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class="vector-pinnable-header-label">مالومات</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">څنګپټې ته ورسئ</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">پټول</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">پیل</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-تاريخچه" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#تاريخچه"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">۱</span> <span>تاريخچه</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-تاريخچه-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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<span>سرچينې</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-سرچينې-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="مالومات" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">پوهنه</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="ليکنه په بله ژبه کي وګورئ. دا ليکنه په ۲۳۹ ژبو کې شتون لري." > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-239" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">۲۳۹ ژبې</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenskap" title="Wetenskap – افریکانسي" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wetenskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="افریکانسي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft – سویس جرمن" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="سویس جرمن" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B5" title="ሳይንስ – امهاري" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሳይንስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="امهاري" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – اراگونېسي" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ciencia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="اراگونېسي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witancr%C3%A6ft" title="Witancræft – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Witancræft" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – انگيکي" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="انگيکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="ټاکلې ليکنې"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – عربي" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="عربي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B5" title="صيونص – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="صيونص" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বিজ্ঞান – اسامي" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="اسامي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – استورياني" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ciencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="استورياني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83" title="ГӀелму – اواري" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ГӀелму" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="اواري" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opa" title="Opa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Opa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yatxatawi" title="Yatxatawi – ایماري" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Yatxatawi" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="ایماري" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elm" title="Elm – اذربایجاني" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="اذربایجاني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="ټاکلې ليکنې"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BD" title="Фән – باشکير" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Фән" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="باشکير" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissnschoft" title="Wissnschoft – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Wissnschoft" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muokslos" title="Muokslos – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Muokslos" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyensya" title="Siyensya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Siyensya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Навука – بېلاروسي" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навука" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="بېلاروسي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Навука – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Навука" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – بلغاري" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="بلغاري" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saens" title="Saens – بسلاما" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Saens" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="بسلاما" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Sains" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6" title="သိပ္ပံ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သိပ္ပံ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%94nniya" title="Dɔnniya – بمبارا" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Dɔnniya" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="بمبارا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বিজ্ঞান – بنگالي" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="بنگالي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82" title="ཚན་རིག – تبتي" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཚན་རིག" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="تبتي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiant" title="Skiant – برېتون" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Skiant" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="برېتون" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – بوسني" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nauka" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="بوسني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmu" title="Elmu – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Elmu" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%95%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%8A%E1%A8%94" title="ᨔᨕᨗᨊᨔ – بگنيايي" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨔᨕᨗᨊᨔ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="بگنيايي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Ugi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BC_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Эрдэм ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эрдэм ухаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncia" title="Ciència – کټلاني" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="کټلاني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C5%8F-h%C5%8Fk" title="Kuŏ-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Kuŏ-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ӏилма – چيچني" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ӏилма" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="چيچني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamdag" title="Alamdag – سیبوانوي" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Alamdag" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="سیبوانوي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%A6%E1%8E%A5_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%8E%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%94%E1%8F%85" title="ᏂᎦᎥ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ – چېروکي" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏂᎦᎥ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="چېروکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="زانست – منځنۍ کوردي" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="منځنۍ کوردي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0lim" title="İlim – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="İlim" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bda" title="Věda – چېکي" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Věda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="چېکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%99czba" title="Ùczba – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Ùczba" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Ăслăх – چوواشي" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ăслăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="چوواشي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyddoniaeth" title="Gwyddoniaeth – ويلشي" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwyddoniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="ويلشي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videnskab" title="Videnskab – ډنمارکي" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Videnskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="ډنمارکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabibi" title="Tabibi – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Tabibi" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft – الماني" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="الماني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zan%C4%B1%C5%9Fiye" title="Zanışiye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zanışiye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Sains" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Επιστήμη – یوناني" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστήμη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="یوناني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – انګليسي" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="انګليسي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienco" title="Scienco – اسپرانتو" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="اسپرانتو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – هسپانوي" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="هسپانوي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teadus" title="Teadus – حبشي" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="حبشي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientzia" title="Zientzia – باسکي" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zientzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="باسکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9ncia" title="Céncia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Céncia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – فارسي" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="فارسي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiede" title="Tiede – فینلنډي" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="فینلنډي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiid%C3%BCs" title="Tiidüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tiidüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakadidike" title="Vakadidike – فجیان" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vakadidike" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="فجیان" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – فرانسوي" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="فرانسوي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedenskap" title="Wedenskap – شمالي فریسیان" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Wedenskap" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="شمالي فریسیان" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sience" title="Sience – فرائیلیین" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Sience" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="فرائیلیین" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wittenskip" title="Wittenskip – لوېديځ فريشي" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Wittenskip" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="لوېديځ فريشي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eola%C3%ADocht" title="Eolaíocht – ائيرلېنډي" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="ائيرلېنډي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="科學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syans" title="Syans – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Syans" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saidheans" title="Saidheans – سکاټلېنډي ګېلک" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Saidheans" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="سکاټلېنډي ګېلک" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – ګلېشيايي" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ciencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="ګلېشيايي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembikuaaty" title="Tembikuaaty – ګوراني" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tembikuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="ګوراني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="વિજ્ઞાન – ګجراتي" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વિજ્ઞાન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="ګجراتي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensiiaka" title="Siensiiaka – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Siensiiaka" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oaylleeaght" title="Oaylleeaght – مینکس" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Oaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="مینکس" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B4-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Khô-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Khô-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akeakamai" title="Akeakamai – هوایی" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Akeakamai" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="هوایی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="מדע – عبراني" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="عبراني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – هندي" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="هندي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigyan" title="Vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Vigyan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost" title="Znanost – کروايشيايي" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="کروايشيايي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syans" title="Syans – هيټي کريول" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Syans" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="هيټي کريول" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1ny" title="Tudomány – هنګري" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="هنګري" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիտություն – آرمينيايي" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="آرمينيايي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիտութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Գիտութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia" title="Scientia – انټرلنګوا" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Scientia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="انټرلنګوا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – ابن" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Sains" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="ابن" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu – انډونېزي" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="انډونېزي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="ټاکلې ليکنې"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientie" title="Scientie – آسا نا جبة" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Scientie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="آسا نا جبة" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amamihe" title="Amamihe – اګبو" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Amamihe" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="اګبو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensia" title="Siensia – الوکو" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Siensia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="الوکو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ӏилма – انگش" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ӏилма" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="انگش" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cienco" title="Cienco – اڊو" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Cienco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="اڊو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADsindi" title="Vísindi – ايسلنډي" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vísindi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="ايسلنډي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – ایټالوي" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scienza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="ایټالوي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – جاپاني" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="جاپاني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayans" title="Sayans – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Sayans" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/saske" title="saske – لوجبان" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="saske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="لوجبان" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu" title="Èlmu – جاوايي" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Èlmu" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="جاوايي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მეცნიერება – جورجيائي" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მეცნიერება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="جورجيائي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilim" title="Ilim – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ilim" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tussna" title="Tussna – کیبیل" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tussna" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="کیبیل" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Lɛɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayen" title="Sayen – تایپ" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Sayen" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="تایپ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kizabu" title="Kizabu – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Kizabu" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Ғылым – قازق" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылым" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="قازق" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="វិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ – خمر" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="វិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="خمر" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – کناډا" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="کناډا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="과학 – کوریایی" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="کوریایی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Илму – کراچی بالکر" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Илму" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="کراچی بالکر" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%8E%D8%B3" title="ساینَس – کشمیري" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ساینَس" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="کشمیري" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanist" title="Zanist – کردي" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zanist" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="کردي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godhonieth" title="Godhonieth – کورنيشي" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Godhonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="کورنيشي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Илим – کرغيزي" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Илим" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="کرغيزي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_(ratio)" title="Scientia (ratio) – لاتیني" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scientia (ratio)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="لاتیني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensia" title="Sensia – لاډینو" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Sensia" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="لاډینو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%ABssenschaft" title="Wëssenschaft – لوګزامبورګي" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Wëssenschaft" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="لوګزامبورګي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Илим – لیګغیان" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Илим" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="لیګغیان" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Siensa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weitesjap" title="Weitesjap – لمبرگیانی" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Weitesjap" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="لمبرگیانی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciensa" title="Sciensa – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Sciensa" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci%C3%ABnza" title="Sciënza – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Sciënza" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienza" title="Sienza – لومبارډ" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sienza" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="لومبارډ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ວິທະຍາສາດ – لاو" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ວິທະຍາສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="لاو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslas" title="Mokslas – ليتواني" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="ليتواني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tne" title="Zinātne – لېټواني" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zinātne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="لېټواني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – مایتھلي" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="مایتھلي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Ilmu" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Тонадома – موکشا" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Тонадома" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="موکشا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siansa" title="Siansa – ملغاسي" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Siansa" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="ملغاسي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5" title="Шанче – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Шанче" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%ABtaiao" title="Pūtaiao – ماوري" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Pūtaiao" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="ماوري" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilimu" title="Ilimu – مينيگاباو" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Ilimu" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="مينيگاباو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – مقدوني" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="مقدوني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ശാസ്ത്രം – مالايالم" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="مالايالم" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Шинжлэх ухаан – منګولیایی" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шинжлэх ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="منګولیایی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A7%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A1-%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯂꯧꯁꯤꯡ-ꯀꯥꯡꯂꯣꯟ – مانی پوری" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯂꯧꯁꯤꯡ-ꯀꯥꯡꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="مانی پوری" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6" title="သိပ္ပံ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="သိပ္ပံ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – مراټهي" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="مراټهي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – ملایا" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sains" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="ملایا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xjenza" title="Xjenza – مالټايي" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Xjenza" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="مالټايي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A9ncia" title="Ciéncia – مرانديز" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ciéncia" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="مرانديز" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="သိပ္ပံပညာ – برمایی" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သိပ္ပံပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="برمایی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Тона – ارزيا" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Тона" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="ارزيا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlamatiliztli" title="Tlamatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlamatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschop" title="Wetenschop – کښته آلماني" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Wetenschop" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="کښته آلماني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschop" title="Wetenschop – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Wetenschop" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – نېپالي" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="نېپالي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="दुसिका – نيواري" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="दुसिका" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="نيواري" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschap" title="Wetenschap – هالېنډي" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="هالېنډي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitskap" title="Vitskap – ناروېئي (نائنورسک)" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vitskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="ناروېئي (نائنورسک)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitenskap" title="Vitenskap – ناروېئي (بوکمال)" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="ناروېئي (بوکمال)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sientie" title="Sientie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Sientie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9F%DF%90%DF%B2%DF%9E%DF%8F" title="ߟߐ߲ߞߏ – نکو" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߟߐ߲ߞߏ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="نکو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienche" title="Scienche – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Scienche" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutamahlale" title="Thutamahlale – شمالي سوتو" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Thutamahlale" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="شمالي سوتو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci%C3%A9ncia" title="Sciéncia – اوکسيټاني" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sciéncia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="اوکسيټاني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saayinsii" title="Saayinsii – اورومو" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Saayinsii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="اورومو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – اوڊيا" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="اوڊيا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Зонад – اوسيټک" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Зонад" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="اوسيټک" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – پنجابي" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="پنجابي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensia" title="Siensia – پاپيامينتو" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Siensia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="پاپيامينتو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienches" title="Scienches – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Scienches" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – نائجیریا پیدجن" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="نائجیریا پیدجن" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Naijá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saiens" title="Saiens – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Saiens" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – پولنډي" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nauka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="پولنډي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Siensa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سائنس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncia" title="Ciência – پورتګالي" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ciência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="پورتګالي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamut%27ay" title="Hamut'ay – کېچوا" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hamut'ay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="کېچوا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – رومانیش" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Scienza" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="رومانیش" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Știință – رومانیایی" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Știință" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="رومانیایی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9B%C3%A2" title="Științâ – اروماني" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Științâ" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="اروماني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – روسي" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="روسي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="विज्ञानम् – سنسکریټ" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="سنسکریټ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%85" title="Үөрэх – سخا" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Үөрэх" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="سخا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5" title="ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – سنتالي" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="سنتالي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isci%C3%A8ntzia" title="Iscièntzia – سارڊيني" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Iscièntzia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="سارڊيني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – سیلیسي" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Scienza" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="سیلیسي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – سکاټس" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="سکاټس" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – سندهي" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سائنس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="سندهي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – سرب-کروشيايي" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nauka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="سرب-کروشيايي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamassant" title="Tamassant – تاکلهیټ" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tamassant" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="تاکلهیټ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="නවීන විද්‍යාව – سينهالي" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නවීන විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="سينهالي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – سلوواکي" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="سلوواکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="سائنس" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost" title="Znanost – سلوواني" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Znanost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="سلوواني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saienisi" title="Saienisi – ساموآن" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Saienisi" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="ساموآن" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainzi" title="Sainzi – شونا" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Sainzi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="شونا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saynis" title="Saynis – سومالي" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Saynis" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="سومالي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca" title="Shkenca – الباني" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkenca" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="الباني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – سربيائي" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="سربيائي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skoro" title="Skoro – سوران ټونګو" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Skoro" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="سوران ټونګو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isayensi" title="Isayensi – سواتی" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Isayensi" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="سواتی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>SiSwati</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayense" title="Sayense – سويلي سوتو" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Sayense" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="سويلي سوتو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lmu" title="Élmu – سوډاني" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Élmu" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="سوډاني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskap" title="Vetenskap – سویډنی" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="سویډنی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayansi" title="Sayansi – سواهېلي" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sayansi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="سواهېلي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அறிவியல் – تامل" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="تامل" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9E%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="విజ్ఞానశాస్త్రం – تېليګو" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="విజ్ఞానశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="تېليګو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC" title="Илм – تاجکي" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Илм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="تاجکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วิทยาศาสตร์ – تايلېنډي" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="تايلېنډي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ylym" title="Ylym – ترکمني" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Ylym" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="ترکمني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agham" title="Agham – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Agham" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elm" title="Elm – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Elm" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saienisi" title="Saienisi – تونګان" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Saienisi" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="تونګان" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lea faka-Tonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="ټاکلې ليکنې"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim" title="Bilim – ترکي" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="ترکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayensi" title="Sayensi – سونګا" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Sayensi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="سونګا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BD" title="Фән – تاتار" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фән" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="تاتار" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasanthulo" title="Kasanthulo – تامبوکا" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Kasanthulo" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="تامبوکا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – ادمورت" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="ادمورت" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – اوکرايني" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="اوکرايني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – اردو" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سائنس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="اردو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan" title="Fan – اوزبکي" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fan" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="اوزبکي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ve mw-list-item"><a href="https://ve.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saintsi" title="Saintsi – ویندا" lang="ve" hreflang="ve" data-title="Saintsi" data-language-autonym="Tshivenda" data-language-local-name="ویندا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tshivenda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Siensa" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedo" title="Tedo – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Tedo" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Khoa học – وېتنامي" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khoa học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="وېتنامي" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weetnschap" title="Weetnschap – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Weetnschap" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nolav" title="Nolav – والاپوک" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Nolav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="والاپوک" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syince" title="Syince – والون" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Syince" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="والون" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syensya" title="Syensya – وارۍ" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Syensya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="وارۍ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xam-xam" title="Xam-xam – ولوف" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xam-xam" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="ولوف" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – وو چینایی" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="科学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="وو چینایی" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzululwazi" title="Inzululwazi – خوسا" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Inzululwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="خوسا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მენცარობა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მენცარობა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%98" title="וויסנשאפט – يديش" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="וויסנשאפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="يديش" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1y%E1%BA%B9%CC%81ns%C3%AC" title="Sáyẹ́nsì – یوروبا" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Sáyẹ́nsì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="یوروبا" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gohyoz" title="Gohyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Gohyoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – چیني" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="科学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="چیني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E8%87%B4" title="格致 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="格致" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kho-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Kho-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kho-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學 – کانټوني" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="科學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="کانټوني" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzululwazi" title="Inzululwazi – زولو" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Inzululwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="زولو" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q336#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="د ژبو خپلمنځي تړنې سمول" class="wbc-editpage">تړنې سمول</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="نوم-تشيالونه"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="د مخ مېنځپانگه کتل [c]" accesskey="c"><span>مخ</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="new vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%90:%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" rel="discussion" class="new" title="د مخ د مېنځپانگې په اړه خبرې اترې (تر اوسه پورې نه شته) [t]" accesskey="t"><span>خبرې اترې</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown 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id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">څنګپټې ته ورسئ</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">پټول</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87"><span>لوستل</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&action=edit"><span>سرچینه وګورئ</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&action=history"><span>پېښليک کتل</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:WhatLinksHere/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="د ويکي د ټولو هغو مخونو لړليک چې همدې مخ سره تړنې لري [j]" accesskey="j"><span>د دې مخ تړنې</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:RecentChangesLinked/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" rel="nofollow" title="له دې مخ سره د تړل شويو مخونو وروستي بدلونونه [k]" accesskey="k"><span>اړونده بدلونونه</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:UploadWizard?uselang=ps" title="دوتنې پورته کول [u]" accesskey="u"><span>انځور/رسنۍ پورته کول</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%AE%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87" title="د ټولو ځانگړو پاڼو لړليک [q]" accesskey="q"><span>ځانگړي مخونه</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&oldid=318504" title="د دې مخ د همدې بڼې تلپاتې تړنه"><span>تلپاتې تړنه</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&action=info" title="د دې مخ اړونده نور مالومات"><span>د مخ مالومات</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%D8%AF%D8%B1%DA%A9&page=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&id=318504&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="دې مخ ته د اخځ مالومات"><span>د دې مخ اخځ</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fps.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%25D9%25BE%25D9%2588%25D9%2587%25D9%2586%25D9%2587"><span>لنډ URL ترلاسه کړئ</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fps.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%25D9%25BE%25D9%2588%25D9%2587%25D9%2586%25D9%2587"><span>د QR کوډ يې ډاونلوډ کړئ</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> چاپول/صادرول </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:Book&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87"><span>يو کتاب جوړول</span></a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:DownloadAsPdf&page=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&action=show-download-screen"><span>د PDF په بڼه ښکته کول</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&printable=yes" title="د دې مخ چاپي بڼه [p]" accesskey="p"><span>چاپي بڼه</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> په نورو پروژو کې </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Science" hreflang="en"><span>ويکيمېډيا کامنز</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q336" title="د نښلېدلي اومتوک زېرمتون توکي سره تړنه [g]" accesskey="g"><span>ويکي‌ډېټا توکی</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="ښکارېدونکې بڼه"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">ښکارېدونکې بڼه</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">څنګپټې ته ورسئ</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">پټول</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">د ويکيپېډيا، وړیا پوهنغونډ له خوا</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-rtl mw-parser-output" lang="ps" dir="rtl"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r316603">.mw-parser-output div.infobox_v3{padding:4px;width:25em!important;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;clear:left;float:left;font-size:0.9em;line-height:1.4;margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;max-width:325px;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .infobox_v3 .secTable{border-radius:unset;color:inherit;margin:unset!important;border:unset}.mw-parser-output .infobox_v3 .entete{display:table;height:45px;width:100%;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;font-size:1.4em;line-height:1.1;margin-bottom:10px;background-color:#dfedff}.mw-parser-output .infobox_v3 .entete>div{display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;padding:3px}.mw-parser-output .infobox_v3:not(.large) 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.entete.rinkhockey{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Roller_hockey_pictogram.svg/35px-Roller_hockey_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.rome-antique{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Picto_infobox_Roman_military_banner.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.route{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Infobox_road_pictogram.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.rugby{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Picto_Infobox_Rugby.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.rugbyblack{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Rugby_union_pictogram.svg/35px-Rugby_union_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.satellite{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Picto_infobox_satellite.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.sautski{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ski_jumping_pictogram.svg/40px-Ski_jumping_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.science-fiction{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Picto_infobox_fliyingsaucer.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.serie-video{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Logo_television_blanc.png")no-repeat top right;background-size:45px 45px}.mw-parser-output .entete.ski-alpin{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Alpine_skiing_pictogram.svg/40px-Alpine_skiing_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.snooker{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cue_sports_pictogram.svg/40px-Cue_sports_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.software{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Picto_infobox_software.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.sport{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Picto_infobox_Olympic.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.sport-automobile{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Picto_infobox_sport_auto.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.squash{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Squash_pictogram.svg/35px-Squash_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.stadium{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Stadium.svg/40px-Stadium.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.starwars{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Star_Wars_Infobox_Pictogram.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.surf{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Surfing_pictogram.svg/35px-Surfing_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.taekwondo{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Taekwondo_pictogram.svg/40px-Taekwondo_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.television{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Picto_infobox_TV-T%26PC.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.templiers{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Picto_infobox_Templiers.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.tennis{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Tennis_pictogram_white.svg/35px-Tennis_pictogram_white.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.tennis-de-table{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Table_tennis_pictogram_white.svg/40px-Table_tennis_pictogram_white.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.tennis-de-tableblack{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Table_tennis_pictogram.svg/35px-Table_tennis_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.timbre{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Picto_infobox_Stamps.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.train{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Infobox_train.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.triathlon{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Triathlon_pictogram.svg/40px-Triathlon_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.ultimate{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ultimate_pictogram.svg/70px-Ultimate_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.union-europeenne{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Picto_Infobox_Europe.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.video{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Tango-video-x-generic.png/35px-Tango-video-x-generic.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.voile{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Sailing_pictogram.svg/40px-Sailing_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.volleyball{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Volleyball_%28indoor%29_pictogram.svg/35px-Volleyball_%28indoor%29_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}.mw-parser-output .entete.water-polo{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Water_polo_pictogram.svg/40px-Water_polo_pictogram.svg.png")no-repeat top right}</style><div class="infobox_v3 infobox"><div style="justify-content:center;display:flex;flex-direction:row;align-items:center;flex-wrap:wrap"><div class="entete" style="background-color:#E1E1E1;color:#000000"><div>پوهنه</div></div><div style="border:unset;padding:unset"><div class="images" style="padding:2px 0"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%87:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus_(encircled).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus_%28encircled%29.svg/260px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus_%28encircled%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus_%28encircled%29.svg/390px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus_%28encircled%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus_%28encircled%29.svg/520px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus_%28encircled%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="156" /></a></span></div></div><table><caption style="display:table-caption;background-color:#E1E1E1;text-align:center;color:#000000">ټوليز مالومات</caption><tbody><tr class=""><th scope="row">عمومي مالومات</th><td class=""><div> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11862829" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q11862829"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">پوهنتوني رشته</span></a><sup id="cite_ref-7bbf38a50a6b661682c9a95832048d4a09cac12a_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7bbf38a50a6b661682c9a95832048d4a09cac12a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8027727" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q8027727"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">Wissenschaft</span></a> <sup>(en)</sup> <span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8027727?uselang=ps" title="ژباړل"><img alt="ژباړل" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/10px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/15px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/20px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="161" /></a></span> <span class="penicon"><span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336?uselang=ps#P31" title="ددې ځانګړني سمول پر ویکي‌ډېټا"><img alt="ددې ځانګړني سمول پر ویکي‌ډېټا" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/10px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/15px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/20px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></td></tr><tr class=""><th scope="row">ځانګړې وېشنيزه</th><td class=""><div> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q105948247" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q105948247"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">knowledge system</span></a> <sup>(en)</sup> <span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105948247?uselang=ps" title="ژباړل"><img alt="ژباړل" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/10px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/15px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/20px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="161" /></a></span> <span class="penicon"><span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336?uselang=ps#P279" title="ددې ځانګړني سمول پر ویکي‌ډېټا"><img alt="ددې ځانګړني سمول پر ویکي‌ډېټا" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/10px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/15px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/20px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table><caption style="display:table-caption;background-color:#E1E1E1;text-align:center;color:#000000">نور اړين مالومات</caption><tbody><tr class=""><th scope="row">برخې</th><td class=""><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"><div><div class="nomobile" style="text-align:right;border: none; padding: 0; background:none; font-size: 75%;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Incomplete_list.svg/20px-Incomplete_list.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Incomplete_list.svg/30px-Incomplete_list.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Incomplete_list.svg/40px-Incomplete_list.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span> لړۍ...</div></div><div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12132639" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q12132639"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">scientific worldview</span></a> <sup>(en)</sup> <span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12132639?uselang=ps" title="ژباړل"><img alt="ژباړل" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/10px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/15px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/20px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="161" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%DB%90" title="طبيعي پوهنې">طبيعي پوهنې</a><br /><a href="/wiki/%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B2%DB%90_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%DB%90" title="ټولنيزې پوهنې">ټولنيزې پوهنې</a><br /><a href="/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85" title="رسمي علوم">رسمي علوم</a><br /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5769081" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q5769081"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">experimental science</span></a> <sup>(en)</sup> <span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5769081?uselang=ps" title="ژباړل"><img alt="ژباړل" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/10px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/15px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/20px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="161" /></a></span><br /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1665984" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q1665984"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">interdisciplinary science</span></a> <sup>(en)</sup> <span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1665984?uselang=ps" title="ژباړل"><img alt="ژباړل" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/10px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/15px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/20px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="161" /></a></span><br /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q6045936" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q6045936"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">scientific knowledge</span></a> <sup>(en)</sup> <span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6045936?uselang=ps" title="ژباړل"><img alt="ژباړل" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/10px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/15px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/20px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="161" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%DA%85%DB%90%DA%93%D9%86%D9%87" title="څېړنه">څېړنه</a><br /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12042160" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q12042160"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">scientific literature</span></a> <sup>(en)</sup> <span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12042160?uselang=ps" title="ژباړل"><img alt="ژباړل" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/10px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/15px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/20px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="161" /></a></span> <span class="penicon"><span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336?uselang=ps#P527" title="ددې ځانګړني سمول پر ویکي‌ډېټا"><img alt="ددې ځانګړني سمول پر ویکي‌ډېټا" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/10px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/15px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/20px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></div></td></tr><tr class=""><th scope="row">برخه د</th><td class=""><div> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1881523" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q1881523"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">science, technology, engineering, and mathematics</span></a> <sup>(en)</sup> <span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1881523?uselang=ps" title="ژباړل"><img alt="ژباړل" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/10px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/15px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg/20px-Noun_Project_label_icon_1116097_cc_mirror.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="161" /></a></span> <span class="penicon"><span class="mw-valign-baseline" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336?uselang=ps#P361" title="ددې ځانګړني سمول پر ویکي‌ډېټا"><img alt="ددې ځانګړني سمول پر ویکي‌ډېټا" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/10px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/15px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/20px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="navbar noprint bordered" style="display:block;flex:auto;border-top:2px dotted #E1E1E1;width:100%"><span class="plainlinks" style="background:inherit;text-align:right;font-size:80%"><a class="external text" href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&veaction=edit&section=0">سمول</a> - <a class="external text" href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87&action=edit&section=0">سرچینه سمول</a> - <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336" class="extiw" title="d:Q336">ويکي‌ډېټا سمول</a></span><span style="text-align:left;float:left"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%89%DB%8D:%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لاسوند وګورئ"><img alt="لاسوند وګورئ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Test_Template_Info-Icon_-_Version_%282%29.svg/30px-Test_Template_Info-Icon_-_Version_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Test_Template_Info-Icon_-_Version_%282%29.svg/45px-Test_Template_Info-Icon_-_Version_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Test_Template_Info-Icon_-_Version_%282%29.svg/60px-Test_Template_Info-Icon_-_Version_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1792" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span></p></div></div> <p>علم هغه منظمه دستګاه ده چې د نړۍ په اړه د ازموېنې وړ څرګندونو او وړاندوېنو په بڼه پوهه رامنځته کوي او تنظيموي. <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EOWilson1999a_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EOWilson1999a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۵<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>د علم تر ټولو لومړۍ ريښې له ميلاد شاوخوا ۳۰۰ تر ۱۲۰۰ کلونو مخکې په پخواني مصر او بين النهرين کې موندل شوي دي. د رياضياتو، ستورپېژندنې او طب په برخه کې د دوی کار د يونان د لرغونې زمانې په طبيعي فلسفه کې داخل او هغې ته يې بڼه ورکړه. چې په کايناتو کې د طبيعي لاملونو له مخې یې د پېښو په اړه د توضحياتو په ورکولو سره رسمي هڅې پیل شوې. د لويديځې رومي سترواکۍ له ړنګېدو وروسته، د منځني عصر د لومړيو پېړيو (۴۰۰ تر ۱۰۰۰)  په اوږدو کې په لويديځه اروپا کې د نړۍ په اړه د يوناني تصور پوهه له منځه لاړه؛ خو د اسلامي زرين عصر پر مهال په اسلامي نړۍ کې وساتل شوه. له لسمې پېړۍ تر ديارلسمې پېړۍ پورې په لوېديځه اروپا کې د يوناني کارونو او اسلامي څېړنو تر لاسه کېدو او جذب کېدو سره "طبيعي فلسفه" راژوندۍ کړه، چې وروسته په پوهنيز انقلاب سره بدله شوه او په شپاړسمه پېړۍ کې د پخواني يوناني تصور او رواياتو څخه په جلا کېدو د نويو نظرياتو او کشفياتو په ډول پیل شو. پوهنيزې طريقې ډېر ژر د پوهې د رامنځ ته کولو  په برخه کې ستر نقش اداء کړ او تر نولسمې پېړۍ پورې "طبيعي فلسفه" په "طبيعي پوهه" بدله شوه، تر څنګ يې د پوهې ډېرې مسلکي ځانګړتیاووې رامنځته شوي.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۶<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grant2007a_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۷<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg9_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg9-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۸<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg8_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg8-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۹<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg10_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۰<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Principe2011_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Principe2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۱<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg1990_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1990-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۲<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg14_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg14-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۳<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۴<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grant2007c_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007c-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۵<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۶<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۷<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lightman_19th_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lightman_19th-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۸<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۱۹<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>نوې پوهه په معمول ډول په درې سترو څانګو وېشل شوې چې هغه دا دي: طبيعي علوم (لکه بيالوژي، کيميا او فزيک)، چې طبيعيت په پراخ درک سره مطالعه کوي؛ ټولنيز علوم (لکه اقتصاد، روان پیژندنه او ټولنپوهنه)، چې وګړي او ټولنې تر مطالعې لاندې نيسي او رسمي علوم (لکه منطق، رياضيات او نظري کمپيوټري علوم)، هغه چې سروکار یې له نښو سره دی او په قوانينو اداره کيږي. ځينې مخالفتونه هم شته، چې ايا رسمي علوم په رښتیا هم يو علم دی؛ ځکه چې دا علوم د تجربوي شواهدو له مخې نه دي رامنځته شوي. هغه انتظامي لارې چارې چې علمي پوهه يې د عملي موخو له پاره کاروي، لکه انجنيري او طب، د تطبيقي علومو په توګه پېژندل شوي دي.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen2021_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen2021-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۰<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-colanderhunt2019_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colanderhunt2019-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۱<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nisbetgreenfeld2021_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nisbetgreenfeld2021-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۲<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-löwe2002_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-löwe2002-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۳<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rucker2019_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rucker2019-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۴<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bishop1991_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bishop1991-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۵<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nickles2013_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nickles2013-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۶<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bunge_1998_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge_1998-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۷<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fetzer2013_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fetzer2013-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۸<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fischer2014_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fischer2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۲۹<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-abraham2004_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abraham2004-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۰<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sinclair1993_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sinclair1993-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۱<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-purdue2018_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-purdue2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۲<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mbunge1966_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mbunge1966-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۳<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>په علم کې نوې پوهه د ساينس پوهانو د څېړنو په مټ پرمختیا موندلې کوم چې د نړۍ په اړه د پلټنې او د ستونزو د هواري لپاره انګیزه لري. اوسنی علمي تحقيق تر ډېره بريده د ګډ کار له لارې کېدونکی دی او په عمومي توګه په اکاډميکو او څېړنيزو مرکزونو، حکومتي ادارو او شرکتونو کې د يوې ډلې له خوا تر سره کيږي. د دوی  د کار عملي اغېز د پوهنيزو تګلارو رامنځ ته کېدو ته لاره هواره کړه، کومې چې هڅه کوي د سوداګريزو توليداتو، وسلو، روغتيايي وسايلو، عامه زېربناوو او چاپېريال ساتنې پرمختګونو ته په لومړيتوب ورکولو سره په پوهنيزه دستګاه کې نفوذ وکړي. <sup id="cite_ref-macritchie2011_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macritchie2011-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۴<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-deridder2020_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deridder2020-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۵<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lindberg2007h_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۶<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gertner2013_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gertner2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۷<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-marder2011_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marder2011-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۸<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="تاريخچه"><span id=".D8.AA.D8.A7.D8.B1.D9.8A.D8.AE.DA.86.D9.87"></span>تاريخچه</h2></div> <p>په پراخ مفهوم کې پوهه له اوسني عصر څخه مخکې او په ډېرو تاريخي تمدنونو کې موجوده وه. اوسنی علم په خپل مفهوم کې بدل او پايلو ته په کتنې سره بريالی دی، اوس د کلیمې په دقيقه معنی د علم تعريف کوي. په اصل مفهوم کې علم کلمه د پوهې يو ډول ته کارېده، نه د پوهې د يو مسلک لپاره د ځانګړي شوي لفظ په توګه. په مشخص ډول، لرغونې پوهه يو ډول پوهه وه چې خلکو کولای شول له يو بل سره پرې بحث وکړي او شريکه يې کړي. د بېلګې په ډول، د طبيعي شيانو د فعاليت په اړه پوهه له تاريخ څخه ډېر مخکې وخت کې ثبت شوې ده چې له همدې څخه پېچلي استنباطي فکر وده وکړه. دا پوهه د پېچلو تقويمونو، د خوراک لهپاره د زهري وښو د برابرولو طريقو، په ملي کچه عمومي کارونو، لکه هغه کارونه چې يانګتسه سيلابي دښتې يې د اوبو د زېرمې لپاره برابرې کړې، د اوبو بندونو او ډنډونو او لکه د اهرامونو د جوړولو په څېر کارونو په تر سره کولو ښودل شوې ده. خو بیا هم، د دا ډول شیانو د پوهو تر منځ کوم ثابت توپیر نه و، کوم چې په هره ټولنه کې رښتیا دي او لکه د ډله ییزې پوهې نور ډولونه لکه اسطورې او حقوقي نظامونه. د فلزاتو علم له تاريخ څخه وړاندې معلوم و او د وينکا کلتور لومړی هغه و چې ژېړو ته ورته مخلوط فلز به يې توليداوه. داسې فکر کيږي چې د مادو د ګرمولو او ګډولو لومړۍ تجربه د وخت په تېرېدو سره د کيميا په علم بدله شوه.   <sup id="cite_ref-Grant1997_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant1997-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۳۹<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron3_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron3-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۰<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg12_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg12-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۱<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pingree1992_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pingree1992-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۲<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۳<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="لومړۍ_رېښې"><span id=".D9.84.D9.88.D9.85.DA.93.DB.8D_.D8.B1.DB.90.DA.9A.DB.90"></span>لومړۍ رېښې</h3></div> <p>د پوهې تر ټولو لومړۍ رېښې له میلاد څخه شا خوا ۳۰۰ تر ۱۲۰۰ کلونو وړاندې په پخواني مصر او بين النهرين کې موندل کېدای شي. که څه هم هغه مهال د «علم» او «طبيعيت» الفاظ او مفاهيم د خيالي ليد برخه نه وه، پخوانيو مصريانو او د بين النهرين خلکو په دې لړ کې کار وکړ چې وروسته يې بيا په يونان او د منځنيو پېړيو په علومو کې ځای پيدا کړ لکه رياضيات، ستورپېژندنه او طب. له میلاد څخه ۳۰۰۰ کاله وړاندې، لرغونو مصريانو د شمېر يو نظام رامنځته کړ چې په خاصيت کې اشارې وې او د دوی د هندسې د پوهې لاره يې پيدا کړه تر څو خپلې عملي ستونزې پرې هوارې کړي لکه د ناپ کوونکو او معمارانو ستونزې. ان دوی يوه رسمي جنتري هم رامنځته کړه چې دولس مياشتې، په هره مياشت کې دېرش ورځې او د کال په اخر کې يې پنځه ورځې درلودي. د طبي پاپيروس (يو ډول کاغذ دی) چې له میلاد څخه په ۲۵۰۰ -۱۲۰۰ مخکې کلونو کې ليکل شوي دي، لرغونو مصريانو باور درلود چې د ناروغيو اصلي لامل په بدن کې د شيطاني ځواک يا روحونو ننوتل دي. په همدې اساس، پر طبي درملنه سربېره، د روغولو په درملنه کې به دعاوې، جادو او مذهبي لارې چارې شاملې وې.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۴<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>د بين النهرين لرغونو خلکو د بېلا بېلو طبيعي کيمياوي موادو د ځانګړتياو په اړه پوهه وکاروله تر څو خاورين لوښي، حلبي لوښي، ښېښه، صابون، فلزات، څرېښناک پلاستر او د اوبو ضد څيزونه جوړ کړي؛ دوی همدا راز د څارويو بدن پېژندنه، د بدن جوړښت او چلند د وړاندوينې د موخو لپاره مطالعه کړل. دوی همدا راز د ستورپېژندنې د مطالعې لپاره  د اسماني شيانو د خوځښت يو ډېر پراخ اسناد جوړ کړل. د بين النهرين اوسېدونکو په درملو کې ژوره لېوالتيا درلودله او د درملو لومړۍ نسخه د يور د درېيمې سلسلې پاچاهۍ پر مهال (۲۱۱۲ – ۲۰۰۴) په سومريانو کې راڅرګنده شوه. سربېره پر دې، داسې ښکاري چې د بين النهرين خلکو د طبيعي نړۍ په اړه په معلوماتو راټولولو کې لږه لېوالتيا درلودله او عمدتاً يې علمي موضوعات مطالعه کول کوم به چې د دوی په مذهبي نظام کې د عملي کېدو وړ و يا به يې ورسره مستقيمه اړيکه درلودله. <sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh2005_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۵<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۶<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۷<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="پخوانۍ_لرغونې_زمانه"><span id=".D9.BE.D8.AE.D9.88.D8.A7.D9.86.DB.8D_.D9.84.D8.B1.D8.BA.D9.88.D9.86.DB.90_.D8.B2.D9.85.D8.A7.D9.86.D9.87"></span>پخوانۍ لرغونې زمانه</h3></div> <p>په پخوانۍ لرغونې زمانه کې، د اوسنيو عالمانو کوم حقيقي لرغونی سيال نه شته. د دې پر ځای، لوستي، عموماً د لوړې طبقې او په نړيواله کچه نارينه افرادو چې کله هم وخت موندلی په طبيعيت کې يې بېلا بېلې څېړنې کړي. له سقراط څخه د مخکېنيو فيلسوفانو له خوا د «طبيعيت» (لرغونې يوناني طبيعيت) د تصور د اختراع يا ايجاد څخه مخکې همدا الفاظ  د هغې طبيعي طريقې د تشریح له پاره کارول کېدل په کومه کې چې نباتات لوييږي، يا د مثال په ډول د هغې طرېقې لپاره په کومه چې يوه قبيله د خپل ځانګړي خدای عبادت کوي. له همدې امله، ادعا کيږي چې په دقيق مفهوم کې دا خلک لومړي فيلسوفان وو او همدا راز هغه لومړني خلک وو چا چې د طبيعيت او دود تر منځ څرګند توپير وکړ. له طبيعي پوهې څخه مخکې رامنځ ته شوې د طبيعيت فلسفه د طبيعت او شيانو د پوهې په توګه وپېژندل شوه، چې د هرې ټولنې له پاره سم دي. د دا ډول پوهې د ځانګړي مسلک نوم فلسفه و – د لومړي فيلسوف حوزه – فزيک پوهان. اصلاً دوی اټکل کوونکي او اند ورکوونکي و چې په ځانګړي ډول يې په علم نجوم کې ليوالتيا درلودله. په مقابل کې، لرغونو پوهانو، د طبعيت د تقليد لپاره په طبيعت د پوهېدو څخه د ګټې اخیستلو هڅه (مصنوعي يا تيکنالوژيکي) د ټيتې ټولنيزې طبقې د صنعتکارانو لپاره  زياته مناسبه بلله.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehoux_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehoux-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۸<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۴۹<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۵۰<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>۵۱<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="سرچينې"><span id=".D8.B3.D8.B1.DA.86.D9.8A.D9.86.DB.90"></span>سرچينې</h2></div> <ol><li><a class="external free" href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Наука">http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Наука</a></li></ol> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7bbf38a50a6b661682c9a95832048d4a09cac12a-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7bbf38a50a6b661682c9a95832048d4a09cac12a_1-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">ذکر کېدنه: <i><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1227538" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q1227538"><span style="color:#5f9cbb;">Directory of Open Access Journals</span></a></i>. Quotation: <span lang="en">Science</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%A9%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%89%DB%8D:OEtymD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="کينډۍ:OEtymD (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">کينډۍ:OEtymD</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EOWilson1999a-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-EOWilson1999a_3-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r262776">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilson1999" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, E.O. (1999). "The natural sciences". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135"><i>Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge</i></a> (Reprint ed.). New York, New York: Vintage. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55">49</a>–71. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-679-76867-8" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-679-76867-8 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-679-76867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+natural+sciences&rft.btitle=Consilience%3A+The+Unity+of+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=49-71&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76867-8&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=E.O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconsilienceunity00wils_135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heilbron-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron_4-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathematics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathematics (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">mathematics</a>; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions."— p.vii <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=J._L._Heilbron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. L. Heilbron (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Heilbron, J.L. (editor-in-chief)</a> (2003). "Preface". <i>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii–X. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-19-511229-0" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-19-511229-0 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-19-511229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=vii-X&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511229-0&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.+%28editor-in-chief%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%89%DB%8D:Cite_book" class="mw-redirect" title="کينډۍ:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|first=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%9A%D9%88%D8%AF:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="لارښود:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heilbron2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron2_5-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathematics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathematics (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">mathematics</a>; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions."— p.vii <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=J._L._Heilbron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. L. Heilbron (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Heilbron, J.L. (editor-in-chief)</a> (2003). "Preface". <i>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii–X. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-19-511229-0" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-19-511229-0 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-19-511229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=vii-X&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511229-0&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.+%28editor-in-chief%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%89%DB%8D:Cite_book" class="mw-redirect" title="کينډۍ:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|first=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%9A%D9%88%D8%AF:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="لارښود:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The historian ... requires a very broad definition of "science" – one that ... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive ... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be."  p.3—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–20. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-48205-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-48205-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+before+the+Greeks&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1-20&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant2007a-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant2007a_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2007" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran"><i>A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</i></a> (First ed.). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16">1</a>–26. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-052-1-68957-1" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-052-1-68957-1 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-052-1-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egypt+to+Plato&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1-26&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-052-1-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorynaturalph00gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg9-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg9_8-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The revival of learning in the West". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 193–224. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-48205-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-48205-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+revival+of+learning+in+the+West&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=193-224&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg8-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg8_9-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Islamic science". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–92. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-48205-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-48205-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=163-92&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg10-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg10_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 225–53. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-48205-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-48205-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+recovery+and+assimilation+of+Greek+and+Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=225-53&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Principe2011-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Principe2011_11-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2011" class="citation book cs1">Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). "Introduction". <i>Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction</i> (First ed.). New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-199-56741-6" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-199-56741-6 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-199-56741-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Scientific+Revolution%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1-3&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-199-56741-6&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg1990-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1990_12-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1990" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (1990). "Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch". In Lindberg, David C.; Westman, Robert S. (eds.). <i>Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution</i> (First ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-521-34262-9" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-521-34262-9 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-521-34262-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conceptions+of+the+Scientific+Revolution+from+Baker+to+Butterfield%3A+A+preliminary+sketch&rft.btitle=Reappraisals+of+the+Scientific+Revolution&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1-26&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34262-9&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg14-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg14_13-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The legacy of ancient and medieval science". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 357–368. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-48205-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-48205-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+legacy+of+ancient+and+medieval+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=357-368&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_14-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFDel_Soldato2016" class="citation book cs1">Del Soldato, Eva (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a> (Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/">Archived</a> from the original on December 11, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. نه اخيستل شوی <span class="nowrap">June 1,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2016&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Del+Soldato&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2016%2Fentries%2Fnatphil-ren%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant2007c-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant2007c_15-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2007" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2007). "Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran"><i>A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</i></a> (First ed.). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289">274</a>–322. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-052-1-68957-1" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-052-1-68957-1 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-052-1-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transformation+of+medieval+natural+philosophy+from+the+early+period+modern+period+to+the+end+of+the+nineteenth+century&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=274-322&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-052-1-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorynaturalph00gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_17-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFCahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Cahan, David, ed. (2003). <i>From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science</i>. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-08928-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-08928-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-08928-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08928-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lightman_19th-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lightman_19th_18-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLightman2011" class="citation book cs1">Lightman, Bernard (2011). "13. Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). <i>Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-31783-0" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-31783-0 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-31783-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Science+and+the+Public&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31783-0&rft.aulast=Lightman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Harrison_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Harrison (historian) (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Harrison, Peter</a> (2015). <i>The Territories of Science and Religion</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 164–165. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-18451-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-18451-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-18451-7</bdi></a>. <q>The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880, this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Territories+of+Science+and+Religion&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=164-165&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-226-18451-7&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cohen2021-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-cohen2021_20-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2021" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Eliel (2021). "The boundary lens: theorising academic actitity". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984"><i>The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century 1st Edition</i></a>. New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 14–41. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0367562984" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0367562984 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0367562984</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+boundary+lens%3A+theorising+academic+actitity&rft.btitle=The+University+and+its+Boundaries%3A+Thriving+or+Surviving+in+the+21st+Century+1st+Edition&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=14-41&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0367562984&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Eliel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FThe-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century%2FCohen%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367562984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colanderhunt2019-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-colanderhunt2019_21-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFColanderHunt2019" class="citation book cs1">Colander, David C.; Hunt, Elgin F. (2019). "Social science and its methods". <i>Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society</i> (17th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 1–22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+science+and+its+methods&rft.btitle=Social+Science%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Society&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=1-22&rft.edition=17th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Colander&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Elgin+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nisbetgreenfeld2021-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-nisbetgreenfeld2021_22-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite style="font-style:normal"> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science">Social Science</a>". <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. (16 October 2020). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc..</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=encyclopediaArticle&rft.title=Social+Science&rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fsocial-science&rft.source=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.publisher=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=16+October+2020"> </span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-löwe2002-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-löwe2002_23-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLöwe2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benedikt_L%C3%B6we&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benedikt Löwe (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Löwe, Benedikt</a> (2002). "The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity". <i>Synthese</i>. <b>133</b> (1/2): 5–11. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%85%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D9%86%DA%9A%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="څيز برېښنايي نښه (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1020887832028">10.1023/A:1020887832028</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="سمانتیک اسکالر (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9272212">9272212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=The+formal+sciences%3A+their+scope%2C+their+foundations%2C+and+their+unity&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=5-11&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1020887832028&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9272212%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=L%C3%B6we&rft.aufirst=Benedikt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rucker2019-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-rucker2019_24-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFRucker2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudy_Rucker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rudy Rucker (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Rucker, Rudy</a> (2019). "Robots and souls". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328"><i>Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite</i></a> (Reprint ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 157–188. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0691191386" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0691191386 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0691191386</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Robots+and+souls&rft.btitle=Infinity+and+the+Mind%3A+The+Science+and+Philosophy+of+the+Infinite&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=157-188&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0691191386&rft.aulast=Rucker&rft.aufirst=Rudy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rudyrucker.com%2Finfinityandthemind%2F%23calibre_link-328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bishop1991-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Bishop1991_25-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFBishop1991" class="citation book cs1">Bishop, Alan (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54">"Environmental activities and mathematical culture"</a>. <i>Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education</i>. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 20–59. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-792-31270-3" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-792-31270-3 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-792-31270-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201225195821/https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54">Archived</a> from the original on December 25, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. نه اخيستل شوی <span class="nowrap">March 24,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Environmental+activities+and+mathematical+culture&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Enculturation%3A+A+Cultural+Perspective+on+Mathematics+Education&rft.place=Norwell%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=20-59&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-792-31270-3&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9AgrBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nickles2013-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-nickles2013_26-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFNickles2013" class="citation book cs1">Nickles, Thomas (2013). "The Problem of Demarcation". <i>Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem</i>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Demarcation&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Pseudoscience%3A+Reconsidering+the+Demarcation+Problem&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Nickles&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bunge_1998-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Bunge_1998_27-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1998" class="citation book cs1">Bunge, Mario (1998). "The Scientific Approach". <i>Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory</i>. Vol. 1 (revised ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 3–50. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-765-80413-6" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-765-80413-6 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-765-80413-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Scientific+Approach&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science%3A+Volume+1%2C+From+Problem+to+Theory&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=3-50&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-765-80413-6&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fetzer2013-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Fetzer2013_28-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFFetzer2013" class="citation book cs1">Fetzer, James H. (2013). "Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems". <i>Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines</i> (1st ed.). Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 271–308. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-1-443-81946-6" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-1-443-81946-6 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-1-443-81946-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Computer+reliability+and+public+policy%3A+Limits+of+knowledge+of+computer-based+systems&rft.btitle=Computers+and+Cognition%3A+Why+Minds+are+not+Machines&rft.place=Newcastle%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=271-308&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-443-81946-6&rft.aulast=Fetzer&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fischer2014-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-fischer2014_29-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFFischerFabry2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fischer, M.R.; Fabry, G (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4027809">"Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education"</a>. <i>GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung</i>. <b>31</b> (2): Doc24. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%85%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D9%86%DA%9A%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="څيز برېښنايي نښه (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3205%2Fzma000916">10.3205/zma000916</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D8%A8%D9%85%DB%90%DA%89%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%BC%D8%B1%D9%84&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="پبمېډسنټرل (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4027809">4027809</a></span>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="پاب‌مد (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24872859">24872859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GMS+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Medizinische+Ausbildung&rft.atitle=Thinking+and+acting+scientifically%3A+Indispensable+basis+of+medical+education&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=Doc24&rft.date=2014&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4027809%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24872859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3205%2Fzma000916&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rft.au=Fabry%2C+G&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4027809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-abraham2004-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-abraham2004_30-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham2004" class="citation journal cs1">Abraham, Reem Rachel (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3c0b0e54f94afbbcf003714f5ed8f8db1ecc72b0">"Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students"</a>. <i>Advances in Physiology Education</i>. <b>28</b> (3): 102–04. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%85%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D9%86%DA%9A%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="څيز برېښنايي نښه (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fadvan.00001.2004">10.1152/advan.00001.2004</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="پاب‌مد (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15319191">15319191</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="سمانتیک اسکالر (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21610124">21610124</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200122134405/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Clinically-oriented-physiology-teaching%3A-strategy-Abraham-Upadhya/4e211a2ff57651ca358c265f54b0dcb6404bb94a">Archived</a> from the original on January 22, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. نه اخيستل شوی <span class="nowrap">December 4,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Physiology+Education&rft.atitle=Clinically+oriented+physiology+teaching%3A+strategy+for+developing+critical-thinking+skills+in+undergraduate+medical+students&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=102-04&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21610124%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15319191&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fadvan.00001.2004&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=Reem+Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsemanticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2F3c0b0e54f94afbbcf003714f5ed8f8db1ecc72b0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sinclair1993-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-sinclair1993_31-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFSinclair1993" class="citation journal cs1">Sinclair, Marius (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html">"On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods"</a>. <i>The International Journal of Engineering Education</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 15, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. نه اخيستل شوی <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Engineering+Education&rft.atitle=On+the+Differences+between+the+Engineering+and+Scientific+Methods&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Sinclair&rft.aufirst=Marius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijee.ie%2Fcontents%2Fc090593.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-purdue2018-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-purdue2018_32-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190522220533/http://www.engr.iupui.edu/departments/ent/about/index.php">"About Engineering Technology"</a>. <i>Purdue School of Engineering & Technology</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://et.iupui.edu/departments/ent/about/index.php">the original</a> on May 22, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. نه اخيستل شوی <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Purdue+School+of+Engineering+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=About+Engineering+Technology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fet.iupui.edu%2Fdepartments%2Fent%2Fabout%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mbunge1966-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-mbunge1966_33-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1966" class="citation book cs1">Bunge, M (1966). "Technology as applied science". In Rapp, F. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2"><i>Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology. Theory and Decision Library (An International Series in the Philosophy and Methodology of the Social and Behavioral Sciences)</i></a>. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp. 19–39. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%85%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D9%86%DA%9A%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="څيز برېښنايي نښه (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-2182-1_2">10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-94-010-2184-5" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-94-010-2184-5 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-94-010-2184-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210331144907/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-010-2182-1_2">Archived</a> from the original on March 31, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. نه اخيستل شوی <span class="nowrap">March 25,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Technology+as+applied+science&rft.btitle=Contributions+to+a+Philosophy+of+Technology.+Theory+and+Decision+Library+%28An+International+Series+in+the+Philosophy+and+Methodology+of+the+Social+and+Behavioral+Sciences%29&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+Netherlands&rft.pages=19-39&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-010-2182-1_2&rft.isbn=978-94-010-2184-5&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-94-010-2182-1_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-macritchie2011-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-macritchie2011_34-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFMacRitchie2011" class="citation book cs1">MacRitchie, Finlay (2011). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659"><i>Scientific Research as a Career</i></a> (1st ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 1–6. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/9781439869659" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/9781439869659 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>9781439869659</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Scientific+Research+as+a+Career&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1-6&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781439869659&rft.aulast=MacRitchie&rft.aufirst=Finlay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FScientific-Research-as-a-Career%2FMacRitchie%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781439869659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-deridder2020-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-deridder2020_35-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFde_Ridder2020" class="citation book cs1">de Ridder, Jeroen (2020). "How many scientists does it take to have knowledge?". In McCain, Kevin; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153"><i>What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science</i></a> (1st ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 3–17. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/9781138570160" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/9781138570160 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>9781138570160</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+many+scientists+does+it+take+to+have+knowledge%3F&rft.btitle=What+is+Scientific+Knowledge%3F+An+Introduction+to+Contemporary+Epistemology+of+Science&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=3-17&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781138570160&rft.aulast=de+Ridder&rft.aufirst=Jeroen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FWhat-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology%2FMcCain-Kampourakis%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781138570153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lindberg2007h-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007h_36-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Islamic science". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–192. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-48205-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-48205-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=163-192&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gertner2013-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-gertner2013_37-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFSzycher2016" class="citation book cs1">Szycher, Michael (2016). "Establishing your dream team". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600"><i>Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers</i></a> (1st ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 159–176. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-1138407411" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-1138407411 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-1138407411</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Establishing+your+dream+team&rft.btitle=Commercialization+Secrets+for+Scientists+and+Engineers&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=159-176&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1138407411&rft.aulast=Szycher&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FCommercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers%2FSzycher%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781498730600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-marder2011-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-marder2011_38-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFMarder2011" class="citation book cs1">Marder, Michael P. (2011). "Curiosity and research". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B"><i>Research Methods for Science</i></a> (1st ed.). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–17. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0521145848" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0521145848 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0521145848</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Curiosity+and+research&rft.btitle=Research+Methods+for+Science&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1-17&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0521145848&rft.aulast=Marder&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fresearch-methods-for-science%2F1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant1997-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant1997_39-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1997" class="citation journal cs1">Grant, Edward (1 January 1997). "History of Science: When Did Modern Science Begin?". <i>The American Scholar</i>. <b>66</b> (1): 105–113. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%BC%D9%88%D8%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="جی سټور (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/41212592">41212592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Scholar&rft.atitle=History+of+Science%3A+When+Did+Modern+Science+Begin%3F&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=105-113&rft.date=1997-01-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41212592%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heilbron3-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron3_40-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathematics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathematics (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">mathematics</a>; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions."— p.vii <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=J._L._Heilbron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. L. Heilbron (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Heilbron, J.L. (editor-in-chief)</a> (2003). "Preface". <i>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii–X. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-19-511229-0" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-19-511229-0 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-19-511229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=vii-X&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511229-0&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.+%28editor-in-chief%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%89%DB%8D:Cite_book" class="mw-redirect" title="کينډۍ:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|first=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%9A%D9%88%D8%AF:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="لارښود:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg12-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg12_41-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The historian ... requires a very broad definition of "science" – one that ... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive ... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be."  p.3—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–20. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-48205-7" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-48205-7 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+before+the+Greeks&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1-20&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pingree1992-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-pingree1992_42-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFPingree1992" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Pingree&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Pingree (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Pingree, David</a> (December 1992). "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science". <i>Isis</i>. <b>83</b> (4): 554–63. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A8%DA%A9%D9%88%DA%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="بيبکوډ (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Isis...83..554P">1992Isis...83..554P</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%85%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D9%86%DA%9A%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="څيز برېښنايي نښه (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F356288">10.1086/356288</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%BC%D9%88%D8%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="جی سټور (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/234257">234257</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="سمانتیک اسکالر (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:68570164">68570164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Hellenophilia+versus+the+History+of+Science&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=554-63&rft.date=1992-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F356288&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A68570164%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F234257%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992Isis...83..554P&rft.aulast=Pingree&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-43">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sima_Qian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sima Qian (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Sima Qian</a> (司馬遷, d. 86 BCE) in his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Records_of_the_Grand_Historian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Records of the Grand Historian (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i> (太史公書) covering some 2500 years of Chinese history, records <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sunshu_Ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunshu Ao (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Sunshu Ao</a> (孫叔敖, fl. c. 630–595 BCE – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_dynasty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhou dynasty (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Zhou dynasty</a>), the first known <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydraulic_engineer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hydraulic engineer (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">hydraulic engineer</a> of China, cited in (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Needham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Needham (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Joseph Needham</a> et al. (1971) <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_Civilisation_in_China&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and Civilisation in China (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Science and Civilisation in China</a></i> <b>4.3</b> p. 271) as having built a reservoir which has lasted to this day.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFRochberg2011" class="citation book cs1">Rochberg, Francesca (2011). "Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). <i>Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 9. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-31783-0" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-31783-0 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-31783-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.1+Natural+Knowledge+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31783-0&rft.aulast=Rochberg&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McIntosh2005-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_45-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2005" class="citation book cs1">McIntosh, Jane R. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia"><i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives</i></a>. Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado, and Oxford, England: ABC-CLIO. pp. 273–76. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-1-57607-966-9" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-1-57607-966-9 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-1-57607-966-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205162758/https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia">Archived</a> from the original on February 5, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. نه اخيستل شوی <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California%2C+Denver%2C+Colorado%2C+and+Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=273-76&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-966-9&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9veK7E2JwkUC%26q%3Dscience%2Bin%2Bancient%2BMesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFA._Aaboe1974" class="citation journal cs1">A. Aaboe (2 May 1974). "Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>276</b> (1257): 21–42. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A8%DA%A9%D9%88%DA%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="بيبکوډ (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974RSPTA.276...21A">1974RSPTA.276...21A</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%DA%85%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D9%86%DA%9A%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="څيز برېښنايي نښه (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007">10.1098/rsta.1974.0007</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%BC%D9%88%D8%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="جی سټور (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/74272">74272</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="سمانتیک اسکالر (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122508567">122508567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Scientific+Astronomy+in+Antiquity&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1257&rft.pages=21-42&rft.date=1974-05-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122508567%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F74272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974RSPTA.276...21A&rft.au=A.+Aaboe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFBiggs2005" class="citation journal cs1">Biggs, R D. (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia". <i>Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 7–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Assyrian+Academic+Studies&rft.atitle=Medicine%2C+Surgery%2C+and+Public+Health+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-18&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Biggs&rft.aufirst=R+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lehoux-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lehoux_48-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFLehoux2011" class="citation book cs1">Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). <i>Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 39. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="د کتاب نړيوال ستندرد شمېره (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%DA%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DA%93%DB%8C:%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90/978-0-226-31783-0" class="new" title="ځانگړی:کتاب سرچينې/978-0-226-31783-0 (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><bdi>978-0-226-31783-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+Natural+Knowledge+in+the+Classical+World&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31783-0&rft.aulast=Lehoux&rft.aufirst=Daryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-49">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">See the quotation in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Homer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Homer (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)">Homer</a> (8th century BCE) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nature (تر اوسه پورې نه شته)"><i>Odyssey</i> 10.302–03</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-50">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Progress or Return" in <i>An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss</i> (Expanded version of <i>Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss</i>, 1975.) Ed. Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r262776"><cite id="CITEREFCropseyStrauss" class="citation book cs1">Cropsey; Strauss (eds.). <i>History of Political Philosophy</i> (3rd ed.). p. 209.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Political+Philosophy&rft.pages=209&rft.edition=3rd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fps.wikipedia.org%3A%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">"<a dir="ltr" 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