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class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>In Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>In France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>In Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>In Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 19th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shakespeare_in_performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shakespeare_in_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Shakespeare in performance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shakespeare_in_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shakespeare_in_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shakespeare_in_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Shakespeare in criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shakespeare_in_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romantic_icon_in_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romantic_icon_in_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Romantic icon in Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romantic_icon_in_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_quotations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_quotations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Critical quotations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critical_quotations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" 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class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Audiobook</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audiobook-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-E-texts_(chronological)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#E-texts_(chronological)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>E-texts (chronological)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-E-texts_(chronological)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Other resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Reputation of William Shakespeare</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor,_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/220px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/330px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/440px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3059" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chandos_portrait" title="Chandos portrait">Chandos portrait</a>, commonly assumed to depict William Shakespeare but authenticity unknown, "the man who of all Modern, and perhaps Ancient Poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul" (<a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a>, 1668), "our myriad-minded Shakespeare" (<a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">S. T. Coleridge</a>, 1817).</figcaption></figure> <p>In his own time, <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> (1564–1616) was rated as merely one among many talented playwrights and poets, but since the late 17th century has been considered the supreme playwright and poet of the English language. </p><p>No other playwright's work has been performed even remotely as often on the world stage as Shakespeare's. The plays have often been drastically adapted in performance. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the era of the great acting stars, to be a star on the British stage was synonymous with being a great Shakespearean actor. Then the emphasis was placed on the <a href="/wiki/Soliloquy" title="Soliloquy">soliloquies</a> as declamatory turns at the expense of pace and action, and Shakespeare's plays seemed in peril of disappearing beneath the added music, <a href="/wiki/Scenery" class="mw-redirect" title="Scenery">scenery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Special_effect" title="Special effect">special effects</a> produced by thunder, lightning, and wave machines. </p><p>Editors and <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">critics</a> of the plays, disdaining the showiness and <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a> of Shakespearean stage representation, began to focus on Shakespeare as a dramatic poet, to be studied on the printed page rather than in the theatre. The rift between Shakespeare on the stage and Shakespeare on the page was at its widest in the early 19th century, at a time when both forms of Shakespeare were hitting peaks of fame and popularity: theatrical Shakespeare was successful spectacle and melodrama for the masses, while book or <a href="/wiki/Closet_drama" title="Closet drama">closet drama</a> Shakespeare was being elevated by the reverential commentary of the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantics</a> into unique poetic <a href="/wiki/Genius" title="Genius">genius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">bard</a>. Before the Romantics, Shakespeare was simply the most admired of all dramatic poets, especially for his insight into human nature and his realism, but Romantic critics such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> refactored him into an object of almost religious adoration, <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a> coining the term "<a href="/wiki/Bardolatry" title="Bardolatry">bardolatry</a>" to describe it. To the later 19th century, Shakespeare became in addition an emblem of national pride, the crown jewel of English culture, and a "rallying-sign", as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> wrote in 1841, for the whole British empire. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="17th_century">17th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 17th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jacobean_and_Caroline">Jacobean and Caroline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Jacobean and Caroline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_texts_of_Shakespeare%27s_works" title="Early texts of Shakespeare's works">Early texts of Shakespeare's works</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Swan_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_Swan_cropped.png/220px-The_Swan_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_Swan_cropped.png/330px-The_Swan_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_Swan_cropped.png/440px-The_Swan_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="1654" data-file-height="1973" /></a><figcaption>A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress on the <b>platform</b> or <b>apron</b> stage of the typical circular <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan">Elizabethan</a> open-roof playhouse <a href="/wiki/The_Swan_(theatre)" title="The Swan (theatre)">The Swan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>It is difficult to assess Shakespeare's reputation in his own lifetime and shortly after. England had little modern literature before the 1570s, and detailed <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">critical</a> commentaries on modern authors did not begin to appear until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>. The facts about his reputation can be surmised from fragmentary evidence. He was included in some contemporary lists of leading poets, but he seems to have lacked the stature of the aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sidney" title="Philip Sidney">Philip Sidney</a>, who became a cult figure due to his death in battle at a young age, or of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>. Shakespeare's poems were reprinted far more frequently than his plays; but Shakespeare's plays were written for performance by his own company, and because no law prevented rival companies from using the plays, Shakespeare's troupe took steps to prevent his plays from being printed. That many of his plays were pirated suggests his popularity in the book market, and the regular <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a> of his company by the court, culminating in 1603 when <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="James I of England">James I</a> turned it into the "King's Men," suggests his popularity among higher stations of society. Modern plays (as opposed to those in Latin and Greek) were considered ephemeral and even somewhat disreputable entertainments by some contemporaries. Some of Shakespeare's plays, particularly the history plays, were reprinted frequently in cheap quarto (i.e. pamphlet) form; others took decades to reach a 3rd edition. </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a> pioneered the <a href="/wiki/Canonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Canonisation">canonisation</a> of modern plays by printing his own works in folio (the luxury book format) in 1616, Shakespeare was the next playwright to be honoured by a folio collection, in 1623. That this folio went into another edition within 9 years indicates he was held in unusually high regard for a playwright. The dedicatory poems by Ben Jonson and <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> in the 2nd folio were the first to suggest Shakespeare was the supreme poet of his age. These expensive reading editions are the first visible sign of a rift between Shakespeare on the stage and Shakespeare for readers, a rift that was to widen over the next two centuries. In his 1630 work 'Timber' or 'Discoveries', Ben Jonson praised the speed and ease with which Shakespeare wrote his plays as well as his contemporary's honesty and gentleness towards others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interregnum_and_Restoration">Interregnum and Restoration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Interregnum and Restoration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a> (1642–1660), all public stage performances were banned by the <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> rulers. Though denied the use of the stage, costumes and scenery, actors still managed to ply their trade by performing "<a href="/wiki/Droll" title="Droll">drolls</a>" or short pieces of larger plays that usually ended with some type of jig. Shakespeare was among the many playwrights whose works were plundered for these scenes. Among the most common scenes were <a href="/wiki/Nick_Bottom" title="Nick Bottom">Bottom</a>'s scenes from <i><a href="/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream" title="A Midsummer Night's Dream">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a></i> and the gravedigger's scene from <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>. When the theatres opened again in 1660 after this uniquely long and sharp break in British theatrical history, two newly licensed London theatre companies, the Duke's and the King's Company, started business with a scramble for performance rights to old plays. Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and the <a href="/wiki/Beaumont_and_Fletcher" title="Beaumont and Fletcher">Beaumont and Fletcher team</a> were among the most valuable properties and remained popular after Restoration playwriting had gained momentum. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inside_Dorset_Gardens.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Inside_Dorset_Gardens.gif/220px-Inside_Dorset_Gardens.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Inside_Dorset_Gardens.gif/330px-Inside_Dorset_Gardens.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Inside_Dorset_Gardens.gif 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">Restoration</a> playhouses had elaborate scenery. They retained a shortened version of the apron stage for actor/audience contact, although it is not visible in this picture (the artist is standing on it).</figcaption></figure> <p>In the elaborate <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">Restoration</a> London playhouses, designed by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a>, Shakespeare's plays were staged with music, dancing, thunder, lightning, wave machines, and <a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">fireworks</a>. The texts were "reformed" and "improved" for the stage. A notorious example is Irish poet <a href="/wiki/Nahum_Tate" title="Nahum Tate">Nahum Tate</a>'s happy-ending <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_King_Lear" title="The History of King Lear">King Lear</a></i> (1681) (which held the stage until 1838), while <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tempest" title="The Tempest">The Tempest</a></i> was turned into an opera replete with special effects by <a href="/wiki/William_Davenant" title="William Davenant">William Davenant</a>. In fact, as the director of the Duke's Company, Davenant was legally obliged to reform and modernise Shakespeare's plays before performing them, an ad hoc ruling by the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain" title="Lord Chamberlain">Lord Chamberlain</a> in the battle for performance rights which "sheds an interesting light on the many 20th-century denunciations of Davenant for his adaptations".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern view of the Restoration stage as the epitome of Shakespeare abuse and bad taste has been shown by Hume to be exaggerated, and both scenery and adaptation became more reckless in the 18th and 19th centuries. </p><p>The incomplete Restoration stage records suggest Shakespeare, although always a major repertory author, was bested in the 1660–1700 period by the phenomenal popularity of <a href="/wiki/Beaumont_and_Fletcher" title="Beaumont and Fletcher">Beaumont and Fletcher</a>. "Their plays are now the most pleasant and frequent entertainments of the stage", reported fellow playwright <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> in 1668, "two of theirs being acted through the year for one of Shakespeare's or Jonson's". In the early 18th century, however, Shakespeare took over the lead on the London stage from Beaumont and Fletcher, never to relinquish it again. </p><p>By contrast to the stage history, in <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a> there was no lag time, no temporary preference for other dramatists: Shakespeare had a unique position at least from the <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">Restoration</a> in 1660 and onwards. While Shakespeare did not follow the unbending French <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neo-classical "rules"</a> for the drama and the three <a href="/wiki/Classical_unities" title="Classical unities">classical unities</a> of time, place, and action, those strict rules had never caught on in England, and their sole zealous proponent, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Rymer" title="Thomas Rymer">Thomas Rymer</a>, was hardly ever mentioned by influential writers except as an example of narrow <a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">dogmatism</a>. Dryden, for example, argued in his influential <i><a href="/wiki/Essay_of_Dramatick_Poesie" title="Essay of Dramatick Poesie">Essay of Dramatick Poesie</a></i> (1668) – the same essay in which he noted that Shakespeare's plays were performed only half as often as those of Beaumont and Fletcher – for Shakespeare's artistic superiority. Though Shakespeare does not follow the dramatic conventions, Dryden wrote, Ben Jonson does, and as a result Jonson lands in a distant second place to "the incomparable Shakespeare", the follower of nature, the untaught <a href="/wiki/Genius" title="Genius">genius</a>, the great realist of human character. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="18th_century">18th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 18th century, Shakespeare dominated the London stage, while Shakespeare productions turned increasingly into the creation of star turns for star actors. After the <a href="/wiki/Licensing_Act_1737" title="Licensing Act 1737">Licensing Act of 1737</a>, a quarter of plays performed were by Shakespeare,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and on at least two occasions rival London playhouses staged the very same Shakespeare play at the same time (<i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i> in 1755 and <i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear" title="King Lear">King Lear</a></i> the next year) and still commanded audiences. This occasion was a striking example of the growing prominence of Shakespeare stars in the theatrical culture, the big attraction being the competition and rivalry between the male leads at Covent Garden and Drury Lane, <a href="/wiki/Spranger_Barry" title="Spranger Barry">Spranger Barry</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Garrick" title="David Garrick">David Garrick</a>. There appear to have been no issues with Barry and Garrick, in their late thirties, playing adolescent Romeo one season and geriatric King Lear the next. In September 1769 Garrick staged a major <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Jubilee" title="Shakespeare Jubilee">Shakespeare Jubilee</a> in Stratford-upon-Avon, which was a major influence on the rise of <a href="/wiki/Bardolatry" title="Bardolatry">bardolatry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was at the Shakespeare Jubilee that Garrick thanked the <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Ladies_Club" title="Shakespeare Ladies Club">Shakespeare Ladies Club</a> for saving Shakespeare from obscurity: "It was You Ladies that restor'd Shakespeare to the Stage you form'd yourselves into a Society to protect his Fame, and Erected a Monument to his and your own honour in Westminster Abbey."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Garrick_as_Benedick.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/David_Garrick_as_Benedick.png/170px-David_Garrick_as_Benedick.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/David_Garrick_as_Benedick.png/255px-David_Garrick_as_Benedick.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/David_Garrick_as_Benedick.png/340px-David_Garrick_as_Benedick.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>David Garrick as Benedick in <i><a href="/wiki/Much_Ado_About_Nothing" title="Much Ado About Nothing">Much Ado About Nothing</a></i>, 1770.</figcaption></figure> <p>As performance playscripts diverged increasingly from their originals, the publication of texts intended for reading developed rapidly in the opposite direction, with the invention of <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">textual criticism</a> and an emphasis on fidelity to Shakespeare's original words. The texts that are being read and performed today were largely settled in the 18th century. <a href="/wiki/Nahum_Tate" title="Nahum Tate">Nahum Tate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Lee" title="Nathaniel Lee">Nathaniel Lee</a> had already prepared editions and performed scene divisions in the late 17th century, and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rowe_(dramatist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Rowe (dramatist)">Nicholas Rowe</a>'s edition of 1709 is considered the first truly scholarly text for the plays. It was followed by many good 18th century editions, crowned by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Malone" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Malone">Edmund Malone</a>'s landmark <i>Variorum Edition</i>, which was published posthumously in 1821 and remains the basis of modern editions. These collected editions were meant for reading, not staging; Rowe's 1709 edition was, compared to the old folios, a light pocketbook. Shakespeare criticism also increasingly spoke to readers, rather than to theatre audiences. </p><p>The only aspects of Shakespeare's plays that were consistently disliked and singled out for criticism in the 18th century were the <a href="/wiki/Pun" title="Pun">puns</a> ("clenches") and the "low" (sexual) allusions. While a few editors, notably <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a>, attempted to gloss over or remove the puns and the <a href="/wiki/Double_entendre" title="Double entendre">double entendres</a>, this was quickly reversed, and by mid-century the puns and sexual humour were (with only a few exceptions, notably <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bowdler" title="Thomas Bowdler">Thomas Bowdler</a>) restored permanently. </p><p>Dryden's sentiments about Shakespeare's imagination and capacity for painting "nature" were echoed in the 18th century by, for example, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Joseph Addison</a> ("Among the English, Shakespeare has incomparably excelled all others"), Alexander Pope ("every single character in Shakespeare is as much an Individual as those in Life itself"), and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> (who scornfully dismissed <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>'s and Rhymer's neoclassical Shakespeare criticism as "the petty cavils of petty minds"). The long-lived belief that the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantics</a> were the first generation to truly appreciate Shakespeare and to prefer him to Ben Jonson is contradicted by praise from writers throughout the 18th century. Ideas about Shakespeare that many people think of as typically <a href="/wiki/Post-Romantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Romantic">post-Romantic</a> were frequently expressed in the 18th and even in the 17th century: he was described as a genius who needed no learning, as deeply original, and as creating uniquely "real" and individual characters (see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Shakespeare_criticism" title="Timeline of Shakespeare criticism">Timeline of Shakespeare criticism</a>). To compare Shakespeare and his well-educated contemporary Ben Jonson was a popular exercise at this time, a comparison that was invariably complimentary to Shakespeare. It functioned to highlight the special qualities of both writers, and it especially powered the assertion that natural genius trumps rules, that "there is always an appeal open from criticism to nature" (Samuel Johnson). </p><p>Opinion of Shakespeare was briefly shaped in the 1790s by the "discovery" of the <a href="/wiki/Ireland_Shakespeare_forgeries" title="Ireland Shakespeare forgeries">Shakespeare Papers</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Ireland" title="William Henry Ireland">William Henry Ireland</a>. Ireland claimed to have found in a <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(luggage)" title="Trunk (luggage)">trunk</a> a goldmine of lost documents of Shakespeare's including two plays, <i><a href="/wiki/Vortigern_and_Rowena" title="Vortigern and Rowena">Vortigern and Rowena</a></i> and <i>Henry II</i>. These documents appeared to demonstrate a number of unknown facts about Shakespeare that shaped opinion of his works, including a Profession of Faith demonstrating Shakespeare was a <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> and that he had an illegitimate child. Although there were many believers in the provenance of the Papers, they soon came under fierce attack from scholars who pointed out their numerous inaccuracies. <i>Vortigern</i> had only one performance at the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Drury_Lane" title="Theatre Royal, Drury Lane">Drury Lane Theatre</a> before Ireland admitted he had <a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">forged</a> the documents and written the plays himself.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Germany">In Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>English actors started visiting the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> in the late 16th century to work as "fiddlers, singers and jugglers", and through them the work of Shakespeare had first become known in the <i>Reich</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1601, in the Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland), which had a large English merchant colony living within its walls, a company of English actors arrived to put on plays by Shakespeare.<sup id="cite_ref-Easton_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Easton-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1610, the actors were performing Shakespeare in German as his plays had become popular in Danzig.<sup id="cite_ref-Easton_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Easton-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of Shakespeare's work was performed in continental Europe during the 17th century, but it was not until the mid-18th century that it became widely known. In Germany <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a> compared Shakespeare to German folk literature. In France, the <a href="/wiki/Classical_unities" title="Classical unities">Aristotelian rules</a> were rigidly obeyed, and in Germany, a land where French cultural influence was very strong (German elites preferred to speak French rather than German in the 18th century), the Francophile German theatre critics had long denounced Shakespeare's work as a "jumble" that violated all the Aristotelian rules.<sup id="cite_ref-Buruma,_Ian_p._57_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buruma,_Ian_p._57-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a part of an effort to get the German public to take Shakespeare more seriously, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> organised a Shakespeare jubilee in Frankfurt in 1771, stating in a speech on 14 October 1771 that the dramatist had shown that the <a href="/wiki/Classical_unities" title="Classical unities">Aristotelian unities</a> were "as oppressive as a prison" and were "burdensome fetters on our imagination". Goethe praised Shakespeare for liberating his mind from the rigid Aristotelian rules, saying: "I jumped into the free air, and suddenly felt I had hands and feet...Shakespeare, my friend, if you were with us today, I could only live with you".<sup id="cite_ref-Buruma,_Ian_p._57_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buruma,_Ian_p._57-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a> likewise proclaimed that reading Shakespeare's work opens "leaves from the book of events, of providence, of the world, blowing in the <a href="/wiki/Sands_of_time_(idiom)" title="Sands of time (idiom)">sands of time</a>". </p><p>This claim that Shakespeare's work breaks through all creative boundaries to reveal a chaotic, teeming, contradictory world became characteristic of Romantic criticism, later expressed by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a> in the preface to his play <i><a href="/wiki/Cromwell_(play)" title="Cromwell (play)">Cromwell</a></i>, in which he lauded Shakespeare as an artist of the <a href="/wiki/Grotesque" title="Grotesque">grotesque</a>, a genre in which the tragic, absurd, trivial and serious were inseparably intertwined. In 1995, the American journalist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kinzer" title="Stephen Kinzer">Stephen Kinzer</a> writing in <i>The New York Times</i> observed: "Shakespeare is an all-but-guaranteed success in Germany, where his work has enjoyed immense popularity for more than 200 years. By some estimates, Shakespeare's plays are performed more frequently in Germany than anywhere else in the world, not excluding his native England. The market for his work, both in English and in German translation, seems inexhaustible."<sup id="cite_ref-Kinzer_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinzer-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German critic Ernst Osterkamp wrote: "Shakespeare's importance to German literature cannot be compared with that of any other writer of the post-antiquity period. Neither Dante or Cervantes, neither Moliere or Ibsen have even approached his influence here. With the passage of time, Shakespeare has virtually become one of Germany's national authors."<sup id="cite_ref-Kinzer_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinzer-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Russia">In Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shakespeare, as far as can be established, never went any further from Stratford-upon-Avon than London, but he made a reference to the visit of Russian diplomats from the court of Tsar <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</a> to the court of Elizabeth I in <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i> in which the French aristocrats dress up as Russians and make fools of themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shakespeare was first translated into Russian by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sumarokov" title="Alexander Sumarokov">Alexander Sumarokov</a>, who called Shakespeare an "inspired barbarian", who wrote of the Bard of Avon that in his plays "there is much that is bad and exceedingly good".<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1786, Shakespeare's reputation in Russia was greatly enhanced when the Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> translated a French version of <i>The Merry Wives of Windsor</i> into Russian (Catherine did not know English) and had it staged in St. Petersburg.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly afterwards, Catherine translated <i>Timon of Athens</i> from French into Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The patronage of Catherine made Shakespeare an eminently respectable author in Russia, but his plays were rarely performed until the 19th century, and instead he was widely read.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_France">In France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shakespeare and his works began to circulate in France from the beginning of the 18th century. Until this moment, the most admired English poets were <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gray" title="Thomas Gray">Thomas Gray</a> and their texts had already been translated into French. </p><p>In the first half of the century, French intellectuals who had visited or sojourned in England for a period of time and, therefore, had had the opportunity to see theatrical representations of English plays, began to express their opinions and judgments on Shakespeare and his theatre.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> was a prominent figure in this debate. In <i>Essai sur la poésie épique</i> (1728), he declared himself to be an admirer of the English theatre, especially of its tragedies, which he considered to be superior to all the other genres brought to the English stage.<sup id="cite_ref-Essai_sur_la_poésie_épique,_traduit_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Essai_sur_la_poésie_épique,_traduit-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Voltaire's appreciation for the English theatre was so sincere that he tried to import some of its characteristics into France. The adoption of such features was not immediate or easy. In <i>Discours sur la tragédie</i> (1731), Voltaire had analysed all the rules that had to be categorically respected in French theatres, all the events that could be represented and those that were absolutely forbidden. As a result, «la delicatesse», la «bienséance» e la «coutume»<sup id="cite_ref-Essai_sur_la_poésie_épique,_traduit_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Essai_sur_la_poésie_épique,_traduit-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dominated the French plays and they constituted an obstacle to the introduction of any innovation. Such mutations were scarcely appreciated by the playwrights, actors and audiences.<sup id="cite_ref-Mucchi_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mucchi-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Voltaire showed his will to partly abandon such conventions, mainly because they were an impediment for the realisation of some scenes he was working on, firstly the death of Julius Caesar. The main impediment for this scene was the rule that in French tragedies, characters could commit suicide, but not murder. Voltaire fought to change this convention, supporting his thesis with examples from Ancient Greek theatre and the contemporary English theatre, where assassinations were regularly represented on stage. However, Voltaire also stated that English tragedies could turn into « un lieu de carnage».<sup id="cite_ref-Mucchi_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mucchi-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What he wanted to achieve was a compromise between tradition and innovation. </p><p>Eventually, innovations infiltrated into French theatre and when Voltaire presented <i>La Mort de Cèsar</i> to his audience in 1743, he was able to represent Caesar's death as he had originally imagined it.<sup id="cite_ref-Mucchi_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mucchi-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Voltaire also lamented that no one among his fellow countrymen had tried to translate Shakespeare.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He personally translated the speech of Brutus in <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)" title="Julius Caesar (play)"><i>Julius Caesar</i></a>, becoming the first Frenchman to translate a passage from a Shakespearean play. His translation was included in <i>Discours sur la tragedie</i>, published in 1730.<sup id="cite_ref-Edizioni_di_Storia_e_Letteratura_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edizioni_di_Storia_e_Letteratura-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some years later, he translated Hamlet's monologue, which was published in <i>Les Lettres philosophiques</i> (1734).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shakespeare's popularity steadily increased during the century and others tested themselves with translating the Bard. The appearance of numerous translations points out a change in the taste of French playwrights and audiences. </p><p>In 1746 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Antoine_La_Place&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre-Antoine La Place (page does not exist)">Pierre-Antoine La Place</a> published eight volumes containing summaries of every Shakespearean play and partial translations of some of them. Between 1776 and 1782 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Letourner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Letourner (page does not exist)">Pierre Letourner</a> translated the complete corpus of Shakespeare's plays. His work also included comments on Shakespeare, particularly on his ability to depict human emotions and make characters talk in a language close to that used in everyday life. Letourner's translations do not lack errors, but his work was fundamental in spreading the knowledge of Shakespeare and the English theatre in France.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Italy">In Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shakespeare remained almost unknown in Italy until the beginning of the 18th century. The most translated and admired English poets were <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gray" title="Thomas Gray">Thomas Gray</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a>. The knowledge of Shakespeare spread in the peninsula in two different ways. On one hand, Italian intellectuals who sojourned for a period of time in England had the possibility to witness theatrical representations and to write about their experiences; their texts, then, travelled back to Italy. On the other hand, many English people travelled to Italy in the 18th century, since it was one of the many destinations on the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Tour" title="Grand Tour">Grand Tour</a>. The occasions for interactions between English and Italian people were numerous. Moreover, English people who migrated or were banished from England, often chose Italy as their new home. However, many French translations and adaptations of Shakespearean plays began to circulate in Europe in this period, and the majority of Italian writers started to read Shakespeare in French.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few people knew English and dictionaries were not widely available. For Italians, their first approach towards English plays was often through French renditions and, even though they presented substantial differences from the originals, they introduced the knowledge of English theatre and its rules into Italy. One of the most famous and most-read French adaptations was <i>La mort de César</i> by <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, based on <i><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)" title="Julius Caesar (play)">Julius Caesar</a></i> by Shakespeare.<sup id="cite_ref-Mucchi_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mucchi-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shakespearean plays began to be staged in Italian theatres in the second half of the century, and they were nearly always adaptations or rewrites.<sup id="cite_ref-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1705, <a href="/wiki/Apostolo_Zeno" title="Apostolo Zeno">Apostolo Zeno</a> wrote <i>Ambleto</i>, which was staged in Venice the following year. Ambleto was not a translation of <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>, not even an adaptation. The only similarity with <i>Hamlet</i> was its source of inspiration, and it has now been verified that the author did not know Shakespeare. The production was so successful that it was brought to the stage of the Haymarket Theatre in London in 1712. The play was staged again in Italy in 1750, but it had not been influenced by the Shakespearean <i>Hamlet</i>. As a matter of fact, it was identical to the first version of 1706. This is a signal of how there was no real interest for the English theatre and its characteristics in Italy, yet.<sup id="cite_ref-Edizioni_di_Storia_e_Letteratura_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edizioni_di_Storia_e_Letteratura-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first Italian melodrama which was inspired by a tragedy by Shakespeare dates to 1789: <i>Amleto</i> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gimbattista_Zanchi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gimbattista Zanchi (page does not exist)">Gimbattista Zanchi</a>. He, however, worked with the help of a French rendition. It is possible, then, that he did not know the original version of the tragedy.<sup id="cite_ref-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only melodrama which took inspiration directly from an original work by Shakespeare was <i>Rosalinda</i> (1744) by <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Rolli" title="Paolo Rolli">Paolo Rolli</a>. His source of inspiration was <a href="/wiki/As_You_Like_It" title="As You Like It"><i>As you like it</i></a> and it was the only theatrical production that took inspiration from a Shakespearean comedy instead of a tragedy.<sup id="cite_ref-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the beginning of the century, however, some intellectuals attempted to translate some passages from Shakespeare's plays, even if these were often via French translations. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Conti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Conti (page does not exist)">Antonio Conti</a> lived in London from 1715 to 1718 and he composed two tragedies during his sojourn: <i>Julius Caesar</i> and <i>Marcus Brutus</i>, both inspired by Shakespeare's <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)" title="Julius Caesar (play)"><i>Julius Caesar</i></a>. In the preface to the tragedies, Conti praised Shakespeare and expressed his surprise at the fact that no Italian writer had attempted a translation of the Bard sooner. He also noted how Shakespeare did not respect the Aristotelian units. Italian playwrights, on the other hand, were still observing these principles and Conti was no exception. Therefore, the action of his tragedies takes place in one location and it only lasts a few hours.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1729, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Rolli" title="Paolo Rolli">Paolo Rolli</a> published an Italian translation of the first six books of <i><a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a></i>. In the preface, he praised Shakespeare and compared him to <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a>. In 1739 he published a translation of one of Hamlet's monologues.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first complete Italian translation of a Shakespearean tragedy was <i>Giulio Cesare</i> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Domenico_Valentini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Domenico Valentini (page does not exist)">Domenico Valentini</a>, printed in 1756. Valentini used the English edition of the tragedy printed in 1733 by <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Theobald" title="Lewis Theobald">Lewis Theobald</a> for his translation. In his preface, he stated that he did not understand English, therefore, he asked for the help of some knights, whose identity is still unknown. It is probable that they were English knights who were visiting Siena as part of The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Tour" title="Grand Tour">Grand Tour</a>. It was common for Italian and English people to meet in social and cultural gatherings. This is probably how Valentini met them and asked them to assist him in the process of translation. </p><p>Other intellectuals worked on Shakespeare towards the end of the century. <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Baretti" class="mw-redirect" title="Giuseppe Baretti">Giuseppe Baretti</a> published <i>Discours sur Shakespeare et M.r de Voltaire</i> in 1777; <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Verri" title="Alessandro Verri">Alessandro Verri</a> translated <i>Hamlet</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></i> between 1769 and 1777; <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Algarotti" title="Francesco Algarotti">Francesco Algarotti</a>, who did not appreciate English theatre, changed his mind when he saw a representation of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)" title="Julius Caesar (play)"><i>Julius Caesar</i></a> in London. He also translated the passages he thought were the most salient in Brutus's speech.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Giustina_Renier_Michiel" title="Giustina Renier Michiel">Giustina Renier Michiel</a> translated <i><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Coriolanus" title="Coriolanus">Coriolanus</a></i> between 1798 and 1801. It is still uncertain whether she worked alone. Letters exchanged with Cesarotti lead scholars to think that she may have been helped by another Italian writer. It is also possible that she worked alone, using a French rendition to help with the translations. The question is still unsolved.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Spain">In Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: In Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The knowledge of Shakespeare and his works in European countries, including Spain, arrived centuries after his death and not always easily. While it is possible that some Shakespeare plays may have arrived in Spain as soon as the end of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the earliest documented example of a work of Shakespeare's in Spain is <a href="/wiki/The_Two_Noble_Kinsmen" title="The Two Noble Kinsmen">The Two Noble Kinsmen</a>, circa 1640.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the first editions to reach Spain were in recusant libraries and did not have an impact on playwrights and play-goers in Spain. </p><p>There is weak evidence that a First Folio and strong evidence that Second Folio containing historical dramas arrived in the country after 1632, the year in which the latter was published in England. There is also evidence of a third Folio imported in Spain in 1742 but it is now lost. However, these editions alone were not sufficient to spark the interest of Spanish writers and critics. Shakespeare's works began to be read by a larger number of intellectuals in the 18th century; however, Shakespeare did not arrive to Spain in his original language, but he began to be studied thanks to French adaptations and rewritings. Spanish scholars rarely read Shakespeare in English. </p><p>The arrival of Shakespeare in the country brought with it the debate on theatre, its rules, its virtues and vices. The classical rules of Spanish, French and <a href="/wiki/Italian_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian theatre">Italian theatre</a>, derived from the classical theatre, were often an obstacle for the introduction of innovations coming from different theatrical traditions. English theatre, for instance, did not respect classical rules. This provoked admiration but, at the same time, rejection for Shakespeare and his works: on one hand his imagination was admired but on the other he used too many features that did not find their place in the Spanish tradition. Those critics who expressed their judgment on the Bard in the 18th century judged him from a classical perspective and since he did not comply with the classical rules of theatre, he was not worth of appreciation. As a consequence, his works began to be translated only at the end of the 18th century. The first Spanish translation of Shakespeare dates to 1798, when Leandro Fernandéz de Moratìn translated <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>. However, the first tragedy to be translated directly from the original English version, without the mediation of a French text, dates to 1838 and it was <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i> translated by José García de Villalta. Shakespearean plays began to be represented in Spanish theatres only at the beginning of the 19th century but they were often neoclassic adaptations derived from French rewritings. Between 1808 and 1817 <i><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i> were brought to the stage. Shakespeare began to be appreciated more with the advent of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shakespeare_in_performance">Shakespeare in performance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Shakespeare in performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drury_Lane_1813_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Drury_Lane_1813_cropped.png/350px-Drury_Lane_1813_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Drury_Lane_1813_cropped.png/525px-Drury_Lane_1813_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Drury_Lane_1813_cropped.png/700px-Drury_Lane_1813_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="1097" data-file-height="745" /></a><figcaption>The Theatre Royal at <a href="/wiki/Drury_Lane" title="Drury Lane">Drury Lane</a> in 1813. The platform stage is gone, and note the orchestra cutting off the actors from the audience.</figcaption></figure><p> Theatres and theatrical scenery became ever more elaborate in the 19th century, and the acting editions used were progressively cut and restructured to emphasise more and more the <a href="/wiki/Soliloquy" title="Soliloquy">soliloquies</a> and the stars, at the expense of pace and action.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Performances were further slowed by the need for frequent pauses to change the scenery, creating a perceived need for even more cuts to keep performance length within tolerable limits; it became a generally accepted maxim that Shakespeare's plays were too long to be performed without substantial cuts. The platform, or apron, stage, on which actors of the 17th century would come forward for audience contact, was gone, and the actors stayed permanently behind the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_wall" title="Fourth wall">fourth wall</a> or <a href="/wiki/Proscenium" title="Proscenium">proscenium</a> arch, further separated from the audience by the orchestra, see image right. </p><p>Through the 19th century, a roll call of legendary actors' names all but drown out the plays in which they appear: <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Siddons" title="Sarah Siddons">Sarah Siddons</a> (1755–1831), <a href="/wiki/John_Philip_Kemble" title="John Philip Kemble">John Philip Kemble</a> (1757–1823), <a href="/wiki/Henry_Irving" title="Henry Irving">Henry Irving</a> (1838–1905), and <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Terry" title="Ellen Terry">Ellen Terry</a> (1847–1928). To be a star of the legitimate drama came to mean being first and foremost a "great Shakespeare actor", with a famous interpretation of, for men, Hamlet, and for women, Lady Macbeth, and especially with a striking delivery of the great soliloquies. The acme of spectacle, star, and soliloquy Shakespeare performance came with the reign of actor-manager Henry Irving at the Royal Lyceum Theatre in London from 1878 to 1899. At the same time, a revolutionary return to the roots of Shakespeare's original texts, and to the platform stage, absence of scenery, and fluid scene changes of the Elizabethan theatre, was being effected by <a href="/wiki/William_Poel" title="William Poel">William Poel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Stage_Society" title="Elizabethan Stage Society">Elizabethan Stage Society</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shakespeare_in_criticism">Shakespeare in criticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Shakespeare in criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Special:EditPage/Reputation of William Shakespeare">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Reputation+of+William+Shakespeare%22">"Reputation of William Shakespeare"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Reputation+of+William+Shakespeare%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Reputation+of+William+Shakespeare%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Reputation+of+William+Shakespeare%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Reputation+of+William+Shakespeare%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Reputation+of+William+Shakespeare%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_de_Quincey_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19222.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Thomas_de_Quincey_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19222.jpg/220px-Thomas_de_Quincey_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19222.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Thomas_de_Quincey_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19222.jpg/330px-Thomas_de_Quincey_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19222.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Thomas_de_Quincey_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19222.jpg/440px-Thomas_de_Quincey_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19222.jpg 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">Thomas De Quincey</a>: "O, mighty poet! Thy works are... like the phenomena of nature, like the sun and the sea, the stars and the flowers".</figcaption></figure> <p>The belief in the unappreciated 18th-century Shakespeare was proposed at the beginning of the 19th century by the Romantics, in support of their view of 18th-century literary criticism as mean, formal, and rule-bound, which was contrasted with their own reverence for the poet as prophet and genius. Such ideas were most fully expressed by German critics such as <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">Schlegel</a> brothers. Romantic critics such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">William Hazlitt</a> raised admiration for Shakespeare to worship or even "<a href="/wiki/Bardolatry" title="Bardolatry">bardolatry</a>" (a sarcastic coinage from bard + idolatry by <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a> in 1901, meaning excessive or religious worship of Shakespeare). To compare him to other Renaissance playwrights at all, even for the purpose of finding him superior, began to seem irreverent. Shakespeare was rather to be studied without any involvement of the critical faculty, to be addressed or apostrophised—almost prayed to—by his worshippers, as in <a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">Thomas De Quincey</a>'s classic essay "On the Knocking at the Gate in <i>Macbeth</i>" (1823): "O, mighty poet! Thy works are not as those of other men, simply and merely great works of art; but are also like the phenomena of nature, like the sun and the sea, the stars and the flowers,—like frost and snow, rain and dew, hail-storm and thunder, which are to be studied with entire submission of our own faculties...". </p><p>As the concept of literary <a href="/wiki/Originality" title="Originality">originality</a> grew in importance, critics were horrified at the idea of adapting Shakespeare's tragedies for the stage by putting happy endings on them, or editing out the puns in <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. In another way, what happened on the stage was seen as unimportant, as the Romantics, themselves writers of <a href="/wiki/Closet_drama" title="Closet drama">closet drama</a>, considered Shakespeare altogether more suitable for reading than staging. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lamb_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Lamb (writer)">Charles Lamb</a> saw any form of stage representation as distracting from the true qualities of the text. This view, argued as a timeless truth, was also a natural consequence of the dominance of melodrama and spectacle on the early 19th-century stage. </p><p>Shakespeare became an important emblem of national pride in the 19th century, which was the heyday of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and the acme of British power in the world. To <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/On_Heroes,_Hero-Worship,_%26_the_Heroic_in_History" title="On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History">On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History</a></i> (1841), Shakespeare was one of the great poet-heroes of history, in the sense of being a "rallying-sign" for British cultural patriotism all over the world, including even the lost American colonies: "From Paramatta, from New York, wheresoever... English men and women are, they will say to one another, 'Yes, this Shakespeare is ours; we produced him, we speak and think by him; we are of one blood and kind with him'" ("The Hero as a Poet"). As the foremost of the great <a href="/wiki/Canon_(fiction)" title="Canon (fiction)">canonical</a> writers, the jewel of English culture, and as Carlyle puts it, "merely as a real, marketable, tangibly useful possession", Shakespeare became in the 19th century a means of creating a common heritage for the motherland and all her colonies. <a href="/wiki/Post-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonialism">Post-colonial</a> literary critics have had much to say of this use of Shakespeare's plays in what they regard as a move to subordinate and uproot the cultures of the colonies themselves. </p><p>Across the North Sea, Shakespeare remained influential in Germany. In 1807, <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">August Wilhelm Schlegel</a> translated all of Shakespeare's plays into German, and such was the popularity of Schlegel's translation (which is generally regarded as one of the best translations of Shakespeare into any language), that German nationalists were soon starting to claim that Shakespeare was actually a German playwright who had just written his plays in English.<sup id="cite_ref-Buruma,_Ian_p._51_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buruma,_Ian_p._51-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the middle of the 19th century, Shakespeare had been incorporated into the pantheon of German literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Buruma,_Ian_p._51_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buruma,_Ian_p._51-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1904, a statue of Shakespeare was erected in <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a>, showing the Bard of Avon staring into the distance, becoming the first statue built to honor Shakespeare on the mainland of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Kinzer_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinzer-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romantic_icon_in_Russia">Romantic icon in Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Romantic icon in Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Romantic age, Shakespeare became extremely popular in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Vissarion Belinsky</a> wrote he had been "enslaved by the drama of Shakespeare".<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia's national poet, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Alexander Pushkin</a>, was heavily influenced by <i>Hamlet</i> and the history plays, and his novel <i>Boris Godunov</i> showed strong Shakespearean influences.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later on, in the 19th century, the novelist <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Turgenev" title="Ivan Turgenev">Ivan Turgenev</a> often wrote essays on Shakespeare with the best known being "Hamlet and Don Quixote".<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a> was greatly influenced by <i>Macbeth</i> with his novel <i>Crime and Punishment</i> showing Shakespearean influence in his treatment of the theme of guilt.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 1840s onward, Shakespeare was regularly staged in Russia, and the black American actor <a href="/wiki/Ira_Aldridge" title="Ira Aldridge">Ira Aldridge</a>, who had been barred from the stage in the United States on the account of his skin color, became the leading Shakespearean actor in Russia in the 1850s, being decorated by the Emperor Alexander II for his work in portraying Shakespearean characters.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickson_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shakespeare continued to be considered the greatest English writer of all time throughout the 20th century. Most Western educational systems required the textual study of two or more of Shakespeare's plays, and both amateur and professional stagings of Shakespeare were commonplace. It was the proliferation of high-quality, well-annotated texts and the unrivalled reputation of Shakespeare that allowed for stagings of Shakespeare's plays to remain textually faithful, but with an extraordinary variety in setting, stage direction, and costuming. Institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Folger_Shakespeare_Library" title="Folger Shakespeare Library">Folger Shakespeare Library</a> in the United States worked to ensure constant, serious study of Shakespearean texts, and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company" title="Royal Shakespeare Company">Royal Shakespeare Company</a> in the United Kingdom worked to maintain a yearly staging of at least two plays. </p><p>Shakespeare performances reflected the tensions of the times, and early in the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Barry_Vincent_Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Barry Vincent Jackson">Barry Jackson</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Repertory_Theatre" title="Birmingham Repertory Theatre">Birmingham Repertory Theatre</a> began the staging of modern-dress productions, thus starting a new trend in Shakespearean production. Performances of the plays could be highly interpretive. Thus, play directors would emphasise <a href="/wiki/Marxist_literary_criticism" title="Marxist literary criticism">Marxist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">feminist</a>, or, perhaps most popularly, <a href="/wiki/Freudianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Freudianism">Freudian</a> <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_literary_criticism" title="Psychoanalytic literary criticism">psychoanalytical</a> interpretations of the plays, even as they retained letter-perfect scripts. The number of analytical approaches became more diverse by the latter part of the century, as critics applied theories such as <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" class="mw-redirect" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(cultural_studies)" title="Cultural materialism (cultural studies)">Cultural materialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African American studies">African American studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queer_studies" title="Queer studies">queer studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semiotic_literary_criticism" title="Semiotic literary criticism">literary semiotics</a> to Shakespeare's works.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Third_Reich">In the Third Reich</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In the Third Reich"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1934 the French government dismissed the director of the <a href="/wiki/Com%C3%A9die-Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Comédie-Française">Comédie Française</a> over a controversial production of <i><a href="/wiki/Coriolanus_(play)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolanus (play)">Coriolanus</a></i> that had been the occasion for right-wing violence, amidst the <a href="/wiki/Stavisky_affair" title="Stavisky affair">Stavisky affair</a>. In the international protests that followed, came one from Germany, from none other than <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a>. Although productions of Shakespeare's plays in Germany itself were subject to 'streamlining', he continued to be favoured as a great classical dramatist, especially so as almost every new German play since the late 1890s onwards was portrayed by German government propaganda as the work of left-wingers, of Jews or of "degenerates" of one kind or another. Politically acceptable writers had simply been unable to fill the gap, or had only been able to do so through producing propaganda. In 1935, Goebbels was to say "We can build autobahns, revive the economy, create a new army, but we... cannot manufacture new dramatists." With <a href="/wiki/Schiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Schiller">Schiller</a> suspect for his radicalism, <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Lessing" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotthold Lessing">Lessing</a> for his humanism and even <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a> for his lack of patriotism, the legacy of the "Aryan" Shakespeare was reinterpreted for new purposes. </p><p>Rodney Symington, Professor of Germanic and Russian Studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Victoria" title="University of Victoria">University of Victoria</a>, Canada, deals with this question in <i>The Nazi Appropriation of Shakespeare: Cultural Politics in the Third Reich</i> (Edwin Mellen Press, 2005). The scholar reports that <a href="/wiki/Prince_Hamlet" title="Prince Hamlet">Hamlet</a>, for instance, was reconceived as a proto-German warrior rather than a man with a conscience. Of this play, one critic wrote: "If the courtier Laertes is drawn to Paris and the humanist Horatio seems more Roman than Danish, it is surely no accident that Hamlet's alma mater should be <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a>." A leading magazine declared that the crime which deprived Hamlet of his inheritance was a foreshadowing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, and that the conduct of Gertrude was reminiscent of the "spineless" <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar politicians</a>. </p><p>Weeks after Hitler took power in 1933, an official party publication appeared, entitled <i>Shakespeare – a Germanic Writer</i>, a counter to those who wanted to ban all foreign influences. At the <a href="/wiki/Propagandaministerium" class="mw-redirect" title="Propagandaministerium">Propaganda Ministry</a>, Rainer Schlosser, given charge of German theatre by Goebbels, mused that Shakespeare was more German than English. After the outbreak of the Second World War, the performance of Shakespeare was banned, though this ban was quickly lifted by Hitler in person, a favour extended to no other playwright. Not only did the regime appropriate the Bard, but it also appropriated <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan England">Elizabethan England</a> itself. To the Nazi leaders, Elizabethan England had been a young, vigorous nation, much like the Third Reich itself, quite unlike the decadent <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> of the then present day. </p><p>There were some exceptions to the official approval of Shakespeare, as the great patriotic plays, most notably <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_V_(play)" title="Henry V (play)">Henry V</a></i>, were shelved. The reception of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice" title="The Merchant of Venice">The Merchant of Venice</a></i> was at best lukewarm (Marlowe's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jew_of_Malta" title="The Jew of Malta">The Jew of Malta</a></i> was suggested as a possible alternative), because it was not <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitic">anti-Semitic</a> enough for Nazi taste (the play's conclusion, in which the daughter of the Jewish antagonist converts to Christianity and marries one of the Gentile protagonists, particularly violated Nazi notions of racial purity). <i>Hamlet</i> was by far the most popular play, along with <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Richard_III_(play)" title="Richard III (play)">Richard III</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Soviet_Union">In the Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Given the popularity of Shakespeare in Russia, there were film versions of Shakespeare that often differed from western interpretations, usually emphasizing a humanist message that implicitly criticized the Soviet regime.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_pp._607-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Othello_(1955_film)" title="Othello (1955 film)">Othello</a></i> (1955) by <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Yutkevich" title="Sergei Yutkevich">Sergei Yutkevich</a> celebrated Desdemona's love for Othello as a triumph of love over racial hatred.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_pp._607-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet_(1964_film)" title="Hamlet (1964 film)">Hamlet</a></i> (1964) by <a href="/wiki/Grigori_Kozintsev" title="Grigori Kozintsev">Grigori Kozintsev</a> portrayed 16th century Denmark as a dark, gloomy and oppressive place, with recurring images of imprisonment, these marking the film from the focus on the portcullis of Elsinore to the iron corset Ophelia is forced to wear as she goes insane.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_pp._607-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tyranny of Claudius was made to resemble the tyranny of Stalin with gigantic portraits and busts of Claudius being prominent in the background of the film, suggesting that Claudius had engaged in a "cult of personality". Given the emphasis on images of imprisonment, Hamlet's decision to avenge his father becomes almost subsidiary to his struggle for freedom, as he challenges the Stalin-like tyranny of Claudius.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamlet in this film resembles a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissident</a> who—despite his own hesitation, fears and doubts—can no longer stand the moral rot around him. The film was based on a script written by the novelist <a href="/wiki/Boris_Pasternak" title="Boris Pasternak">Boris Pasternak</a>, who had been persecuted under Stalin.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_pp._607-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1971 version of <i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear_(1971_USSR_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="King Lear (1971 USSR film)">King Lear</a></i>, also directed by Kozintsev, presented the play as a "Tolstoyan panorama of bestiality and courage" as Lear finds his moral redemption amongst the common people.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_pp._607-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acceptance_in_France">Acceptance in France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Acceptance in France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shakespeare, for a variety of reasons, had never caught on in France, and even when his plays were performed in France in the 19th century, they were drastically altered to fit in with French tastes, with, for example, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> having a happy ending.<sup id="cite_ref-French_hissing_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French_hissing-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until 1946 that <i>Hamlet</i>, as translated by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gide" title="André Gide">André Gide</a>, was performed in Paris and "ensured Shakespeare's elevation to cult status" in France.<sup id="cite_ref-French_hissing_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French_hissing-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> wrote that French intellectuals had been "abruptly reintegrated into history" by the German occupation of 1940–44 as the old teleological history version of history with the world getting progressively better (as led by France) no longer held, and as such the "nihilist" and "chaotic" plays of Shakespeare finally found an audience in France.<sup id="cite_ref-French_hissing_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French_hissing-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>The Economist</i> observed: "By the late 1950s, Shakespeare had entered the French soul. No one who has seen the <i>Comédie-Française</i> perform his plays at the Salle Richelieu in Paris is likely to forget the special buzz in the audience, for the bard is the darling of France."<sup id="cite_ref-French_hissing_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French_hissing-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_China">In China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the years of tentative political and <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">economic liberalization</a> after the death of Mao in 1976, Shakespeare became popular in China.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The very act of putting on a play by Shakespeare, formerly condemned as a "bourgeois Western imperialist author" whom no Chinese could respect, was in and of itself an act of quiet dissent.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._51_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._51-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of all Shakespeare's plays, the most popular in China in the late 1970s and 1980s was <i>Macbeth</i>. It has been posited that Chinese audiences saw in this play, first performed in England in 1606 and set in 11th century Scotland, a parallel with the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> of the late 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._51_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._51-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The violence and bloody chaos of <i>Macbeth</i> reminded Chinese audiences of the violence and bloody chaos of the Cultural Revolution, and furthermore, the story of a national hero becoming a tyrant, complete with a power-hungry wife, was seen as a parallel with <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> and his wife, <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing" title="Jiang Qing">Jiang Qing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reviewing a production of <i>Macbeth</i> in Beijing in 1980, one Chinese critic, Xu Xiaozhong, praised <i>Macbeth</i> as the story of "how the greed for power finally ruined a great man".<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another critic, Zhao Xun, wrote: "<i>Macbeth</i> is the fifth Shakespearean play produced on the Chinese stage after the smashing of the <a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a>. This play of conspiracy has always been performed at critical moments in the history of our nation".<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Likewise, a 1982 production of <i>King Lear</i> was hailed by the critics as the story of "moral decline", of a story "when human beings' souls were so polluted that they even mistreated their aged parents", an allusion to the days of the Cultural Revolution when the young people serving in the Red Guard had berated, denounced, attacked and sometimes even killed their parents for failing to live up to "Mao Zedong thought".<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._54_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._54-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The play's director, the Shakespearean scholar Fang Ping, who had suffered during the Cultural Revolution for studying this "bourgeois Western imperialist", stated in an interview at the time that <i>King Lear</i> was relevant in China because King Lear, the "highest ruler of a monarchy", created a world full of cruelty and chaos where those who loved him were punished and those who did not were rewarded, a barely veiled reference to the often capricious behavior of Mao, who punished his loyal followers for no apparent reason.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._54_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._54-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cordelia's devotion and love for her father—despite his madness, cruelty and rejection of her—is seen in China as affirming traditional Confucian values, where love of the family counts above all, and for this reason, <i>King Lear</i> is seen in China as being a very "Chinese" play that affirms the traditional values of <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1981 production of <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> was a hit with Chinese audiences, as the play was seen to promote the theme of justice and fairness in life, with the character of Portia being especially popular, as she is seen as standing for, as one critic wrote, "the humanist spirit of the Renaissance" with its striving for "individuality, human rights and freedom".<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theme of a religious conflict between a Jewish merchant vs. a Christian merchant in <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> is generally ignored in Chinese productions of <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>, as most Chinese find do not find the theme of Jewish-Christian conflict relevant.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike in Western productions, the character of Shylock is presented very much as an unnuanced villain, capable only of envy, spite, greed and cruelty, a man whose actions are only motivated by his spiritual impoverishment.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, in the West, Shylock is usually presented as a nuanced villain, a man who has never held power over a Christian before, and lets that power go to his head.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another popular play, especially with dissidents under the Communist government, is <i>Hamlet</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Hamlet</i>, with its theme of a man trapped under a tyrannical regime is very popular with Chinese dissidents, with one dissident <a href="/wiki/Wu_Ningkun" title="Wu Ningkun">Wu Ningkun</a>, writing about his time in internal exile between 1958 and 1961 at a collective farm in a remote part of northern Manchuria, that he understood all too well the line "Denmark is a prison!"<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_William_Shakespeare_screen_adaptations" title="List of William Shakespeare screen adaptations">List of William Shakespeare screen adaptations</a></div> <p>The divergence between text and performance in Shakespeare continued into the new medium of film. For instance, both <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i> have been filmed in modern settings, sometimes with contemporary "updated" dialogue. Additionally, there have been efforts (notably by the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>) to ensure the existence of a filmed or videotaped version of every Shakespeare play. The reasoning for this was educational, as many government initiatives recognised the need to get performative Shakespeare into the same classrooms as the plays being read. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry">Poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bunting%27s_edits_to_the_opening_lines_of_Sonnet_86.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt=""Was it the proud full sail of his great verse, / Bound for the prize of all too precious you, / That did my ripe thoughts in my brain inhearse, / Making their tomb the womb wherein they grew?" edited to read "Was it the full sail of his verse, / Bound for the prize of you, / That did inhearse my thought in my brain, / Making the womb wherein they grew their tomb?"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bunting%27s_edits_to_the_opening_lines_of_Sonnet_86.png/220px-Bunting%27s_edits_to_the_opening_lines_of_Sonnet_86.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bunting%27s_edits_to_the_opening_lines_of_Sonnet_86.png/330px-Bunting%27s_edits_to_the_opening_lines_of_Sonnet_86.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bunting%27s_edits_to_the_opening_lines_of_Sonnet_86.png/440px-Bunting%27s_edits_to_the_opening_lines_of_Sonnet_86.png 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="289" /></a><figcaption>Bunting's edits to the opening lines of Shakespeare's <a href="/wiki/Sonnet_86" title="Sonnet 86">Sonnet 86</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Many English-language <a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry_in_English" title="Modernist poetry in English">Modernist poets</a> drew on Shakespeare's works, interpreting him in new ways. <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>, for instance, considered the Sonnets as a kind of apprentice work, with Shakespeare learning the art of poetry through writing them. He also declared the history plays to be the true English <a href="/wiki/National_epic" title="National epic">epic</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent" title="Tradition and the Individual Talent">Tradition and the Individual Talent</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> wrote that "Some can absorb knowledge, the more tardy must sweat for it. Shakespeare acquired more essential history from <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> than most men could from the whole <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>." <a href="/wiki/Basil_Bunting" title="Basil Bunting">Basil Bunting</a> rewrote the sonnets as modernist poems by simply erasing all the words he considered unnecessary.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Zukofsky" title="Louis Zukofsky">Louis Zukofsky</a> had read all of Shakespeare's works by the time he was eleven, and his <i>Bottom: On Shakespeare</i> (1947) is a book-length <a href="/wiki/Prose_poetry" title="Prose poetry">prose poem</a> exploring the role of the eye in the plays. In its original printing, a second volume consisting of a setting of <i>The Tempest</i> by the poet's wife, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Celia_Zukofsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Celia Zukofsky (page does not exist)">Celia Zukofsky</a>, was also included. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shakespeare's reputation continues to have an influence on the film industry, with new versions of his works, such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tragedy_of_Macbeth_(2021_film)" title="The Tragedy of Macbeth (2021 film)">The Tragedy of Macbeth</a></i> (2021), directed by <a href="/wiki/Joel_Coen" class="mw-redirect" title="Joel Coen">Joel Coen</a>, being put into production. Regular performances of Shakespeare's plays continue to be held globally, with Shakespeare's works often appreciated by the younger generation of students, the liberal, progressive Gen Z. Critics continue to regard Shakespeare as the greatest writer and poet of the English Language. Shakespeare's plays (especially A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Merchant of Venice and Julius Caesar) are taught in nearly every English speaking school globally and are repeatedly translated into different languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critical_quotations">Critical quotations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Critical quotations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Shakespeare_criticism" title="Timeline of Shakespeare criticism">Timeline of Shakespeare criticism</a></div> <p>The growth of Shakespeare's reputation is illustrated by a timeline of Shakespeare criticism, from John Dryden's "when he describes any thing, you more than see it, you feel it too" (1668) to Thomas Carlyle's estimation of Shakespeare as the "strongest of rallying-signs" (1841) for an English identity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Hume, p. 20)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcIntyre1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_McIntyre" title="Ian McIntyre">McIntyre, Ian</a> (1999). <i>Garrick</i>. London: Penguin. p. 432. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-028323-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-028323-4"><bdi>0-14-028323-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Garrick&rft.place=London&rft.pages=432&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-14-028323-4&rft.aulast=McIntyre&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierce pp. 4–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobson1992" class="citation book cs1">Dobson, Michael (1992). <i>The Making of the National Poet: Shakespeare, Adaptation and Authorship, 1660–1769</i>. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198183232" title="Special:BookSources/0198183232"><bdi>0198183232</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+National+Poet%3A+Shakespeare%2C+Adaptation+and+Authorship%2C+1660%E2%80%931769&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0198183232&rft.aulast=Dobson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierce pp. 137–181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buruma, Ian <i>Anglomania: A European Love Affair</i>, New York: Vintage Books, 1998 p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Easton-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Easton_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Easton_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaston2014" class="citation web cs1">Easton, Adam (19 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29250459">"Gdansk theatre reveals Poland's ties to Shakespeare"</a>. The BBC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gdansk+theatre+reveals+Poland%27s+ties+to+Shakespeare&rft.pub=The+BBC&rft.date=2014-09-19&rft.aulast=Easton&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-29250459&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buruma,_Ian_p._57-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buruma,_Ian_p._57_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buruma,_Ian_p._57_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Buruma, Ian <i>Anglomania: A European Love Affair</i>, New York: Vintage Books, 1998 p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kinzer-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kinzer_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kinzer_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kinzer_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinzer1995" class="citation news cs1">Kinzer, Stephen (30 December 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/30/movies/shakespeare-icon-in-germany.html">"Shakespeare, Icon in Germany"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Shakespeare%2C+Icon+in+Germany&rft.date=1995-12-30&rft.aulast=Kinzer&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F12%2F30%2Fmovies%2Fshakespeare-icon-in-germany.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dickson-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickson_10-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickson2012" class="citation web cs1">Dickson, Andrew (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.calvertjournal.com/features/show/2321/shakespeare-in-russia#.Wu4UKogvyUk">"As they like it: Shakespeare in Russia"</a>. The Calvert Journal<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=As+they+like+it%3A+Shakespeare+in+Russia&rft.pub=The+Calvert+Journal&rft.date=2012-05&rft.aulast=Dickson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.calvertjournal.com%2Ffeatures%2Fshow%2F2321%2Fshakespeare-in-russia%23.Wu4UKogvyUk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrinò1950" class="citation book cs1">Crinò, Anna Maria (1950). <i>Le Traduzioni di Shakespeare in Italia nel Settecento</i>. Roma: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Traduzioni+di+Shakespeare+in+Italia+nel+Settecento&rft.place=Roma&rft.pub=Edizioni+di+Storia+e+Letteratura&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Crin%C3%B2&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Essai_sur_la_poésie_épique,_traduit-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Essai_sur_la_poésie_épique,_traduit_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Essai_sur_la_poésie_épique,_traduit_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1728" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire (1728). <i>Essai sur la poésie épique, traduit de l'anglois de M. Voltaire, par M*** [Desfontaines]</i>. Paris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essai+sur+la+po%C3%A9sie+%C3%A9pique%2C+traduit+de+l%27anglois+de+M.+Voltaire%2C+par+M%2A%2A%2A+%5BDesfontaines%5D&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1728&rft.au=Voltaire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mucchi-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mucchi_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mucchi_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mucchi_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mucchi_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlfonzetti1989" class="citation book cs1">Alfonzetti, Beatrice (1989). <i>Il corpo di Cesare. Percorsi di una catastrofe nella tragedia del Settecento</i>. Modena: Mucchi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+corpo+di+Cesare.+Percorsi+di+una+catastrofe+nella+tragedia+del+Settecento&rft.place=Modena&rft.pub=Mucchi&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Alfonzetti&rft.aufirst=Beatrice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1734" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire (1734). <i>Lettres philosophiques. Par M. de V…</i>. Amsterdam.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lettres+philosophiques.+Par+M.+de+V%E2%80%A6&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.date=1734&rft.au=Voltaire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edizioni_di_Storia_e_Letteratura-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Edizioni_di_Storia_e_Letteratura_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edizioni_di_Storia_e_Letteratura_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrinò1950" class="citation book cs1">Crinò, Anna Maria (1950). <i>Le traduzioni di Shakespeare in Italia nel Settecento</i>. 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Amsterdam.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lettres+philosophiques.+Par+M.de+V%E2%80%A6&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.date=1734&rft.au=Voltaire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrinò1950" class="citation book cs1">Crinò, Anna Maria (1950). <i>Le traduzioni di Shakespeare in Italia nel Settecento</i>. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+traduzioni+di+Shakespeare+in+Italia+nel+Settecento&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Edizioni+di+Storia+e+Letteratura&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Crin%C3%B2&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertolazzi,_Ghibellini2017" class="citation book cs1">Bertolazzi, Ghibellini (2017). <i>Shakespeare: un Romantico Italiano</i>. Firenze.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%3A+un+Romantico+Italiano&rft.place=Firenze&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Bertolazzi%2C+Ghibellini&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Approcci_all'opea_di_Shakespeare_ne_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViola2017" class="citation book cs1">Viola, Corrado (2017). <i>Approcci all'opea di Shakespeare nel Settecento Italiano</i>. Firenze.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Approcci+all%27opea+di+Shakespeare+nel+Settecento+Italiano&rft.place=Firenze&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Viola&rft.aufirst=Corrado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrinò1950" class="citation book cs1">Crinò, Anna Maria (1950). <i>Le Traduzioni di Shakespeare nell'Italia del Settencento</i>. Roma: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Traduzioni+di+Shakespeare+nell%27Italia+del+Settencento&rft.place=Roma&rft.pub=Edizioni+di+Storia+e+Letteratura&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Crin%C3%B2&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrinò1950" class="citation book cs1">Crinò, Anna Maria (1950). <i>Le traduzioni di Shakespeare nell'Italia del Settecento</i>. Rome.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+traduzioni+di+Shakespeare+nell%27Italia+del+Settecento&rft.place=Rome&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Crin%C3%B2&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrinò1950" class="citation book cs1">Crinò, Anna Maria (1950). <i>Le traduzioni di Shakespeare nell'Italia del Settecento</i>. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+traduzioni+di+Shakespeare+nell%27Italia+del+Settecento&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Edizioni+di+Storia+e+Letteratura&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Crin%C3%B2&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBianco" class="citation web cs1">Bianco, Francesca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/14362213">"Shakespeare: le traduzioni italiane, il caso Padova-Venezia. Giustina Ranier Michiel e Melchiorre Cesarotti"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%3A+le+traduzioni+italiane%2C+il+caso+Padova-Venezia.+Giustina+Ranier+Michiel+e+Melchiorre+Cesarotti&rft.aulast=Bianco&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F14362213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stone, John (September 2020). "The Two Noble Kinsmen and Eighteen Other Newly Discovered Early Modern English Quartos in an Hispano-Scottish Collection". Notes and Queries. 67 (3): 367–374. doi:10.1093/notesj/gjaa08</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPujante2020" class="citation book cs1">Pujante, Ángel-Luis (2020). <i>Shakespeare llega a España: illustración y Romanticismo</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare+llega+a+Espa%C3%B1a%3A+illustraci%C3%B3n+y+Romanticismo&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Pujante&rft.aufirst=%C3%81ngel-Luis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, the 19th century playwright <a href="/wiki/W._S._Gilbert" title="W. S. Gilbert">W. S. Gilbert</a>'s essay, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://math.boisestate.edu/gas/gilbert/short_stories/shakespeare.htm">Unappreciated Shakespeare</a></i>, from <i><a href="/wiki/Foggerty%27s_Fairy_and_Other_Tales" title="Foggerty's Fairy and Other Tales">Foggerty's Fairy and Other Tales</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buruma,_Ian_p._51-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buruma,_Ian_p._51_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buruma,_Ian_p._51_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Buruma, Ian <i>Anglomania: A European Love Affair</i>, New York: Vintage Books, 1998 p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrady2001" class="citation book cs1">Grady, Hugh (2001). "Modernity, Modernism and Postmodernism in the Twentieth Century's Shakespeare". In Bristol, Michael; McLuskie, Kathleen (eds.). <i>Shakespeare and Modern Theatre: The Performance of Modernity</i>. New York: Routledge. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21984-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21984-1"><bdi>0-415-21984-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Modernity%2C+Modernism+and+Postmodernism+in+the+Twentieth+Century%27s+Shakespeare&rft.btitle=Shakespeare+and+Modern+Theatre%3A+The+Performance+of+Modernity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-21984-1&rft.aulast=Grady&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrakakis1985" class="citation book cs1">Drakakis, John (1985). Drakakis, John (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alternativeshake0000unse/page/16"><i>Alternative Shakespeares</i></a>. New York: Meuthen. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alternativeshake0000unse/page/16">16–17, 23–25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-416-36860-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-416-36860-3"><bdi>0-416-36860-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alternative+Shakespeares&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=16-17%2C+23-25&rft.pub=Meuthen&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-416-36860-3&rft.aulast=Drakakis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falternativeshake0000unse%2Fpage%2F16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Howard_pp._607-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_pp._607_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard, Tony "Shakespeare on film and video" pp. 607–619 from <i>Shakespeare An Oxford Guide</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003 p. 611.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard, Tony "Shakespeare on film and video" pp. 607–619 from <i>Shakespeare An Oxford Guide</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003 page 611.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-French_hissing-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-French_hissing_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-French_hissing_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-French_hissing_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-French_hissing_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/node/3809488">"French hissing"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. 31 March 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=French+hissing&rft.date=2002-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F3809488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Xiaomei <i>Occidentalism</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 pp. 51–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._51-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._51_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._51_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Xiaomei <i>Occidentalism</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._52_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Xiaomei <i>Occidentalism</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._54-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._54_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._54_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Xiaomei <i>Occidentalism</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Xiaomei <i>Occidentalism</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 pp. 54–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen,_Xiaomei_p._55_38-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Xiaomei <i>Occidentalism</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacigalupo2016" class="citation cs2">Bacigalupo, Massimo (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lingue.unige.it/sites/lingue.unige.it/files/pagine/Poets%20in%20Rapallo.%20Bunting%20%26%20Pound.pdf">"Poets in Rapallo: Bunting & Pound"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Quaderni di Palazzo Serra</i>: 59, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-88626-65-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-88626-65-9"><bdi>978-88-88626-65-9</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1970-0571">1970-0571</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaderni+di+Palazzo+Serra&rft.atitle=Poets+in+Rapallo%3A+Bunting+%26+Pound&rft.pages=59&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=1970-0571&rft.isbn=978-88-88626-65-9&rft.aulast=Bacigalupo&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flingue.unige.it%2Fsites%2Flingue.unige.it%2Ffiles%2Fpagine%2FPoets%2520in%2520Rapallo.%2520Bunting%2520%2526%2520Pound.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReputation+of+William+Shakespeare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Hawkes, Terence. (1992) <i>Meaning by Shakespeare</i>. London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-07450-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-07450-9">0-415-07450-9</a>.</li> <li>Hume, Robert D. (1976). <i>The Development of English Drama in the Late Seventeenth Century</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-812063-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-812063-X">0-19-812063-X</a>.</li> <li>Lynch, Jack (2007). <i>Becoming Shakespeare: The Strange Afterlife That Turned a Provincial Playwright into the Bard.</i> New York: Walker & Co.</li> <li>Marder, Louis. (1963). <i>His Exits and His Entrances: The Story of Shakespeare's Reputation.</i> Philadelphia: JB Lippincott.</li> <li>Pierce, Patricia. <i>The Great Shakespeare Fraud: The Strange, True Story of William-Henry Ireland</i>. Sutton Publishing, 2005.</li> <li>Sorelius, Gunnar. (1965). <i>"The Giant Race Before the Flood": Pre-Restoration Drama on the Stage and in the Criticism of the Restoration.</i> Uppsala: Studia Anglistica Upsaliensia.</li> <li>Speaight, Robert. (1954) <i>William Poel and the Elizabethan revival</i>. Published for The Society for Theatre Research. London: Heinemann.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Audiobook">Audiobook</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Audiobook"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/tolstoy-on-shakespeare-by-leo-tolstoy/">Tolstoy on Shakespeare (1906)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="E-texts_(chronological)"><span id="E-texts_.28chronological.29"></span>E-texts (chronological)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: E-texts (chronological)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ise.uvic.ca/Library/SLTnoframes/drama/jonson1.html#fn_more">Ben Jonson on Shakespeare (1630)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/drampoet.html">John Dryden, <i>Essay of Dramatic Poesy</i>, (1668)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.angelfire.com/oh5/spycee/rymer.html">Thomas Rhymer's notorious attack on <i>Othello</i>, 1692 (at Angelfire website)</a>, which in the end did Shakespeare's reputation more good than harm, by firing up John Dryden, <a href="/wiki/John_Dennis_(dramatist)" title="John Dennis (dramatist)">John Dennis</a> and other influential critics into writing eloquent replies.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/pope-shakespeare.html">Alexander Pope, Preface to his <i>Works of Shakespear</i> (1725)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.4literature.net/Thomas_De_Quincey/On_the_Knocking_at_the_Gate_in_Macbeth/">Thomas De Quincey, "On the Knocking at the Gate in <i>Macbeth</i>" (1823)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1091">Thomas Carlyle, <i>On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History</i> (1841)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_resources">Other resources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Other resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041214214411/http://www.peopleplayuk.org.uk/timelines/shakespeare.php">PeoplePlay UK Shakespeare performance timeline</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/">Shakespeare biography and online resources at NoSweatShakespeare</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bardweb.net/">The Shakespeare Resource Center</a> A directory of Web resources for online Shakespearean study. Includes a Shakespeare biography, works timeline, play synopses, and language resources.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="William_Shakespeare" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:William_Shakespeare" title="Template:William Shakespeare"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:William_Shakespeare" title="Template talk:William Shakespeare"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:William_Shakespeare" title="Special:EditPage/Template:William Shakespeare"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="William_Shakespeare" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays" title="Shakespeare's plays">Plays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_comedy" title="Shakespearean comedy">Comedies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/All%27s_Well_That_Ends_Well" title="All's Well That Ends Well">All's Well That Ends Well</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/As_You_Like_It" title="As You Like It">As You Like It</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Comedy_of_Errors" title="The Comedy of Errors">The Comedy of Errors</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cymbeline" title="Cymbeline">Cymbeline</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Love%27s_Labour%27s_Lost" title="Love's Labour's Lost">Love's Labour's Lost</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Measure_for_Measure" title="Measure for Measure">Measure for Measure</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice" title="The Merchant of Venice">The Merchant of Venice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Merry_Wives_of_Windsor" title="The Merry Wives of Windsor">The Merry Wives of Windsor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream" title="A Midsummer Night's Dream">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Much_Ado_About_Nothing" title="Much Ado About Nothing">Much Ado About Nothing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pericles,_Prince_of_Tyre" title="Pericles, Prince of Tyre">Pericles, Prince of Tyre</a></i> ✻</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Taming_of_the_Shrew" title="The Taming of the Shrew">The Taming of the Shrew</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tempest" title="The Tempest">The Tempest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Night" title="Twelfth Night">Twelfth Night</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona" title="The Two Gentlemen of Verona">The Two Gentlemen of Verona</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Noble_Kinsmen" title="The Two Noble Kinsmen">The Two Noble Kinsmen</a></i> ✻</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Winter%27s_Tale" title="The Winter's Tale">The Winter's Tale</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy" title="Shakespearean tragedy">Tragedies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Antony_and_Cleopatra" title="Antony and Cleopatra">Antony and Cleopatra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coriolanus" title="Coriolanus">Coriolanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)" title="Julius Caesar (play)">Julius Caesar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear" title="King Lear">King Lear</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Athens" title="Timon of Athens">Timon of Athens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Titus_Andronicus" title="Titus Andronicus">Titus Andronicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida" title="Troilus and Cressida">Troilus and Cressida</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_history" title="Shakespearean history">Histories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/King_John_(play)" title="King John (play)">King John</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edward_III_(play)" title="Edward III (play)">Edward III</a></i> ✻</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Richard_II_(play)" title="Richard II (play)">Richard II</a></i></li> <li><i>Henry IV</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_1" title="Henry IV, Part 1">1</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_2" title="Henry IV, Part 2">2</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_V_(play)" title="Henry V (play)">Henry V</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_(play)" title="Henry VI (play)">Henry VI</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI,_Part_1" title="Henry VI, Part 1">1</a></i> ✻</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI,_Part_2" title="Henry VI, Part 2">2</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI,_Part_3" title="Henry VI, Part 3">3</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Richard_III_(play)" title="Richard III (play)">Richard III</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_(play)" title="Henry VIII (play)">Henry VIII</a></i> ✻</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_texts_of_Shakespeare%27s_works" title="Early texts of Shakespeare's works">Early editions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Shakespeare_plays_in_quarto" title="List of Shakespeare plays in quarto">Quarto publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Folio" title="First Folio">First Folio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Folio" title="Second Folio">Second Folio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_problem_play" title="Shakespearean problem play">Problem plays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances" title="Shakespeare's late romances">Late romances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henriad" title="Henriad">Henriad</a></li> <li>Characters <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Shakespearean_characters_(A%E2%80%93K)" title="List of Shakespearean characters (A–K)">A–K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Shakespearean_characters_(L%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of Shakespearean characters (L–Z)">L–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_character" title="Ghost character">Ghost character</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Shakespeare%27s_plays" title="Chronology of Shakespeare's plays">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_in_performance" title="Shakespeare in performance">Performances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Shakespearean_settings" title="List of Shakespearean settings">Settings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Shakespearean_scenes" title="List of Shakespearean scenes">Scenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Chandos_portrait" title="Chandos portrait"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shakespeare_%28oval-cropped%29.png/75px-Shakespeare_%28oval-cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shakespeare_%28oval-cropped%29.png/113px-Shakespeare_%28oval-cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shakespeare_%28oval-cropped%29.png/150px-Shakespeare_%28oval-cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets" title="Shakespeare's sonnets">Shakespeare's sonnets</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petrarch%27s_and_Shakespeare%27s_sonnets" title="Petrarch's and Shakespeare's sonnets">comparison to Petrarch</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Lover%27s_Complaint" title="A Lover's Complaint">A Lover's Complaint</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phoenix_and_the_Turtle" title="The Phoenix and the Turtle">The Phoenix and the Turtle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Lucrece" title="The Rape of Lucrece">The Rape of Lucrece</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Venus_and_Adonis_(Shakespeare_poem)" title="Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare poem)">Venus and Adonis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_apocrypha" title="Shakespeare apocrypha">Apocrypha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arden_of_Faversham" title="Arden of Faversham">Arden of Faversham</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_Merlin" title="The Birth of Merlin">The Birth of Merlin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Cardenio" title="The History of Cardenio">Cardenio</a></i> ✻†</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Double_Falsehood" title="Double Falsehood">Double Falsehood</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ironside_(play)" title="Edmund Ironside (play)">Edmund Ironside</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fair_Em" title="Fair Em">Fair Em</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Locrine" title="Locrine">Locrine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Prodigal" title="The London Prodigal">The London Prodigal</a></i></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Love%27s_Labour%27s_Won" title="Love's Labour's Won">Love's Labour's Won</a></i> †</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Merry_Devil_of_Edmonton" title="The Merry Devil of Edmonton">The Merry Devil of Edmonton</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mucedorus" title="Mucedorus">Mucedorus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Puritan" title="The Puritan">The Puritan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Maiden%27s_Tragedy" title="The Second Maiden's Tragedy">The Second Maiden's Tragedy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sejanus_His_Fall" title="Sejanus His Fall">Sejanus His Fall</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Oldcastle" title="Sir John Oldcastle">Sir John Oldcastle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sir_Thomas_More_(play)" title="Sir Thomas More (play)">Sir Thomas More</a></i> ✻</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spanish_Tragedy" title="The Spanish Tragedy">The Spanish Tragedy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lord_Cromwell" title="Thomas Lord Cromwell">Thomas Lord Cromwell</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Woodstock_(play)" title="Thomas of Woodstock (play)">Thomas of Woodstock</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ur-Hamlet" title="Ur-Hamlet">Ur-Hamlet</a></i> †</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vortigern_and_Rowena" title="Vortigern and Rowena">Vortigern and Rowena</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Yorkshire_Tragedy" title="A Yorkshire Tragedy">A Yorkshire Tragedy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Passionate_Pilgrim" title="The Passionate Pilgrim">The Passionate Pilgrim</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/To_the_Queen" title="To the Queen">To the Queen</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Life of William Shakespeare">Life</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/List_of_works_by_William_Shakespeare" title="List of works by William Shakespeare">works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Birthplace" title="Shakespeare's Birthplace">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_works_by_William_Shakespeare" title="List of works by William Shakespeare">Bibliography</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Works_of_Shakespeare" title="Complete Works of Shakespeare">Complete Works</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_translations_of_works_by_William_Shakespeare" title="List of translations of works by William Shakespeare">Translations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_coat_of_arms" title="Shakespeare coat of arms">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare%27s_collaborations" title="William Shakespeare's collaborations">Collaborations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_editors" title="Shakespeare's editors">Editors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe_Theatre" title="Globe Theatre">Globe Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_handwriting" title="Shakespeare's handwriting">Handwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain%27s_Men" title="Lord Chamberlain's Men">Lord Chamberlain's Men</a>/<a href="/wiki/King%27s_Men_(playing_company)" title="King's Men (playing company)">King's Men</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Theatre" title="The Theatre">The Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_Theatre" title="Curtain Theatre">Curtain Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_the_plays_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Music in the plays of William Shakespeare">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Place" title="New Place">New Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Shakespeare" title="Portraits of Shakespeare">Portraits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Religious views of William Shakespeare">Religious views</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Sexuality of William Shakespeare">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling_of_Shakespeare%27s_name" title="Spelling of Shakespeare's name">Spelling of his name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon" title="Stratford-upon-Avon">Stratford-upon-Avon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_writing_style" title="Shakespeare's writing style">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_will" title="Shakespeare's will">Will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity,_Stratford-upon-Avon" title="Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford-upon-Avon">Grave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Legacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_attribution_studies" title="Shakespeare attribution studies">Attribution studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_authorship_question" title="Shakespeare authorship question">Authorship question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardolatry" title="Bardolatry">Bardolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_festival" title="Shakespeare festival">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_garden" title="Shakespeare garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Influence of William Shakespeare">Influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_William_Shakespeare" title="Memorials to William Shakespeare">Memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_William_Shakespeare_screen_adaptations" title="List of William Shakespeare screen adaptations">Screen adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_and_Star_Trek" title="Shakespeare and Star Trek">Shakespeare and <i>Star Trek</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_influence_on_Tolkien" title="Shakespeare's influence on Tolkien">Shakespeare's influence on Tolkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_works_titled_after_Shakespeare" title="List of works titled after Shakespeare">Works titled after Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Institutions" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folger_Shakespeare_Library" title="Folger Shakespeare Library">Folger Shakespeare Library</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Quarterly" title="Shakespeare Quarterly">Shakespeare Quarterly</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company" title="Royal Shakespeare Company">Royal Shakespeare Company</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Theatre" title="Royal Shakespeare Theatre">Royal Shakespeare Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Birthplace_Trust" title="Shakespeare Birthplace Trust">Shakespeare Birthplace Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Globe" title="Shakespeare's Globe">Shakespeare's Globe</a> (replica)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Institute" title="Shakespeare Institute">Shakespeare Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(wife_of_Shakespeare)" title="Anne Hathaway (wife of Shakespeare)">Anne Hathaway</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Hall" title="Susanna Hall">Susanna Hall</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamnet_Shakespeare" title="Hamnet Shakespeare">Hamnet Shakespeare</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Quiney" title="Judith Quiney">Judith Quiney</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Barnard" title="Elizabeth Barnard">Elizabeth Barnard</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Shakespeare" title="John Shakespeare">John Shakespeare</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shakespeare" title="Mary Shakespeare">Mary Arden</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Shakespeare" title="Gilbert Shakespeare">Gilbert Shakespeare</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Shakespeare" title="Joan Shakespeare">Joan Shakespeare</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Shakespeare" title="Edmund Shakespeare">Edmund Shakespeare</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shakespeare" title="Richard Shakespeare">Richard Shakespeare</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hall_(physician)" title="John Hall (physician)">John Hall</a> (son-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Quiney" title="Thomas Quiney">Thomas Quiney</a> (son-in-law)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>✻ <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare%27s_collaborations" title="William Shakespeare's collaborations">Shakespeare and other authors</a></li> <li>† Lost</li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:William_Shakespeare" title="Category:William Shakespeare">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historiography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historiography" title="Template:Historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historiography" title="Template talk:Historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">Historians</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_historians" title="List of historians">list</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_historians_by_area_of_study" title="List of historians by area of study">by area of study</a></b></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historians" title="Category:Historians">historians</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historicity" title="Category:Historicity">historicity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:History" title="Category:History">history</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_history" title="Category:Theories of history">theories of history</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_source" title="Historical source">Historical sources</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">Primary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_source" title="Tertiary source">Tertiary sources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">Facsimiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_document" title="Historical document">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">Logbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">Oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_diary" title="War diary">War diaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_record" title="Service record">Service records</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fields_of_study" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">Fields of study</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By scale</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">Local history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">Microhistory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Libraries_and_library_science" title="Template:Libraries and library science">template</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicology" title="Codicology">Books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorography" title="Chorography">Chorography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">dating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedistics" title="Encyclopaedistics">Encyclopaedistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics (Money)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">preservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography" title="Prosopography">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigillography" title="Sigillography">Sigillography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vexillology" title="Vexillology">Vexillology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_ecology" title="Historical ecology">Ecology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geistesgeschichte" title="Geistesgeschichte">Geistesgeschichte</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography" title="Medieval ecclesiastic historiography">Medieval churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Military historiography">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history" title="Labor history">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Methodology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Methodology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh" title="Tarikh">Tarikh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Approaches,_schools" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches,<br /> schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mentalities" title="History of mentalities">History of mentalities</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_histoire" title="Nouvelle histoire">Nouvelle histoire</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiometry" title="Historiometry">Historiometry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">Cliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_historiography" title="Critical historiography">Critical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical-critical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_historiography" title="Humanistic historiography">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indiscipline_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indiscipline of history (page does not exist)">Indiscipline of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisciplina_da_hist%C3%B3ria" class="extiw" title="pt:Indisciplina da história">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninist_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist historiography">Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_historiography" title="Nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_civilisation" title="Ancestral civilisation">Ancestral civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">Nationalization of history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">People's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">Pop history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_and_continuity" title="Change and continuity">Change and continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">Historic preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_significance" title="Historical significance">Historical significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiology">Historiology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiolog%C3%ADa" class="extiw" title="es:Historiología">es</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of history (page does not exist)">Theory of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Geschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Theorie der Geschichte">de</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_legend" title="Black legend">Black legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge" title="Coloniality of knowledge">Coloniality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian%27s_fallacy" title="Historian's fallacy">Historian's fallacy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">Modernisation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_history" title="Narrative history">Narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_of_regional_peace" title="List of periods of regional peace">Pax</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Paxes" title="Template:Paxes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-year_rule" title="Thirty-year rule">Thirty-year rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhistoricity" title="Transhistoricity">Transhistoricity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">Translatio imperii</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_studii" title="Translatio studii">Translatio studii</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vaticinium_ex_eventu" title="Vaticinium ex eventu">Vaticinium ex eventu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Periodization_ofmodern_history" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodization of<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_War" title="European Civil War">European Civil War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Second Thirty Years' War">Second Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_eighteenth_century" title="Long eighteenth century">Long 18th</a> / <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country or region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_historiography" title="African historiography">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egypt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid_construction_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid construction techniques">Pyramid construction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Egypt_Thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Egypt Thesis (page does not exist)">Black Egypt Thesis</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_Egipto_Negro" class="extiw" title="es:Hipótesis del Egipto Negro">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopia</a></li> <li>Morocco <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rwanda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-hinterland_thesis" title="Metropolitan-hinterland thesis">Metropolitan-hinterland thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staples_thesis" title="Staples thesis">Staples thesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population history</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Argentina" title="Historiography of Argentina">Argentina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Historiography of the May Revolution">May Revolution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Causes of the May Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_revisionism_in_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical revisionism in Argentina (page does not exist)">Revisionist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionismo_hist%C3%B3rico_en_Argentina" class="extiw" title="es:Revisionismo histórico en Argentina">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iquicha_War_of_1825%E2%80%931828#Historiography" title="Iquicha War of 1825–1828">Iquicha Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Colonial Spanish America</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history#Historiography" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">Neoabolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Legacy_and_historiography" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_history" title="Consensus history">Consensus history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclical_theory_(United_States_history)" title="Cyclical theory (United States history)">Cyclical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_in_the_United_States" title="Political history in the United States">Political history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Eras</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_historians" title="Progressive historians">Progressive-era historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Albania" title="Historiography of Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dealbanisation" title="Dealbanisation">Dealbanisation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_myth" title="Habsburg myth">Habsburg myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balhae_controversies" title="Balhae controversies">Balhae</a></li> <li>Belarus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Litvinism" title="Litvinism">Litvinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_historiography" title="Bulgarian historiography">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Byzantine Empire</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinische_Geschichtsschreibung" class="extiw" title="de:Byzantinische Geschichtsschreibung">de</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Early</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Ранневизантийская историография">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_historiography" title="Croatian historiography">Croatia</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_ancient_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of ancient Europe (page does not exist)">Ancient</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Античная историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval historiography">Medieval</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Средневековая историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Age_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Age historiography (page does not exist)">New Age</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Нового времени">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryan_Kartli" title="Aryan Kartli">Aryan Kartli</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalist_historiography" title="Korean nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_controversies" title="Goguryeo controversies">Goguryeo controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_North_Macedonia" title="Historiography in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Philippines" title="Historiography of the Philippines">Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements" title="Historiography of early Philippine settlements">Early settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiograpy_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiograpy of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_de_Portugal" class="extiw" title="pt:Historiografia de Portugal">pt</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">Lusotropicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Union" title="Great Union">Great Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_historiography" title="Serbian historiography">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland_theory" title="Götaland theory">Götaland theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwanese_historiography" title="History of Taiwanese historiography">Taiwan</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_sisters" title="Trưng sisters">Trưng sisters</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy#Historiography" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Romanisation" title="Historiography of Romanisation">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of Western Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Prosopography of ancient Rome">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">5000-year civilization assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wunu_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wunu School (page does not exist)">Wunu School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%A5%B4%E6%B4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:无奴派">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_the_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" title="Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties">"Chineseness" debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement#Evaluation" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">Sprouts of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Tibetan sovereignty debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(international_relations)" title="Cordon sanitaire (international relations)">Cordon sanitaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankish_Interregnum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankish Interregnum (page does not exist)">Frankish Interregnum</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interr%C3%A8gne_franc" class="extiw" title="fr:Interrègne franc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Grand Siècle">Grand Siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legendary_Saracen_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legendary Saracen in France (page does not exist)">Legendary Saracen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gendaire_sarrasin_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Légendaire sarrasin en France">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiographical_debate_on_the_location_of_Al%C3%A9sia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiographical debate on the location of Alésia (page does not exist)">Location of Alésia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_d%C3%A9bat_sur_la_localisation_d%27Al%C3%A9sia" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du débat sur la localisation d'Alésia">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Lyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Lyon (page does not exist)">Lyon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_de_Lyon" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie de Lyon">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alltagsgeschichte" title="Alltagsgeschichte">Alltagsgeschichte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth">Borussian myth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strukturgeschichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strukturgeschichte (page does not exist)">Strukturgeschichte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturgeschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Strukturgeschichte">de</a>]</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybel-Ficker_controversy" title="Sybel-Ficker controversy">Sybel-Ficker controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indocentrism" title="Indocentrism">Indocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland#Historiography" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)#Analysis_of_the_government's_role" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves">More Irish than the Irish themselves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Ireland)" title="Revisionism (Ireland)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Revolutionary period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy#Historiography" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_Patriae_Monumenta" title="Historiae Patriae Monumenta">Historiae Patriae Monumenta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Series_of_the_Bank_of_Italy" title="Historical Series of the Bank of Italy">Historical Series of the Bank of Italy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Italiani_brava_gente" title="Italiani brava gente">Italiani brava gente</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_italicarum_scriptores" title="Rerum italicarum scriptores">Rerum italicarum scriptores</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty#Assessment" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)#In_popular_culture" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_about_Polish_People%27s_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography about Polish People's Republic (page does not exist)">Polish People's Republic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_PRL" class="extiw" title="pl:Historiografia PRL">pl</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">Anti-Normanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Revolution_Russian_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Revolution Russian historiography (page does not exist)">Pre-Revolutionary Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская дореволюционная историография">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skeptic_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skeptic School (page does not exist)">Skeptic School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Скептическая школа">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution#Historiography" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Holodomor" title="Causes of the Holodomor">Causes of the Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question" title="Holodomor genocide question">Holodomor genocide question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_in_modern_politics" title="Holodomor in modern politics">Holodomor in modern politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">Black legend</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)#White_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">White legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_on_Carlism_during_the_Francoist_era" title="Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era">Carlism in the Francoist era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpieza_de_sangre_controversy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpieza de sangre controversy (page does not exist)">Limpieza de sangre controversy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre#Los_estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre,_¿el_origen_del_racismo_europeo?" class="extiw" title="es:Estatutos de limpieza de sangre">es</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_revolution_of_Spain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic revolution of Spain (page does not exist)">Islamic revolution of Spain</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_isl%C3%A1mica_en_Occidente" class="extiw" title="es:La revolución islámica en Occidente">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Spain)" title="Revisionism (Spain)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty#Controversy_over_whether_the_American_Viceroyalties_were_Colonies_or_Provinces" title="Viceroyalty">Colonies or Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_decline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish decline (page does not exist)">Spanish decline</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadencia_espa%C3%B1ola" class="extiw" title="es:Decadencia española">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ser de España (page does not exist)">Ser de España</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Ser de España">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kemalist_historiography" title="Kemalist historiography">Kemalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Poor_Laws" title="Historiography of the Poor Laws">Poor Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Origins of the Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Stone_theory" title="Westminster Stone theory">Westminster Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_over_the_gentry" title="Storm over the gentry">Storm over the gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes" title="Historiography of the Suffragettes">Suffragette Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">Tudor myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_(Richard_III)" title="Ricardian (Richard III)">Ricardians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent#Legacy" title="Winter of Discontent">Winter of Discontent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="BritishEmpire" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">British<br />Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(imperial_history)" title="Cambridge School (imperial history)">Cambridge School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_colonial_occupation" title="Second colonial occupation">Second colonial occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Colonial Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_war,_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By war, conflict</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_person" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By person</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Historiography of Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Evaluations_of_Husseini's_historical_significance" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb#Assessments_and_legacy" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Cato_the_Younger" title="Legacy of Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Che_Guevara" title="Legacy of Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Ching-kuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Ching-kuo (page does not exist)">Chiang Ching-kuo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣經國的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Kai_Shek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Kai Shek (page does not exist)">Chiang Kai Shek</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣中正的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#Historiography" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamism#Initial_Western_reactions" title="Palamism">Gregory Palamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Horatio Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Legacy" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Jiang_Zemin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Jiang Zemin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zemin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E6%B1%9F%E6%BE%A4%E6%B0%91%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對江澤民的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Joseph Stalin (page does not exist)">Joseph Stalin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#Мнения_и_оценки_личности_Сталина" class="extiw" title="ru:Сталин, Иосиф Виссарионович">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn#Historiography" title="Legacy of José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel" title="Historiography of Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Mao_Zedong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Mao Zedong (page does not exist)">Mao Zedong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:对中国共产党的评论">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_and_legacy_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Reception and legacy of Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Napoleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain#Legacy_and_reputation" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil">Pedro II of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar#Legacy" title="Simón Bolívar">Simon Bolivar</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cult_of_personality_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cult of personality of Simón Bolívar (page does not exist)">Cult of personality</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culto_a_la_personalidad_de_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" class="extiw" title="es:Culto a la personalidad de Simón Bolívar">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin#Recognition_and_legacy" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Sun_Yat_Tse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Sun Yat Tse (page does not exist)">Sun Yat Tse</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對孫中山的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas#Legacy,_veneration,_and_modern_reception" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Historical reputation of Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Yuan_Shikai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Yuan Shikai (page does not exist)">Yuan Shikai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%A2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%87%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對袁世凱的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhou_Enlai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhou Enlai (page does not exist)">Zhou Enlai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對周恩來的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhuge_Liang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhuge Liang (page does not exist)">Zhuge Liang</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對諸葛亮的評價">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Historicalrankings" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_heads_of_government" title="Historical rankings of heads of government">Historical<br />rankings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_chancellors_of_Germany" title="Historical rankings of chancellors of Germany">Modern Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_studies" title="Lovecraft studies">H. P. Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_history_of_Jane_Austen" title="Reception history of Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed">Muhammed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Muhammad" title="Historicity of Muhammad">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Muhammad">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Medieval Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_Jesus" title="Religious perspectives on Jesus">Religious perspectives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_research" title="Tolkien research">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_reception_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Literary reception of The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Madonna" title="Cultural impact of Madonna">Madonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Controversies surrounding Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bears_in_antiquity" title="Bears in antiquity">Bears in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis of historiography (page does not exist)">Crisis of historiography</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_da_historiografia" class="extiw" title="pt:Crise da historiografia">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_feudalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Nationalism in the Middle Ages">Nationalism in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Professionalization_and_institutionalization_of_history" title="Professionalization and institutionalization of history">Professionalization and institutionalization of history</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Salons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Western European colonialism and colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Recession" title="Causes of the Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li>School of Thoughts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Christianity" title="Historiography of early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Primacy of Peter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy#Opposition" title="Papal supremacy">Opposition to Papal supremacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Early Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic golden age">Islamic golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites#Legacy" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council#Controversies" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics_of_Vatican_Council_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II (page does not exist)">Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermeneutica_del_Concilio_Vaticano_II" class="extiw" title="it:Ermeneutica del Concilio Vaticano II">it</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation#Conclusion_and_legacy" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits#Controversies" title="Jesuits">Jesuit historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish history</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Wissenschaft des Judentums">Wissenschaft des Judentums</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Schools of thought <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbabylonism" title="Panbabylonism">Panbabylonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions_school" title="History of religions school">Religionsgeschichtliche Schule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Science</a> /<br />Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">Protestant Ethic and Capitalism</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development" title="Heroic theory of invention and scientific development">Heroic theory of invention and scientific development</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel 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