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href="#Shuttle_design_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Shuttle design debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shuttle_design_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_Force_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_Force_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Air Force involvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_Force_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Final design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Retrospection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Development program of the NASA Space Shuttle</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_Shuttle_concepts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Space_Shuttle_concepts.jpg/170px-Space_Shuttle_concepts.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Space_Shuttle_concepts.jpg/255px-Space_Shuttle_concepts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Space_Shuttle_concepts.jpg/340px-Space_Shuttle_concepts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="495" /></a><figcaption>Early U.S. space shuttle concepts</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> <a href="/wiki/Crewed_moon_landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Crewed moon landings">Moon landing</a> in <a href="/wiki/1969_in_spaceflight" title="1969 in spaceflight">1969</a>, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> began studies of <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> designs as early as October 1968. The early studies were denoted "Phase A", and in June 1970, "Phase B", which were more detailed and specific. The primary intended use of the Phase A Space Shuttle was supporting the future <a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space station</a>, ferrying a minimum crew of four and about 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) of cargo, and being able to be rapidly turned around for future flights, with larger payloads like space station modules being lifted by the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a>. </p><p>Two designs emerged as front-runners. One was designed by engineers at the <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center">Manned Spaceflight Center</a>, and championed especially by <a href="/wiki/George_Mueller_(NASA)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Mueller (NASA)">George Mueller</a>. This was a two-stage system with delta-winged spacecraft, and generally complex. An attempt to re-simplify was made in the form of the <a href="/wiki/North_American_DC-3" title="North American DC-3">DC-3</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Maxime_Faget" title="Maxime Faget">Maxime Faget</a>, who had designed the Mercury capsule among other vehicles. Numerous offerings from a variety of commercial companies were also offered but generally fell by the wayside as each NASA lab pushed for its own version. </p><p>All of this was taking place in the midst of other NASA teams proposing a wide variety of post-Apollo missions, a number of which would cost as much as Apollo or more.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As each of these projects fought for funding, the NASA budget was at the same time being severely constrained. Three were eventually presented to United States <a href="/wiki/Spiro_T._Agnew" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiro T. Agnew">Vice President Spiro Agnew</a> in 1969. The shuttle project rose to the top, largely due to tireless campaigning by its supporters.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By 1970 the shuttle had been selected as the one major project for the short-term post-Apollo time frame. </p><p>When funding for the program came into question, there were concerns that the project might be canceled. This became especially pressing as it became clear that the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> would no longer be produced, which meant that the payload to orbit needed to be increased in both mass - all the way to 60,600 pounds (27,500 kg) - and size to supplement its heavy-lift capabilities, necessary for planned interplanetary probes and space station modules, which meant a bigger and costlier vehicle was needed during Phase B. Therefore, NASA tried to interest the <a href="/wiki/US_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="US Air Force">US Air Force</a> and a variety of other customers in using the shuttle for their missions as well. To lower the development costs of the proposed designs, boosters were added, a throw-away fuel tank was adopted, and many other changes were made that greatly lowered the reusability and greatly added to the vehicle and operational costs. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decision-making_process">Decision-making process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Decision-making process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1969, United States <a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Vice President Spiro Agnew</a> chaired the <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="National Aeronautics and Space Council">National Aeronautics and Space Council</a>, which discussed post-<a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> options for <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human space</a> activities.<sup id="cite_ref-spacetaskgroupreport1969_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spacetaskgroupreport1969-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recommendations of the Council would heavily influence the decisions of the <a href="/wiki/Nixon_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Nixon Administration">administration</a>. The Council considered four major options: </p> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">human mission to Mars</a></li> <li>Follow-on <a href="/wiki/Moon_landing" title="Moon landing">lunar program</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbital</a> infrastructure program</li> <li>Discontinuing human space activities</li></ul> <p>Based on the advice of the Space Council, <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Nixon">President Nixon</a> made the decision to pursue the <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbital</a> infrastructure option. This program mainly consisted of the construction of a <a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space station</a>, along with the development of a <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>. Funding restrictions precluded pursuing the development of both programs simultaneously, however. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> chose to develop the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a> first, and then planned to use the shuttle in order to construct and service a space station. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shuttle_design_debate">Shuttle design debate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Shuttle design debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg/220px-North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg/330px-North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg 2x" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="222" /></a><figcaption>Original North American Rockwell Shuttle <a href="/wiki/Delta_wing" title="Delta wing">delta wing</a> design, 1969: fully reusable, with a flyback crewed booster</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faget_shuttle_concept_P208.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Faget_shuttle_concept_P208.jpg/220px-Faget_shuttle_concept_P208.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Faget_shuttle_concept_P208.jpg/330px-Faget_shuttle_concept_P208.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Faget_shuttle_concept_P208.jpg 2x" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="261" /></a><figcaption>Maxime Faget's <a href="/wiki/North_American_DC-3" title="North American DC-3">DC-3</a> concept employed conventional straight wings.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the early shuttle studies, there was a debate over the optimal shuttle design that best-balanced capability, development cost, and operational cost. Initially, a fully reusable design was preferred. This involved a very large winged crewed <a href="/wiki/Booster_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Booster rocket">booster</a> which would carry a smaller winged crewed orbiter. The booster vehicle would lift the orbiter to a certain altitude and speed, then separate. The booster would return and land horizontally, while the orbiter continued into <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>. After completing its mission, the winged orbiter would re-enter and land horizontally on a runway. The idea was that full reusability would promote lower operating costs. </p><p>However, further studies showed a huge booster was needed to lift an orbiter with the desired payload capability. In space and aviation systems, the cost is closely related to mass, so this meant the overall vehicle cost would be very high. Both booster and orbiter would have rocket engines plus jet engines for use within the atmosphere, plus separate fuel and control systems for each propulsion mode. In addition, there were concurrent discussions about how much funding would be available to develop the program. </p><p>Another competing approach was maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> production line and using its large payload capacity to launch a space station in a few payloads rather than many smaller shuttle payloads. A related concept was servicing the space station using the Air Force <a href="/wiki/Titan_(rocket_family)" title="Titan (rocket family)">Titan III-M</a> to launch a larger <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a> capsule, called "<a href="/wiki/Big_Gemini" title="Big Gemini">Big Gemini</a>", or a smaller "glider" version of the shuttle with no main engines and a 15 ft × 30 ft (4.6 m × 9.1 m) payload bay. </p><p>The shuttle supporters answered that given enough launches, a reusable system would have lower overall costs than disposable rockets. If dividing total program costs over a given number of launches, a high shuttle launch rate would result in lower pre-launch costs. This in turn would make the shuttle cost-competitive with or superior to expendable launchers. Some theoretical studies mentioned 55 shuttle launches per year; however, the final design chosen did not support that launch rate. In particular, the maximum <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">external tank</a> production rate was limited to 24 tanks per year at NASA's <a href="/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility" title="Michoud Assembly Facility">Michoud Assembly Facility</a>. </p><p>The combined space station and Air Force payload requirements were not sufficient to reach desired shuttle launch rates. Therefore, the plan was for all future U.S. space launches—space stations, Air Force, commercial satellites, and scientific research—to use only the Space Shuttle. Most other expendable boosters would be phased out. </p><p>The reusable booster was eventually abandoned due to several factors: high price (combined with limited funding), technical complexity, and development risk. Instead, a partially (not fully) reusable design was selected, where an external propellant tank was discarded for each launch, and the booster rockets and shuttle orbiter were refurbished for reuse. </p><p>Initially, the orbiter was to carry its own liquid <a href="/wiki/Propellant" title="Propellant">propellant</a>. However, studies showed carrying the propellant in an external tank allowed a larger payload bay in an otherwise much smaller craft. It also meant throwing away the tank after each launch, but this was a relatively small portion of operating costs. </p><p>Earlier designs assumed the winged orbiter would also have jet engines to assist maneuvering in the atmosphere after re-entering. However NASA ultimately chose a gliding orbiter, based partially on experience from previous rocket-then-glide vehicles such as the <a href="/wiki/X-15" class="mw-redirect" title="X-15">X-15</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lifting_body" title="Lifting body">lifting bodies</a>. Omitting the jet engines and their fuel would reduce complexity and increase <a href="/w/index.php?title=Payload_(air_and_spacecraft)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Payload (air and spacecraft) (page does not exist)">payload</a>. </p><p>Another decision was the size of the crew. Some said that the shuttle should not carry more than four, the most that could use <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seats</a>. A commander, pilot, <a href="/wiki/Mission_specialist" title="Mission specialist">mission specialist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Payload_specialist" title="Payload specialist">payload specialist</a> were sufficient for any mission. NASA expected to carry more <a href="/wiki/Space_flight_participant" class="mw-redirect" title="Space flight participant">space flight participants</a> as payload specialists, so designed the vehicle to carry more.<sup id="cite_ref-pincus19860305_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pincus19860305-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last remaining debate was over the nature of the boosters. NASA examined four solutions to this problem: development of the existing Saturn lower stage, simple pressure-fed liquid-fuel engines of a new design, a large single solid rocket, or two (or more) smaller ones. Engineers at NASA's <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Space_Flight_Center" title="Marshall Space Flight Center">Marshall Space Flight Center</a> (where the Saturn V development was managed) were particularly concerned about <a href="/wiki/Solid_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid rocket">solid rocket</a> reliability for crewed missions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air_Force_involvement">Air Force involvement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Air Force involvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the mid-1960s the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> had both of its major piloted space projects, <a href="/wiki/X-20_Dyna-Soar" class="mw-redirect" title="X-20 Dyna-Soar">X-20 Dyna-Soar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manned_Orbiting_Laboratory" title="Manned Orbiting Laboratory">Manned Orbiting Laboratory</a>, canceled. This demonstrated its need to cooperate with NASA to place military astronauts and payloads in orbit. The Air Force launched more than 200 satellite reconnaissance missions between 1959 and 1970, and the military's large volume of payloads would be valuable in making the shuttle more economical.<sup id="cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heppenheimer1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 213–216">: 213–216 </span></sup> In turn, by serving Air Force needs, the Shuttle became a truly national system, carrying all military as well as civilian payloads.<sup id="cite_ref-day20100111_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-day20100111-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>NASA sought Air Force support for the shuttle. After the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia">Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> exposed limitations in the United States <a href="/wiki/Satellite_reconnaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite reconnaissance">satellite reconnaissance</a> network, Air Force involvement emphasized the ability to launch spy satellites southward into <a href="/wiki/Polar_orbit" title="Polar orbit">polar orbit</a> from <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_AFB,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg AFB, California">Vandenberg AFB</a>. This required higher energies than for lower inclination orbits. However, to be able to return to Earth after one orbit, despite the Earth rotating 1,000 miles beneath the orbital track, required a larger <a href="/wiki/Delta_wing" title="Delta wing">delta wing</a> size than the earlier simple "DC-3" shuttle. In addition, the straight-wing configuration favored by Max Faget would've requred the vehicle to fly in a stall for most of the reentry and had issues during launch aborts, a situation disliked by NASA. <sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a common misconception that the delta wing was solely by demand of the USAF, however that is merely a myth. </p><p>Despite the potential benefits for the Air Force, the military was satisfied with its expendable boosters, and had less need for the shuttle than NASA. Because the space agency needed outside support, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Defense Department</a> (DoD) and the <a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a> (NRO) gained primary control over the design process. For example, NASA planned a 40-by-15-foot (12.2 by 4.6 m) cargo bay, but NRO specified a 60-by-15-foot (18.3 by 4.6 m) bay because it expected future intelligence satellites to become larger. When Faget again proposed a 12 ft (3.7 m) wide payload bay, the military almost immediately insisted on retaining the 15 ft (4.6 m) width.<sup id="cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heppenheimer1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Air Force also gained the equivalent of the use of one of the shuttles for free despite not paying for the shuttle's development or construction. In exchange for the NASA concessions, the Air Force testified to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Aeronautical_and_Space_Sciences" title="United States Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences">Senate Space Committee</a> on the shuttle's behalf in March 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heppenheimer1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 216, 232–234">: 216, 232–234 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-day20061120_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-day20061120-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As another incentive for the military to use the shuttle, Congress reportedly told DoD that it would not pay for any satellites not designed to fit into the shuttle cargo bay.<sup id="cite_ref-aldridge2005fall_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aldridge2005fall-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although NRO did not redesign existing satellites for the shuttle, the vehicle retained the ability to retrieve large cargos such as the <a href="/wiki/KH-9_HEXAGON" class="mw-redirect" title="KH-9 HEXAGON">KH-9 HEXAGON</a> from orbit for refurbishment, and the agency studied resupplying the satellite in space.<sup id="cite_ref-day20170213_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-day20170213-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Potential military use of the shuttle—including the possibility of using it to verify Soviet compliance with the <a href="/wiki/SALT_II" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT II">SALT II</a> treaty—probably caused President <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> to not cancel the shuttle in 1979 and 1980, when the program was years behind schedule and hundreds of millions of dollars over budget.<sup id="cite_ref-berger20160714_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berger20160714-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Air Force planned on having its own fleet of shuttles and re-built a separate launch facility originally derived from the canceled Manned Orbiting Laboratory program at Vandenberg called <a href="/wiki/SLC-6" class="mw-redirect" title="SLC-6">Space Launch Complex Six (SLC-6)</a>. However, for various reasons, due in large part to the loss of Space Shuttle <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger" title="Space Shuttle Challenger"><i>Challenger</i></a> on January 28, 1986, work on SLC-6 was eventually discontinued and no shuttle launches from that location ever took place. SLC-6 was eventually used for launching the <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin" title="Lockheed Martin">Lockheed Martin</a>-built <a href="/wiki/Athena_(rocket_family)" title="Athena (rocket family)">Athena</a> expendable launch vehicles, which included the successful <a href="/wiki/IKONOS" class="mw-redirect" title="IKONOS">IKONOS</a> commercial <a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation satellite</a> in September 1999 before being reconfigured once again to handle the new generation of <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a> <a href="/wiki/Delta_IV_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta IV rocket">Delta IV</a>'s. The first launch of the Delta IV heavy from SLC-6 occurred in June 2006, launching NROL-22, a classified satellite for the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a> (NRO). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_design">Final design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Final design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Full_isometric_view_of_the_Space_Shuttle_Launch_Stack_Assembly_-_Space_Transportation_System,_Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center,_2101_NASA_Parkway,_Houston,_Harris_County,_TX_HAER_TX-116_(sheet_2_of_6).tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Full_isometric_view_of_the_Space_Shuttle_Launch_Stack_Assembly_-_Space_Transportation_System%2C_Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center%2C_2101_NASA_Parkway%2C_Houston%2C_Harris_County%2C_TX_HAER_TX-116_%28sheet_2_of_6%29.tif/lossy-page1-220px-thumbnail.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Full_isometric_view_of_the_Space_Shuttle_Launch_Stack_Assembly_-_Space_Transportation_System%2C_Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center%2C_2101_NASA_Parkway%2C_Houston%2C_Harris_County%2C_TX_HAER_TX-116_%28sheet_2_of_6%29.tif/lossy-page1-330px-thumbnail.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Full_isometric_view_of_the_Space_Shuttle_Launch_Stack_Assembly_-_Space_Transportation_System%2C_Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center%2C_2101_NASA_Parkway%2C_Houston%2C_Harris_County%2C_TX_HAER_TX-116_%28sheet_2_of_6%29.tif/lossy-page1-440px-thumbnail.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="14400" data-file-height="9600" /></a><figcaption>Final semi-reusable design with throwaway external fuel tank and recoverable <a href="/wiki/Solid_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid rocket">solid rocket</a> boosters</figcaption></figure> <p>While NASA would likely have chosen liquid boosters had it had complete control over the design, the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget" title="Office of Management and Budget">Office of Management and Budget</a> insisted on less expensive solid boosters due to their lower projected development costs.<sup id="cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heppenheimer1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 416–423">: 416–423 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-solid_decision_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-solid_decision-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While a liquid-fueled booster design provided better performance, lower per-flight costs, less environmental impact and less developmental risk, solid boosters were seen as requiring less funding to develop at a time when the Shuttle program had many different elements competing for limited development funds. The final design which was selected was a <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">winged orbiter</a> with <a href="/wiki/RS-25" title="RS-25">three liquid-fueled engines</a>, a large <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">expendable external tank</a> which held <a href="/wiki/Liquid_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid rocket">liquid propellant</a> for these engines, and two reusable <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">solid rocket boosters</a>. </p><p>In the spring of 1972 <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockheed Aircraft">Lockheed Aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas" title="McDonnell Douglas">McDonnell Douglas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grumman" title="Grumman">Grumman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_American_Rockwell" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Rockwell">North American Rockwell</a> submitted proposals to build the shuttle. The NASA selection group thought that Lockheed's shuttle was too complex and too expensive, and the company had no experience with building crewed spacecraft. McDonnell Douglas's was too expensive and had technical issues. Grumman had an excellent design which also seemed too expensive. North American's shuttle had the lowest cost and most realistic cost projections, its design was the easiest for ongoing maintenance, and the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_13" title="Apollo 13">Apollo 13</a> accident involving North American's <a href="/wiki/Command_and_service_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Command and service module">command and service module</a> demonstrated its experience with electrical system failures. NASA announced its choice of North American on July 26, 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heppenheimer1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 429–432">: 429–432 </span></sup> </p><p>The Space Shuttle program used the <a href="/wiki/HAL/S" title="HAL/S">HAL/S</a> programming language.<sup id="cite_ref-jpl-report-1981_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jpl-report-1981-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first microprocessor used was the <a href="/wiki/8088" class="mw-redirect" title="8088">8088</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/80386" class="mw-redirect" title="80386">80386</a>. The Space Shuttle orbiter avionics computer was the <a href="/wiki/IBM_AP-101" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM AP-101">IBM AP-101</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Retrospection">Retrospection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Retrospection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program" title="Criticism of the Space Shuttle program">Criticism of the Space Shuttle program</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_retirement" title="Space Shuttle retirement">Space Shuttle retirement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpaceShuttleGroundProcessingVision.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/SpaceShuttleGroundProcessingVision.jpg/220px-SpaceShuttleGroundProcessingVision.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/SpaceShuttleGroundProcessingVision.jpg/330px-SpaceShuttleGroundProcessingVision.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/SpaceShuttleGroundProcessingVision.jpg/440px-SpaceShuttleGroundProcessingVision.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>Early concept of how the Space Shuttle was to be serviced</figcaption></figure> <p>Opinions differ on the lessons of the Shuttle. It was developed with the original development cost and time estimates given to President Richard M. Nixon in 1971,<sup id="cite_ref-caib_1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caib_1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at a cost of <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$</a>6.744</span><span class="nowrap"> </span>billion in 1971 dollars (equivalent to $38.9 billion in 2023)<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-USGDP_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-USGDP-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> versus an original $5.15<span class="nowrap"> </span>billion estimate.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The operational costs, flight rate, payload capacity, and reliability were different than anticipated, however.<sup id="cite_ref-caib_1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caib_1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buran_(spacecraft)" title="Buran (spacecraft)"><i>Buran</i> (spacecraft)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-stage-to-orbit" title="Single-stage-to-orbit">Single-stage-to-orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes" title="Space Shuttle abort modes">Space Shuttle abort modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship_design_process" class="mw-redirect" title="SpaceX Starship design process">SpaceX Starship design process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Studied_Space_Shuttle_designs" title="Studied Space Shuttle designs">Studied Space Shuttle designs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-spacetaskgroupreport1969-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-spacetaskgroupreport1969_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181224003836/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/taskgrp.html">"Report of the Space Task Group, 1969"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/taskgrp.html">the original</a> on December 24, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 14,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=NASA%27s+Push+to+Put+Citizen+in+Space+Overtook+Fully+%27Operational%27+Shuttle&rft.date=1986-03-05&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Pincus&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1986%2F03%2F05%2Fnasas-push-to-put-citizen-in-space-overtook-fully-operational-shuttle%2F29fe2714-39b7-40dd-b15e-073441de636e%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace+Shuttle+design+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-heppenheimer1998-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heppenheimer1998_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeppenheimer,_T._A.1998" class="citation book cs1">Heppenheimer, T. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 1,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Telecommunications+and+Data+Acquisition+Progress+Report+42-64&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=JPL%2C+NASA&rft.date=1981-08-15&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2060%2F19810022557&rft.aulast=Lytle&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fntrs.nasa.gov%2Fapi%2Fcitations%2F19810022530%2Fdownloads%2F19810022530.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace+Shuttle+design+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-caib_1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-caib_1_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caib_1_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation techreport cs1">"Columbia Accident Investigation Board Public Hearing". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/columbia/reports/CAIBreportv6.pdf"><i>Columbia Accident Investigaion Board Report</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Technical report). Vol. VI. Houston, Texas (published October 2003). April 23, 2003. pp. 219–245. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230511001101/https://history.nasa.gov/columbia/reports/CAIBreportv6.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on May 11, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Columbia+Accident+Investigaion+Board+Report&rft.place=Houston%2C+Texas&rft.pages=219-245&rft.date=2003-04-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2Fcolumbia%2Freports%2FCAIBreportv6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace+Shuttle+design+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-USGDP-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inflation-USGDP_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstonWilliamson2023" class="citation web cs1">Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/">"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MeasuringWorth" title="MeasuringWorth">MeasuringWorth</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 30,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MeasuringWorth&rft.atitle=What+Was+the+U.S.+GDP+Then%3F&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft.au=Williamson%2C+Samuel+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.measuringworth.com%2Fdatasets%2Fusgdp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace+Shuttle+design+process" class="Z3988"></span> United States <a href="/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product_deflator" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product deflator">Gross Domestic Product deflator</a> figures follow the <i>MeasuringWorth</i> series. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade" class="citation web cs1">Wade, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160712163801/http://www.astronautix.com/s/shuttle.html">"Shuttle"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Astronautix.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronautix.com">Astronautix.com</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/s/shuttle.html">the original</a> on July 12, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 12,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shuttle&rft.pub=Astronautix.com&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astronautix.com%2Fs%2Fshuttle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpace+Shuttle+design+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-wAAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA115">Dr. Wernher Von Braun – "The Spaceplane that can put <u>YOU</u> in orbit" (<i>Popular Science</i>, July 1970)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle_design_process&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160712163801/http://www.astronautix.com/s/shuttle.html">Astronautix Space Shuttle article</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/contents.htm">NASA: The Space Shuttle Decision</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pmview.com/spaceodysseytwo/spacelvs/index.htm">INTRODUCTION TO FUTURE LAUNCH VEHICLE PLANS [1963–2001], M. Lindroos</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.armaghplanet.com/blog/10-shuttles-which-never-flew.html">10 Space Shuttles which never flew (Lockheed Starclipper, Chrysler SERV, Phase B Shuttles, Rockwell C-1057, Shuttle C, Air Launched Sortie Vehicle (ALSV), Hermes, Buran, Shuttle II, Lockheed Martin VentureStar)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Space_Shuttle_program" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Space_Shuttle_program" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" title="List of Space Shuttle missions">List of missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews" title="List of Space Shuttle crews">List of crews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" title="Space Shuttle orbiter">Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster" title="Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster">Solid Rocket Booster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">External tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RS-25" title="RS-25">Main engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_Maneuvering_System" title="Orbital Maneuvering System">Orbital Maneuvering System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaction_control_system" title="Reaction control system">Reaction control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_thermal_protection_system" title="Space Shuttle thermal protection system">Thermal protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_separation_motor" title="Booster separation motor">Booster separation motor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" title="Space Shuttle orbiter">Orbiters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Enterprise" title="Space Shuttle Enterprise"><i>Enterprise</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia" title="Space Shuttle Columbia"><i>Columbia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger" title="Space Shuttle Challenger"><i>Challenger</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery" title="Space Shuttle Discovery"><i>Discovery</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis" title="Space Shuttle Atlantis"><i>Atlantis</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour" title="Space Shuttle Endeavour"><i>Endeavour</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Add-ons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spacelab" title="Spacelab">Spacelab</a> <small>(ESA)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadarm" title="Canadarm">Canadarm</a> <small>(CSA)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_Duration_Orbiter" title="Extended Duration Orbiter">Extended Duration Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STS-3xx#Remote_Control_Orbiter" title="STS-3xx">Remote Controlled Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacehab" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacehab">Spacehab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-Purpose_Logistics_Module" title="Multi-Purpose Logistics Module">Multi-Purpose Logistics Module</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39">Launch Complex 39</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39B" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B">B</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base_Space_Launch_Complex_6#Space_Shuttle" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base Space Launch Complex 6">Space Launch Complex 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_landing_sites" title="List of Space Shuttle landing sites">Landing sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_Landing_Facility" title="Shuttle Landing Facility">Shuttle Landing Facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes#Emergency_landing_sites" title="Space Shuttle abort modes">Abort landing sites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations<br />and training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" title="List of Space Shuttle missions">Missions</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Canceled_Space_Shuttle_missions" title="Canceled Space Shuttle missions">canceled</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews" title="List of Space Shuttle crews">Crews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Space Shuttle missions">Mission timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_rollbacks" title="List of Space Shuttle rollbacks">Rollbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes" title="Space Shuttle abort modes">Abort modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendezvous_pitch_maneuver" title="Rendezvous pitch maneuver">Rendezvous pitch maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_Mission_Simulator" title="Shuttle Mission Simulator">Shuttle Mission Simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_Training_Aircraft" title="Shuttle Training Aircraft">Shuttle Training Aircraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Inspiration" title="Space Shuttle Inspiration"><i>Inspiration</i> <small>(design)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Pathfinder" title="Space Shuttle Pathfinder"><i>Pathfinder</i> <small>(simulator)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Main_Propulsion_Test_Article" title="Space Shuttle Main Propulsion Test Article">MPTA <small>(engine test article)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Approach_and_Landing_Tests" title="Approach and Landing Tests">Approach and Landing Tests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disasters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster"><i>Challenger</i> disaster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission_Report" title="Rogers Commission Report">report</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster"><i>Columbia</i> disaster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Columbia_Accident_Investigation_Board" title="Columbia Accident Investigation Board">report</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crawler-transporter" title="Crawler-transporter">Crawler-transporter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate-Demate_Device" title="Mate-Demate Device">Mate-Demate Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_launcher_platform#Apollo_and_Space_Shuttle" title="Mobile launcher platform">Mobile Launcher Platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_recovery_ship" title="NASA recovery ship">NASA recovery ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbiter_Processing_Facility" title="Orbiter Processing Facility">Orbiter Processing Facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_Avionics_Integration_Laboratory" title="Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory">Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft" title="Shuttle Carrier Aircraft">Shuttle Carrier Aircraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft_flights" title="List of Shuttle Carrier Aircraft flights">flights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_Training_Aircraft" title="Shuttle Training Aircraft">Shuttle Training Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STS-3xx" title="STS-3xx">STS-3xx</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/STS-61-A" title="STS-61-A">Deutschland-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Getaway_Special" title="Getaway Special">Getaway Special</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project" title="Journalist in Space Project">Journalist in Space Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project" title="Teacher in Space Project">Teacher in Space Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle-Mir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program" title="Hitchhiker Program">Hitchhiker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Space suits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_Mobility_Unit" title="Extravehicular Mobility Unit">Extravehicular Mobility Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_Ejection_Escape_Suit" title="Shuttle Ejection Escape Suit">Shuttle Ejection Escape Suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_Entry_Suit" title="Launch Entry Suit">Launch Entry Suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Crew_Escape_Suit" title="Advanced Crew Escape Suit">Advanced Crew Escape Suit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freestar_experiment" title="Freestar experiment">Freestar experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflatable_Antenna_Experiment" title="Inflatable Antenna Experiment">Inflatable Antenna Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartan_Packet_Radio_Experiment" title="Spartan Packet Radio Experiment">Spartan Packet Radio Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_pallet_satellite" title="Shuttle pallet satellite">Shuttle pallet satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wake_Shield_Facility" title="Wake Shield Facility">Wake Shield Facility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shuttle-Derived_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuttle-Derived Vehicle">Derivatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saturn-Shuttle" title="Saturn-Shuttle">Saturn-Shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_(rocket)" title="Magnum (rocket)">Magnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle-Derived_Heavy_Lift_Launch_Vehicle" title="Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle">Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(rocket_family)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (rocket family)">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle-C" title="Shuttle-C">Shuttle-C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" title="Shuttle-Centaur">Shuttle-Centaur</a></li> <li>Ares <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ares_I" title="Ares I">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ares_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ares IV">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ares_V" title="Ares V">V</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_(rocket)" title="Liberty (rocket)">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_System" title="Space Launch System">Space Launch System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OmegA" title="OmegA">OmegA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Replicas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Independence" title="Space Shuttle Independence"><i>Independence</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Space Shuttle design process</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Studied_Space_Shuttle_designs" title="Studied Space Shuttle designs">studied designs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_Upper_Stage" title="Inertial Upper Stage">Inertial Upper Stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payload_Assist_Module" title="Payload Assist Module">Payload Assist Module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program" title="Criticism of the Space Shuttle program">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_retirement" title="Space Shuttle retirement">Retirement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conroy_Virtus" title="Conroy Virtus">Conroy Virtus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hail_Columbia_(film)" title="Hail Columbia (film)">Hail Columbia</a></i> (1982 documentary)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dream_Is_Alive" title="The Dream Is Alive">The Dream Is Alive</a></i> (1985 documentary)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Challenger_(1990_film)" title="Challenger (1990 film)">Challenger</a></i> (1990 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Destiny_in_Space" title="Destiny in Space">Destiny in Space</a></i> (1994 documentary)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Columbia:_The_Tragic_Loss" title="Columbia: The Tragic Loss">Columbia: The Tragic Loss</a></i> (2004 documentary)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hubble_(film)" title="Hubble (film)">Hubble</a></i> (2010 documentary)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Challenger_Disaster" title="The Challenger Disaster">The Challenger Disaster</a></i> (2013 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Challenger:_The_Final_Flight" title="Challenger: The Final Flight">Challenger: The Final Flight</a></i> (2020 documentary miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_America" title="Space Shuttle America">Space Shuttle America</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rendezvous:_A_Space_Shuttle_Simulation" title="Rendezvous: A Space Shuttle Simulation">Rendezvous: A Space Shuttle Simulation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Project" title="Space Shuttle Project">Space Shuttle Project</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuttle_(video_game)" title="Shuttle (video game)">Shuttle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle:_A_Journey_into_Space" title="Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space">Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Mission_2007" title="Space Shuttle Mission 2007">Space Shuttle Mission 2007</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbiter_(simulator)" title="Orbiter (simulator)"><i>Orbiter Space Flight Simulator</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/When_We_Left_Earth:_The_NASA_Missions" title="When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions">When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.flightgear.org/Space%20Shuttle">Flightgear Space Shuttle realistic simulation </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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