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0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Forge+welding%22">"Forge welding"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Forge+welding%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Forge+welding%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Forge+welding%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Forge+welding%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Forge+welding%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Forge welding</b> (FOW), also called <b>fire welding</b>, is a solid-state <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welding</a> process<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that joins two pieces of <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> by heating them to a high temperature and then <a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">hammering</a> them together.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may also consist of heating and forcing the metals together with presses or other means, creating enough pressure to cause <a href="/wiki/Plastic_deformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic deformation">plastic deformation</a> at the weld surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process, although challenging, has been a method of joining metals used since ancient times and is a staple of traditional <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">blacksmithing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forge welding is versatile, being able to join a host of similar and dissimilar metals. With the invention of electrical welding and <a href="/wiki/Gas_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas welding">gas welding</a> methods during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, manual forge-welding has been largely replaced, although automated forge-welding is a common manufacturing process. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forge welding is a process of joining metals by heating them beyond a certain threshold and forcing them together with enough pressure to cause deformation of the weld surfaces, creating a <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">metallic bond</a> between the atoms of the metals. The pressure required varies, depending on the temperature, <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forge welding is the oldest welding technique, and has been used since ancient times. </p><p>Welding processes can generally be grouped into two categories: <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">fusion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> welding. <a href="/wiki/Fusion_welding" title="Fusion welding">Fusion welding</a> involves localized melting of the metals at the weld interfaces, and is common in electric or gas welding techniques. This requires temperatures much higher than the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> of the metal in order to cause localized melting before the heat can <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">thermally conduct</a> away from the weld, and often a filler metal is used to keep the weld from segregating due to the high <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a>. <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion welding">Diffusion welding</a> consists of joining the metals without melting them, welding the surfaces together while in the solid state.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In diffusion welding, the heat source is often lower than the melting point of the metal, allowing more even heat-distribution thus reducing <a href="/wiki/Thermal_stress" title="Thermal stress">thermal stresses</a> at the weld. In this method a filler metal is typically not used, but the weld occurs directly between the metals at the weld interface. This includes methods such as <a href="/wiki/Cold_welding" title="Cold welding">cold welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Explosion_welding" title="Explosion welding">explosion welding</a>, and forge welding. Unlike other diffusion methods, in forge welding the metals are heated to a high temperature before forcing them together, usually resulting in greater <a href="/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)" title="Plasticity (physics)">plasticity</a> at the weld surfaces. This generally makes forge welding more versatile than cold-diffusion techniques, which are usually performed on soft metals like copper or aluminum.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In forge welding, the entire welding areas are heated evenly. Forge welding can be used for a much wider range of harder metals and alloys, like steel and titanium.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tamahagane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tamahagane.jpg/220px-Tamahagane.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tamahagane.jpg/330px-Tamahagane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tamahagane.jpg/440px-Tamahagane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Sponge iron used to forge a Japanese <a href="/wiki/Katana" title="Katana">katana</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of joining metals goes back to the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, where bronzes of different hardness were often joined by casting-in. This method consisted of placing a solid part into a molten metal contained in a mold and allowing it to solidify without actually melting both metals, such as the blade of a sword into a handle or the tang of an arrowhead into the tip. <a href="/wiki/Brazing" title="Brazing">Brazing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soldering" title="Soldering">soldering</a> were also common during the Bronze Age.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The act of welding (joining two solid parts through diffusion) began with iron. The first welding process was forge welding, which started when humans learned to <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelt</a> iron from <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a>; most likely in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (Turkey) around 1800 BC. Ancient people could not create temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, so the <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</a> process that was used for smelting iron produced a lump (bloom) of iron grains <a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">sintered</a> together with small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> and other impurities, referred to as <a href="/wiki/Sponge_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Sponge iron">sponge iron</a> because of its <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a>. </p><p>After smelting, the sponge iron needed to be heated above the welding temperature and hammered, or "wrought." This squeezed out air pockets and melted slag, bringing the iron grains into close contact to form a solid block (billet). </p><p>Many items made of <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> have been found by archeologists, that show evidence of forge welding, which date from before 1000 BC. Because iron was typically made in small amounts, any large object, such as the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Pillar" class="mw-redirect" title="Delhi Pillar">Delhi Pillar</a>, needed to be forge welded out of smaller billets.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forge welding grew from a trial-and-error method, becoming more refined over the centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the poor quality of ancient metals, it was commonly employed in making composite steels, by joining high-carbon steels, that would resist deformation but break easily, with low-carbon steels, which resist fracture but bend too easily, creating an object with greater <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strength_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strength (material)">strength</a> than could be produced with a single alloy. This method of <a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">pattern welding</a> first appeared around 700 BC, and was primarily used for making weapons such as swords; the most widely known examples being <a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_swordsmithing" title="Japanese swordsmithing">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingian sword"> Merovingian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Berns_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berns-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process was also common in the manufacture of tools, from wrought-iron <a href="/wiki/Plow" class="mw-redirect" title="Plow">plows</a> with steel edges to iron <a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">chisels</a> with steel cutting surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-Berns_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berns-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many metals can be forge welded, with the most common being both high and low-<a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">carbon steels</a>. <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> and even some <a href="/wiki/Hypoeutectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoeutectic">hypoeutectic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cast-iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast-iron">cast-irons</a> can be forge welded. Some <a href="/wiki/Aluminum_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum alloy">aluminum alloys</a> can also be forge welded.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metals such as <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> do not forge weld readily. Although it is possible to forge weld copper-based <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>, it is often with great difficulty due to copper's tendency to absorb oxygen during the heating.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copper and its alloys are usually better joined with <a href="/wiki/Cold_welding" title="Cold welding">cold welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Explosion_welding" title="Explosion welding">explosion welding</a>, or other pressure-welding techniques. With iron or steel, the presence of even small amounts of copper severely reduces the alloy's ability to forge weld.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a> alloys are commonly forge welded. Because of titanium's tendency to absorb oxygen when molten, the solid-state, diffusion bond of a forge weld is often stronger than a fusion weld in which the metal is liquefied.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forge welding between similar materials is caused by solid-state diffusion. This results in a weld that consists of only the welded materials without any fillers or bridging materials. Forge welding between dissimilar materials is caused by the formation of a lower melting temperature <a href="/wiki/Eutectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic">eutectic</a> between the materials. Due to this the weld is often stronger than the individual metals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processes">Processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fourneau_St-Michel_-_Martinet_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Fourneau_St-Michel_-_Martinet_2.jpg/220px-Fourneau_St-Michel_-_Martinet_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Fourneau_St-Michel_-_Martinet_2.jpg/330px-Fourneau_St-Michel_-_Martinet_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Fourneau_St-Michel_-_Martinet_2.jpg/440px-Fourneau_St-Michel_-_Martinet_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A mechanized <a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">trip hammer</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The most well-known and oldest forge-welding process is the manual-hammering method. Manual hammering is done by heating the metal to the proper temperature, coating with flux, overlapping the weld surfaces, and then striking the joint repeatedly with a hand-held <a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">hammer</a>. The joint is often formed to allow space for the <a href="/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)" title="Flux (metallurgy)">flux</a> to flow out, by beveling or rounding the surfaces slightly, and hammered in a successively outward fashion to squeeze the flux out. The hammer blows are typically not as hard as those used for shaping, preventing the flux from being blasted out of the joint at the first blow. </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Power_hammer" title="Power hammer">mechanical hammers</a> were developed, forge welding could be accomplished by heating the metal, and then placing it between the mechanized hammer and the anvil. Originally powered by <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheels</a>, modern mechanical-hammers can also be operated by compressed air, electricity, steam, gas engines, and many other ways. Another method is forge welding with a <a href="/wiki/Die_(manufacturing)" title="Die (manufacturing)">die</a>, whereby the pieces of metal are heated and then forced into a die which both provides the pressure for the weld and keeps the joint at the finished shape. Roll welding is another forge welding process, where the heated metals are overlapped and passed through rollers at high pressures to create the weld.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern forge-welding is often automated, using computers, machines, and sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_press" title="Hydraulic press">hydraulic presses</a> to produce a variety of products from a number of various alloys.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, steel pipe is often forge-welded during the manufacturing process. Flat stock is heated and fed through specially-shaped rollers that both form the steel into a tube and simultaneously provide the pressure to weld the edges into a continuous seam.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_bonding" title="Diffusion bonding">Diffusion bonding</a> is a common method for forge welding titanium alloys in the aerospace industry. In this process the metal is heated while in a press or die. Beyond a specific critical-temperature, which varies depending on the alloy, the impurities burn out and the surfaces are forced together.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other methods include <a href="/wiki/Flash_welding" title="Flash welding">flash welding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Percussion_welding" title="Percussion welding">percussion welding</a>. These are resistance forge-welding techniques where the press or die is electrified, passing high current through the alloy to create the heat for the weld.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shielded active-gas forge-welding is a process of forge welding in an oxygen-reactive environment, to burn out oxides, using <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas and <a href="/wiki/Induction_heating" title="Induction heating">induction heating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Temperature">Temperature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Iron, different steels, and even <a href="/wiki/Cast-iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast-iron">cast-iron</a> can be welded to each other, provided that their carbon content is close enough that the welding ranges overlap. Pure iron can be welded when nearly white hot; between 2,500 °F (1,400 °C) and 2,700 °F (1,500 °C). Steel with a carbon content of 2.0% can be welded when orangish-yellow, between 1,700 °F (900 °C) and 2,000 °F (1,100 °C). Common steel, between 0.2 and 0.8% carbon, is typically welded at a bright yellow heat.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A primary requirement for forge welding is that both weld surfaces need to be heated to the same temperature and welded before they cool too much. When steel reaches the proper temperature, it begins to weld very readily, so a thin rod or nail heated to the same temperature will tend to stick at first contact, requiring it to be bent or twisted loose. </p><p>Care must be taken to avoid overheating the metal to the point that it gives off <a href="/wiki/Ember" title="Ember">sparks</a> from rapid oxidation (burning), or else the weld will be poor and brittle.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decarburization">Decarburization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Decarburization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When steel is heated to an <a href="/wiki/Austenizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Austenizing">austenizing</a> temperature, the carbon begins to diffuse through the iron. The higher the temperature; the greater the rate of diffusion. At such high temperatures, carbon readily combines with oxygen to form <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, so the carbon can easily diffuse out of the steel and into the surrounding air. By the end of a blacksmithing job, the steel will be of a lower carbon content than it was prior to heating. Therefore, most blacksmithing operations are done as quickly as possible to reduce decarburization, preventing the steel from becoming too soft. </p><p>To produce the right amount of hardness in the finished product, the smith generally begins with steel that has a carbon content that is higher than desired. In ancient times, forging often began with steel that had a carbon content much too high for normal use. Most ancient forge-welding began with <a href="/wiki/Heat_treating#Effects_of_composition" title="Heat treating">hypereutectoid</a> steel, containing a carbon content sometimes well above 1.0%. Hypereutectoid steels are typically too brittle to be useful in a finished product, but by the end of forging the steel typically had a high carbon-content ranging from 0.8% (eutectoid tool-steel) to 0.5% (hypoeutectoid spring-steel).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forge welding has been used throughout its history for making most any items out of steel and iron. It has been used in everything from the manufacture of tools, farming implements, and cookware to the manufacture of fences, gates, and prison cells. In the early Industrial Revolution, it was commonly used in the manufacture of boilers and pressure vessels, until the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Fusion_welding" title="Fusion welding">fusion-welding</a>. It was commonly used through the Middle Ages for producing armor and weapons. </p><p>One of the most famous applications of forge welding involves the production of <a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">pattern-welded</a> blades. During this process a smith repeatedly draws out a <a href="/wiki/Billet_(bar_stock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Billet (bar stock)">billet</a> of steel, folds it back and welds it upon itself.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another application was the manufacture of shotgun barrels. Metal wire was spooled onto a <a href="/wiki/Mandrel" title="Mandrel">mandrel</a>, and then forged into a barrel that was thin, uniform, and strong. In some cases the forge-welded objects are acid-<a href="/wiki/Etching" title="Etching">etched</a> to expose the underlying pattern of metal, which is unique to each item and provides aesthetic appeal. </p><p>Despite its diversity, forge welding had many limitations. A primary limitation was the size of objects that could be forge welded. Larger objects required a bigger heat source, and size reduced the ability to manually weld it together before it cooled too much. Welding large items like steel plate or girders was typically not possible, or at least highly impractical, until the invention of fusion welding, requiring them to be riveted instead. In some cases, fusion welding produced a much stronger weld, such as in the construction of boilers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flux">Flux</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Flux"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forge welding requires the weld surfaces to be extremely clean or the metal will not join properly, if at all. Oxides tend to form on the surface while impurities like <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> tend to migrate to the surface. Often a <a href="/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)" title="Flux (metallurgy)">flux</a> is used to keep the welding surfaces from <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizing">oxidizing</a>, which would produce a poor quality weld, and to extract other impurities from the metal. The flux mixes with the <a href="/wiki/Oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxides">oxides</a> that form and lowers the melting temperature and the <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> of the oxides. This enables the oxides to flow out of the joint when the two pieces are beaten together. A simple flux can be made from <a href="/wiki/Borax" title="Borax">borax</a>, sometimes with the addition of powdered iron-filings.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest flux used for forge welding was fine <a href="/wiki/Silica_sand" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica sand">silica sand</a>. The iron or steel would be heated in a <a href="/wiki/Reducing_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing environment">reducing environment</a> within the coals of the forge. Devoid of oxygen, the metal forms a layer of iron-oxide called <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCstite" title="Wüstite">wüstite</a> on its surface. When the metal is hot enough, but below the welding temperature, the smith sprinkles some sand onto the metal. The <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> in the sand reacts with the wustite to form <a href="/wiki/Fayalite" title="Fayalite">fayalite</a>, which melts just below the welding temperature. This produced a very effective flux which helped to make a strong weld.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early examples of flux used different combinations and various amounts of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> fillings, <a href="/wiki/Borax" title="Borax">borax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sal_ammoniac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sal ammoniac">sal ammoniac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copaifera_langsdorffii" title="Copaifera langsdorffii">balsam</a> of <a href="/wiki/Copaiba" title="Copaiba">copaiba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">cyanide</a> of <a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">soda phosphate</a>. The 1920 edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> book of facts and formulae</i> indicates a frequently offered trade secret as using <a href="/wiki/Copperas" class="mw-redirect" title="Copperas">copperas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">saltpeter</a>, common <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>, black <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prussiate_of_potash" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussiate of potash">prussiate of potash</a>, and "nice welding sand" (silicate). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_welding" title="Friction welding">Friction welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_stud_welding" title="Friction stud welding">Friction stud welding</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forge_welding&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShirzadi" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNauman2004" class="citation cs2">Nauman, Dan (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175903/http://www.abana.org/downloads/controlled_hand_forging/CHF_10.pdf">"Forge welding"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Hammer's Blow</i>: 10–15, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abana.org/downloads/controlled_hand_forging/CHF_10.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-02-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hammer%27s+Blow&rft.atitle=Forge+welding&rft.pages=10-15&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Nauman&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abana.org%2Fdownloads%2Fcontrolled_hand_forging%2FCHF_10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForge+welding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Production Technology (Manufacturing Processes): Manufacturing Processes</i> by P C Sharma -- S. 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"A Sword of the Nydam Type from Ely Fields Farm, near Ely". <i>Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society</i>. <b>XLI</b>: 73–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5284%2F1034398">10.5284/1034398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Cambridge+Antiquarian+Society&rft.atitle=A+Sword+of+the+Nydam+Type+from+Ely+Fields+Farm%2C+near+Ely&rft.volume=XLI&rft.pages=73-76&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5284%2F1034398&rft.aulast=Maryon&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForge+welding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bladesmithing with Murray Carter: Modern Application of Traditional Techniques</i> by Murray Carter -- F+W Media 2011 Page 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Iron and Steel in Ancient Times</i> By Vagn Fabritius Buchwald -- Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab 2005 Page 65</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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title="Electric resistance welding">Electric resistance (ERW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_welding" title="Electron-beam welding">Electron-beam (EBW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroslag_welding" title="Electroslag welding">Electroslag (ESW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exothermic_welding" title="Exothermic welding">Exothermic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Forge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_welding" title="Friction welding">Friction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_stir_welding" title="Friction stir welding">Friction stir (FSW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_stud_welding" title="Friction stud welding">Friction stud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_beam_welding" title="Laser beam welding">Laser beam (LBW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-hybrid_welding" title="Laser-hybrid welding">Laser-hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pulse_welding" title="Magnetic pulse welding">Magnetic pulse</a></li> <li><a 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gas">Shielding gas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heat-affected_zone" title="Heat-affected zone">Heat-affected zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photokeratitis" title="Photokeratitis">Photokeratitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual_stress" title="Residual stress">Residual stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weldability" title="Weldability">Weldability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">Casting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fabrication" title="Metal fabrication">Fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_processes" title="Forming processes">Forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">Jewellery</a></li> 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