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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Biological background</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biological_background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biological background subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biological_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_products_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_products_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Natural products chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_products_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herbal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herbal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Herbal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herbal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microscopical_evaluation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microscopical_evaluation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Microscopical evaluation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microscopical_evaluation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of 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Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="علم العقاقير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم العقاقير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacognosia" title="Farmacognosia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Farmacognosia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakoqnoziya" title="Farmakoqnoziya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Farmakoqnoziya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%9C_%E0%A6%94%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ভেষজ ঔষধবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভেষজ ঔষধবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacogn%C3%B2sia" title="Farmacognòsia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Farmacognòsia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognozie" title="Farmakognozie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Farmakognozie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognosi" title="Farmakognosi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Farmakognosi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmakognosie" title="Pharmakognosie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pharmakognosie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φαρμακογνωσία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φαρμακογνωσία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacognosia" title="Farmacognosia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Farmacognosia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognosia" title="Farmakognosia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Farmakognosia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%DA%AF%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="فارماکوگنوزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فارماکوگنوزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacognosie" title="Pharmacognosie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pharmacognosie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EC%95%BD%ED%95%99" title="생약학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생약학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%9C-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भेषज-अभिज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भेषज-अभिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognozija" title="Farmakognozija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Farmakognozija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognosi" title="Farmakognosi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Farmakognosi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacognosia" title="Farmacognosia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Farmacognosia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фармакогнозия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фармакогнозия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacognuz%C3%ACa" title="Farmacognuzìa – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Farmacognuzìa" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakogn%C3%B3zia" title="Farmakognózia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Farmakognózia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Фармакогнозија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фармакогнозија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacognosie" title="Farmacognosie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Farmacognosie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E8%96%AC%E5%AD%A6" title="生薬学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生薬学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognosi" title="Farmakognosi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Farmakognosi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacognosia" title="Farmacognosia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Farmacognosia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognozja" title="Farmakognozja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Farmakognozja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacognosia" title="Farmacognosia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Farmacognosia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacognozie" title="Farmacognozie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Farmacognozie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фармакогнозия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фармакогнозия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakogn%C3%B3zia" title="Farmakognózia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Farmakognózia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognozija" title="Farmakognozija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Farmakognozija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Фармакогнозија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фармакогнозија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognozija" title="Farmakognozija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Farmakognozija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognosi" title="Farmakognosi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Farmakognosi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognosi" title="Farmakognosi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Farmakognosi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%97" title="เภสัชเวท – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เภสัชเวท" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakognozi" title="Farmakognozi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Farmakognozi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фармакогнозія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фармакогнозія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c_li%E1%BB%87u_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Dược liệu học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dược liệu học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E8%8D%AF%E5%AD%A6" title="生药学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="生药学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q319616#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacognosy" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Pharmacognosy" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of drugs obtained from natural sources</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg/350px-Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg" decoding="async" width="350" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a>’ <i><a href="/wiki/Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="Materia Medica">Materia Medica</a></i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1334</span> copy in Arabic, describes medicinal features of various <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Pharmacognosy</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Crude_drug" title="Crude drug">crude drugs</a> obtained from <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal plant">medicinal plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, and other natural sources.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Pharmacognosy" title="American Society of Pharmacognosy">American Society of Pharmacognosy</a> defines pharmacognosy as "the study of the physical, chemical, <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemical</a>, and biological properties of drugs, drug substances, or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the <a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">search for new drugs</a> from natural sources".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacognosy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word "pharmacognosy" is derived from two <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> words: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φάρμακον</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pharmakon</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drug</a>), and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">γνῶσις</span></span> <i><a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">gnosis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>) or the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> verb <i><a href="/wiki/Cognition#Etymology" title="Cognition">cognosco</a></i> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">con</i></span>, 'with', and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">gnōscō</i></span>, 'know'; itself a <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> verb <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">γι(γ)νώσκω</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">gi(g)nósko</i></span>, meaning 'I know, perceive'),<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning 'to conceptualize' or 'to recognize'.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "pharmacognosy" was used for the first time by the German physician <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schmidt" title="Johann Adam Schmidt">Johann Adam Schmidt</a> (1759–1809) in his published book <i>Lehrbuch der Materia Medica</i> in 1811, and by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anotheus_Seydler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anotheus Seydler (page does not exist)">Anotheus Seydler</a> in 1815, in his <i>Analecta Pharmacognostica</i>. </p><p>Originally—during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century—"pharmacognosy" was used to define the branch of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> or commodity sciences (<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Warenkunde" class="extiw" title="wikt:Warenkunde">Warenkunde</a></i> in German) which deals with <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a> in their crude, or unprepared form. <a href="/wiki/Crude_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude drugs">Crude drugs</a> are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin, used for medicine. The study of these materials under the name <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Pharmakognosie" class="extiw" title="wikt:Pharmakognosie">Pharmakognosie</a></i> was first developed in German-speaking areas of Europe, while other language areas often used the older term <i>materia medica</i> taken from the works of <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a>. In German, the term <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Drogenkunde" class="extiw" title="wikt:Drogenkunde">Drogenkunde</a></i> ("science of crude drugs") is also used synonymously. </p><p>As late as the beginning of the 20th century, the subject had developed mainly on the botanical side, being particularly concerned with the description and identification of drugs both in their whole state and in powder form. Such branches of pharmacognosy are still of fundamental importance, particularly for botanical products (widely available as dietary supplements in the U.S. and Canada), quality control purposes, pharmacopoeial protocols and related health regulatory frameworks. At the same time, development in other areas of research has enormously expanded the subject. The advent of the 21st century brought a renaissance of pharmacognosy, and its conventional botanical approach has been broadened up to molecular and <a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">metabolomic</a> levels.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the previously mentioned definition, the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Pharmacognosy" title="American Society of Pharmacognosy">American Society of Pharmacognosy</a> defines pharmacognosy as "the study of natural product molecules (typically secondary metabolites) that are useful for their medicinal, ecological, gustatory, or other functional properties."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the mission of the Pharmacognosy Institute at the University of Illinois at Chicago involves plant-based and plant-related health products for the benefit of human health.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other definitions are more encompassing, drawing on a broad spectrum of biological subjects, including <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">ethnobotany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbal_medicine" title="Herbal medicine">herbal medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">phytochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutics" title="Pharmaceutics">pharmaceutics</a>, clinical <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacy practice">pharmacy practice</a>. </p> <ul><li>medical <a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">ethnobotany</a>: the study of traditional uses of plants for medicinal purposes;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopharmacology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnopharmacology">ethnopharmacology</a>: the study of pharmacological qualities of traditional medicinal substances;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytotherapy">phytotherapy</a>: the study of medicinal use of plant extracts;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">phytochemistry</a>: the study of chemicals derived from plants (including the identification of new drug candidates derived from plant sources);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoopharmacognosy" title="Zoopharmacognosy">zoopharmacognosy</a>: the process by which animals self-medicate, by selecting and using plants, soils, and insects to treat and prevent disease;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pharmacognosy" title="Marine pharmacognosy">marine pharmacognosy</a>: the study of chemicals derived from marine organisms.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_background">Biological background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacognosy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biological background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Primula_aka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Primula_aka.jpg/220px-Primula_aka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Primula_aka.jpg/330px-Primula_aka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Primula_aka.jpg/440px-Primula_aka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1051" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Carotenoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Carotenoids">carotenoids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Primulaceae" title="Primulaceae">primrose</a> produce bright red, yellow and orange shades.</figcaption></figure> <p>All plants produce <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical compounds">chemical compounds</a> as part of their normal <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic</a> activities. These <a href="/wiki/Phytochemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytochemicals">phytochemicals</a> are divided into (1) <a href="/wiki/Primary_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary metabolites">primary metabolites</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fats</a>, which are found in all plants; and (2) <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary metabolites">secondary metabolites</a>—compounds which are found in a smaller range of plants, serving more specific functions.<sup id="cite_ref-meskin-2002-p123_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meskin-2002-p123-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, some secondary metabolites are <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> used by plants to <a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">deter predation</a> and others are <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromones</a> used to attract insects for <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a>. It is these secondary metabolites and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs—examples are <a href="/wiki/Inulin" title="Inulin">inulin</a> from the roots of <a href="/wiki/Dahlia" title="Dahlia">dahlias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Cinchona" title="Cinchona">cinchona</a>, <a href="/wiki/THC" class="mw-redirect" title="THC">THC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cannabidiol" title="Cannabidiol">CBD</a> from the flowers of <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Codeine" title="Codeine">codeine</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Poppy" title="Poppy">poppy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Digoxin" title="Digoxin">digoxin</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Digitalis" title="Digitalis">foxglove</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-meskin-2002-p123_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meskin-2002-p123-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plants synthesize a variety of <a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">phytochemicals</a>, but most are derivatives:<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkaloids" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaloids">Alkaloids</a> are a class of chemical compounds containing a nitrogen ring. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyphenol" title="Polyphenol">Polyphenols</a> (<abbr title="also known as">a.k.a.</abbr> phenolics) are compounds that contain <a href="/wiki/Phenol" title="Phenol">phenol</a> rings. The <a href="/wiki/Anthocyanin" title="Anthocyanin">anthocyanins</a> that give grapes their purple color, the <a href="/wiki/Isoflavone" title="Isoflavone">isoflavones</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phytoestrogen" title="Phytoestrogen">phytoestrogens</a> from <a href="/wiki/Soy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soy">soy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tannin" title="Tannin">tannins</a> that give tea its astringency are phenolics.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosides">Glycosides</a> are molecules in which a sugar is bound to a non-carbohydrate moiety, usually a small organic molecule. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terpenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Terpenes">Terpenes</a> are a large and diverse class of <a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds">organic compounds</a>, produced by a variety of plants, particularly <a href="/wiki/Conifers" class="mw-redirect" title="Conifers">conifers</a>, which are often strong smelling and thus may have a protective function. They are the major components of <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resins</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a> produced from resins. When terpenes are modified chemically, such as by oxidation or rearrangement of the carbon skeleton, the resulting compounds are generally referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Terpenoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Terpenoids">terpenoids</a></i>. Terpenes and terpenoids are the primary constituents of the essential oils of many types of plants and flowers. Essential oils are used widely as natural flavor additives for food, as fragrances in perfumery, and in traditional and alternative medicines such as aromatherapy. Synthetic variations and derivatives of natural terpenes and terpenoids also greatly expand the variety of aromas used in perfumery and flavors used in food additives. The fragrance of <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">rose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lavender" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender">lavender</a> is due to <a href="/wiki/Monoterpene" title="Monoterpene">monoterpenes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> produce shades of red, yellow and orange in <a href="/wiki/Pumpkin" title="Pumpkin">pumpkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomatoes</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_products_chemistry">Natural products chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacognosy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Natural products chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Digoxin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Digoxin.svg/220px-Digoxin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Digoxin.svg/330px-Digoxin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Digoxin.svg/440px-Digoxin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="1145" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Digoxin" title="Digoxin">Digoxin</a> is a purified <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_glycoside" title="Cardiac glycoside">cardiac glycoside</a> that is extracted from the <a href="/wiki/Foxglove" class="mw-redirect" title="Foxglove">foxglove</a> plant, <i><a href="/wiki/Digitalis_lanata" title="Digitalis lanata">Digitalis lanata</a></i>. Digoxin is widely used in the treatment of various heart conditions.</figcaption></figure> <p>A typical protocol to isolate a pure chemical agent from natural origin is <a href="/wiki/Fractionation" title="Fractionation">bioassay-guided fractionation</a>, meaning step-by-step separation of extracted components based on differences in their physicochemical properties, and assessing the <a href="/wiki/Biological_activity" title="Biological activity">biological activity</a>, followed by next round of separation and assaying. Typically, such work is initiated after a given crude drug formulation (typically prepared by solvent extraction of the natural material) is deemed "active" in a particular <i>in vitro</i> assay. If the end-goal of the work at hand is to identify which one(s) of the scores or hundreds of compounds are responsible for the observed <i>in vitro</i> activity, the path to that end is fairly straightforward: </p> <ol><li>fractionate the crude extract, e.g. by solvent partitioning or chromatography.</li> <li>test the fractions thereby generated with <i>in vitro</i> assays.</li> <li>repeat steps 1) and 2) until pure, active compounds are obtained.</li> <li>determine structure(s) of active compound(s), typically by using spectroscopic methods.</li></ol> <p><i>In vitro</i> activity does not necessarily translate to biological activity in humans or other living systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herbal">Herbal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacognosy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Herbal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the past, in some countries in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and Africa, up to 80% of the population may rely on <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional medicine</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Herbal_medicine" title="Herbal medicine">herbal medicine</a>) for primary health care.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native American cultures have also relied on traditional medicine such as ceremonial smoking of tobacco, potlatch ceremonies, and <a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">herbalism</a>, to name a few, prior to European colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowledge of traditional medicinal practices is disappearing in indigenous communities, particularly in the Amazon.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With worldwide research into <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, traditional medicines or ancient herbal medicines are often translated into modern remedies, such as the anti-malarial group of drugs called <a href="/wiki/Artemisinin" title="Artemisinin">artemisinin</a> isolated from <i><a href="/wiki/Artemisia_annua" title="Artemisia annua">Artemisia annua</a></i> herb, a herb that was known in Chinese medicine to treat fever. However, it was found that its plant extracts had <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimalarial">antimalarial</a> activity, leading to the Nobel Prize winning discovery of artemisinin.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microscopical_evaluation">Microscopical evaluation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacognosy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Microscopical evaluation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Microscopic evaluation is essential for the initial identification of herbs, identifying small fragments of crude or powdered herbs, identifying <a href="/wiki/Adulterant" title="Adulterant">adulterants</a> (such as insects, animal feces, mold, fungi, etc.), and recognizing the plant by its characteristic tissue features. Techniques such as microscopic linear measurements, determination of leaf constants, and quantitative microscopy are also utilized in this evaluation. The determination of leaf constants includes stomatal number, stomatal index, vein islet number, vein termination number, and palisade ratio.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The stomatal index is the percentage formed by the number of <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomata</a> divided by the total number of <a href="/wiki/Epidermal_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermal cells">epidermal cells</a>, with each stoma being counted as one cell. </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S.I.={\frac {S}{E+S}}\times 100}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>.</mo> <mi>I</mi> <mo>.</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>S</mi> <mrow> <mi>E</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mn>100</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S.I.={\frac {S}{E+S}}\times 100}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4b100e1c01aa318c2d06aea29f72d64e0cab8c18" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:20.471ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S.I.={\frac {S}{E+S}}\times 100}"></span> </p><p>where: </p><p>S.I. is the stomatal index </p><p>S is the number of stomata per unit area </p><p>E is the number of epidermal cells in the same unit area.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacognosy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">List of plants used in herbalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pharmacognosy_Reviews" title="Pharmacognosy Reviews">Pharmacognosy Reviews</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacognosy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFieldsZoppi2016" class="citation web cs1">Fields, Deborah; 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=News-Medical.net&rft.atitle=What+is+Pharmacognosy%3F&rft.date=2016-08-01&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rft.au=Zoppi%2C+Lois&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.news-medical.net%2Fhealth%2FWhat-is-Pharmacognosy.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacognosy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19981201075709/http://www.phcog.org/definition.html">The American Society of Pharmacognosy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison1929" class="citation journal cs1">Harrison, E. 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(November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4966551">"The discovery of artemisinin and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"</a>. <i>Science China Life Sciences</i>. <b>58</b> (11): 1175–1179. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11427-015-4948-7">10.1007/s11427-015-4948-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1674-7305">1674-7305</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4966551">4966551</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26481135">26481135</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+China+Life+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+artemisinin+and+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1175-1179&rft.date=2015-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4966551%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1674-7305&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26481135&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11427-015-4948-7&rft.aulast=Su&rft.aufirst=Xin-zhuan&rft.au=Miller%2C+Louis+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4966551&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacognosy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahSeth2012" class="citation book cs1">Shah, Biren; Seth, Avinash (2012-05-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=obWBB_-ke38C"><i>Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry - E-Book</i></a>. Elsevier Health Sciences. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-312-3260-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-312-3260-6"><bdi>978-81-312-3260-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Pharmacognosy+and+Phytochemistry+-+E-Book&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2012-05-14&rft.isbn=978-81-312-3260-6&rft.aulast=Shah&rft.aufirst=Biren&rft.au=Seth%2C+Avinash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DobWBB_-ke38C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacognosy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.calculatoratoz.com/en/stomatal-index-calculator/Calc-42815">"Stomatal Index Calculator | Calculate Stomatal Index"</a>. <i>www.calculatoratoz.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.calculatoratoz.com&rft.atitle=Stomatal+Index+Calculator+%7C+Calculate+Stomatal+Index&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.calculatoratoz.com%2Fen%2Fstomatal-index-calculator%2FCalc-42815&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacognosy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacognosy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" 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medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug" title="Prescription drug">Prescription drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_activity" title="Biological activity">Pharmacological activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_prescribing_and_dispensing" title="Separation of prescribing and dispensing">Separation of prescribing and dispensing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pharmaceutical sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</a> & <a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacometrics" title="Pharmacometrics">Pharmacometrics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical chemistry">Pharmaceutical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutics" title="Pharmaceutics">Pharmaceutics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pharmacognosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoepidemiology" title="Pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacocybernetics" title="Pharmacocybernetics">Pharmacocybernetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">Pharmacist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharmacists" title="List of pharmacists">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaconomist" title="Pharmaconomist">Pharmaconomist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_residency" title="Pharmacy residency">Pharmacy residency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_technician" title="Pharmacy technician">Pharmacy technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_school" title="Pharmacy school">Pharmacy school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practice areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pharmacy" title="Clinical pharmacy">Clinical pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_pharmacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Community pharmacy">Community pharmacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_(shop)" title="Pharmacy (shop)">shop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultant_pharmacist" title="Consultant pharmacist">Consultant pharmacist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_pharmacy" title="Hospital pharmacy">Hospital pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pharmacy" title="Nuclear pharmacy">Nuclear pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacist_prescriber" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacist prescriber">Pharmacist prescriber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacy informatics">Pharmacy informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialty_pharmacy" title="Specialty pharmacy">Specialty pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_pharmacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterinary pharmacy">Veterinary pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">Pharmaceutical industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_development" title="Drug development">Drug development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">Drug discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigational_New_Drug" title="Investigational New Drug">Investigational New Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_benefit_management" title="Pharmacy benefit management">Pharmacy benefit management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharmaceutical_companies" title="List of pharmaceutical companies">List of pharmaceutical companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication_costs" title="Medication costs">Medication costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_in_China" title="Pharmacy in China">Pharmacy in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacies_of_Norway" title="Pharmacies of Norway">Pharmacies of Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacies_in_the_United_States" title="Pharmacies in the United States">Pharmacies in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy_in_the_United_States" title="History of pharmacy in the United States">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pharmacy" title="Category:Pharmacy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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