italy joined the <a href="/wiki/Stresa_Front" title="Stresa Front">Stresa Front</a> with France and the United Kingdom, which existed from 1935 to 1936. The Fascist regime held negative relations with Yugoslavia, as it continued to claim Dalmatia. During the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> between the socialist <a href="/wiki/Republican_faction_(Spanish_Civil_War)" title="Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)">Republicans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_faction_(Spanish_Civil_War)" title="Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)">Nationalists</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, Italy sent arms and over 60,000 troops to aid the Nationalist faction. This secured Italy's naval access to Spanish ports and increased Italian influence in the Mediterranean. The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Navy" title="Italian Navy">Italian Navy</a> committed 91 warships and submarines and sank 72,800 tons of Republican and neutral shipping. In addition, the Nationalist <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">Spanish Navy</a> sank 48 Republican and 44 foreign merchant ships, for a total of 240,000 tons, and captured 202 Republican and 23 foreign merchant ships, for a total of 330,000 tons.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> During all the 1930s, Italy strongly pursued a policy of naval rearmament; by 1940, the <a href="/wiki/Regia_Marina" title="Regia Marina">Regia Marina</a> was the fourth largest navy in the world. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173,_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen,_Staatschefs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, and Italian Foreign Minister Count Ciano, as they prepared to sign the Munich Agreement" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Staatschefs.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Staatschefs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Staatschefs.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Staatschefs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Staatschefs.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Staatschefs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="548" /></a><figcaption>From left to right, Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini and Italian Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Count_Ciano" class="mw-redirect" title="Count Ciano">Count Ciano</a> at the signing of <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a>.</figcaption></figure> Mussolini and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> first met in June 1934, as the issue of Austrian independence was in crisis. Mussolini sought to ensure that Nazi Germany would not become hegemonic in Europe. To do this, he opposed German plans to annex Austria after the assassination of Austrian Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Engelbert_Dollfuss" title="Engelbert Dollfuss">Engelbert Dollfuss</a>, and promised the Austrians military support if Germany were to interfere. Public appearances and propaganda constantly portrayed the closeness of Mussolini and Hitler and the similarities between Italian Fascism and German <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">National Socialism</a>. While both ideologies had significant similarities, the two factions were suspicious of each other, and both leaders were in competition for world influence. In 1935 Mussolini decided to invade <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopia</a>; 2,313 Italians and 275,000 Ethiopians died.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a> resulted in the international isolation of Italy, as France and Britain quickly abandoned their trust of Mussolini. The only nation to back Italy's aggression was Nazi Germany. After being condemned by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, Italy decided to leave the League on 11 December 1937 and Mussolini denounced the League as a mere "tottering temple".<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> At this point, Mussolini had little choice but to join Hitler in international politics, thus he reluctantly abandoned its support of Austrian independence. Hitler proceeded with the <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a>, the annexation of Austria, in 1938. Mussolini later supported German claims on <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a>, a province of <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> inhabited mostly by <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Munich Conference">Munich Conference</a>. In 1938, under influence of Hitler, Mussolini supported the adoption of anti-semitic <a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_Race" title="Manifesto of Race">racial laws</a> in Italy. After Germany annexed <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> in March 1939, Mussolini decided to occupy <a href="/wiki/Albanian_Kingdom_(1928%E2%80%931939)" title="Albanian Kingdom (1928–1939)">Albania</a> to because he feared being seen as a second-rate member of the Axis. On 7 April 1939, <a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italy invaded Albania</a> and made it an <a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Italian protectorate</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hitler_and_Mussolini_June_1940.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hitler_and_Mussolini_June_1940.jpg/220px-Hitler_and_Mussolini_June_1940.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hitler_and_Mussolini_June_1940.jpg/330px-Hitler_and_Mussolini_June_1940.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hitler_and_Mussolini_June_1940.jpg/440px-Hitler_and_Mussolini_June_1940.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="2062" /></a><figcaption>Mussolini and Hitler in June 1940.</figcaption></figure> As war approached in 1939, the Fascist regime stepped up an aggressive press campaign against France claiming that Italian people were suffering in France.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> This was important to the alliance as both regimes mutually had claims on France, Germany on German-populated <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> and Italy on the mixed Italian and French populated <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>. In May 1939, a formal alliance with Germany was signed, known as the <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Steel" title="Pact of Steel">Pact of Steel</a>. Mussolini felt obliged to sign the pact in spite of his own concerns that Italy could not fight a war in the near future. This obligation grew from his promises to Italians that he would build an empire for them and from his personal desire to not allow Hitler to become the dominant leader in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> Mussolini was repulsed by the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> agreement where Germany and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> agreed to partition the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a> into German and Soviet zones for an impending invasion. The Fascist government saw this as a betrayal of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a>, but decided to remain officially silent.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_Laws">Racial Laws</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Racial Laws">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_racial_laws" title="Italian racial laws">Italian racial laws</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corriere_testata_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Corriere_testata_1938.jpg/310px-Corriere_testata_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Corriere_testata_1938.jpg/465px-Corriere_testata_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Corriere_testata_1938.jpg/620px-Corriere_testata_1938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4518" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Front page of the Italian newspaper <a href="/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera" title="Corriere della Sera">Corriere della Sera</a> on 11 November 1938: "Le leggi per la difesa della razza approvate dal Consiglio dei ministri" (English: "The laws for the defense of race approved by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament_(1928%E2%80%931939)" title="Italian Parliament (1928–1939)">Council of Ministers</a>").</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Italian_racial_laws" title="Italian racial laws">Italian racial laws</a>, otherwise referred to as the Racial Laws, were a series of laws which were promulgated by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament_(1928%E2%80%931939)" title="Italian Parliament (1928–1939)">Council of Ministers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy</a> (1922–1943) from 1938 to 1943 in order to enforce <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a> in the Kingdom of Italy. The main victims of the Racial Laws were <a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italian Jews</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Africa">native African inhabitants</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian colonial empire</a> (1923–1947).<a href="#cite_note-Shinn_2019-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gentile_2004-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-Negash_1997-188">[188]</a> In the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy#Events_of_24–25_July_1943" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Mussolini's fall from power</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Badoglio_I_Cabinet" class="mw-redirect" title="Badoglio I Cabinet">Badoglio government</a> suppressed the Racial Laws in the Kingdom of Italy. They remained enforced and were made more severe in the territories ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> (1943–1945) until the <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">end of the Second World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gentile_2004-187">[187]</a> The first and most important of the Racial Laws (Leggi Razziali) was the Regio Decreto 17 Novembre 1938, Nr. 1728. It restricted the civil rights of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italian Jews</a>, banned books written by Jewish authors, and excluded Jews from public offices and higher education.<a href="#cite_note-Shinn_2019-186">[186]</a> Additional laws stripped Jews of their assets, restricted travel, and finally, provided for their confinement in internal exile, as was done for <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoners" class="mw-redirect" title="Political prisoners">political prisoners</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shinn_2019-186">[186]</a> In recognition of both their past and future contributions and for their service as subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a>, Rome passed a decree in 1937 distinguishing the <a href="/wiki/Eritreans" title="Eritreans">Eritreans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopians" title="Ethiopians">Ethiopians</a> from other subjects of the newly-founded colonial empire.<a href="#cite_note-Shinn_2019-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Negash_1997-188">[188]</a> In the Kingdom of Italy, Eritreans and Ethiopians were to be addressed as "<a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Africa">Africans</a>" and not as natives, as was the case with the other African peoples subjected to the colonial rule of the Italian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Negash_1997-188">[188]</a> The promulgation of the Racial Laws was preceded by a long press campaign and publication of the "<a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_Race" title="Manifesto of Race">Manifesto of Race</a>" earlier in 1938, a purportedly-scientific report signed by scientists and supporters of the <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a> (PNF); among the 180 signers of the "Manifesto of Race" were two medical doctors (S. Visco and N. Fende), an anthropologist (L. Cipriani), a zoologist (<a href="/wiki/Edoardo_Zavattari" title="Edoardo Zavattari">E. Zavattari</a>), and a statistician (F. Savorgnan).<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> The "Manifesto of Race", published in July 1938, declared the <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> to be descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shinn_2019-186">[186]</a> It targeted races that were seen as inferior (i.e. not of Aryan descent). In particular, Jews were banned from many professions.<a href="#cite_note-Shinn_2019-186">[186]</a> Under the Racial Laws, sexual relations and marriages between Italians, Jews, and Africans were forbidden.<a href="#cite_note-Shinn_2019-186">[186]</a> Jews were banned from positions in banking, government, and education, as well as having their properties confiscated.<a href="#cite_note-Morgan2003-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rodogno2006-191">[191]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Difesa_della_Razza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Difesa_della_Razza.jpg/250px-Difesa_della_Razza.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Difesa_della_Razza.jpg/375px-Difesa_della_Razza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Difesa_della_Razza.jpg/500px-Difesa_della_Razza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Antisemitic cartoon published in the Fascist periodical La Difesa della Razza, after the promulgation of the Racial Laws (15 November 1938).</figcaption></figure> The final decision about the Racial Laws was made during the meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Gran_Consiglio_del_Fascismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gran Consiglio del Fascismo">Gran Consiglio del Fascismo</a>, which took place on the night between 6 and 7 of October 1938 in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Venezia" title="Palazzo Venezia">Palazzo Venezia</a>. Not all Italian Fascists supported discrimination: while the pro-German, anti-Jewish <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Farinacci" title="Roberto Farinacci">Roberto Farinacci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Preziosi" title="Giovanni Preziosi">Giovanni Preziosi</a> strongly pushed for them, <a href="/wiki/Italo_Balbo" title="Italo Balbo">Italo Balbo</a> strongly opposed the Racial Laws. The Racial Laws prohibited Jews from most professional positions as well as prohibited sexual relations and marriages between Italians, Jews, and Africans.<a href="#cite_note-Morgan2003-190">[190]</a> The press in Fascist Italy highly publicized the "Manifesto of Race", which included a mixture of biological racism and history; it declared that Italians belonged to the Aryan race, Jews were not Italians, and that it was necessary to distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Europeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Europeans">Europeans</a> and non-Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> While some scholars argue that this was an attempt by Mussolini to curry favour with <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, who increasingly became an ally of Mussolini in the late 1930s and is speculated to have pressured him to increase the racial discrimination and persecution of Jews in the Kingdom of Italy,<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> others have argued that it reflected sentiments long entrenched not just in Fascist political philosophy but also in the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Post-Tridentine" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Tridentine">post-Tridentine</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, which remained a powerful cultural force in Mussolini's Fascist regime,<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> representing a uniquely Italian flavour of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> in which Jews were seen as an obstacle to the Fascist transformation of Italian society due to being bound to what Mussolini saw as decadent <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Leading members of the <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a> (PNF), such as <a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Dino Grandi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italo_Balbo" title="Italo Balbo">Italo Balbo</a>, reportedly opposed the Racial Laws,<a href="#cite_note-gunther1940-197">[197]</a> and the laws were unpopular with most Italian citizens. Balbo, in particular, regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with fascism and staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1999-198">[198]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Jews were a small minority in Italy and had integrated deeply into Italian society and culture over the course of several centuries</a>. Most Jews in Italy were either descendants of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italian Jews</a> that practiced the <a href="/wiki/Italian_rite_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian rite Jews">Italian rite</a> and had been living in the Italian Peninsula since <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Roman times</a>; <a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Western Sephardic Jews</a> who had migrated to Italy from the Iberian Peninsula after the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> and promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Alhambra Decree</a> in the 1490s; and a smaller portion of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jewish</a> communities that settled in Northern Italy during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, which had largely assimilated into the established Italian-rite Jewish and Sephardic communities. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years_of_World_War_II">Early years of World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Early years of World War II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Military history of Italy during World War II</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:403px;max-width:403px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ProgettoImperoItaliano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/ProgettoImperoItaliano.jpg/185px-ProgettoImperoItaliano.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/ProgettoImperoItaliano.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="266" data-file-height="299" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map of Great Italy according to the 1940 fascist project in case Italy had won the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (the orange line delimits metropolitan Italy, the green line the borders of the enlarged <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a>)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Impero_italiano.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Impero_italiano.svg/210px-Impero_italiano.svg.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Impero_italiano.svg/315px-Impero_italiano.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Impero_italiano.svg/420px-Impero_italiano.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="501" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Italian Empire (red) before World War II. Pink areas were annexed/occupied for various periods between 1940 and 1943 (the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Concession_of_Tientsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Concession of Tientsin">Tientsin concession</a> in China is not shown).</div></div></div></div></div> When Germany <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invaded Poland</a> on 1 September 1939 beginning <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Mussolini publicly declared on 24 September 1939 that Italy had the choice of entering the war or to remain neutral which would cause the country to lose its national dignity. Nevertheless, despite his aggressive posture, Mussolini kept Italy out of the conflict for several months. Mussolini told his son-in-law Count Ciano that he was personally jealous of <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a>'s accomplishments and hoped that Hitler's prowess would be slowed down by the Allied counterattack.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_402-199">[199]</a> Mussolini went so far as to lessen Germany's successes in Europe by giving advanced notice to <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> of an imminent German invasion, of which Germany had informed Italy.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_402-199">[199]</a> In drawing out war plans, Mussolini and the Fascist regime decided that Italy would aim to annex large portions of Africa and the Middle East to be included in its colonial empire. Hesitance remained from the King and military commander <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a>, who warned Mussolini that Italy had too few <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">armoured vehicles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> available to be able to carry out a long-term war; Badoglio told Mussolini "It is suicide" for Italy to get involved in the <a href="/wiki/European_Theater_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="European Theater of World War II">European conflict</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Mussolini and the Fascist regime took the advice to a degree and waited as Germany invaded France before getting involved. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian_occupied_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Italian_occupied_France.jpg/220px-Italian_occupied_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Italian_occupied_France.jpg/330px-Italian_occupied_France.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Italian_occupied_France.jpg/440px-Italian_occupied_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="838" data-file-height="871" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_France" title="Italian occupation of France">Italian occupation of France</a></figcaption></figure> As France collapsed under the German <a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a>, Italy declared war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940, fulfilling its obligations of the Pact of Steel. Italy hoped to conquer <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, and the African colonies of <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> from the French, but this was quickly stopped when Germany signed an armistice with the French commander <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Petain" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe Petain">Philippe Petain</a> who established <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> which retained control over these territories. This decision by Nazi Germany angered Mussolini's Fascist regime.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> This initial zone of occupation annexed officially to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a><a href="#cite_note-GSWW311-202">[202]</a> was 832 square kilometres (321 sq mi) and contained 28,500 inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-GSWW311-202">[202]</a> The largest town contained within the initial Italian zone of occupation was <a href="/wiki/Menton" title="Menton">Menton</a>. The main city inside the "demilitarized zone" of 50 km (31 mi) from the former border with the Italian <a href="/wiki/Alpine_Wall" title="Alpine Wall">Alpine Wall</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> was <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> In November 1942, in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a>, the German occupation of most of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army" title="Royal Italian Army">Royal Italian Army</a> (Regio Esercito) expanded its occupation zone. Italian forces took control of <a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a> and all of <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a> up to the river <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a>, with the island of <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a> (claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentists</a>). Nice and Corsica were to be annexed to Italy (as had happened in 1940 with Menton), in order to fulfil the aspirations of Italian irredentists (including local groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Nice" title="Italian irredentism in Nice">Nicard Italians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Corsica" title="Italian irredentism in Corsica">Corsican Italians</a>).<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> But this was not completed because of the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Italian armistice</a> in September 1943 when the Germans took over the Italian occupation zones. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Montecuccoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Montecuccoli.jpg/220px-Montecuccoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Montecuccoli.jpg/330px-Montecuccoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Montecuccoli.jpg/440px-Montecuccoli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="406" /></a><figcaption>Cruiser <a href="/wiki/Italian_cruiser_Raimondo_Montecuccoli" title="Italian cruiser Raimondo Montecuccoli">Raimondo Montecuccoli</a></figcaption></figure> The one Italian strength that concerned the Allies was the Italian Royal Navy (<a href="/wiki/Regia_Marina" title="Regia Marina">Regia Marina</a>), the fourth-largest navy in the world at the time. In November 1940, the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> launched a surprise air attack on the Italian fleet at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taranto" title="Battle of Taranto">Taranto</a>, which crippled Italy's major warships. Although the Italian fleet did not inflict serious damage as was feared, it did keep significant <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">British Commonwealth</a> naval forces in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. This fleet needed to fight the Italian fleet to keep British Commonwealth forces in Egypt and the Middle East from being cut off from Britain. In 1941 on the Italian-controlled island of <a href="/wiki/Kastelorizo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kastelorizo">Kastelorizo</a>, off of the coast of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, Italian forces succeeded in repelling British and Australian forces attempting to occupy the island during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Abstention" title="Operation Abstention">Operation Abstention</a>. In December 1941, a covert attack by Italian forces took place in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, in which Italian divers attached explosives to British warships resulting in two British battleships being severely damaged. This was known as the <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Alexandria_(1941)" title="Raid on Alexandria (1941)">Raid on Alexandria</a>. In 1942, the Italian navy inflicted a serious blow to a British convoy fleet attempting to reach <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Harpoon_(1942)" title="Operation Harpoon (1942)">Operation Harpoon</a>, sinking multiple British vessels. Over time, the Allied navies inflicted serious damage on the Italian fleet and ruined Italy's advantage over Germany. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png/220px-Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png/330px-Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png/440px-Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="917" /></a><figcaption>The three occupation zones of Greece after its invasion by the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Italian</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  annexed by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>. The Italian zone was taken over by the Germans in September 1943.</figcaption></figure> Continuing indications of Italy's subordinate nature to Germany arose during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Greco-Italian War</a>; the British air force prevented the Italian invasion and allowed the Greeks to push the Italians back to Albania. Mussolini had intended the war with Greece to prove to Germany that Italy was no minor power in the alliance but a capable empire which could hold its weight. Mussolini boasted to his government that he would even resign from being Italian if anyone found fighting the Greeks to be difficult.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Hitler and the German government were frustrated with Italy's failing campaigns, but so was Mussolini. Mussolini, in private, angrily accused Italians on the battlefield of becoming "overcome with a crisis of artistic sentimentalism and throwing in the towel".<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> decided that the increased British intervention in the conflict represented a threat to Germany's rear, while German build-up in the Balkans accelerated after <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> joined the Axis on 1 March 1941. British ground forces began arriving in Greece the next day. This caused Hitler to come to the aid of his Axis ally. On 6 April, the Germans invaded northern Greece ("<a href="/wiki/Operation_Marita" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Marita">Operation Marita</a>"). The Greeks had deployed the vast majority of their men into a mutually costly stalemate with the Italians on the Albanian front, leaving the fortified <a href="/wiki/Metaxas_Line" title="Metaxas Line">Metaxas Line</a> with only a third of its authorized strength.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStockingsHancock201387-208">[208]</a> Greek and British forces in northern Greece were overwhelmed and the Germans advanced rapidly west and south. In Albania, the Greek army made a belated withdrawal to avoid being cut off by the Germans but was followed up slowly by the Italians. Greece surrendered to German troops on 20 April 1941 and to the Italians on 23 April 1941. Greece was <a href="/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece" title="Axis occupation of Greece">subsequently occupied</a> by Bulgarian, German and Italian troops. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Croatia-41-45.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Croatia-41-45.gif/220px-Croatia-41-45.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Croatia-41-45.gif/330px-Croatia-41-45.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Croatia-41-45.gif/440px-Croatia-41-45.gif 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption>Division of Yugoslavia after <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">its invasion by the Axis powers</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Areas annexed by Italy: the area constituting the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Ljubljana" title="Province of Ljubljana">province of Ljubljana</a>, the area merged with the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Fiume" title="Province of Fiume">province of Fiume</a> and the areas making up the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Dalmatia" title="Governorate of Dalmatia">Governorate of Dalmatia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Area occupied by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Areas occupied by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1920-1946)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1920-1946)">Kingdom of Hungary</a></div></figcaption></figure> To gain background in Greece, Germany reluctantly began a <a href="/wiki/Balkans_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkans Campaign (World War II)">Balkans Campaign</a> alongside Italy, which also resulted in the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Kingdom of Yugoslavia</a> in 1941 and the ceding of <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> to Italy, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Dalmatia" title="Governorate of Dalmatia">Governorate of Dalmatia</a>. Mussolini and Hitler compensated Croatian nationalists by endorsing the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a> under the extreme nationalist <a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Ustaše</a>. To receive the support of Italy, the Ustaše agreed to concede the main central portion of Dalmatia and various Adriatic Sea islands to Italy, as Dalmatia held a significant number of Italians. The Independent State of Croatia considered the ceding of the Adriatic Sea islands to be a minimal loss, as in exchange for those cessions, they were allowed to annex all of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, which led to the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_persecution_of_Serbs" class="mw-redirect" title="World War II persecution of Serbs">persecution of the Serb population</a> there. Officially, the Independent State of Croatia was a kingdom and an Italian protectorate, ruled by Italian <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a> member <a href="/wiki/Tomislav_II_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomislav II of Croatia">Tomislav II of Croatia</a>, but he never personally set foot on Croatian soil and the government was run by <a href="/wiki/Ante_Paveli%C4%87" title="Ante Pavelić">Ante Pavelić</a>, the leader of the Ustaše. However, Italy did hold <a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_zone_of_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian occupation zone of the Independent State of Croatia">military control across all of Croatia's coast</a>, which, combined with Italian control of Albania and Montenegro, gave Italy complete control of the Adriatic Sea, thus completing a key part of the <a href="/wiki/Mare_Nostrum" title="Mare Nostrum">Mare Nostrum</a> policy of the Fascists. The Ustaše movement proved valuable to Italy and Germany as a means to counter <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Army_in_the_Fatherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland">Royalist Chetnik guerrillas</a> (although they did work with them because they did not like the Ustaše movement, whom they left up to the Germans) and the communist <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslav Partisans</a> under <a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a> who opposed the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Yugoslavia">occupation of Yugoslavia</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italijanske_racije_v_Ljubljani_(4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Italijanske_racije_v_Ljubljani_%284%29.jpg/220px-Italijanske_racije_v_Ljubljani_%284%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Italijanske_racije_v_Ljubljani_%284%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>Italian mass arrests of civilians in Ljubljana in 1942, many of whom were sent to concentration camps or shot as hostages</figcaption></figure> Under Italian army commander <a href="/wiki/Mario_Roatta" title="Mario Roatta">Mario Roatta</a>'s watch, the violence against the <a href="/wiki/Slovenes" title="Slovenes">Slovene</a> civil population in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Ljubljana" title="Province of Ljubljana">Province of Ljubljana</a> easily matched that of the Germans<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary executions</a>, hostage-taking and hostage killing, reprisals, internments to <a href="/wiki/Rab_concentration_camp" title="Rab concentration camp">Rab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gonars_concentration_camp" title="Gonars concentration camp">Gonars concentration camps</a> and the burning of houses and whole villages. Roatta issued additional special instructions stating that the repression orders must be "carried out most energetically and without any false compassion".<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> According to historians <a href="/wiki/James_Walston" title="James Walston">James Walston</a><a href="#cite_note-Walston_Historical_Journal-211">[211]</a> and Carlo Spartaco Capogeco,<a href="#cite_note-Cresciani_ClashOfCivilisations_P7-212">[212]</a> the annual mortality rate in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_concentration_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian concentration camps">Italian concentration camps</a> was higher than the average mortality rate in Nazi concentration camp <a href="/wiki/Buchenwald" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchenwald">Buchenwald</a> (which was 15%), at least 18%. On 5 August 1943, Monsignor Joze Srebnic, Bishop of <a href="/wiki/Veglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Veglia">Veglia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Krk" title="Krk">Krk</a> island), reported to Pope <a href="/wiki/Pius_XII" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius XII">Pius XII</a> that "witnesses, who took part in the burials, state unequivocally that the number of the dead totals at least 3,500".<a href="#cite_note-Cresciani_ClashOfCivilisations_P7-212">[212]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslav Partisans</a> perpetrated their crimes against the local ethnic Italian population (<a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Dalmatian Italians</a>) during and after the war, including the <a href="/wiki/Foibe_massacres" title="Foibe massacres">foibe massacres</a>. After the war, <a href="/wiki/Federal_People%27s_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> requested the <a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">extradition</a> of 1,200 <a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war criminals</a> for trial, but they never saw anything like the Nuremberg trials because the British government with the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> saw in <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a> a guarantee of an <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist">anti-communist</a> post-war Italy.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> The repression of memory led to <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">historical revisionism</a> in Italy about the country's actions during the war. In 1963, the anthology "Notte sul'Europa", a photograph of an internee from <a href="/wiki/Rab_concentration_camp" title="Rab concentration camp">Rab concentration camp</a>, was included while claiming to be a photograph of an internee from a German Nazi camp when in fact, the internee was a <a href="/wiki/Slovenes" title="Slovenes">Slovene</a> Janez Mihelčič, born 1885 in Babna Gorica and died at Rab in 1943.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ritirata_ARMIR_1.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ritirata_ARMIR_1.jpeg/220px-Ritirata_ARMIR_1.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ritirata_ARMIR_1.jpeg/330px-Ritirata_ARMIR_1.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ritirata_ARMIR_1.jpeg/440px-Ritirata_ARMIR_1.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Army_in_Russia" title="Italian Army in Russia">Italian Army in Russia</a> fought on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>.</figcaption></figure> In July 1941, some 62,000 Italian troops of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Expeditionary_Corps_in_Russia" title="Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia">Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia</a> (Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Russia, CSIR) left for the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> to aid in the German invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>). In July 1942, the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) expanded the CSIR to a full army of about 200,000 men named the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Army_in_Russia" title="Italian Army in Russia">Italian Army in Russia</a> (Armata Italiana in Russia, ARMIR). ARMIR was also known as the 8th Army. From August 1942 to February 1943, the 8th Army took part in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a> and suffered many losses (some 20,000 dead and 64,000 captured) when the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviets</a> isolated the German forces in Stalingrad by attacking the over-stretched Hungarian, Romanian and Italian forces protecting the Germans' flanks. By the summer of 1943, Rome had withdrawn the remnants of the 8th Army to Italy. Many of the Italian <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">captured in the Soviet Union</a> died in captivity due to harsh conditions in Soviet prison camps. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AB_41_NAfrica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AB_41_NAfrica.jpg/200px-AB_41_NAfrica.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AB_41_NAfrica.jpg/300px-AB_41_NAfrica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AB_41_NAfrica.jpg/400px-AB_41_NAfrica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>An Italian <a href="/wiki/AB_41" class="mw-redirect" title="AB 41">AB 41</a> armored car in Egypt</figcaption></figure> In 1940, Italy invaded <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Egypt</a> and was soon driven far back into <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> by British Commonwealth forces.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> The German army sent a detachment to join the Italian army in Libya to defend the colony from the British advance. German-Italian army units in the <a href="/wiki/Panzerarmee_Afrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Panzerarmee Afrika">Panzerarmee Afrika</a> under General <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Rommel" title="Erwin Rommel">Erwin Rommel</a> push the British out of Libya and into central Egypt from 1941 to 1942.It is also noteworthy that Rommel was officially under Italian command since the campaign was controlled by the Italians.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> For a time in 1942, Italy, from an official standpoint, controlled large amounts of territory along the Mediterranean Sea. With the collapse of Vichy France, Italy gained control of <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, Nizza, Savoia and other portions of southwestern France. Italy also oversaw a military occupation over significant sections of southern France. Still, despite the official territorial achievements, the so-called "Italian Empire" was a <a href="/wiki/Paper_tiger" title="Paper tiger">paper tiger</a> by 1942: it was faltering as its economy failed to adapt to the conditions of war and the Allies bombing Italian cities. Also, despite Rommel's advances in 1941 and early 1942, the campaign in Northern Africa began to collapse in late 1942. The collapse came in 1943 when German and Italian forces fled Northern Africa to <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>. By 1943, Italy was failing on every front; by January of the year, half of the Italian forces serving on the Eastern Front had been destroyed,<a href="#cite_note-Smith_4-217">[217]</a> the African campaign had collapsed, the Balkans remained unstable and demoralised as Yugoslavian and Greek Partisan activities increased. Italians wanted an end to the war.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> King Victor Emmanuel III urged Count Ciano to overstep Mussolini to try to begin talks with the Allies.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_4-217">[217]</a> In mid-1943, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> commenced an <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">invasion of Sicily</a> to knock Italy out of the war and establish a foothold in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Allied troops landed in Sicily with little initial opposition from Italian forces. The situation changed as the Allies ran into German forces, who held out for some time before the Allies took over Sicily. The invasion made Mussolini dependent on the German Armed Forces (<a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a>) to protect his regime. The Allies steadily advanced through Italy with little opposition from demoralized Italian soldiers while facing serious opposition from German forces. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_Fascist_regime,_Civil_War_and_Liberation">Fall of Fascist regime, Civil War and Liberation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Fall of Fascist regime, Civil War and Liberation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Italian Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_South" title="Kingdom of the South">Kingdom of the South</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of Italy">Liberation of Italy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07,_Gran_Sasso,_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Mussolini rescued by German troops from his prison in <a href="/wiki/Campo_Imperatore" title="Campo Imperatore">Campo Imperatore</a> on 12 September 1943.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quattrogiornate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Quattrogiornate.jpg/220px-Quattrogiornate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Quattrogiornate.jpg/330px-Quattrogiornate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Quattrogiornate.jpg/440px-Quattrogiornate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="302" /></a><figcaption>Insurgents celebrating the liberation of Naples, after the <a href="/wiki/Four_days_of_Naples" class="mw-redirect" title="Four days of Naples">Four days of Naples</a> (27–30 September 1943)</figcaption></figure> By 1943, Mussolini had lost the support of the Italian population for having led a disastrous war effort. To the world, Mussolini was viewed as a "sawdust caesar" for leading his country to war with ill-equipped and poorly trained armed forces that failed in battle. The embarrassment of Mussolini to Italy led <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel III of Italy">King Victor Emmanuel III</a> and even members of the Fascist Party to desire <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Mussolini's removal</a>. The first stage of his ousting took place when the Fascist Party's Grand Council, under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Dino Grandi</a>, voted to ask Victor Emmanuel to resume his constitutional powers–in effect, a vote of no confidence in Mussolini. On 26 July 1943, Victor Emmanuel officially sacked Mussolini as prime minister and replaced him with Marshal <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a>. Mussolini was immediately arrested upon his removal. When the radio brought the unexpected news, Italians assumed the war was practically over. The Fascist organizations that had for two decades pledged their loyalty to Il Duce were silent – no effort was made by any of them to protest. The new Badoglio government stripped away the final elements of the Fascist government by banning the Fascist Party. The Fascists had never controlled the army, but they did have a separately armed militia, which was merged into the army. The main Fascist organs, including the Grand Council, the Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State and the Chambers, were all disbanded. All local Fascist formations clubs and meetings were shut down. Slowly, the most outspoken Fascists were purged from office.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11,_Italien,_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>The head of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>, with a soldier in 1944</figcaption></figure> Italy then signed an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">armistice in Cassibile</a>, ending its war with the Allies. However, Mussolini's reign in Italy was not over as a German commando unit, led by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Skorzeny" title="Otto Skorzeny">Otto Skorzeny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gran_Sasso_raid" title="Gran Sasso raid">rescued Mussolini</a> from the mountain hotel where he was being held under arrest. Hitler instructed Mussolini to establish the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> (RSI), a German <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> in the portion of northern and central Italy held by the Wehrmacht. As a result, the country descended into <a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">civil war</a>; the new <a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">Royalist</a> government of Victor Emmanuel III and Marshal Badoglio raised an <a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italian Co-belligerent Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Navy" title="Italian Co-belligerent Navy">Navy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Air_Force" title="Italian Co-belligerent Air Force">Air Force</a>, which fought alongside the Allies for the rest of the war. In contrast, other Italian troops, loyal to Mussolini and his new Fascist state, continued to fight alongside the Germans in the <a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Army" title="National Republican Army">National Republican Army</a>. Also, a large anti-fascist <a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italian resistance movement</a> fought a guerrilla war against the German and RSI forces,<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> while clashes between the RSI Army and the Italian Co-Belligerent Army were rare.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Partigiani_Ossola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Partigiani_Ossola.jpg/220px-Partigiani_Ossola.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Partigiani_Ossola.jpg/330px-Partigiani_Ossola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Partigiani_Ossola.jpg/440px-Partigiani_Ossola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italian anti-fascist partisans</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ossola" title="Ossola">Ossola</a>, 1944</figcaption></figure> Although other European countries such as <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> also had partisan movements and <a href="/wiki/Wartime_collaborationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Wartime collaborationism">collaborationist</a> governments with <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, armed confrontation between compatriots was most intense in Italy, making the Italian case unique.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> In 1965, the definition of "civil war" was used for the first time by fascist politician and historian <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Pisan%C3%B2" title="Giorgio Pisanò">Giorgio Pisanò</a> in his books,<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> <a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Claudio_Pavone" title="Claudio Pavone">Claudio Pavone</a>'s book Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza (A Civil War. Historical Essay On the Morality Of the Resistance), published in 1991, led to the term "<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Italian Civil War</a>" being used more frequently by Italian<a href="#cite_note-225">[a]</a> and international<a href="#cite_note-226">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[226]</a> historiography. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-311-0926-07,_Italien,_italienische_Soldaten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-311-0926-07%2C_Italien%2C_italienische_Soldaten.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-311-0926-07%2C_Italien%2C_italienische_Soldaten.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-311-0926-07%2C_Italien%2C_italienische_Soldaten.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-311-0926-07%2C_Italien%2C_italienische_Soldaten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-311-0926-07%2C_Italien%2C_italienische_Soldaten.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-311-0926-07%2C_Italien%2C_italienische_Soldaten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Army" title="National Republican Army">National Republican Army</a> troops inspected by <a href="/wiki/Kurt_M%C3%A4lzer" title="Kurt Mälzer">Kurt Mälzer</a></figcaption></figure> The RSI armed forces were a combination of Mussolini loyalist Fascists and German armed forces, although Mussolini had little power. The fascists claimed their armed forces numbered 780,000 men and women, but sources indicate that there were 558,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBocca200139-228">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeldi20154-229">[228]</a> Recruiting military forces was difficult for the RSI, as most of the Italian army had been interned by German forces in 1943, many Italians had been <a href="/wiki/Italian_military_internees" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian military internees">conscripted into forced labour in Germany</a> and few wanted to fight on Nazi Germany's side after 8 September 1943; the RSI granted convicts freedom if they would join the army and the sentence of death was imposed on anyone who opposed being conscripted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1983308-230">[229]</a> Autonomous military forces in the RSI also fought against the Allies including the <a href="/wiki/Decima_Flottiglia_MAS" title="Decima Flottiglia MAS">Decima Flottiglia MAS</a> under command of Prince <a href="/wiki/Junio_Valerio_Borghese" title="Junio Valerio Borghese">Junio Valerio Borghese</a>. Borghese held no allegiance to Mussolini and even suggested that he would take him prisoner if he could.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1983308-230">[229]</a> In addition to regular units of the Republican Army and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Brigades" title="Black Brigades">Black Brigades</a>, various special units of fascists were organized, at first spontaneously and afterward from regular units that were part of Salò's armed forces, also including criminals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGanapini2010278-231">[230]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:01_partigiani_a_milano1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/01_partigiani_a_milano1.jpg/220px-01_partigiani_a_milano1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/01_partigiani_a_milano1.jpg/330px-01_partigiani_a_milano1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/01_partigiani_a_milano1.jpg/440px-01_partigiani_a_milano1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="501" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italian anti-fascist partisans</a> in Milan during the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of Italy">liberation of Italy</a>, April 1945</figcaption></figure> Hitler and the German armed forces led the campaign against the Allies. They had little interest in preserving Italy as more than a buffer zone against an Allied invasion of Germany.<a href="#cite_note-232">[231]</a> The Badoglio government attempted to establish a non-partisan administration, and many political parties were allowed to exist again after years of being banned under Fascism. These ranged from liberal to communist parties, which all were part of the government.<a href="#cite_note-233">[232]</a> Italians celebrated the fall of Mussolini, and as the Allies took more Italian territory, the Allies were welcomed as liberators by Italians who opposed the German occupation. Life for Italians under German occupation was hard, especially in Rome. Rome's citizens, by 1943, had grown tired of the war. Upon Italy signing an armistice with the Allies on 8 September 1943, Rome's citizens took to the streets chanting "Viva la pace!" ("Long live the peace!), but within hours German forces raided the city and attacked anti-Fascists, royalists and Jews.<a href="#cite_note-234">[233]</a> Roman citizens were harassed by German soldiers to provide them food and fuel, German authorities arrested opposition, and many were sent into forced labor.<a href="#cite_note-Wallace-235">[234]</a> Rome's citizens, upon being liberated, reported that during the first week of the German occupation of Rome, crimes against Italian citizens took place as German soldiers looted stores and robbed Roman citizens at gunpoint.<a href="#cite_note-Wallace-235">[234]</a> Martial law was imposed on Rome by German authorities requiring all citizens to obey a curfew forbidding people to be out on the street after 9 p.m.<a href="#cite_note-Wallace-235">[234]</a> During the winter of 1943, Rome's citizens were denied access to sufficient food, firewood and coal which was taken by German authorities to be given to German soldiers housed in occupied hotels.<a href="#cite_note-Wallace-235">[234]</a> These actions left Rome's citizens living in the harsh cold and on the verge of starvation.<a href="#cite_note-236">[235]</a> German authorities began arresting able-bodied Roman men to be conscripted into forced labour.<a href="#cite_note-237">[236]</a> On 4 June 1944, the German occupation of Rome ended as German forces retreated as the Allies advanced. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italian_Committee_of_National_Liberation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Italian_Committee_of_National_Liberation.svg/220px-Flag_of_Italian_Committee_of_National_Liberation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Italian_Committee_of_National_Liberation.svg/330px-Flag_of_Italian_Committee_of_National_Liberation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Italian_Committee_of_National_Liberation.svg/440px-Flag_of_Italian_Committee_of_National_Liberation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Committee" title="National Liberation Committee">National Liberation Committee</a></figcaption></figure> On 25 April 1945 the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Committee_for_Northern_Italy" title="National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy">National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy</a> proclaimed a general insurrection in all the territories still occupied by the Nazi-fascists, indicating to all the partisan forces active in Northern Italy that were part of the Volunteer Corps of Freedom to attack the fascist and German garrisons by imposing the surrender, days before the arrival of the Allied troops; at the same time, the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy personally issued legislative decrees,<a href="#cite_note-238">[237]</a> assuming power "in the name of the Italian people and as a delegate of the Italian Government", establishing among other things the death sentence for all fascist hierarchs,<a href="#cite_note-239">[238]</a> "Surrender or die!" was the rallying call of the partisans that day and those immediately following. Today the event is commemorated in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> every 25 April by the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_Day_(Italy)" title="Liberation Day (Italy)">Liberation Day</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="National Day">National Day</a> introduced on 22 April 1946, which celebrates the liberation of the country from <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[239]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto,_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg/220px-Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg/330px-Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg/440px-Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="1451" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Benito_Mussolini" title="Death of Benito Mussolini">dead body</a> of <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claretta_Petacci" class="mw-redirect" title="Claretta Petacci">Claretta Petacci</a> and other executed fascists on display in Milan on 29 April 1945.</figcaption></figure> Mussolini was captured on 27 April 1945 by <a href="/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party" title="Italian Communist Party">Communist</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_partisans" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian partisans">Italian partisans</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> border as he tried to escape Italy. On the next day, <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Benito_Mussolini" title="Death of Benito Mussolini">he was executed</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[240]</a> for high treason as sentenced in absentia by a tribunal of the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Committee" title="National Liberation Committee">National Liberation Committee</a>. Afterwards, the bodies of Mussolini, his mistress and about fifteen other Fascists were taken to <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, where they were displayed to the public.<a href="#cite_note-242">[241]</a> <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> had long regarded southern Europe as the military weak spot of the continent (in World War I he had advocated the <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli Campaign">Dardanelles campaign</a>, and during World War II he favoured the Balkans as an area of operations, for example in Greece in 1940).<a href="#cite_note-243">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[244]</a> Calling Italy the "soft underbelly" of the Axis, Churchill had therefore advocated this invasion instead of a cross-channel invasion of occupied France. But Italy itself proved anything but a soft target: the mountainous terrain gave Axis forces excellent defensive positions, and it also partly negated the Allied advantage in <a href="/wiki/Mechanized_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanized force">motorized and mechanized</a> units. The final Allied victory over the Axis in Italy did not come until the <a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">spring offensive</a> of 1945, after Allied troops had breached the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a>, leading to the surrender of German and RSI forces in Italy on 2 May shortly before Germany finally surrendered ending World War II in Europe on 8 May. The government of Badoglio remained in being for some nine months. On 9 June 1944, he was replaced as prime minister by the 70-year-old anti-fascist leader <a href="/wiki/Ivanoe_Bonomi" title="Ivanoe Bonomi">Ivanoe Bonomi</a>. In June 1945, Bonomi was in turn replaced by <a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Parri" title="Ferruccio Parri">Ferruccio Parri</a>, who in turn gave way to <a href="/wiki/Alcide_de_Gasperi" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcide de Gasperi">Alcide de Gasperi</a> on 4 December 1945. De Gasperi supervised the transition to a republic following the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III on 9 May 1946. He briefly became acting head of state and prime minister on 18 June 1946 but ceded the former role to Provisional President <a href="/wiki/Enrico_De_Nicola" title="Enrico De Nicola">Enrico De Nicola</a> ten days later. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-fascism_against_Mussolini's_regime">Anti-fascism against Mussolini's regime</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Anti-fascism against Mussolini's regime">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">Anti-fascism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Arditi_del_Popolo_Battalion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Arditi_del_Popolo_Battalion.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Arditi_del_Popolo_Battalion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Arditi_del_Popolo_Battalion.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Arditi_del_Popolo_Battalion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Arditi_del_Popolo_Battalion.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Arditi_del_Popolo_Battalion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Flag of <a href="/wiki/Arditi_del_Popolo" title="Arditi del Popolo">Arditi del Popolo</a>, an axe cutting a <a href="/wiki/Fasces" title="Fasces">fasces</a>. Arditi del Popolo was a militant <a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">anti-fascist</a> group founded in 1921</figcaption></figure> In Italy, Mussolini's <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism">Fascist</a> regime used the term <a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">anti-fascist</a> to describe its opponents. Mussolini's <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> was officially known as the <a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Vigilance_and_Repression_of_Anti-Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism">Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism</a>. During the 1920s in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a>, anti-fascists, many of them from the <a href="/wiki/Labor_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor movement">labor movement</a>, fought against the violent <a href="/wiki/Blackshirts" title="Blackshirts">Blackshirts</a> and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a> (PSI) signed a <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Pacification" title="Pact of Pacification">pacification pact</a> with Mussolini and his <a href="/wiki/Fasci_Italiani_di_Combattimento" title="Fasci Italiani di Combattimento">Fasces of Combat</a> on 3 August 1921,<a href="#cite_note-246">[245]</a> and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed <a href="/wiki/Arditi_del_Popolo" title="Arditi del Popolo">Arditi del Popolo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-247">[246]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Italian_General_Confederation_of_Labour" title="Italian General Confederation of Labour">Italian General Confederation of Labour</a> (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of Italy">Communist Party of Italy</a> (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor.<a href="#cite_note-248">[247]</a> The Italian anarchist <a href="/wiki/Severino_Di_Giovanni" title="Severino Di Giovanni">Severino Di Giovanni</a>, who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 <a href="/wiki/March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a>, organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community.<a href="#cite_note-249">[248]</a> The Italian liberal anti-fascist <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Benedetto Croce</a> wrote his <a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Anti-Fascist_Intellectuals" title="Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals">Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals</a>, which was published in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a> Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were <a href="/wiki/Piero_Gobetti" title="Piero Gobetti">Piero Gobetti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rosselli" title="Carlo Rosselli">Carlo Rosselli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-251">[250]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg/220px-Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg/330px-Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg/440px-Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="726" /></a><figcaption>1931 badge of a member of <a href="/wiki/Concentrazione_Antifascista_Italiana" title="Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana">Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Concentrazione_Antifascista_Italiana" title="Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana">Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana</a> (English: Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in <a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9rac" title="Nérac">Nérac</a>, France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled La Libertà.<a href="#cite_note-252">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[253]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Giustizia_e_Liberta.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Giustizia_e_Liberta.svg/220px-Flag_of_Giustizia_e_Liberta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Giustizia_e_Liberta.svg/330px-Flag_of_Giustizia_e_Liberta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Giustizia_e_Liberta.svg/440px-Flag_of_Giustizia_e_Liberta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Flag of <a href="/wiki/Giustizia_e_Libert%C3%A0" title="Giustizia e Libertà">Giustizia e Libertà</a>, anti-fascist movement active from 1929 to 1945</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Giustizia_e_Libert%C3%A0" title="Giustizia e Libertà">Giustizia e Libertà</a> (English: Justice and Freedom) was an Italian <a href="/wiki/Anti-fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-fascist">anti-fascist</a> <a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">resistance movement</a>, active from 1929 to 1945.<a href="#cite_note-jam-255">[254]</a> The movement was cofounded by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rosselli" title="Carlo Rosselli">Carlo Rosselli</a>,<a href="#cite_note-jam-255">[254]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Parri" title="Ferruccio Parri">Ferruccio Parri</a>, who later became <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister of Italy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sandro_Pertini" title="Sandro Pertini">Sandro Pertini</a>, who became <a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President of Italy</a>, were among the movement's leaders.<a href="#cite_note-256">[255]</a> The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. Giustizia e Libertà also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini" title="Gaetano Salvemini">Gaetano Salvemini</a>. Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a>'s dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy".<a href="#cite_note-257">[256]</a> Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the <a href="/wiki/Slovenes" title="Slovenes">Slovenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Croats" title="Croats">Croats</a> in the territories annexed to Italy after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[258]</a> The most influential was the militant insurgent organization <a href="/wiki/TIGR" title="TIGR">TIGR</a>, which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military.<a href="#cite_note-260">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[260]</a> Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the <a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Vigilance_and_Repression_of_Anti-Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism">Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism</a> (OVRA) in 1940 and 1941,<a href="#cite_note-262">[261]</a> and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined the <a href="/wiki/Slovene_Partisans" title="Slovene Partisans">Slovene Partisans</a>. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, many members of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian resistance">Italian resistance</a> left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Nazi</a> soldiers during the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Italian Civil War</a>. Many cities in Italy, including <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, were freed by anti-fascist uprisings.<a href="#cite_note-263">[262]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1946)">End of the Kingdom of Italy (1946)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: End of the Kingdom of Italy (1946)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1946_Italian_institutional_referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: 1946 Italian institutional referendum">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umberto_II,_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Umberto_II%2C_1944.jpg/170px-Umberto_II%2C_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Umberto_II%2C_1944.jpg/255px-Umberto_II%2C_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Umberto_II%2C_1944.jpg/340px-Umberto_II%2C_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="393" data-file-height="481" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Umberto_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umberto II">Umberto II</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">king of Italy</a></figcaption></figure> Much like <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. Even before the rise of the Fascists, the monarchy was seen to have performed poorly, with society extremely divided between the wealthy North and poor South. World War I resulted in Italy making few gains and was seen as what fostered the rise of Fascism. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.<a href="#cite_note-264">[263]</a> By the spring of 1944, it was obvious Victor Emmanuel was too tainted by his previous support for Mussolini to have any further role. He transferred his constitutional powers to Crown Prince Umberto, whom he named <a href="/wiki/Luogotenente" title="Luogotenente">Lieutenant General of the Realm</a> and de facto regent. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian_referendum_1946_support_for_republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Italian_referendum_1946_support_for_republic.svg/220px-Italian_referendum_1946_support_for_republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Italian_referendum_1946_support_for_republic.svg/330px-Italian_referendum_1946_support_for_republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Italian_referendum_1946_support_for_republic.svg/440px-Italian_referendum_1946_support_for_republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Results of the <a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_constitutional_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="1946 Italian constitutional referendum">1946 referendum</a></figcaption></figure> Victor Emmanuel III nominally remained King until shortly before the <a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a> on whether to remain a monarchy or become a republic. On 9 May 1946, he abdicated in favour of the Crown Prince, who then ascended as King <a href="/wiki/Umberto_II_of_Italy" title="Umberto II of Italy">Umberto II</a>. However, on 2 June 1946, the republican side won 54% of the vote, and Italy officially became a republic, a day celebrated since as <a href="/wiki/Festa_della_Repubblica" title="Festa della Repubblica">Festa della Repubblica</a>. This was the first time that Italian women voted at the national level, and the second time overall considering the local elections that were held a few months earlier in some cities.<a href="#cite_note-265">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[265]</a> The table of results shows some relevant differences in the different parts of Italy. The peninsula seemed to be drastically cut into two as if there were two different homogeneous countries: the North for the republic (with 66.2%); the South for the monarchy (with 63.8%). Some monarchist groups claimed that there was manipulation by northern republicans, socialists and communists. Others argued that Italy was still too chaotic in 1946 to have an accurate referendum. Umberto II decided to leave Italy on 13 June to avoid the clashes between monarchists and republicans, already manifested in bloody events in various Italian cities, for fear they could extend throughout the country. He went into exile in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-267">[266]</a> From 1 January 1948, with the entry into force of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution of the Italian Republic</a>, the male descendants of Umberto II of Savoy were banned from entering Italy; the provision being repealed in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-268">[267]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Republic">Italian Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">History of the Italian Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alcide_de_Gasperi_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alcide_de_Gasperi_2.jpg/170px-Alcide_de_Gasperi_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alcide_de_Gasperi_2.jpg/255px-Alcide_de_Gasperi_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alcide_de_Gasperi_2.jpg/340px-Alcide_de_Gasperi_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="672" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">Alcide De Gasperi</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Italy">first</a> republican <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister of Italy</a> and one of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_fathers_of_the_European_Union" title="Founding fathers of the European Union">Founding Fathers of the European Union</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Republican Constitution</a>, resulting from the work of a <a href="/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Italy" title="Constituent Assembly of Italy">Constituent Assembly</a> formed by the representatives of all the <a href="/wiki/Anti-fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-fascist">anti-fascist</a> forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of Italy">liberation of Italy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-269">[268]</a> was approved on 1 January 1948. Under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Peace_with_Italy,_1947" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947">Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kvarner_Gulf" title="Kvarner Gulf">Kvarner</a>, most of the <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zara</a> was annexed by <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> causing the <a href="/wiki/Istrian-Dalmatian_exodus" class="mw-redirect" title="Istrian-Dalmatian exodus">Istrian-Dalmatian exodus</a>, which led to the emigration from 1943 to 1960 of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Dalmatian Italians</a>), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic <a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanians" title="Istro-Romanians">Istro-Romanians</a>, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-270">[269]</a> Later, the <a href="/wiki/Free_Territory_of_Trieste" title="Free Territory of Trieste">Free Territory of Trieste</a> was divided between the two states. Italy also lost its colonial possessions, formally ending the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a>. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a> was formally re-annexed to Italy. Fears of a possible Communist takeover proved crucial for the first universal suffrage electoral outcome on <a href="/wiki/Italian_general_election,_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian general election, 1948">18 April 1948</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democracy_(Italy)" title="Christian Democracy (Italy)">Christian Democrats</a>, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">Alcide De Gasperi</a>, obtained a landslide victory.<a href="#cite_note-271">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[271]</a> Consequently, in 1949 Italy became a member of <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> helped to revive the Italian economy which, until the late 1960s, enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the "<a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Miracle</a>". In the 1950's, Italy became one of the six founding countries of the <a href="/wiki/European_Communities" title="European Communities">European Communities</a>, following the 1952 establishment of the <a href="/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">European Coal and Steel Community</a>, and subsequent 1958 creations of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Atomic_Energy_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="European Atomic Energy Community">European Atomic Energy Community</a>. In 1993, the former two of these were incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maps_of_progressive_territorial_formation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy">Maps of progressive territorial formation of the Kingdom of Italy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Maps of progressive territorial formation of the Kingdom of Italy">edit</a>]</div> <div align="center"> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Italia1859.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Italian States in 1859, on the eve of the Second Italian War of Independence"><img alt="The Italian States in 1859, on the eve of the Second Italian War of Independence" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Italia1859.png/120px-Italia1859.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Italia1859.png/180px-Italia1859.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Italia1859.png/240px-Italia1859.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Italian States in 1859, on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second Italian War of Independence</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Italia1860.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860, after the annexation of Lombardy and before the annexation of the United Provinces of Central Italy[b]"><img alt="The Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860, after the annexation of Lombardy and before the annexation of the United Provinces of Central Italy[b]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Italia1860.png/120px-Italia1860.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Italia1860.png/180px-Italia1860.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Italia1860.png/240px-Italia1860.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> in 1860, after the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a> and before the annexation of the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[b]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RegnoItalia1861.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of Italy in 1861, after the Expedition of the Thousand"><img alt="The Kingdom of Italy in 1861, after the Expedition of the Thousand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/RegnoItalia1861.png/120px-RegnoItalia1861.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/RegnoItalia1861.png/180px-RegnoItalia1861.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/RegnoItalia1861.png/240px-RegnoItalia1861.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> in 1861, after the <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RegnoItalia1866.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of Italy in 1866, after the Third Italian War of Independence"><img alt="The Kingdom of Italy in 1866, after the Third Italian War of Independence" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/RegnoItalia1866.png/120px-RegnoItalia1866.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/RegnoItalia1866.png/180px-RegnoItalia1866.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/RegnoItalia1866.png/240px-RegnoItalia1866.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Kingdom of Italy in 1866, after the <a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RegnoItalia1870.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of Italy after the conquest of Rome and Lazio (Capture of Rome, 20 September 1870)"><img alt="The Kingdom of Italy after the conquest of Rome and Lazio (Capture of Rome, 20 September 1870)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/RegnoItalia1870.png/120px-RegnoItalia1870.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/RegnoItalia1870.png/180px-RegnoItalia1870.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/RegnoItalia1870.png/240px-RegnoItalia1870.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Kingdom of Italy after the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a>, 20 September 1870)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RegnoItalia1919.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of Italy in 1924 after the World War I, comprising the Venices Tridentina and Giulia, the city of Fiume and the Dalmatian city of Zara"><img alt="The Kingdom of Italy in 1924 after the World War I, comprising the Venices Tridentina and Giulia, the city of Fiume and the Dalmatian city of Zara" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RegnoItalia1919.png/120px-RegnoItalia1919.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RegnoItalia1919.png/180px-RegnoItalia1919.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RegnoItalia1919.png/240px-RegnoItalia1919.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Kingdom of Italy in 1924 after the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, comprising the Venices <a href="/wiki/Venezia_Tridentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezia Tridentina">Tridentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venezia_Giulia" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezia Giulia">Giulia</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiume">Fiume</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zara</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Regno_Italia_1943.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of Italy at its greatest extent in 1943, during World War II, with the annexation of territories from France and Yugoslavia. The territories annexed by the latter are the area constituting the province of Ljubljana, the area merged with the province of Fiume and the areas making up the Governorate of Dalmatia"><img alt="The Kingdom of Italy at its greatest extent in 1943, during World War II, with the annexation of territories from France and Yugoslavia. The territories annexed by the latter are the area constituting the province of Ljubljana, the area merged with the province of Fiume and the areas making up the Governorate of Dalmatia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Regno_Italia_1943.svg/118px-Regno_Italia_1943.svg.png" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Regno_Italia_1943.svg/178px-Regno_Italia_1943.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Regno_Italia_1943.svg/237px-Regno_Italia_1943.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="362" data-file-height="367" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Kingdom of Italy at its greatest extent in 1943, during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_France" title="Italian occupation of France">annexation of territories from France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>. The territories annexed by the latter are the area constituting the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Ljubljana" title="Province of Ljubljana">province of Ljubljana</a>, the area merged with the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Fiume" title="Province of Fiume">province of Fiume</a> and the areas making up the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Dalmatia" title="Governorate of Dalmatia">Governorate of Dalmatia</a></div> </li> </ul> </div> <dl><dt>Legend</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> from 1861)</div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a></div></li></ul><table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a></div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a></div></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology_of_national_coats_of_arms">Chronology of national coats of arms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Chronology of national coats of arms">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_variant_(1848-1870).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms used from 1861 to 1870"><img alt="Coat of arms used from 1861 to 1870" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_variant_%281848-1870%29.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_variant_%281848-1870%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_variant_%281848-1870%29.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_variant_%281848-1870%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_variant_%281848-1870%29.svg/240px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_variant_%281848-1870%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1262" data-file-height="1057" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coat of arms used from 1861 to 1870</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1870-1890).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms used from 1870 to 1890"><img alt="Coat of arms used from 1870 to 1890" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281870-1890%29.svg/93px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281870-1890%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281870-1890%29.svg/140px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281870-1890%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281870-1890%29.svg/186px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281870-1890%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2313" data-file-height="2980" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coat of arms used from 1870 to 1890</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1890).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms used from 1890 to 1927"><img alt="Coat of arms used from 1890 to 1927" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/74px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="74" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/111px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/149px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="726" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coat of arms used from 1890 to 1927</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ITA_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1927-1929)_COA_(greater).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms used from 1927 to 1929"><img alt="Coat of arms used from 1927 to 1929" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/ITA_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281927-1929%29_COA_%28greater%29.svg/120px-ITA_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281927-1929%29_COA_%28greater%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/ITA_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281927-1929%29_COA_%28greater%29.svg/180px-ITA_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281927-1929%29_COA_%28greater%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/ITA_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281927-1929%29_COA_%28greater%29.svg/240px-ITA_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281927-1929%29_COA_%28greater%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="375" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coat of arms used from 1927 to 1929</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1929-1944).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms used from 1929 to 1944"><img alt="Coat of arms used from 1929 to 1944" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1944%29.svg/91px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1944%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1944%29.svg/137px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1944%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1944%29.svg/182px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281929-1944%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="593" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coat of arms used from 1929 to 1944</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1890).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms used from 1944 to 1946"><img alt="Coat of arms used from 1944 to 1946" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/74px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="74" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/111px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg/149px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_%281890%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="726" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coat of arms used from 1944 to 1946</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/48px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/64px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List of prime ministers of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Military history of Italy during World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Military history of Italy during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Question">Roman Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> See as examples <a href="/wiki/Renzo_De_Felice" title="Renzo De Felice">Renzo De Felice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gianni_Oliva" title="Gianni Oliva">Gianni Oliva</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> Provisional confederation between the pro-Savoy governments of the ex-<a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a>, Emilian duchies and Pontifical Romagna, specially created to favor their union with the Kingdom of Sardinia. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-fhdh-1"><a href="#cite_ref-fhdh_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAndrea_L._StantonEdward_RamsamyPeter_J._Seybolt2012" class="citation book cs1">Andrea L. 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Retrieved 30 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Austria+Two+Sicilies+Revolt+1820%E2%80%931821&rft.pub=Onwar.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.onwar.com%2Faced%2Fnation%2Fall%2Faustrohun%2Fftwosicilies1820.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Michael Broers, "Revolution as Vendetta: Patriotism in Piedmont, 1794–1821." Historical Journal 33#3 (1990): 573–597. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstarita2000" class="citation book cs1">Astarita, Tommaso (2000). 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Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-04-50946-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-04-50946-2"><bdi>978-88-04-50946-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+tricolore+degli+italiani.+Storia+avventurosa+della+nostra+bandiera&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Arnoldo+Mondadori+Editore&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-88-04-50946-2&rft.aulast=Maiorino&rft.aufirst=Tarquinio&rft.au=Marchetti+Tricamo%2C+Giuseppe&rft.au=Zagami%2C+Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.quirinale.it/page/inno">"Fratelli d'Italia"</a> (in Italian). 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Population Council: 533–559. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2137600">10.2307/2137600</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0098-7921">0098-7921</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2137600">2137600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+and+Development+Review&rft.atitle=What+Drove+the+Mass+Migrations+from+Europe+in+the+Late+Nineteenth+Century%3F&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=533-559&rft.date=1994-09&rft.issn=0098-7921&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2137600%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2137600&rft.aulast=Hatton&rft.aufirst=Timothy+J.+and+Jeffrey+G.+Williamson&rft.au=Williamson%2C+Jeffrey+G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nber.org%2Fpapers%2Fh0043.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://serenaitalian.wordpress.com/2014/03/26/il-vittoriano-roma/">"Il Vittoriano – Roma"</a> (in Italian). 26 March 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+Vittoriano+%E2%80%93+Roma&rft.date=2014-03-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fserenaitalian.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F03%2F26%2Fil-vittoriano-roma%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fiamma-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fiamma_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fiamma_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.toscanaoggi.it/Cultura-Societa/Il-mito-della-lampada-perenne">"Il mito della "lampada perenne""</a> (in Italian). 13 January 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+mito+della+%22lampada+perenne%22&rft.date=2010-01-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.toscanaoggi.it%2FCultura-Societa%2FIl-mito-della-lampada-perenne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a> of 1929 became an independent country, an enclave surrounded by Italy. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Arnaldi, Girolamo. Italy and Its Invaders. Harvard University Press, 2005. p. 194. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01870-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01870-2">0-674-01870-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.risorgimento.it/index.php?section=museo">"Museo Centrale del Risorgimento di Roma"</a>. Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano (in Italian). 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Barclay, The Rise and Fall of the New Roman Empire (1973). pp. 29.) </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Barclay (1973), pp. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-Barclay73-p32-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barclay73-p32_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barclay73-p32_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barclay73-p32_49-2">c</a> (Barclay (1973), pp. 32.) </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> (Barclay (1973), pp. 33–34.) </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> (Barclay (1997), pp. 34.) </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> (Barclay (1973), pp. 35.) </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> (Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy; A Political History (1997). 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Retrieved 10 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FirstWorldWar.com&rft.atitle=Primary+Documents+%E2%80%93+Treaty+of+London%2C+26+April+1915&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstworldwar.com%2Fsource%2Flondon1915.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Clark, Martin. 1984., p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Fulvio Conti, "From Universalism to Nationalism: Italian Freemasonry and the Great War." 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Retrieved 12 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+1861+e+le+quattro+Guerre+per+l%27Indipendenza+%281848-1918%29&rft.date=2015-03-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.piacenzaprimogenita150.it%2Findex.php%3Fit%252F176%252Fil-1861-e-le-quattro-guerre-per-lindipendenza-1848-1918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-81"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923183754/http://www.beniculturali.it/mibac/export/MiBAC/sito-MiBAC/Contenuti/MibacUnif/Eventi/visualizza_asset.html_1239896580.html">"La Grande Guerra nei manifesti italiani dell'epoca"</a> (in Italian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beniculturali.it/mibac/export/MiBAC/sito-MiBAC/Contenuti/MibacUnif/Eventi/visualizza_asset.html_1239896580.html">the original</a> on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+Grande+Guerra+nei+manifesti+italiani+dell%27epoca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.beniculturali.it%2Fmibac%2Fexport%2FMiBAC%2Fsito-MiBAC%2FContenuti%2FMibacUnif%2FEventi%2Fvisualizza_asset.html_1239896580.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGenovesi2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Genovesi, Piergiovanni (11 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LntMIUOXngC&q=%22quarta+guerra+d%27indipendenza%22&pg=PA41">Il Manuale di Storia in Italia, di Piergiovanni Genovesi</a> (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788856818680" title="Special:BookSources/9788856818680"><bdi>9788856818680</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+Manuale+di+Storia+in+Italia%2C+di+Piergiovanni+Genovesi&rft.pub=FrancoAngeli&rft.date=2009-06-11&rft.isbn=9788856818680&rft.aulast=Genovesi&rft.aufirst=Piergiovanni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_LntMIUOXngC%26q%3D%2522quarta%2Bguerra%2Bd%2527indipendenza%2522%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScottà2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scottà, Antonio (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZIZQNT1k7QMC&q=%22quarta+guerra+di+indipendenza%22&pg=PA156">La Conferenza di pace di Parigi fra ieri e domani (1919-1920), di Antonio Scottà</a> (in Italian). Rubbettino Editore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788849802481" title="Special:BookSources/9788849802481"><bdi>9788849802481</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Conferenza+di+pace+di+Parigi+fra+ieri+e+domani+%281919-1920%29%2C+di+Antonio+Scott%C3%A0&rft.pub=Rubbettino+Editore&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9788849802481&rft.aulast=Scott%C3%A0&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZIZQNT1k7QMC%26q%3D%2522quarta%2Bguerra%2Bdi%2Bindipendenza%2522%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLussu1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lussu, Emilio (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DpkAoP_mRvQC&q=%22quarta+guerra+d%27indipendenza%22&pg=PA92">La catena, di Emilio Lussu</a> (in Italian). Baldini & Castoldi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788880892120" title="Special:BookSources/9788880892120"><bdi>9788880892120</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+catena%2C+di+Emilio+Lussu&rft.pub=Baldini+%26+Castoldi&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9788880892120&rft.aulast=Lussu&rft.aufirst=Emilio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDpkAoP_mRvQC%26q%3D%2522quarta%2Bguerra%2Bd%2527indipendenza%2522%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiavulli2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schiavulli, Antonio (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CyYTAY9exa4C&q=%22quarta+guerra+d%27indipendenza%22&pg=PT19">La guerra lirica: il dibattito dei letterati italiani sull'impresa di Libia, di Antonio Schiavulli</a> (in Italian). casa editrice Fernandel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788896117026" title="Special:BookSources/9788896117026"><bdi>9788896117026</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+guerra+lirica%3A+il+dibattito+dei+letterati+italiani+sull%27impresa+di+Libia%2C+di+Antonio+Schiavulli&rft.pub=casa+editrice+Fernandel&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9788896117026&rft.aulast=Schiavulli&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCyYTAY9exa4C%26q%3D%2522quarta%2Bguerra%2Bd%2527indipendenza%2522%26pg%3DPT19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Sullivan, Brian R. (1994) "Chapter 4. Caporetto: Causes, recovery, and consequences" in: Andreopoulos, George J.; Selesky, Harold E., ed.s, The Aftermath of Defeat: Societies, Armed Forces, and the Challenge of Recovery (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TuUo-h-UAs8C&pg=PA60">p. 60.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannicaCaporetto-87"><a href="#cite_ref-britannicaCaporetto_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Caporetto">"Battle of Caporetto | Facts, History, & Casualties"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-09-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Battle+of+Caporetto+%7C+Facts%2C+History%2C+%26+Casualties&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FBattle-of-Caporetto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolger_Afflerbach2015" class="citation book cs1">Holger Afflerbach (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l6AFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT240">The Purpose of the First World War: War Aims and Military Strategies</a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 240–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110435993" title="Special:BookSources/9783110435993"><bdi>9783110435993</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Purpose+of+the+First+World+War%3A+War+Aims+and+Military+Strategies&rft.pages=240-42&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9783110435993&rft.au=Holger+Afflerbach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl6AFCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a href="/wiki/J._F._C._Fuller" title="J. F. C. Fuller">Fuller, John Frederick Charles</a>: Decisive battles: Their influence upon history and civilisation. C. Scribner's sons, 1940, p 912 </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Seton-Watson, Christopher. 1967. Italy from Liberalism to Fascism: 1870 to 1925. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., p. 451. </li> <li id="cite_note-Seton-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_91-1">b</a> Seton-Watson, p. 451. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Clark 1984, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-multiref12-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-multiref12_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-multiref12_93-1">b</a> Clark 1984, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-Seton_2-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_2_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_2_94-1">b</a> Seton-Watson, p. 452 </li> <li id="cite_note-multiref14-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-multiref14_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-multiref14_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-multiref14_95-2">c</a> Clark 1984, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Seton-Watson, p. 502. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Seton-Watson, pp. 452–453 </li> <li id="cite_note-Seton_3-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_3_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_3_98-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_3_98-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_3_98-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_3_98-4">e</a> Seton-Watson, p. 453 </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historylists.org/people/10-greatest-world-war-i-generals.html">"10 Greatest World War I Generals – History Lists"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190402215526/https://historylists.org/people/10-greatest-world-war-i-generals.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-02. Retrieved 2019-01-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=10+Greatest+World+War+I+Generals+%E2%80%93+History+Lists&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorylists.org%2Fpeople%2F10-greatest-world-war-i-generals.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Seton-Watson, p. 456. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Seton-Watson, pp. 461–462 </li> <li id="cite_note-Seton_4-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_4_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_4_102-1">b</a> Seton-Watson, p. 463. </li> <li id="cite_note-victory-103"><a href="#cite_ref-victory_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurgwyn1997" class="citation book cs1">Burgwyn, H. James (1997). Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-94877-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-94877-3"><bdi>0-275-94877-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italian+foreign+policy+in+the+interwar+period%2C+1918%E2%80%931940&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-275-94877-3&rft.aulast=Burgwyn&rft.aufirst=H.+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchindler2001" class="citation book cs1">Schindler, John R. (2001). Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-97204-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-97204-6"><bdi>0-275-97204-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isonzo%3A+The+Forgotten+Sacrifice+of+the+Great+War&rft.pages=303&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-275-97204-6&rft.aulast=Schindler&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith1982" class="citation book cs1">Mack Smith, Denis (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack/page/31">Mussolini</a>. Knopf. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack/page/31">31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-50694-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-50694-4"><bdi>0-394-50694-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-394-50694-4&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmussolini0000mack%2Fpage%2F31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luden-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Luden_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaoletti2008" class="citation book cs1">Paoletti, Ciro (2008). A Military History of Italy. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98505-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98505-9"><bdi>978-0-275-98505-9</bdi></a>. <q>... <a href="/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff" title="Erich Ludendorff">Ludendorff</a> wrote: In Vittorio Veneto, Austria did not lose a battle, but lose the war and itself, dragging Germany in its fall. Without the destructive battle of Vittorio Veneto, we would have been able, in a military union with the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, to continue the desperate resistance through the whole winter, in order to obtain a less harsh peace, because the Allies were very fatigued.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+Italy&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98505-9&rft.aulast=Paoletti&rft.aufirst=Ciro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Seton-Watson, pp. 468–469. </li> <li id="cite_note-Seton_5-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_5_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_5_108-1">b</a> Seton-Watson, p. 468. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Seton-Watson, p. 469. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Seton-Watson, p. 470. </li> <li id="cite_note-Seton_6-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_6_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton_6_111-1">b</a> Seton-Watson, p. 471. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Seton-Watson, pp. 486 </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Burgwyn, H. James: Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. p. 4. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-94877-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-94877-3">0-275-94877-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Schindler, John R.: Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001. p. 303. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-97204-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-97204-6">0-275-97204-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Mack Smith, Denis: Mussolini. Knopf, 1982. p. 31. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-50694-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-50694-4">0-394-50694-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/savoia-aosta-emanuele-filiberto-di-duca-d-aosta_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">"SAVOIA AOSTA, Emanuele Filiberto di, duca d'Aosta"</a> (in Italian). 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Editoriale Jaca Book. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788816409071" title="Special:BookSources/9788816409071"><bdi>9788816409071</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+leggi+razziali+in+Italia+e+il+Vaticano&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Editoriale+Jaca+Book&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9788816409071&rft.au=Giovanni+Sale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djye53aCQbkYC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan2003-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan2003_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan2003_190-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Morgan2003" class="citation book cs1">Philip Morgan (10 November 2003). Italian Fascism, 1915-1945. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-80267-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-80267-4"><bdi>978-0-230-80267-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italian+Fascism%2C+1915-1945&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2003-11-10&rft.isbn=978-0-230-80267-4&rft.au=Philip+Morgan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rodogno2006-191"><a href="#cite_ref-Rodogno2006_191-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavide_Rodogno2006" class="citation book cs1">Davide Rodogno (3 August 2006). Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War. 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Zimmerman, Jews in Italy Under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922-1945, pp. 119-120 </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernardini1977" class="citation journal cs1">Bernardini, Gene (1977). "The Origins and Development of Racial Anti-Semitism in Fascist Italy". The Journal of Modern History. 49 (3): 431–453. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F241596">10.1086/241596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143652167">143652167</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Origins+and+Development+of+Racial+Anti-Semitism+in+Fascist+Italy&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=431-453&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F241596&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143652167%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bernardini&rft.aufirst=Gene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1988" class="citation journal cs1">Robinson, E. M. (1988). "Race as a Factor in Mussolini's Policy in Africa and Europe". Journal of Contemporary History. 23 (1): 37–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200948802300103">10.1177/002200948802300103</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161818702">161818702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Race+as+a+Factor+in+Mussolini%27s+Policy+in+Africa+and+Europe&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-58&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200948802300103&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161818702%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=E.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoeschel2012" class="citation journal cs1">Goeschel, Christian (2012). 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(2005). "Why Mussolini turned on the Jews". Patterns of Prejudice. 39 (3): 285–300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00313220500198235">10.1080/00313220500198235</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143090861">143090861</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Patterns+of+Prejudice&rft.atitle=Why+Mussolini+turned+on+the+Jews&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=285-300&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00313220500198235&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143090861%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Franklin+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gunther1940-197"><a href="#cite_ref-gunther1940_197-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunther,_John1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gunther" title="John Gunther">Gunther, John</a> (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.149663/2015.149663.Inside-Europe#page/n283/mode/2up">Inside Europe</a>. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 262.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=262&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1940&rft.au=Gunther%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.149663%2F2015.149663.Inside-Europe%23page%2Fn283%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1999-198"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1999_198-0">^</a> Claudio G. Segrè. Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life. 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Germany and the Second World War – Volume 2: Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe, pg. 311 </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://valloalpino.altervista.org/index-en.htm">"The Underground Fortifications of The Alpine Wall"</a>. Retrieved 31 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Fortifications+of+The+Alpine+Wall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvalloalpino.altervista.org%2Findex-en.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026014122/http://italie1935-45.forumactif.net/le-front-occidental-f8/photos-occupation-italienne-de-nice-t46.htm">"Rechercher italie1935-45.forumactif.net"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://italie1935-45.forumactif.net/le-front-occidental-f8/photos-occupation-italienne-de-nice-t46.htm">the original</a> on 26 October 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rechercher+italie1935-45.forumactif.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fitalie1935-45.forumactif.net%2Fle-front-occidental-f8%2Fphotos-occupation-italienne-de-nice-t46.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NK3PAAAAMAAJ&q=italian+irredentism+in+istria&pg=PA455">"The Independent"</a>. 1915. 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Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691086974" title="Special:BookSources/0691086974"><bdi>0691086974</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=da6acnbbEpAC&q=%22Twenty-nine+months+of+Italian+occupation+of+the+Province+of+Ljubljana%22&pg=PA139">the original</a> on Sep 21, 2015. Retrieved Sep 22, 2020 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+in+Exile%3A+Memory+and+Identity+at+the+Borders+of+the+Balkans&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003-09-22&rft.isbn=0691086974&rft.aulast=Ballinger&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dda6acnbbEpAC%26q%3D%2522Twenty-nine%2Bmonths%2Bof%2BItalian%2Boccupation%2Bof%2Bthe%2BProvince%2Bof%2BLjubljana%2522%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/uc?export=download&confirm=no_antivirus&id=0B0f1zNWb8BZ0MDllMjViMTgtZTlmMi00YjFlLTk5YTctNmNjMWQ2MzYwNDVl">Giuseppe Piemontese (1946): Twenty-nine months of the Italian occupation of the Province of Ljubljana</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]. On page 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-Walston_Historical_Journal-211"><a href="#cite_ref-Walston_Historical_Journal_211-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Walston" title="James Walston">James Walston</a> (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5211">History and Memory of the Italian Concentration Camps</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131028223906/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5211">Archived</a> 2013-10-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Historical Journal, 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cresciani_ClashOfCivilisations_P7-212">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cresciani_ClashOfCivilisations_P7_212-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cresciani_ClashOfCivilisations_P7_212-1">b</a> Cresciani, Gianfranco (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B1aAzmXBjZO5eFQySUlrdTBYRkk">Clash of civilisations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200506152156/https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B1aAzmXBjZO5eFQySUlrdTBYRkk">Archived</a> 2020-05-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Italian Historical Society Journal, Vol. 12, No. 2, p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Effie_Pedaliu" title="Effie Pedaliu">Effie Pedaliu</a> (2004) Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48. Journal of Contemporary History. Vol. 39, No. 4, Special Issue: Collective Memory, pp. 503–529 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4141408">4141408</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Spartaco_Capogreco" class="extiw" title="it:Carlo Spartaco Capogreco">Capogreco, C.S.</a> (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a6BtAAAAMAAJ&q=%22campo+italiano+di+Arbe%22+%22Notte+sull%27Europa%22">"I campi del duce: l'internamento civile nell'Italia fascista, 1940–1943"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150915215613/https://books.google.com/books?id=a6BtAAAAMAAJ&q=%22campo+italiano+di+Arbe%22+%22Notte+sull%27Europa%22&dq=%22campo+italiano+di+Arbe%22+%22Notte+sull%27Europa%22&source=bl&ots=4Z9VOPNw86&sig=vxws67yd9fpLou97wnFrqIQCo9E&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rdp1UInlFZHLtAaJp4CoDA&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA">Archived</a> 2015-09-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Giulio Einaudi editore. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/timeline/factfiles/nonflash/a1126469.shtml">"BBC – WW2 People's War – Timeline"</a>. www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved Sep 22, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+WW2+People%27s+War+%E2%80%93+Timeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fww2peopleswar%2Ftimeline%2Ffactfiles%2Fnonflash%2Fa1126469.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> The Commando Supremo was Rommel's superior during the campaign. </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith_4-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_4_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_4_217-1">b</a> Smith, 1997. p. 412. </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Smith, 1997. p 412–413. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Martin Clark, Modern Italy: 1871–1995 (1996) p 299 </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> G. Bianchi, La Resistenza, in: AA.VV., Storia d'Italia, vol. 8, pp. 368-369. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPavone1991" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pavone, Claudio (1991). Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza (in Italian). Torino: Bollati Boringhieri. p. 238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-339-0629-9" title="Special:BookSources/88-339-0629-9"><bdi>88-339-0629-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Una+guerra+civile.+Saggio+storico+sulla+moralit%C3%A0+della+Resistenza&rft.place=Torino&rft.pages=238&rft.pub=Bollati+Boringhieri&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=88-339-0629-9&rft.aulast=Pavone&rft.aufirst=Claudio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1995). Rosso e Nero [Red and Black] (in Italian). Baldini & Castoldi. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-85987-95-8" title="Special:BookSources/88-85987-95-8"><bdi>88-85987-95-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rosso+e+Nero&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Baldini+%26+Castoldi&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=88-85987-95-8&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.istitutobiggini.it/storia_pisano.pdf">Storia della guerra civile in Italia</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> See the books from Italian historian <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Pisan%C3%B2" title="Giorgio Pisanò">Giorgio Pisanò</a> Storia della guerra civile in Italia, 1943–1945, 3 voll., Milano, FPE, 1965 and the book L'Italia della guerra civile ("Italy of civil war"), published in 1983 by the Italian writer and journalist <a href="/wiki/Indro_Montanelli" title="Indro Montanelli">Indro Montanelli</a> as the fifteen volume of the Storia d'Italia ("History of Italy") by the same author. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> See as examples the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.societasalutediritti.com/rassegnastampa/20052507MILZAPIERRE.htm">interview</a> to French historian <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Milza" title="Pierre Milza">Pierre Milza</a> on the Corriere della Sera of 14 July 2005 (in Italian) and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120904173354/http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/index.php?id=280&type=1&L=3class=l">lessons</a> of historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Schlemmer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Schlemmer (page does not exist)">Thomas Schlemmer</a> at the University of Munchen (in German). </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne2011" class="citation book cs1">Payne, Stanley G. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zP4ikZ_o3V8C">Civil War in Europe, 1905-1949</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139499644" title="Special:BookSources/9781139499644"><bdi>9781139499644</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+in+Europe%2C+1905-1949&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781139499644&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Stanley+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzP4ikZ_o3V8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBocca200139-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBocca200139_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBocca2001">Bocca 2001</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeldi20154-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeldi20154_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeldi2015">Meldi 2015</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1983308-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1983308_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1983308_230-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1983">Mack Smith 1983</a>, p. 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGanapini2010278-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGanapini2010278_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGanapini2010">Ganapini 2010</a>, p. 278. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Smith, 1997. p. 419. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Smith, 1997. p. 418. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Wallace, Robert. 1979. World War II: The Italian Campaign. New York: Time-Life Books. p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wallace-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wallace_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallace_235-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallace_235-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallace_235-3">d</a> Wallace, 1979. p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> Wallace, 1979. pp. 41–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Wallace, 1979. p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> There are three fundamental decrees that seal the legislative work, already active since 1944: All powers to CLNAI; Decree for the administration of justice; Of socialization. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.associazioni.milano.it/isec/ita/cronologia/crono25apr.htm">"Fondazione ISEC - cronologia dell'insurrezione a Milano - 25 aprile"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 14 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fondazione+ISEC+-+cronologia+dell%27insurrezione+a+Milano+-+25+aprile&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.associazioni.milano.it%2Fisec%2Fita%2Fcronologia%2Fcrono25apr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=1946-04-24&atto.codiceRedazionale=046U0185&elenco30giorni=false">"DECRETO LEGISLATIVO LUOGOTENENZIALE 22 aprile 1946, n. 185"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 28 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DECRETO+LEGISLATIVO+LUOGOTENENZIALE+22+aprile+1946%2C+n.+185&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gazzettaufficiale.it%2Fatto%2Fserie_generale%2FcaricaDettaglioAtto%2Foriginario%3Fatto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta%3D1946-04-24%26atto.codiceRedazionale%3D046U0185%26elenco30giorni%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml">"BBC – History – Historic Figures: Benito Mussolini (1883–1945)"</a>. www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved Sep 22, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+History+%E2%80%93+Historic+Figures%3A+Benito+Mussolini+%281883%E2%80%931945%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fhistoric_figures%2Fmussolini_benito.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.upi.com/Archives/1945/04/29/Mussolini-mistress-executed-by-firing-squad/7511360114334/">"Mussolini, mistress executed by firing squad"</a>. UPI. Retrieved Sep 22, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UPI&rft.atitle=Mussolini%2C+mistress+executed+by+firing+squad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FArchives%2F1945%2F04%2F29%2FMussolini-mistress-executed-by-firing-squad%2F7511360114334%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/t-z/warlords1church.html">"Channel 4 – History – Warlords: Churchill"</a>. Retrieved 14 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Channel+4+%E2%80%93+History+%E2%80%93+Warlords%3A+Churchill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.channel4.com%2Fhistory%2Fmicrosites%2FH%2Fhistory%2Ft-z%2Fwarlords1church.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/gallipoli.htm">"Battle At Gallipoli, 1915"</a>. EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com. Ibis Communications, Inc. 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161109232241/http://eyewitnesstohistory.com/gallipoli.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EyeWitness+to+History%2C+www.eyewitnesstohistory.com&rft.atitle=Battle+At+Gallipoli%2C+1915&rft.date=2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eyewitnesstohistory.com%2Fgallipoli.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081221214657/http://www.worldwar2database.com/html/sicily.htm">"Sicily July 10 – August 17, 1943 – World War II Multimedia Database"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwar2database.com/html/sicily.htm">the original</a> on 21 December 2008. Retrieved 14 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sicily+July+10+%E2%80%93+August+17%2C+1943+%E2%80%93+World+War+II+Multimedia+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwar2database.com%2Fhtml%2Fsicily.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Charles F. Delzell, edit., Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26 </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf">"Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919-22"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2022. 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From Fascism to Democracy: Culture and Politics in the Italian Election of 1948. University of Toronto Press. pp. 236–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Fascism+to+Democracy%3A+Culture+and+Politics+in+the+Italian+Election+of+1948&rft.pages=236-37&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Robert+Ventresca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBocca2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bocca, Giorgio (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-2uUngEACAAJ&pg=PA39">Storia dell'Italia partigiana settembre 1943 - maggio 1945</a> (in Italian). Mondadori. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-0717-2441" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-0717-2441"><bdi>978-88-0717-2441</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storia+dell%27Italia+partigiana+settembre+1943+-+maggio+1945&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Mondadori&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-88-0717-2441&rft.aulast=Bocca&rft.aufirst=Giorgio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-2uUngEACAAJ%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bosworth, Richard J. B. Mussolini's Italy (2005).</li> <li>Cannistraro, Philip V. ed. Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy (1982)</li> <li>Clark, Martin. Modern Italy: 1871–1982 (1984, 3rd edn 2008)</li> <li>De Grand, Alexander. Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882–1922 (2001)</li> <li>De Grand, Alexander. Italian Fascism: Its Origins and Development (1989)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanapini2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ganapini, Luigi (2010) [1999]. Garzanti (ed.). La repubblica delle camicie nere. I combattenti, i politici, gli amministratori, i socializzatori (in Italian) (2a ed.). Milano. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-11-69417-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-11-69417-5"><bdi>978-88-11-69417-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+repubblica+delle+camicie+nere.+I+combattenti%2C+i+politici%2C+gli+amministratori%2C+i+socializzatori&rft.place=Milano&rft.edition=2a&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-88-11-69417-5&rft.aulast=Ganapini&rft.aufirst=Luigi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li>Ginsborg, Paul. A History of Contemporary Italy, 1943–1988 (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1403961530">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Lyttelton, Adrian. Liberal and Fascist Italy: 1900–1945 (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731981">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith1997" class="citation book cs1">Mack Smith, Denis (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p36rQgAACAAJ">Modern Italy: A Political History</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04342-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04342-6"><bdi>978-0-300-04342-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Italy%3A+A+Political+History&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-300-04342-6&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp36rQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith1983" class="citation book cs1">Mack Smith, Denis (1983). Mussolini: A Biography. New York: Vintage Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0394716589" title="Special:BookSources/978-0394716589"><bdi>978-0394716589</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0394716589&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>McCarthy, Patrick ed. Italy since 1945 (2000)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeldi2015" class="citation book cs1">Meldi, Diego (2015). La repubblica di Salò. Gherardo Casini Editore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-6410-068-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-6410-068-5"><bdi>978-88-6410-068-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+repubblica+di+Sal%C3%B2&rft.pub=Gherardo+Casini+Editore&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-88-6410-068-5&rft.aulast=Meldi&rft.aufirst=Diego&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStockingsHancock2013" class="citation book cs1">Stockings, Craig; Hancock, Eleanor (2013). Swastika over the Acropolis: Re-interpreting the Nazi Invasion of Greece in World War II. Leiden: BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25459-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25459-6"><bdi>978-90-04-25459-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swastika+over+the+Acropolis%3A+Re-interpreting+the+Nazi+Invasion+of+Greece+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25459-6&rft.aulast=Stockings&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft.au=Hancock%2C+Eleanor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Kingdom+of+Italy+%281861%E2%80%931946%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Toniolo, Gianni. An Economic History of Liberal Italy, 1850–1918 (1990)</li> <li>Vera Zamagni. The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990 (1993) 413 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-828773-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-828773-9">0-19-828773-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Italy_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italy_topics" title="Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italy_topics" title="Template talk:Italy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italy_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Italy" title="Outline of Italy">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline of Italian history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Italy" title="Neolithic Italy">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinaldone_culture" title="Rinaldone culture">Rinaldone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_culture" title="Apennine culture">Apennine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latial_culture" title="Latial culture">Latial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Ancient peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapians" title="Messapians">Messapians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li>Italy under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">the Sardinian Judicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombard League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Napoleonic Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Late modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Monarchy and the World Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italian geographical region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Italy" title="Climate of Italy">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Italy" title="Fauna of Italy">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Italy" title="List of mountains in Italy">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_foothills" title="Alpine foothills">Prealps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy" title="Volcanism of Italy">Volcanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Italy" title="List of volcanoes in Italy">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Italy" title="List of beaches in Italy">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_Italy" title="List of canals in Italy">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_Italy" title="List of caves in Italy">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Italy" title="List of earthquakes in Italy">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Italy" title="List of islands of Italy">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Italy" title="List of lakes of Italy">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Italy" title="List of national parks of Italy">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Italy" title="List of regional parks of Italy">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Italy" title="List of rivers of Italy">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Italy" title="List of valleys of Italy">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Italy" title="Politics of Italy">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Italy" title="Elections in Italy">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Italy" title="Government of Italy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Italy" title="Human rights in Italy">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Italy">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Italy" title="Law enforcement in Italy">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces" title="Italian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Italy" title="List of political parties in Italy">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Italy" title="List of presidents of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Italy)" title="Council of Ministers (Italy)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Italy" title="Regions of Italy">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_cities_of_Italy" title="Metropolitan cities of Italy">Metropolitan cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Italy" title="List of cities in Italy">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">Comune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Italy" title="List of municipalities of Italy">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_intelligence_agencies" title="Italian intelligence agencies">Security and intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Italian regions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_brands" title="List of Italian brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Italy" title="Energy in Italy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Italy" title="List of airports in Italy">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Italy" title="Rail transport in Italy">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_welfare_state" title="Italian welfare state">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Italy" title="Category:Society of Italy">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Italy" title="Censorship in Italy">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Italy" title="Corruption in Italy">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Italy" title="Crime in Italy">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy" title="Demographics of Italy">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Emigration and diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Italy" title="Health in Italy">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Italy" title="Immigration to Italy">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Italy" title="List of people from Italy">People</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Italian provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Italy" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Italy">Orders, decorations, and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" title="Poverty in Italy">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Italy" title="Prostitution in Italy">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_public_administration" title="Italian public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Italy" title="Terrorism in Italy">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Italy" title="Culture of Italy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_culture_(1700s)" title="History of Italian culture (1700s)">Settecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Neoclassical_and_19th-century_art" title="Italian Neoclassical and 19th-century art">Ottocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Italy" title="List of castles in Italy">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cathedrals_in_Italy" title="List of cathedrals in Italy">Cathedrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Italy" title="Emblem of Italy">Coat of arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_design" title="Italian design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_fashion" title="Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Italy" title="Folklore of Italy">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gardens_in_Italy" title="List of gardens in Italy">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Italy" title="Internet in Italy">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italophilia" title="Italophilia">Italophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Italy" title="List of libraries in Italy">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Italy" title="Mass media in Italy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Italy" title="List of museums in Italy">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Italy" title="National symbols of Italy">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces_in_Italy" title="List of palaces in Italy">Palaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Italy" title="Public holidays in Italy">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Italy" title="Sport in Italy">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_Italy" title="Traditions of Italy">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Italy" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Italy">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Italy" title="Category:Italy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Years_in_Italy_(1861–present)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Years_in_Italy" title="Template:Years in Italy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Years_in_Italy" title="Template talk:Years in Italy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Years_in_Italy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Years in Italy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Years_in_Italy_(1861–present)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Italy" title="List of years in Italy">Years</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> (1861–present)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Years_of_the_19th_century_in_Italy" title="Category:Years of the 19th century in Italy">Pre-1861</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1861_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1861 in Italy (page does not exist)">1861</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1862_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1862 in Italy (page does not exist)">1862</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1863_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1863 in Italy (page does not exist)">1863</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1864_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1864 in Italy (page does not exist)">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1865_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1865 in Italy (page does not exist)">1865</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1866_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1866 in Italy (page does not exist)">1866</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1867_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1867 in Italy (page does not exist)">1867</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1868_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1868 in Italy (page does not exist)">1868</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1869_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1869 in Italy (page does not exist)">1869</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1870_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1870 in Italy (page does not exist)">1870</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1871_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1871 in Italy (page does not exist)">1871</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1872_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1872 in Italy (page does not exist)">1872</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1873_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1873 in Italy (page does not exist)">1873</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1874_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1874 in Italy (page does not exist)">1874</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1875_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1875 in Italy (page does not exist)">1875</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1876_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1876 in Italy (page does not exist)">1876</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1877_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1877 in Italy (page does not exist)">1877</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1878_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1878 in Italy (page does not exist)">1878</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1879_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1879 in Italy (page does not exist)">1879</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1880_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1880 in Italy (page does not exist)">1880</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1881_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1881 in Italy (page does not exist)">1881</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1882_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1882 in Italy (page does not exist)">1882</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1883_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1883 in Italy (page does not exist)">1883</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_in_Italy" title="1884 in Italy">1884</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1885_in_Italy" title="1885 in Italy">1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1886_in_Italy" title="1886 in Italy">1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1887_in_Italy" title="1887 in Italy">1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_in_Italy" title="1888 in Italy">1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1889_in_Italy" title="1889 in Italy">1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1890_in_Italy" title="1890 in Italy">1890</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1891_in_Italy" title="1891 in Italy">1891</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_in_Italy" title="1892 in Italy">1892</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1893_in_Italy" title="1893 in Italy">1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1894_in_Italy" title="1894 in Italy">1894</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1895_in_Italy" title="1895 in Italy">1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1896_in_Italy" title="1896 in Italy">1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1897_in_Italy" title="1897 in Italy">1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1898_in_Italy" title="1898 in Italy">1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1899_in_Italy" title="1899 in Italy">1899</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_in_Italy" title="1900 in Italy">1900</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1901_in_Italy" title="1901 in Italy">1901</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1902_in_Italy" title="1902 in Italy">1902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1903_in_Italy" title="1903 in Italy">1903</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_in_Italy" title="1904 in Italy">1904</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1905_in_Italy" title="1905 in Italy">1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_in_Italy" title="1906 in Italy">1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1907_in_Italy" title="1907 in Italy">1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_in_Italy" title="1908 in Italy">1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_in_Italy" title="1909 in Italy">1909</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1910_in_Italy" title="1910 in Italy">1910</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_in_Italy" title="1911 in Italy">1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_in_Italy" title="1912 in Italy">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1913_in_Italy" title="1913 in Italy">1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1914_in_Italy" title="1914 in Italy">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_in_Italy" title="1915 in Italy">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_in_Italy" title="1916 in Italy">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_in_Italy" title="1917 in Italy">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_in_Italy" title="1918 in Italy">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_in_Italy" title="1919 in Italy">1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_in_Italy" title="1920 in Italy">1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_in_Italy" title="1921 in Italy">1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1922_in_Italy" title="1922 in Italy">1922</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1923_in_Italy" title="1923 in Italy">1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_in_Italy" title="1924 in Italy">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1925_in_Italy" title="1925 in Italy">1925</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_in_Italy" title="1926 in Italy">1926</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1927_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1927 in Italy (page does not exist)">1927</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_in_Italy" title="1928 in Italy">1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1929_in_Italy" title="1929 in Italy">1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1930_in_Italy" title="1930 in Italy">1930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1931_in_Italy" title="1931 in Italy">1931</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_in_Italy" title="1932 in Italy">1932</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1933_in_Italy" title="1933 in Italy">1933</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1934_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1934 in Italy (page does not exist)">1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_in_Italy" title="1935 in Italy">1935</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1936_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1936 in Italy (page does not exist)">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1937_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1937 in Italy (page does not exist)">1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_in_Italy" title="1938 in Italy">1938</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1939_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1939 in Italy (page does not exist)">1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_in_Italy" title="1940 in Italy">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1941_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1941 in Italy (page does not exist)">1941</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1942_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1942 in Italy (page does not exist)">1942</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1943_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1943 in Italy (page does not exist)">1943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_in_Italy" title="1944 in Italy">1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1945_in_Italy" title="1945 in Italy">1945</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1946_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1946 in Italy (page does not exist)">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1947_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1947 in Italy (page does not exist)">1947</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1948_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1948 in Italy (page does not exist)">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1949_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1949 in Italy (page does not exist)">1949</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1950 in Italy (page does not exist)">1950</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1951_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1951 in Italy (page does not exist)">1951</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1952_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1952 in Italy (page does not exist)">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1953_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1953 in Italy (page does not exist)">1953</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1954_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1954 in Italy (page does not exist)">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1955_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1955 in Italy (page does not exist)">1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_in_Italy" title="1956 in Italy">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1957_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1957 in Italy (page does not exist)">1957</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1958_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1958 in Italy (page does not exist)">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1959_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1959 in Italy (page does not exist)">1959</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1960_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1960 in Italy (page does not exist)">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1961_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1961 in Italy (page does not exist)">1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1962_in_Italy" title="1962 in Italy">1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_in_Italy" title="1963 in Italy">1963</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1964_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1964 in Italy (page does not exist)">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_in_Italy" title="1965 in Italy">1965</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1966_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1966 in Italy (page does not exist)">1966</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1967_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1967 in Italy (page does not exist)">1967</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1968_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1968 in Italy (page does not exist)">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1969_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1969 in Italy (page does not exist)">1969</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1970_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1970 in Italy (page does not exist)">1970</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1971_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1971 in Italy (page does not exist)">1971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_in_Italy" title="1972 in Italy">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1973_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1973 in Italy (page does not exist)">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1974_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1974 in Italy (page does not exist)">1974</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1975_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1975 in Italy (page does not exist)">1975</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1976_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1976 in Italy (page does not exist)">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1977_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1977 in Italy (page does not exist)">1977</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1978_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1978 in Italy (page does not exist)">1978</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_in_Italy" title="1979 in Italy">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_in_Italy" title="1980 in Italy">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_in_Italy" title="1981 in Italy">1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_in_Italy" title="1982 in Italy">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1983_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1983 in Italy (page does not exist)">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1984_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1984 in Italy (page does not exist)">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_in_Italy" title="1985 in Italy">1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_in_Italy" title="1986 in Italy">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1987_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1987 in Italy (page does not exist)">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_in_Italy" title="1988 in Italy">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_in_Italy" title="1989 in Italy">1989</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1990_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1990 in Italy (page does not exist)">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1991_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1991 in Italy (page does not exist)">1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_in_Italy" title="1992 in Italy">1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_in_Italy" title="1993 in Italy">1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_in_Italy" title="1994 in Italy">1994</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1995_in_Italy" title="1995 in Italy">1995</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_in_Italy" title="1996 in Italy">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_in_Italy" title="1997 in Italy">1997</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_in_Italy" title="1998 in Italy">1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_in_Italy" title="1999 in Italy">1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_in_Italy" title="2000 in Italy">2000</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2001_in_Italy" title="2001 in Italy">2001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_in_Italy" title="2002 in Italy">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_in_Italy" title="2003 in Italy">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_in_Italy" title="2004 in Italy">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_Italy" title="2005 in Italy">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_Italy" title="2006 in Italy">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_Italy" title="2007 in Italy">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_in_Italy" title="2008 in Italy">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_in_Italy" title="2009 in Italy">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_in_Italy" title="2010 in Italy">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_in_Italy" title="2011 in Italy">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_in_Italy" title="2012 in Italy">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_in_Italy" title="2013 in Italy">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_in_Italy" title="2014 in Italy">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_in_Italy" title="2015 in Italy">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_Italy" title="2016 in Italy">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_in_Italy" title="2017 in Italy">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_in_Italy" title="2018 in Italy">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_Italy" title="2019 in Italy">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_Italy" title="2020 in Italy">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_Italy" title="2021 in Italy">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_Italy" title="2022 in Italy">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_Italy" title="2023 in Italy">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_Italy" title="2024 in Italy">2024</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)&oldid=1253510362">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)&oldid=1253510362</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Modern_history_of_Italy" title="Category:Modern history of Italy">Modern history of Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="Category:Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th_century_in_Italy" title="Category:19th century in Italy">19th century in Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th_century_in_Italy" title="Category:20th century in Italy">20th century in Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Italy_in_World_War_I" 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