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<span>Career</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Career-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Career subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Academic_economist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_economist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Academic economist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_economist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_official" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_official"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Public official</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_official-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chief_Economist_at_the_World_Bank" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chief_Economist_at_the_World_Bank"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Chief Economist at the World Bank</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chief_Economist_at_the_World_Bank-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Dirty_industries"_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Dirty_industries"_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>"Dirty industries" controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Dirty_industries"_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Service_in_the_Clinton_Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Service_in_the_Clinton_Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Service in the Clinton Administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Service_in_the_Clinton_Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Views_on_financial_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_financial_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Views on financial regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_financial_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-President_of_Harvard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#President_of_Harvard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>President of Harvard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-President_of_Harvard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cornel_West_affair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cornel_West_affair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Cornel West affair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cornel_West_affair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_between_the_sexes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_between_the_sexes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Differences between the sexes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_between_the_sexes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summers'_opposition_and_support_at_Harvard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summers'_opposition_and_support_at_Harvard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>Summers' opposition and support at Harvard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summers'_opposition_and_support_at_Harvard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Support_of_economist_Andrei_Shleifer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_of_economist_Andrei_Shleifer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.4</span> <span>Support of economist Andrei Shleifer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_of_economist_Andrei_Shleifer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.5</span> <span>In Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connection_to_Jeffrey_Epstein" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connection_to_Jeffrey_Epstein"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.6</span> <span>Connection to Jeffrey Epstein</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connection_to_Jeffrey_Epstein-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Winklevoss_twins_and_Facebook" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Winklevoss_twins_and_Facebook"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.7</span> <span>Winklevoss twins and Facebook</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Winklevoss_twins_and_Facebook-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resignation_as_Harvard_President" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resignation_as_Harvard_President"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.8</span> <span>Resignation as Harvard President</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resignation_as_Harvard_President-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Harvard_presidency_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Harvard_presidency_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Post-Harvard presidency career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Harvard_presidency_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Business_interests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business_interests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Business interests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business_interests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Economic_Council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Economic_Council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>National Economic Council</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Economic_Council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-NEC_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-NEC_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Post-NEC career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-NEC_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2020_presidential_election" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020_presidential_election"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>2020 presidential election</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020_presidential_election-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Candidacy_for_chairmanship_of_the_Federal_Reserve_and_governorship_of_the_Bank_of_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Candidacy_for_chairmanship_of_the_Federal_Reserve_and_governorship_of_the_Bank_of_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Candidacy for chairmanship of the Federal Reserve and governorship of the Bank of Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Candidacy_for_chairmanship_of_the_Federal_Reserve_and_governorship_of_the_Bank_of_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_Biden_Administration,_2021" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_Biden_Administration,_2021"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Criticism of the Biden Administration, 2021</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_Biden_Administration,_2021-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.13</span> <span>Hamas-led attack on Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B2" title="لورانس سامرز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لورانس سامرز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B2" title="لارنس سامرز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لارنس سامرز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%9F%B0%EC%8A%A4_%EC%84%9C%EB%A8%B8%EC%8A%A4" title="로런스 서머스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로런스 서머스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%B8%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD_%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BD" title="Լոուրենս Սամերս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լոուրենս Սամերս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A1_%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A1" title="לורנס סאמרס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לורנס סאמרס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B2" title="لورانس سامرز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لورانس سامرز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AC%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B5%E3%83%9E%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BA" title="ローレンス・サマーズ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローレンス・サマーズ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81,_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Саммерс, Лоуренс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Саммерс, Лоуренс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lawrence Summers" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Lawrence Summers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawrence_Summers_2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lawrence_Summers_2012.jpg/220px-Lawrence_Summers_2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lawrence_Summers_2012.jpg/330px-Lawrence_Summers_2012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lawrence_Summers_2012.jpg/440px-Lawrence_Summers_2012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="700" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Summers in 2012</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">8th Director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Economic_Council_(United_States)" title="National Economic Council (United States)">National Economic Council</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />January 20, 2009 – January 20, 2011</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Deputy</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Diana_Farrell" title="Diana Farrell">Diana Farrell</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Jason_Furman" title="Jason Furman">Jason Furman</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Hennessey" title="Keith Hennessey">Keith Hennessey</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gene_Sperling" title="Gene Sperling">Gene Sperling</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">27th <a href="/wiki/President_of_Harvard_University" title="President of Harvard University">President of Harvard University</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />July 1, 2001 – June 30, 2006</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Neil_L._Rudenstine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neil L. Rudenstine">Neil Rudenstine</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Bok" title="Derek Bok">Derek Bok</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">71st <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />July 2, 1999 – January 20, 2001</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Deputy</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_E._Eizenstat" title="Stuart E. Eizenstat">Stuart E. Eizenstat</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rubin" title="Robert Rubin">Robert Rubin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paul_H._O%27Neill" title="Paul H. O'Neill">Paul H. O'Neill</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">7th <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury">United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />August 11, 1995 – July 2, 1999</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Bill Clinton</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Frank_N._Newman" title="Frank N. Newman">Frank N. Newman</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Stuart E. Eizenstat</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_International_Affairs" title="Under Secretary of the Treasury for International Affairs">Under Secretary of the Treasury for International Affairs</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />April 5, 1993 – August 11, 1995</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Bill Clinton</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/David_Mulford" class="mw-redirect" title="David Mulford">David Mulford</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Bruno_(economist)" title="Michael Bruno (economist)">Michael Bruno</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Economist_of_the_World_Bank" title="Chief Economist of the World Bank">Chief Economist of the World Bank</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />January 14, 1991 – January 14, 1993</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Barber_Conable" title="Barber Conable">Barber Conable</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Thompson_Preston" title="Lewis Thompson Preston">Lewis Thompson Preston</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fischer" title="Stanley Fischer">Stanley Fischer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Bruno_(economist)" title="Michael Bruno (economist)">Michael Bruno</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Lawrence Henry Summers</div><br /><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday">1954-11-30</span>) </span>November 30, 1954<span class="noprint ForceAgeToShow"> (age 69)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"> Victoria Perry</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1984; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 2003)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Elisa_New" title="Elisa New">Elisa New</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="December 11, 2005">2005</span>)<wbr /></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawrence_H_Summers_sig.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lawrence Summers's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Lawrence_H_Summers_sig.jpg/128px-Lawrence_H_Summers_sig.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Lawrence_H_Summers_sig.jpg/192px-Lawrence_H_Summers_sig.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Lawrence_H_Summers_sig.jpg 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="50" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic career</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Field</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">School or<br />tradition</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesian economics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral<br />advisor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Feldstein" title="Martin Feldstein">Martin Feldstein</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral<br />students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Krueger" title="Alan Krueger">Alan Krueger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiminori_Matsuyama" title="Kiminori Matsuyama">Kiminori Matsuyama</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_R._Hines_Jr." title="James R. Hines Jr.">James R. Hines Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhee_Chang-yong" title="Rhee Chang-yong">Rhee Chang-yong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark_Medal" title="John Bates Clark Medal">John Bates Clark Medal</a> (1993)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/e/psu137.html">Information</a> at <a href="/wiki/Research_Papers_in_Economics" title="Research Papers in Economics">IDEAS / RePEc</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic background</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/303216376/"><i>An asset price approach to the analysis of capital income taxation</i></a> (1982)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral advisor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Feldstein" title="Martin Feldstein">Martin Feldstein</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Lawrence Henry Summers</b> (born November 30, 1954) is an American <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economist</a> who served as the 71st <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury</a> from 1999 to 2001 and as director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Economic_Council_(United_States)" title="National Economic Council (United States)">National Economic Council</a> from 2009 to 2010. He also served as <a href="/wiki/President_of_Harvard_University" title="President of Harvard University">president of Harvard University</a> from 2001 to 2006,<sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harvard_facts_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard_facts-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where he is the Charles W. Eliot University Professor and director of the Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Business and Government at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School">Harvard Kennedy School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harvard_phonebook_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard_phonebook-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harvard_letter_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard_letter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2023, Summers joined the board of directors of artificial general intelligence company <a href="/wiki/OpenAI" title="OpenAI">OpenAI</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-open_ai_bod_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-open_ai_bod-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers became a professor of economics at Harvard University in 1983. He left Harvard in 1991, working as the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Economist_of_the_World_Bank" title="Chief Economist of the World Bank">Chief Economist of the World Bank</a> from 1991 to 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-chief_economists_world_bank_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chief_economists_world_bank-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993, Summers was appointed <a href="/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_International_Affairs" title="Under Secretary of the Treasury for International Affairs">Under Secretary for International Affairs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">United States Department of the Treasury</a> under President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>'s administration. In 1995, he was promoted to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury">Deputy Secretary of the Treasury</a> under his long-time political mentor <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rubin" title="Robert Rubin">Robert Rubin</a>. In 1999, he succeeded Rubin as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_summers_treasury_dept_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_summers_treasury_dept-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While working for the Clinton administration, Summers played a leading role in the American response to the <a href="/wiki/1994_economic_crisis_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="1994 economic crisis in Mexico">1994 economic crisis in Mexico</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/1998_Russian_financial_crisis" title="1998 Russian financial crisis">Russian financial crisis</a>. He was also influential in the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Institute_for_International_Development" title="Harvard Institute for International Development">Harvard Institute for International Development</a> and American-advised privatization of the economies of the <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">post-Soviet states</a>, and in the deregulation of the U.S financial system, including the repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Glass-Steagall_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass-Steagall Act">Glass-Steagall Act</a>. </p><p>Following the end of Clinton's term, Summers served as the 27th <a href="/wiki/President_of_Harvard_University" title="President of Harvard University">president of Harvard University</a> from 2001 to 2006. Summers resigned as Harvard's president in the wake of a <a href="/wiki/No-confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="No-confidence">no-confidence</a> vote by Harvard faculty, which resulted in large part from Summers's conflict with <a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">Cornel West</a>, financial <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a> questions regarding his relationship with <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Shleifer" title="Andrei Shleifer">Andrei Shleifer</a>, and a 2005 speech in which he offered three reasons for the under-representation of women in science and engineering, including the possibility that there exists a <a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">"different availability of aptitude at the high end"</a>, in addition to patterns of discrimination and socialization.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After his departure from Harvard, Summers worked as a managing partner at the hedge fund <a href="/wiki/D._E._Shaw_%26_Co." title="D. E. Shaw & Co.">D. E. Shaw & Co.</a> Summers rejoined public service during the <a href="/wiki/Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Obama administration">Obama administration</a>, serving as the Director of the White House <a href="/wiki/National_Economic_Council_(United_States)" title="National Economic Council (United States)">United States National Economic Council</a> for President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> from January 2009 until November 2010, where he emerged as a key economic decision-maker in the Obama administration's response to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Summers was born in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>, on November 30, 1954, into a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish family">Jewish family</a>. He was the son of two economists, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Summers_(economist)" title="Robert Summers (economist)">Robert Summers</a> (who changed the family surname from Samuelson) and <a href="/wiki/Anita_Summers" title="Anita Summers">Anita Summers</a> (of <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Jews">Romanian-Jewish</a> ancestry), who were both professors at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>. He is also the nephew of two <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Sweden_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences_in_Memory_of_Alfred_Nobel" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel">Nobel laureates in economics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a> (brother of Robert Summers) and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a> (brother of Anita Arrow Summers). He spent most of his childhood in <a href="/wiki/Penn_Valley,_Pennsylvania" title="Penn Valley, Pennsylvania">Penn Valley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, a suburb of <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, where he attended <a href="/wiki/Harriton_High_School" title="Harriton High School">Harriton High School</a>. </p><p>At age 16,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he entered <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT), where he originally intended to study <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> but soon switched to <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, graduating in 1975. He was also an active member of the MIT debating team and qualified for participation in the annual <a href="/wiki/National_Debate_Tournament" title="National Debate Tournament">National Debate Tournament</a> three times. He attended <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> as a graduate student, receiving his <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Ph.D.</a> in 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-thesis-summers-1982_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thesis-summers-1982-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983, at age 28, Summers became one of the youngest tenured professors in Harvard's history. He was a visiting academic at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-lse_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lse-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_economist">Academic economist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Academic economist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawrence_Summers,_1990.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lawrence_Summers%2C_1990.jpg/220px-Lawrence_Summers%2C_1990.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lawrence_Summers%2C_1990.jpg/330px-Lawrence_Summers%2C_1990.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lawrence_Summers%2C_1990.jpg/440px-Lawrence_Summers%2C_1990.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>Summers in 1990</figcaption></figure> <p>As a researcher, Summers has made important contributions in many areas of economics, primarily <a href="/wiki/Public_finance" title="Public finance">public finance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labor_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor economics">labor economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">financial economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a>. Summers has also worked in international economics, economic demography, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">development economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received the <a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark_Medal" title="John Bates Clark Medal">John Bates Clark Medal</a> in 1993 from the American Economic Association.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1987, he was the first social scientist to win the <a href="/wiki/Alan_T._Waterman_Award" title="Alan T. Waterman Award">Alan T. Waterman Award</a> from the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>. Summers is also a member of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>. Some of his popular courses today, as Charles W. Eliot University Professor at Harvard University, include American Economic Policy and The Political Economy of Globalization.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_official">Public official</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Public official"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Summers was on the staff of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Economic_Advisers" title="Council of Economic Advisers">Council of Economic Advisers</a> under President Reagan in 1982–1983. He also served as an economic adviser to the <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Dukakis</a> Presidential campaign in 1988. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chief_Economist_at_the_World_Bank">Chief Economist at the World Bank</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chief Economist at the World Bank"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Summers left Harvard in 1991 and served as <a href="/w/index.php?title=World_Bank_Vice_President_of_Development_Economics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World Bank Vice President of Development Economics (page does not exist)">Vice President of Development Economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Bank_Chief_Economist" class="mw-redirect" title="World Bank Chief Economist">Chief Economist</a> for the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> until 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-chief_economists_world_bank_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chief_economists_world_bank-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the World Bank's Data & Research office (March 2017), Summers returned to <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> in 1991 as the World Bank's Vice President of Development Economics and Chief Economist. As such, Summers played a "key role" in designing strategies to aid developing countries, worked on the bank's loan committee, guided the bank's research and statistics operations, and guided external training programs.<sup id="cite_ref-chief_economists_world_bank_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chief_economists_world_bank-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The World Bank's official site also reports that Summer's research included an "influential" report that demonstrated a very high return from investments in educating girls in developing nations.<sup id="cite_ref-chief_economists_world_bank_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chief_economists_world_bank-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <i>The Economist,</i> Summers was "often at the centre of heated debates" about economic policy, to an extent exceptional for the history of the World Bank in recent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-world_bank_contrarian_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-world_bank_contrarian-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Dirty_industries"_controversy"><span id=".22Dirty_industries.22_controversy"></span>"Dirty industries" controversy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: "Dirty industries" controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Summers_memo" title="Summers memo">Summers memo</a></div> <p>In December 1991, while at the World Bank, Summers signed <a href="/wiki/Summers_memo" title="Summers memo">a memo</a> that was leaked to the press. <a href="/wiki/Lant_Pritchett" title="Lant Pritchett">Lant Pritchett</a> has claimed authorship of the private memo, which both he and Summers say was intended as sarcasm.<sup id="cite_ref-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The memo stated that "the economic logic behind dumping a load of toxic waste in the lowest wage country is impeccable and we should face up to that.<sup id="cite_ref-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ... I've always thought that under-populated countries in Africa are vastly underpolluted."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Pritchett, the memo, as leaked, was doctored to remove context and intended irony, and was "a deliberate fraud and forgery to discredit Larry and the World Bank."<sup id="cite_ref-harvardmag_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvardmag-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Service_in_the_Clinton_Administration">Service in the Clinton Administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Service in the Clinton Administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawrence_Summers_Treasury_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Lawrence_Summers_Treasury_portrait.jpg/220px-Lawrence_Summers_Treasury_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Lawrence_Summers_Treasury_portrait.jpg/330px-Lawrence_Summers_Treasury_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Lawrence_Summers_Treasury_portrait.jpg/440px-Lawrence_Summers_Treasury_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="917" data-file-height="1265" /></a><figcaption>Summers as United States Secretary of the Treasury</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1993, Summers was appointed Undersecretary for International Affairs and later in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">United States Department of the Treasury</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Clinton</a> Administration. In 1995, he was promoted to Deputy Secretary of the Treasury under his long-time political mentor <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rubin" title="Robert Rubin">Robert Rubin</a>. In 1999, he succeeded Rubin as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a>. </p><p>Much of Summers's tenure at the Treasury Department was focused on international economic issues. He was deeply involved in the Clinton administration's effort to bail out Mexico and Russia when those nations had currency crises.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers set up a project through which the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Institute_for_International_Development" title="Harvard Institute for International Development">Harvard Institute for International Development</a> provided advice to the Russian government between 1992 and 1997. Later there was a scandal when it emerged that some of the Harvard project members had invested in Russia and were therefore not impartial advisors.<sup id="cite_ref-Sergi2009_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sergi2009-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers encouraged then-Russian leader Boris Yeltsin to use the same "three-'ations'" of policy he advocated in the Clinton Administration – "privatization, stabilization, and liberalization."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers pressured the Korean government to raise its interest rates and balance its budget in the midst of a recession, policies criticized by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the book <i>The Chastening</i>, by Paul Blustein, during this crisis, Summers, along with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz" title="Paul Wolfowitz">Paul Wolfowitz</a>, pushed for regime change in Indonesia.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers was a leading voice within the Clinton Administration arguing against American leadership in <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> reductions and against US participation in the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>, according to internal documents made public in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-nsarchive-ebb303_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsarchive-ebb303-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Treasury Secretary, Summers led the Clinton Administration's opposition to tax cuts proposed by the Republican Congress in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the California <a href="/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_California_electricity_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2000–01 California electricity crisis">energy crisis of 2000</a>, then-Treasury Secretary Summers teamed with <a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Alan Greenspan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enron" title="Enron">Enron</a> executive <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Lay" title="Kenneth Lay">Kenneth Lay</a> to lecture California Governor <a href="/wiki/Gray_Davis" title="Gray Davis">Gray Davis</a> on the causes of the crisis, explaining that the problem was excessive government regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Krugman_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krugman-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the advice of Kenneth Lay, Summers urged Davis to relax California's environmental standards in order to reassure the markets.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibney_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibney-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers hailed the <a href="/wiki/Gramm%E2%80%93Leach%E2%80%93Bliley_Act" title="Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act">Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act</a> in 1999, which lifted more than six decades of restrictions against banks offering <a href="/wiki/Commercial_banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial banking">commercial banking</a>, insurance, and investment services (by repealing key provisions in the 1933 <a href="/wiki/Glass%E2%80%93Steagall_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass–Steagall Act">Glass–Steagall Act</a>): "Today Congress voted to update the rules that have governed financial services since the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> and replace them with a system for the 21st century," Summers said.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTrepeal_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTrepeal-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "This historic legislation will better enable American companies to compete in the new economy."<sup id="cite_ref-NYTrepeal_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTrepeal-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many critics, including <a href="/wiki/POTUS" class="mw-redirect" title="POTUS">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>, have suggested the <a href="/wiki/2007_subprime_mortgage_financial_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis">2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis</a> was caused by the partial repeal of the 1933 Glass–Steagall Act.<sup id="cite_ref-WSJquestions_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WSJquestions-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, as a member of President Clinton's <a href="/wiki/Working_Group_on_Financial_Markets" title="Working Group on Financial Markets">Working Group on Financial Markets</a>, Summers, along with U.S. <a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a> (SEC) Chairman <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Levitt" title="Arthur Levitt">Arthur Levitt</a>, Fed Chairman Greenspan, and Secretary Rubin, torpedoed an effort to regulate the derivatives that many blame for bringing the financial market down in Fall 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-Frontline_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frontline-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Views_on_financial_regulation">Views on financial regulation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Views on financial regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On May 7, 1998, the <a href="/wiki/Commodity_Futures_Trading_Commission" title="Commodity Futures Trading Commission">Commodity Futures Trading Commission</a> (CFTC) issued a Concept Release soliciting input from regulators, academics, and practitioners to determine "how best to maintain adequate regulatory safeguards without impairing the ability of the OTC (<a href="/wiki/Over-the-counter_(finance)" title="Over-the-counter (finance)">over-the-counter</a>) derivatives market to grow and the ability of U.S. entities to remain competitive in the global financial marketplace."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 30, 1998, then-Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Summers testified before the U.S. Congress that "the parties to these kinds of contract are largely sophisticated financial institutions that would appear to be eminently capable of protecting themselves from fraud and counterparty insolvencies." At the time Summers stated that "to date there has been no clear evidence of a need for additional regulation of the institutional OTC derivatives market, and we would submit that proponents of such regulation must bear the burden of demonstrating that need."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1999 Summers endorsed the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act which removed the separation between investment and commercial banks, saying "With this bill, the American financial system takes a major step forward towards the 21st Century."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/George_Stephanopoulos" title="George Stephanopoulos">George Stephanopoulos</a> asked Summers about the financial crisis in an ABC interview on March 15, 2009, Summers replied that "there are a lot of terrible things that have happened in the last eighteen months, but what's happened at A.I.G. ... the way it was not regulated, the way no one was watching ... is outrageous."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 2009, Summers quoted <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, saying "When circumstances change, I change my opinion", reflecting both on the failures of <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a> deregulation and his new leadership role in the government bailout.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 18, 2010, in an interview on ABC's "This Week" program, Clinton said Summers was wrong in the advice he gave him not to regulate derivatives.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Harvard_president"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="President_of_Harvard">President of Harvard</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: President of Harvard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2001, when <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> became <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a>, Summers left the Treasury Department and returned to Harvard as its 27th president, serving from July 2001 until June 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was Harvard's first Jewish president,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though his predecessor Neil Rudenstine's father was Jewish.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of Summers's decisions at Harvard have attracted public controversy, either at the time or since his resignation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cornel_West_affair">Cornel West affair</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cornel West affair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an October 2001 meeting, Summers criticized African American Studies department head <a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">Cornel West</a> for allegedly missing three weeks of classes to work on the <a href="/wiki/Bill_Bradley" title="Bill Bradley">Bill Bradley</a> presidential campaign and complained that West was contributing to <a href="/wiki/Grade_inflation" title="Grade inflation">grade inflation</a>. Summers also claimed that West's "rap" album was an "embarrassment" to the university. West pushed back strongly against the accusations.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The hip-hop scared him. It's a stereotypical reaction", he said later. West, who later called Summers both "uninformed" and "an unprincipled power player" in describing this encounter in his book <i>Democracy Matters</i> (2004), subsequently returned to <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, where he had taught prior to <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Differences_between_the_sexes">Differences between the sexes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Differences between the sexes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a></div> <p>In January 2005, at a Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a>, Summers sparked controversy with his discussion of why women may have been underrepresented "in tenured positions in science and engineering at top universities and research institutions". The conference was designed to be off-the-record so that participants could speak candidly without fear of public misunderstanding or disclosure later.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers had prefaced his talk, saying he was adopting an "entirely <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positive</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> approach" and that his remarks were intended to be an "attempt at provocation".<sup id="cite_ref-harvard2005_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers then began by identifying three hypotheses for the higher proportion of men in high-end science and engineering positions: </p> <ol><li>The high-powered job hypothesis</li> <li>Different availability of <a href="/wiki/Aptitude" title="Aptitude">aptitude</a> at the high end</li> <li>Different socialization and patterns of discrimination in a search<sup id="cite_ref-harvard2005_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The second hypothesis, the generally <a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">greater variability among men</a> (compared to women) in tests of cognitive abilities,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to proportionally more males than females at both the lower and upper tails of the test score distributions, caused the most controversy. In his discussion of this hypothesis, Summers said that "even small differences in the standard deviation [between genders] will translate into very large differences in the available pool substantially out [from the mean]".<sup id="cite_ref-harvard2005_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers referenced research that implied differences between the standard deviations of males and females in the top 5% of twelfth graders under various tests. He then went on to argue that, if this research were to be accepted, then "whatever the set of attributes ... that are precisely defined to correlate with being an aeronautical engineer at MIT or being a chemist at Berkeley ... are probably different in their standard deviations as well".<sup id="cite_ref-harvard2005_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers then concluded his discussion of the three hypotheses by saying: </p> <blockquote><p>So my best guess, to provoke you, of what's behind all of this is that the largest phenomenon, by far, is the general clash between people's legitimate family desires and employers' current desire for high power and high intensity, that in the special case of science and engineering, there are issues of intrinsic aptitude, and particularly of the variability of aptitude, and that those considerations are reinforced by what are in fact lesser factors involving socialization and continuing discrimination. I would like nothing better than to be proved wrong, because I would like nothing better than for these problems to be addressable simply by everybody understanding what they are, and working very hard to address them.<sup id="cite_ref-harvard2005_44-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Summers then went on to discuss approaches to remedying the shortage of women in high-end science and engineering positions. </p><p>This lunch-time talk drew accusations of sexism and careless scholarship, and an intense negative response followed, both nationally and at Harvard.<sup id="cite_ref-Globe20050117_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Globe20050117-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers apologized repeatedly.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the controversy is speculated to have contributed to his resigning his position as president of Harvard University the following year, as well as costing Summers the job of <a href="/wiki/Treasury_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="Treasury Secretary">Treasury Secretary</a> in <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">Obama's administration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers's protégée <a href="/wiki/Sheryl_Sandberg" title="Sheryl Sandberg">Sheryl Sandberg</a> has defended him, saying that "Larry has been a true advocate for women throughout his career" at the World Bank and Treasury. Referring to the lunch talk, Sandberg said, "What few seem to note is that it is remarkable that he was giving the speech in the first place – that he cared enough about women's careers and their trajectory in the fields of math and science to proactively analyze the issues and talk about what was going wrong".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016, remarking upon <a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">political correctness</a> in institutions of higher education, Summers said: </p> <blockquote><p>There is a great deal of absurd political correctness. Now, I'm somebody who believes very strongly in diversity, who resists racism in all of its many incarnations, who thinks that there is a great deal that's unjust in American society that needs to be combated, but it seems to be that there is a kind of creeping totalitarianism in terms of what kind of ideas are acceptable and are debatable on college campuses.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Summers'_opposition_and_support_at_Harvard"><span id="Summers.27_opposition_and_support_at_Harvard"></span>Summers' opposition and support at Harvard</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Summers' opposition and support at Harvard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On March 15, 2005, members of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences">Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences</a>, which instructs graduate students in <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences">Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences</a> and undergraduates in <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a>, passed 218–185 a motion of "lack of confidence" in the leadership of Summers, with 18 abstentions. A second motion that offered a milder censure of the president passed 253 to 137, also with 18 abstentions. </p><p>The members of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Corporation">Harvard Corporation</a>, the University's highest governing body, are in charge of the selection of the president and issued statements strongly supporting Summers. </p><p>FAS faculty were not unanimous in their comments against Summers. Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a> defended the legitimacy of Summers's January lecture. When asked if Summers's talk was "within the pale of legitimate academic discourse," Pinker responded "Good grief, shouldn't everything be within the pale of legitimate academic discourse, as long as it is presented with some degree of rigor? That's the difference between a university and a <a href="/wiki/Madrassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrassa">madrassa</a>. There is certainly enough evidence for the hypothesis to be taken seriously."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers had stronger support among Harvard College students than among the college faculty. One poll by <i><a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Crimson" title="The Harvard Crimson">The Harvard Crimson</a></i> indicated that students opposed his resignation by a three-to-one margin, with 57% of responding students opposing his resignation and 19% supporting it.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 2005, a board member of Harvard Corporation, <a href="/wiki/Conrad_K._Harper" title="Conrad K. Harper">Conrad K. Harper</a>, resigned saying he was angered both by the university president's comments about women and by Summers being given a salary increase. The resignation letter to the president said, "I could not and cannot support a raise in your salary, ... I believe that Harvard's best interests require your resignation."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Support_of_economist_Andrei_Shleifer">Support of economist Andrei Shleifer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Support of economist Andrei Shleifer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Harvard and <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Shleifer" title="Andrei Shleifer">Andrei Shleifer</a>, a close friend and protégé of Summers, controversially paid $28.5 million to settle a <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuit</a> by the U.S. government over the <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a> Shleifer had while advising <a href="/wiki/Russia%27s_privatization_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia's privatization program">Russia's privatization program</a>. The US government had sued Shleifer under the <a href="/wiki/False_Claims_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="False Claims Act">False Claims Act</a>, as he bought <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> stocks while designing the country's <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a>. In 2004, a federal judge ruled that while Harvard had violated the contract, Shleifer and his associate alone were liable for <a href="/wiki/Treble_damages" title="Treble damages">treble damages</a>. </p><p>In June 2005, Harvard and Shleifer announced that they had reached a tentative settlement with the US government. In August, Harvard, Shleifer, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a> reached an agreement under which the university paid $26.5 million to settle the five-year-old lawsuit. Shleifer was also responsible for paying $2 million worth of damages. </p><p>Because Harvard paid almost all of the damages and allowed Shleifer to retain his faculty position, the settlement provoked allegations of favoritism by Summers. His continued support for Shleifer strengthened Summers's unpopularity with other professors, as reported in <i>The Harvard Crimson</i>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I've been a member of this Faculty for over 45 years, and I am no longer easily shocked," is how Frederick H. Abernathy, the McKay professor of mechanical engineering, began his biting comments about the Shleifer case at Tuesday's fiery Faculty meeting. But, Abernathy continued, "I was deeply shocked and disappointed by the actions of this University" in the Shleifer affair.<sup id="cite_ref-crimson_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crimson-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_Russia">In Russia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Loans_for_shares_scheme" title="Loans for shares scheme">Loans for shares scheme</a></div> <p>An 18,000-word article "How Harvard Lost Russia" in <i><a href="/wiki/Institutional_Investor_(magazine)" title="Institutional Investor (magazine)">Institutional Investor</a></i> by David McClintick detailed Shleifer's alleged efforts to use his <a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">inside knowledge</a> of and sway over the Russian economy in order to make lucrative personal investments, all while leading a Harvard group, advising the Russian government, that was under contract with the U.S. The article suggests that Summers shielded his fellow economist from disciplinary action by the university, and it noted that Summers had forewarned Shleifer and his wife Nancy Zimmerman about the conflict-of-interest regulations back in 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-crimson_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crimson-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers's friendship with Shleifer was well known by the corporation when it selected him to succeed Rudenstine and Summers recused himself from all proceedings with Shleifer, whose case was actually handled by an independent committee led by former Harvard president <a href="/wiki/Derek_Bok" title="Derek Bok">Derek Bok</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Connection_to_Jeffrey_Epstein">Connection to Jeffrey Epstein</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Connection to Jeffrey Epstein"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An article in <i>The Harvard Crimson</i> in 2003, during Summers's tenure as president, detailed a reportedly "special connection" between Summers and <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Epstein" title="Jeffrey Epstein">Jeffrey Epstein</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epstein pledged to donate at least $25 million to Harvard during Summers's tenure to endow Harvard's Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, and Epstein was given an office at Harvard for his personal use.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epstein otherwise had no formal connection to Harvard.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers's ties to Epstein reportedly began "a number of years...before Summers became Harvard's president and even before he was the Secretary of the Treasury."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flight records introduced as evidence in the 2021 trial of Epstein associate <a href="/wiki/Ghislaine_Maxwell" title="Ghislaine Maxwell">Ghislaine Maxwell</a> show that Summers flew on Jeffrey Epstein's private plane on at least four occasions, including once in 1998 when Summers was <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury">United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury</a> and at least three times while Harvard president.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A charity funded by Epstein also donated to the production of a <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> show hosted by Summers's wife and Harvard professor <a href="/wiki/Elisa_New" title="Elisa New">Elisa New</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Winklevoss_twins_and_Facebook">Winklevoss twins and Facebook</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Winklevoss twins and Facebook"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In February 2004, the <a href="/wiki/Winklevoss_twins" title="Winklevoss twins">Winklevoss twins</a> requested a meeting with Summers in order to ask him to intervene on their behalf in an ongoing dispute they had with <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> founder <a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a>. The Winklevosses believed that Zuckerberg had stolen their idea for a social networking website and launched Facebook on his own, after they had asked him to be a part of their project, then called HarvardConnection. Summers believed that the matter was outside the university's jurisdiction and advised the twins to take their complaint to the courts.<sup id="cite_ref-harvardgradsfaceoff_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvardgradsfaceoff-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Resignation_as_Harvard_President">Resignation as Harvard President</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Resignation as Harvard President"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On February 21, 2006, Summers announced his intention to step down at the end of the school year effective June 30, 2006. Harvard agreed to provide Summers on his resignation with a one-year paid <a href="/wiki/Sabbatical" title="Sabbatical">sabbatical</a> leave, subsidized a $1 million outstanding loan from the university for his personal residence, and provided other payments.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Former University President <a href="/wiki/Derek_Bok" title="Derek Bok">Derek Bok</a> acted as Interim President while the University conducted a search for a replacement which ended with the naming of <a href="/wiki/Drew_Gilpin_Faust" title="Drew Gilpin Faust">Drew Gilpin Faust</a> on February 11, 2007. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Harvard_presidency_career">Post-Harvard presidency career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Post-Harvard presidency career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barack_Obama_talks_during_the_Daily_Economic_Briefing,_January_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Barack_Obama_talks_during_the_Daily_Economic_Briefing%2C_January_2009.jpg/220px-Barack_Obama_talks_during_the_Daily_Economic_Briefing%2C_January_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Barack_Obama_talks_during_the_Daily_Economic_Briefing%2C_January_2009.jpg/330px-Barack_Obama_talks_during_the_Daily_Economic_Briefing%2C_January_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Barack_Obama_talks_during_the_Daily_Economic_Briefing%2C_January_2009.jpg/440px-Barack_Obama_talks_during_the_Daily_Economic_Briefing%2C_January_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2333" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>, on left, discusses with a group in the White House, including Larry Summers on far right (back to camera).</figcaption></figure> <p>After a one-year sabbatical, Summers subsequently accepted Harvard University's invitation to serve as the <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles W. Eliot">Charles W. Eliot</a> University Professor, one of 20 <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Professor" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard University Professor">select University-wide professorships</a>, with offices in the Kennedy School of Government and the Harvard Business School.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006 he was also a member of the Panel of Eminent Persons which reviewed the work of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_Trade_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Conference on Trade and Development">United Nations Conference on Trade and Development</a>. He is a member in the <a href="/wiki/Group_of_Thirty" title="Group of Thirty">Group of Thirty</a>. He also currently serves on the <a href="/wiki/Berggruen_Institute" title="Berggruen Institute">Berggruen Institute</a>'s 21st Century Council and was part of a 2015 Berggruen-organized meeting with Chinese president <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business_interests">Business interests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Business interests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On October 19, 2006, Summers was hired as a part-time managing director of the New York-based hedge fund <a href="/wiki/D._E._Shaw_%26_Co." title="D. E. Shaw & Co.">D. E. Shaw & Co.</a> for which he received $5 million in salary and other compensation over a 16-month period.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomberg-2011-06-29_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg-2011-06-29-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time Summers earned $2.7 million in speaking fees from major financial institutions,<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomberg_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including <a href="/wiki/Goldman_Sachs" title="Goldman Sachs">Goldman Sachs</a>, <a href="/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase" title="JPMorgan Chase">JPMorgan Chase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citigroup" title="Citigroup">Citigroup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merrill_Lynch" class="mw-redirect" title="Merrill Lynch">Merrill Lynch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lehman_Brothers" title="Lehman Brothers">Lehman Brothers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salon_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salon-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon being nominated Treasury Secretary by President Clinton in 1999, Summers listed assets of about $900,000 and debts, including a mortgage, of $500,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomberg_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time he returned in 2009 to serve in the Obama administration, he reported a net worth between $17 million and $39 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomberg_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is a former member of the Steering Committee of the <a href="/wiki/Bilderberg_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilderberg Group">Bilderberg Group</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, Summers became an early angel investor in India's first car rental company, <a href="/wiki/Zoomcar" title="Zoomcar">Zoomcar</a>, which was started by his former <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a> Teaching Fellow.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Economic_Council">National Economic Council</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: National Economic Council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Upon the inauguration of <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> as president in January 2009, Summers was appointed to the post of director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Economic_Council_(United_States)" title="National Economic Council (United States)">National Economic Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this position Summers emerged as a key economic decision-maker in the Obama administration, where he attracted both praise and criticism. There had been friction between Summers and former Federal Reserve Chairman <a href="/wiki/Paul_Volcker" title="Paul Volcker">Paul Volcker</a>, as Volcker accused Summers of delaying the effort to organize a panel of outside economic advisers, and Summers had cut Volcker out of White House meetings and had not shown interest in collaborating on policy solutions to the economic crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Obama himself was reportedly thrilled with the work Summers did in his first few weeks on the job. And <a href="/wiki/Peter_Orszag" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Orszag">Peter Orszag</a>, another top economic advisor, called Summers "one of the world's most brilliant economists."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> Larry Summers should "be given a White House post in which he was charged with shooting down or fixing bad ideas."<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 2009, as the <a href="/wiki/Obama_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Obama Administration">Obama Administration</a> tried to pass an economic stimulus spending bill, Representative <a href="/wiki/Peter_DeFazio" title="Peter DeFazio">Peter DeFazio</a> (<a href="/wiki/U.S._Democratic_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Democratic Party">D</a>-<a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">OR.</a>) criticized Summers, saying that he thought that President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> is "ill-advised by Larry Summers. Larry Summers hates infrastructure."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DeFazio, along with liberal economists including <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a>, had argued that more of the stimulus should be spent on infrastructure,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Summers had supported tax cuts.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 2008, Summers and economic advisors for then-President-elect Obama presented a memo with options for an economic stimulus package ranging from $550 billion to $900 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a></i>, economic advisor <a href="/wiki/Christina_Romer" title="Christina Romer">Christina Romer</a> initially recommended a $1.8-trillion package, which proposal Summers quickly rejected, believing any stimulus approaching $1 trillion would not pass through Congress. Romer revised her recommendation to $1.2 trillion, which Summers agreed to include in the memo, but Summers struck the figure at the last minute.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">the Wall Street Journal</a></i>, Summers called Senator <a href="/wiki/Chris_Dodd" title="Chris Dodd">Chris Dodd</a> (D-<a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">CT</a>) asking him to remove caps on executive pay at firms that have received stimulus money, including Citigroup.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On April 3, 2009, Summers came under renewed criticism after it was disclosed that he was paid millions of dollars the previous year by companies which he now had influence over as a <a href="/wiki/Public_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Public servant">public servant</a>. He earned $5 million from the <a href="/wiki/Hedge_fund" title="Hedge fund">hedge fund</a> D. E. Shaw and collected $2.7 million in speaking fees from <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a> companies that received government <a href="/wiki/Bailout" title="Bailout">bailout</a> money.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-NEC_career">Post-NEC career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Post-NEC career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Volodymyr_Groysman_and_Lawrence_Summers_in_Ukraine_-_2018_(MUS6894).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Volodymyr_Groysman_and_Lawrence_Summers_in_Ukraine_-_2018_%28MUS6894%29.jpg/220px-Volodymyr_Groysman_and_Lawrence_Summers_in_Ukraine_-_2018_%28MUS6894%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Volodymyr_Groysman_and_Lawrence_Summers_in_Ukraine_-_2018_%28MUS6894%29.jpg/330px-Volodymyr_Groysman_and_Lawrence_Summers_in_Ukraine_-_2018_%28MUS6894%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Volodymyr_Groysman_and_Lawrence_Summers_in_Ukraine_-_2018_%28MUS6894%29.jpg/440px-Volodymyr_Groysman_and_Lawrence_Summers_in_Ukraine_-_2018_%28MUS6894%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Summers with <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Groysman" title="Volodymyr Groysman">Volodymyr Groysman</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Since leaving the NEC in December 2010, Summers has worked as an advisor to hedge fund <a href="/wiki/D._E._Shaw_%26_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="D. E. Shaw & Co">D. E. Shaw & Co</a>, Citigroup and the <a href="/wiki/NASDAQ_OMX_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="NASDAQ OMX Group">NASDAQ OMX Group</a> while resuming his role as a tenured Harvard professor.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomberg_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 2011 Summers joined the board of directors of <a href="/wiki/Square_(payment_service)" class="mw-redirect" title="Square (payment service)">Square</a>, a company developing an electronic payment service,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and became a special adviser at venture capital firm <a href="/wiki/Andreessen_Horowitz" title="Andreessen Horowitz">Andreessen Horowitz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He joined the board of person-to-person lending company <a href="/wiki/Lending_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Lending Club">Lending Club</a> in December 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2015 Summers joined the Board of Directors of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Premise_Data&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Premise Data (page does not exist)">Premise Data</a>, a San Francisco-based data and analytics technology company that sources data from a global network of on-the-ground contributors.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 2016, he was one of eight former Treasury secretaries who called on the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> to remain a member of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> ahead of the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">June 2016 Referendum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summers referred to the United Kingdom's Brexit vote on June 23, 2016, in favor of leaving the European Union as the "worst self-inflicted policy wound that a country has done since the Second World War". However, Summers cautioned that the result was a "wake up call for elites everywhere" and called for "responsible nationalism" in response to simmering public sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2016, Summers also wrote, "I believe the risks to the US and global economies of Mr Trump's election as president are far greater [than passage of Brexit]. If he is elected, I would expect a protracted recession to begin within 18 months. The damage would be felt far beyond the United States."<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2020_presidential_election">2020 presidential election</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 2020 presidential election"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A coalition of progressive groups called on <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden_2020_presidential_campaign" title="Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign">2020 presidential campaign</a> no longer to use Summers as an advisor, after reports surfaced that Summers was advising the campaign on economic policy.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Progressive groups like the <a href="/wiki/Sunrise_Movement" title="Sunrise Movement">Sunrise Movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justice_Democrats" title="Justice Democrats">Justice Democrats</a> petitioned the campaign to disavow Summers, saying, "Summers's legacy is advocating for policies that contributed to the skyrocketing inequality and climate crisis we're living with today."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the outcry, Summers stated he would not be joining a future Biden administration, in the event that Biden defeated <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020 presidential election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Candidacy_for_chairmanship_of_the_Federal_Reserve_and_governorship_of_the_Bank_of_Israel">Candidacy for chairmanship of the Federal Reserve and governorship of the Bank of Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Candidacy for chairmanship of the Federal Reserve and governorship of the Bank of Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2013, Summers emerged as one of two leading candidates, along with <a href="/wiki/Janet_Yellen" title="Janet Yellen">Janet Yellen</a>, to succeed <a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a> as <a href="/wiki/Chair_of_the_Federal_Reserve" title="Chair of the Federal Reserve">chair of the Federal Reserve</a>. The possibility of his nomination created a great deal of controversy with some senators of both parties declaring opposition. On September 15, Summers withdrew his name from consideration for the position, writing: "I have reluctantly concluded that any possible confirmation process for me would be acrimonious and would not serve the interest of the Federal Reserve, the Administration or, ultimately, the interests of the nation's ongoing economic recovery."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 2013, Summers had been reported as preferred candidate by the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Israel" title="Cabinet of Israel">Cabinet of Israel</a> and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Benjamin Netanyahu</a> to succeed <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fischer" title="Stanley Fischer">Stanley Fischer</a> as governor of the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Israel" title="Bank of Israel">Bank of Israel</a>. Netanyahu personally asked him to take the post, an offer he turned down.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_the_Biden_Administration,_2021"><span id="Criticism_of_the_Biden_Administration.2C_2021"></span>Criticism of the Biden Administration, 2021</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Criticism of the Biden Administration, 2021"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Summers emerged as an early opponent of President <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a>'s economic policy, calling the $1.9 trillion <a href="/wiki/American_Rescue_Plan_Act_of_2021" title="American Rescue Plan Act of 2021">American Rescue Plan Act of 2021</a> "the least responsible macroeconomic policy we've had in the last 40 years" and arguing that it risked economic recession and market destabilization.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel">Hamas-led attack on Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Hamas-led attack on Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In October 2023, following the <a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel">Hamas-led attack on Israel</a>, several <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard</a> undergraduate student groups signed a letter condemning the <a href="/wiki/Israeli_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli state">Israeli state</a>, and holding the "Israeli regime entirely responsible for all unfolding violence".<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This letter from Harvard University student groups blaming Israel drew a backlash from several prominent alumni and from Larry Summers, who said that he was "sickened" by it.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers, though agreeing with <a href="/wiki/Bill_Ackman" title="Bill Ackman">Bill Ackman</a> on the need to look at employees' political views, called Ackman's request to release the names of all the students involved in signing the letter "the stuff of <a href="/wiki/Joe_McCarthy" class="mw-redirect" title="Joe McCarthy">Joe McCarthy</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers has repeatedly criticized the Harvard administration for its failure to curb what he sees as rising antisemitism at the university since the Hamas attack.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Summers was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin%27s_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodgkin's lymphoma">Hodgkin's lymphoma</a> around 1983, underwent treatment and has remained cancer-free.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Summers has three children (older twin daughters Ruth and Pamela and son Harry) with his first wife, Victoria Joanne (Perry).<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2005, Summers married English professor <a href="/wiki/Elisa_New" title="Elisa New">Elisa New</a>, who has three daughters (Yael, Orli and Maya) from a previous marriage. He lives in <a href="/wiki/Brookline,_Massachusetts" title="Brookline, Massachusetts">Brookline, Massachusetts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 2010 film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Network" title="The Social Network">The Social Network</a></i>, which deals with the founding of the social networking site <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, shows Summers (played by <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Urbanski" title="Douglas Urbanski">Douglas Urbanski</a>), in his then-capacity as President of Harvard, meeting with <a href="/wiki/Cameron_Winklevoss" title="Cameron Winklevoss">Cameron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyler_Winklevoss" title="Tyler Winklevoss">Tyler Winklevoss</a> to discuss their accusations against <a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a>. </p><p>In the 2010 documentary <i><a href="/wiki/Inside_Job_(2010_film)" title="Inside Job (2010 film)">Inside Job</a></i>, Summers is presented as one of the key figures behind the <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–2008">financial crisis of 2007–2008</a>. Charles Ferguson points out the economist's role in what he characterizes as the deregulation of many domains of the financial sector.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Simpsons" title="The Simpsons">The Simpsons</a></i> episode "<a href="/wiki/E_My_Sports" title="E My Sports">E My Sports</a>" (S30 E17), first broadcast March 17, 2019, the character Principal <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Skinner" class="mw-redirect" title="Seymour Skinner">Seymour Skinner</a> looks at a $100 bill and remarks "$100 bill, autographed by Lawrence Summers. Such a carefree signature, before the great recession." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration">Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of Jewish United States Cabinet members">List of Jewish United States Cabinet members</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_harvard_kennedy_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/mrcbg/about/from-the-directors">"Lawrence H. Summers,"</a> Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, retrieved March 31, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harvard_facts-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harvard_facts_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvard.edu/about-harvard/harvard-glance/history/historical-facts">"Historical Facts"</a>, Harvard University, retrieved March 31, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harvard_phonebook-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harvard_phonebook_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.directory.harvard.edu/phonebook/getDetails.do">https://www.directory.harvard.edu/phonebook/getDetails.do</a>? On September 20, 2022 he asked a question on Twitter: "There is some social phenomenon which I suspect explains non work, non marriage, deaths of despair, general alienation and, I suspect, the rise of reactionary populism. It should be a major task of social science to understand it."<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/lhsummers/status/1572433427365826565">This question demonstrates the large gap in his knowledge about the Karl Marx theory of alienation, which Summers, as an economist should be aware of. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/manuscripts/preface.htm</a> key=SUMMERS, LAWRENCE Listing Detail: "Lawrence H. Summers,"] <i>Public Harvard Directory,</i> retrieved March 31, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harvard_letter-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harvard_letter_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Summers, Lawrence H. and John A. Haigh <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/mrcbg/about/from-the-directors">"From the Directors,"</a> <i>About</i> section, Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Business and Government, Harvard Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, retrieved March 31, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-open_ai_bod-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-open_ai_bod_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDastinSoni2023" class="citation news cs1">Dastin, Jeffrey; Soni, Aditya (November 22, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/sam-altman-return-openai-ceo-2023-11-22/">"Sam Altman to return as OpenAI CEO after his tumultuous ouster"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Sam+Altman+to+return+as+OpenAI+CEO+after+his+tumultuous+ouster&rft.date=2023-11-22&rft.aulast=Dastin&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft.au=Soni%2C+Aditya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Ftechnology%2Fsam-altman-return-openai-ceo-2023-11-22%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chief_economists_world_bank-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chief_economists_world_bank_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chief_economists_world_bank_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chief_economists_world_bank_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chief_economists_world_bank_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/0,,contentMDK:20437078~menuPK:4319683~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469372,00.html#summers">"Former Chief Economists"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171104225502/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/0,,contentMDK:20437078~menuPK:4319683~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469372,00.html#summers">Archived</a> November 4, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Data & Research office, The World Bank, retrieved March 31, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_h_summers_world_bank_live_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://live.worldbank.org/experts/lawrence-h-summers">"Lawrence H. Summers"</a>, <i>World Bank Live,</i> The World Bank, retrieved March 31, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lawrence_summers_treasury_dept-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lawrence_summers_treasury_dept_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treasury.gov/about/history/pages/lhsummers.aspx">"Lawrence Summers (1999 - 2001),"</a> U.S. Treasury Department, Last Updated: November 20, 2010, retrieved March 31, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2005/2/18/full-transcript-president-summers-remarks-at/">"Full Transcript: President Summers' Remarks at the National Bureau of Economic Research, Jan. 14 2005"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Crimson" title="The Harvard Crimson">The Harvard Crimson</a>. February 18, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 25,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Full+Transcript%3A+President+Summers%27+Remarks+at+the+National+Bureau+of+Economic+Research%2C+Jan.+14+2005&rft.date=2005-02-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecrimson.com%2Farticle%2F2005%2F2%2F18%2Ffull-transcript-president-summers-remarks-at%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plotz, David.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/id/111151/">"Larry Summers: How the Great Brain learned to grin and bear it."</a>, <i>Slate</i>, June 29, 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thesis-summers-1982-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thesis-summers-1982_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSummers1982" class="citation thesis cs1">Summers, Lawrence Henry (1982). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/303216376/"><i>An asset price approach to the analysis of capital income taxation</i></a></span> (Ph.D.). <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9526217">9526217</a> – via <a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=An+asset+price+approach+to+the+analysis+of+capital+income+taxation&rft.inst=Harvard+University&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9526217&rft.aulast=Summers&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F303216376%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lse-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lse_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110916195224/https://www.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/news/archives/2009/ObamasLSEalumni.aspx">"Obama's LSE alumni"</a>. <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/news/archives/2009/ObamasLSEalumni.aspx">the original</a> on September 16, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Obama%27s+LSE+alumni&rft.pub=London+School+of+Economics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lse.ac.uk%2FnewsAndMedia%2Fnews%2Farchives%2F2009%2FObamasLSEalumni.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoterba1995" class="citation journal cs1">Poterba, James M. (Winter 1995). "In Honor of Lawrence H. Summers, Winner of the John Bates Clark Medal". <i>Journal of Economic Perspectives</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 165–182. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.9.1.165">10.1257/jep.9.1.165</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0895-3309">0895-3309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=In+Honor+of+Lawrence+H.+Summers%2C+Winner+of+the+John+Bates+Clark+Medal&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=165-182&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.9.1.165&rft.issn=0895-3309&rft.aulast=Poterba&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/30-most-famous-harvard-students-of-all-time-2010-4#larry-summers-born-november-30-1954-21">"The 30 Most Famous Harvard Students Of All Time"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Business_Insider" title="Business Insider">Business Insider</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Summers"</a>. <i>www.hks.harvard.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hks.harvard.edu&rft.atitle=Lawrence+H.+Summers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hks.harvard.edu%2Ffaculty%2Flawrence-h-summers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-world_bank_contrarian-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-world_bank_contrarian_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/21702339-paul-romer-banks-new-chief-economist-world-bank-hires-famous-contrarian">"New ideas: The World Bank hires a famous contrarian,"</a> July 18, 2016, <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>, retrieved March 31, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-furor_on_memo_1992_02_07_ny_times_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/07/business/furor-on-memo-at-world-bank.html">"Furor on Memo At World Bank,"</a> February 7, 1992, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, retrieved March 30, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Office Memorandum from Lawrence M. Summers, Subject: GEP, the World Bank/IMFMIGA, December 12, 1991. This was an internal memo at the World Bank, not intended for the public -- reportedly sarcastic, rather than sincere, according to its authors -- that highlighted the economic logic of dumping waste in less-developed countries.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harvardmag-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harvardmag_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/050171.html">"Toxic Memo"</a>. <i>Harvard Magazine</i>. May–June 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Magazine&rft.atitle=Toxic+Memo&rft.date=2001-05%2F2001-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvardmagazine.com%2Fon-line%2F050171.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span>, also posted at: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081203160404/http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/050171.html">"Toxic memo"</a>. HarvardMagazine.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvardmagazine.com/2001/05/toxic-memo.html">the original</a> on December 3, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Toxic+memo&rft.pub=HarvardMagazine.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvardmagazine.com%2F2001%2F05%2Ftoxic-memo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/13/business/a-new-economic-team-the-nominee-the-administration-s-fiscal-closer.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">A New Economic Team: The Nominee; The Administration's Fiscal Closer</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. May 13, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sergi2009-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sergi2009_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruno_S._Sergi2009" class="citation book cs1">Bruno S. Sergi (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ywA163EEewC&pg=PA79"><i>Misinterpreting Modern Russia</i></a>. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-2772-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-2772-4"><bdi>978-0-8264-2772-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Misinterpreting+Modern+Russia&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-2772-4&rft.au=Bruno+S.+Sergi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ywA163EEewC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Naomi Klein, "The Shock Doctrine", p. 231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlustein2001" class="citation news cs1">Blustein, Paul (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101208005946/http://www.publicaffairsbooks.com/publicaffairsbooks-cgi-bin/display?book=9781586481810">"The Chastening"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2013</span>. <q>After months of contentious public debate, Larry Summers has withdrawn his name from consideration to become the next chairman of the Federal Reserve. President Obama said he spoke with Summers earlier Sunday and accepted his decision.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNNMoney&rft.atitle=Larry+Summers+withdraws+name+for+Fed+chair+job&rft.date=2013-09-15&rft.aulast=Kurtz&rft.aufirst=Annalyn&rft.au=Yousuf%2C+Hibah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2F2013%2F09%2F15%2Fnews%2Feconomy%2Ffed-chair-larry-summers-withdraws%2F%3Fhpt%3Dhp_t2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowreyAppelbaum2013" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lowrey" title="Annie Lowrey">Lowrey, Annie</a>; <a href="/wiki/Binyamin_Appelbaum" title="Binyamin Appelbaum">Appelbaum, Binyamin</a> (September 15, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/16/business/economy/summers-pulls-name-from-consideration-for-fed-chief.html?hp&_r=0">"Summers Pulls Name From Consideration for Fed Chief"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 16,</span> 2013</span>. <q>Facing growing opposition in Congress, Lawrence H. Summers, the former Treasury secretary and a top contender for Federal Reserve chairman, told President Obama that he didn't want to be considered for the job.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Summers+Pulls+Name+From+Consideration+for+Fed+Chief&rft.date=2013-09-15&rft.aulast=Lowrey&rft.aufirst=Annie&rft.au=Appelbaum%2C+Binyamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F09%2F16%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Fsummers-pulls-name-from-consideration-for-fed-chief.html%3Fhp%26_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2013" class="citation news cs1">Simpson, Connor (October 19, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/10/natanyahu-wants-larry-summers-running-israels-banks/309791/">"Larry Summers Snubbed Netanyahu's Offer to Run Israel's Banks"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Larry+Summers+Snubbed+Netanyahu%27s+Offer+to+Run+Israel%27s+Banks&rft.date=2013-10-19&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Connor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Finternational%2Farchive%2F2013%2F10%2Fnatanyahu-wants-larry-summers-running-israels-banks%2F309791%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-1000886969">"Larry Summers rejects offer to become BoI governor"</a>. <i>Globes</i>. October 20, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 21,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globes&rft.atitle=Larry+Summers+rejects+offer+to+become+BoI+governor&rft.date=2013-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.globes.co.il%2Fen%2Farticle-1000886969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2021" class="citation web cs1">Williams, Jordan (March 20, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehill.com/policy/finance/544188-larry-summers-blasts-least-responsible-economic-policy-in-40-years">"Larry Summers blasts $1.9 T stimulus as 'least responsible' economic policy in 40 years"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hill_(newspaper)" title="The Hill (newspaper)">The Hill</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 25,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hill&rft.atitle=Larry+Summers+blasts+%241.9+T+stimulus+as+%27least+responsible%27+economic+policy+in+40+years&rft.date=2021-03-20&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Jordan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehill.com%2Fpolicy%2Ffinance%2F544188-larry-summers-blasts-least-responsible-economic-policy-in-40-years&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.the-independent.com/news/world/americas/us-politics/harvard-letter-war-israel-hamas-b2427497.html">"Letter from Harvard group holding Israel 'responsible' for war with Hamas sparks backlash"</a>. Independent<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Letter+from+Harvard+group+holding+Israel+%27responsible%27+for+war+with+Hamas+sparks+backlash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-independent.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Famericas%2Fus-politics%2Fharvard-letter-war-israel-hamas-b2427497.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/10/11/business/harvard-israel-hamas-ceos-students/index.html">"Harvard student groups issued an anti-Israel statement. CEOs want them blacklisted"</a>. CNN<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Harvard+student+groups+issued+an+anti-Israel+statement.+CEOs+want+them+blacklisted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2023%2F10%2F11%2Fbusiness%2Fharvard-israel-hamas-ceos-students%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-67067565">"Growing backlash over Harvard students' pro-Palestine letter"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. October 10, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Growing+backlash+over+Harvard+students%27+pro-Palestine+letter&rft.date=2023-10-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-us-canada-67067565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeo" class="citation web cs1">Teo, Kai Xiang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/harvard-larry-summers-bill-ackman-israel-hamas-student-names-list-2023-10">"Former Harvard president Larry Summers thinks Bill Ackman asking for lists of student names is the 'stuff of Joe McCarthy'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Business Insider</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Former+Harvard+president+Larry+Summers+thinks+Bill+Ackman+asking+for+lists+of+student+names+is+the+%27stuff+of+Joe+McCarthy%27&rft.aulast=Teo&rft.aufirst=Kai+Xiang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fharvard-larry-summers-bill-ackman-israel-hamas-student-names-list-2023-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbbert" class="citation web cs1">Ebbert, Stephanie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2024/03/21/metro/larry-summers-vocal-critic-of-harvard-successors/">"Larry Summers was ousted as Harvard president. He has a lot to say about what's wrong with the university now. - The Boston Globe"</a>. <i>BostonGlobe.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BostonGlobe.com&rft.atitle=Larry+Summers+was+ousted+as+Harvard+president.+He+has+a+lot+to+say+about+what%27s+wrong+with+the+university+now.+-+The+Boston+Globe&rft.aulast=Ebbert&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bostonglobe.com%2F2024%2F03%2F21%2Fmetro%2Flarry-summers-vocal-critic-of-harvard-successors%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/30/style/victoria-j-perry-a-lawyer-is-wed-to-an-economist.html">"Victoria J. Perry, A Lawyer, Is Wed To an Economist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i>. September 30, 1984<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 16,</span> 2013</span>. <q>Victoria Joanne Perry, the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Charles H. Perry of Ormond Beach, Fla., and Cape Rosier, Me., was married yesterday to Lawrence Henry Summers, a son of Mr. and Mrs. Robert Summers of Merion Station, Pa. The ceremony was performed at the Harvard Club in Boston ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Victoria+J.+Perry%2C+A+Lawyer%2C+Is+Wed+To+an+Economist&rft.date=1984-09-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1984%2F09%2F30%2Fstyle%2Fvictoria-j-perry-a-lawyer-is-wed-to-an-economist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1984/06/10/style/victoria-perry-to-wed-l-h-summers.html">"Victoria Perry to Wed L. H. Summers"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. June 10, 1984<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 4,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Victoria+Perry+to+Wed+L.+H.+Summers&rft.date=1984-06-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1984%2F06%2F10%2Fstyle%2Fvictoria-perry-to-wed-l-h-summers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2006" class="citation web cs1">Rosenberg, John S. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 4,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chronicle+of+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=Larry+Summers+and+the+Subversion+of+Economics&rft.date=2010-10-03&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchronicle.com%2Farticle%2FLarry-Summersthe%2F124790%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawrence+Summers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Summers&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Lawrence_Summers" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Lawrence_Summers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hks.harvard.edu/faculty/lawrence-h-summers">Faculty page</a> at the <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy School of Government">John F. Kennedy School of Government</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treasury.gov/about/history/Pages/lhsummers.aspx">Profile</a> at the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Treasury_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Treasury Department">U.S. Treasury Department</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bigthink.com/lawrencesummers">Lawrence Summers</a> at <a href="/wiki/Big_Think" title="Big Think">Big Think</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Summers.html"><i>Lawrence Summers</i></a> <i>at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Economics_and_Liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Library of Economics and Liberty">Library of Economics and Liberty</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?23744">Appearances</a> on <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://charlierose.com/videos/420">Lawrence Summers</a> on <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Rose_(talk_show)" title="Charlie Rose (talk show)"><i>Charlie Rose</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/s/lawrence_h_summers/index.html">Lawrence Summers</a> collected news and commentary at <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506001221/http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20070215"><i>Voices on Antisemitism</i> Interview with Lawrence Summers</a> from the <a href="/wiki/US_Holocaust_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="US Holocaust Museum">US Holocaust Museum</a>, February 15, 2007</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.democracynow.org/2010/9/22/could_summers_departure_herald_a_new">Robert Scheer on Resignation of Lawrence Summers</a> – video report by <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Now!" title="Democracy Now!">Democracy Now!</a></i>, September 22, 2010</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.democracyjournal.org/32/the-inequality-puzzle.php?page=all">Summers' policy proposals</a> to ameliorate the "devastating consequences" of the capacity of capital employing robots, 3-D printing, artificial intelligence, and similar technologies "to replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work," <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy:_A_Journal_of_Ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="Democracy: A Journal of Ideas">Democracy: A Journal of Ideas</a>,</i> Issue #32, Spring 2014</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cfr.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/FY17%20Membership%20Roster.pdf">Membership</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations" title="Council on Foreign Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FACEFF;">Diplomatic posts </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fischer" title="Stanley Fischer">Stanley Fischer</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Economist_of_the_World_Bank" title="Chief Economist of the World Bank">Chief Economist of the World Bank</a> </b><br />1991–1993 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Bruno_(economist)" title="Michael Bruno (economist)">Michael Bruno</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/David_Mulford" class="mw-redirect" title="David Mulford">David Mulford</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_for_International_Affairs" title="Under Secretary of the Treasury for International Affairs">Under Secretary of the Treasury for International Affairs</a> </b><br />1993–1995 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Bruno_(economist)" title="Michael Bruno (economist)">Michael Bruno</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Frank_N._Newman" title="Frank N. Newman">Frank Newman</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury">United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury</a> </b><br />1995–1999 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_E._Eizenstat" title="Stuart E. Eizenstat">Stu Eizenstat</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rubin" title="Robert Rubin">Bob Rubin</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury</a> </b><br />1999–2001 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Paul_H._O%27Neill" title="Paul H. O'Neill">Paul O'Neill</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Hennessey" title="Keith Hennessey">Keith Hennessey</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/National_Economic_Council_(United_States)" title="National Economic Council (United States)">Director of the National Economic Council</a> </b><br />2009–2011 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Gene_Sperling" title="Gene Sperling">Gene Sperling</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Neil_L._Rudenstine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neil L. Rudenstine">Neil Rudenstine</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/President_of_Harvard_University" title="President of Harvard University">President of Harvard University</a> </b><br />2001–2006 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Bok" title="Derek Bok">Derek Bok</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #cfc;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_order_of_precedence" title="United States order of precedence">U.S. order of precedence</a> (ceremonial) </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Herman" title="Alexis Herman">Alexis Herman</a></div><i><b>as Former US Cabinet Member </b></i> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_order_of_precedence" title="United States order 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Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Tobin" title="James Tobin">James Tobin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-Keynesians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Chick" title="Victoria Chick">Victoria Chick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davidson_(economist)" title="Paul Davidson (economist)">Paul Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evsey_Domar" title="Evsey Domar">Evsey Domar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Galbraith" title="James K. Galbraith">James K. Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">John Kenneth Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wynne_Godley" title="Wynne Godley">Wynne Godley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myron_J._Gordon" title="Myron J. Gordon">Myron J. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Harcourt" title="Geoffrey Harcourt">Geoff Harcourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Michael Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kahn,_Baron_Kahn" title="Richard Kahn, Baron Kahn">Richard Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor" title="Nicholas Kaldor">Nicholas Kaldor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Michał Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Keen" title="Steve Keen">Steve Keen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Kregel" title="Jan Kregel">Jan Kregel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Lavoie" title="Marc Lavoie">Marc Lavoie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abba_P._Lerner" title="Abba P. Lerner">Abba P. Lerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Minsky" title="Hyman Minsky">Hyman Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Mitchell_(economist)" title="Bill Mitchell (economist)">Bill Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_Moore" title="Basil Moore">Basil Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pressman_(economist)" title="Steven Pressman (economist)">Steven Pressman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Joan Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._L._S._Shackle" title="G. L. S. Shackle">G. L. S. Shackle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavlina_R._Tcherneva" title="Pavlina R. Tcherneva">Pavlina R. Tcherneva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Thirlwall" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Thirlwall">Anthony Thirlwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Vickrey" title="William Vickrey">William Vickrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Weintraub_(economist_born_1914)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidney Weintraub (economist born 1914)">Sidney Weintraub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Randall_Wray" title="L. Randall Wray">L. Randall Wray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Akerlof" title="George Akerlof">George Akerlof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Blanchard" title="Olivier Blanchard">Olivier Blanchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Blinder" title="Alan Blinder">Alan Blinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Calvo" title="Guillermo Calvo">Guillermo Calvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Clarida" title="Richard Clarida">Richard Clarida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Bradford_DeLong" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Bradford DeLong">Brad DeLong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huw_Dixon" title="Huw Dixon">Huw Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fischer" title="Stanley Fischer">Stanley Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordi_Gal%C3%AD" title="Jordi Galí">Jordi Galí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Gertler_(economist)" title="Mark Gertler (economist)">Mark Gertler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Gordon" title="Robert J. Gordon">Robert J. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephany_Griffith-Jones" title="Stephany Griffith-Jones">Stephany Griffith-Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuhiro_Kiyotaki" title="Nobuhiro Kiyotaki">Nobuhiro Kiyotaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Mankiw" title="Greg Mankiw">Greg Mankiw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Melitz" title="Marc Melitz">Marc Melitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Obstfeld" title="Maurice Obstfeld">Maurice Obstfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Phelps" title="Edmund Phelps">Edmund Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Reis" title="Ricardo Reis">Ricardo Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Rogoff" title="Kenneth Rogoff">Kenneth Rogoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Romer" title="David Romer">David Romer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julio_Rotemberg" title="Julio Rotemberg">Julio Rotemberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Shiller" title="Robert J. Shiller">Robert Shiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Shleifer" title="Andrei Shleifer">Andrei Shleifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lawrence Summers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Taylor" title="John B. Taylor">John B. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Woodford_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Woodford (economist)">Michael Woodford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Yellen" title="Janet Yellen">Janet Yellen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":20,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeBullet"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="Keynesian_economics" aria-expanded="false"></a> </span> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Keynesian_economics" title="Category:Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Barack_Obama&#039;s_Executive_Office_of_the_President" style="text-align:left;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Obama_Executive_Office" title="Template:Obama Executive Office"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Obama_Executive_Office" title="Template talk:Obama Executive Office"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Obama_Executive_Office" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Obama Executive Office"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Barack_Obama&#039;s_Executive_Office_of_the_President" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama's</a> <a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office of the President</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div><table style="font-size:100%; width:100%; border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center; border-left:2px #fafafa solid; border-right:2px #fafafa solid;;width:21%"> Office</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center; border-left:2px #fafafa solid; border-right:2px #fafafa solid;;width:8%"> Name</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center; border-left:2px #fafafa solid; border-right:2px #fafafa solid;;width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> Term</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center; border-left:2px #fafafa solid; border-right:2px #fafafa solid;;width:21%"> Office</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center; border-left:2px #fafafa solid; border-right:2px #fafafa solid;;width:8%"> Name</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center; border-left:2px #fafafa solid; border-right:2px #fafafa solid;;width:5%"> Term</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Chief of Staff">White House Chief of Staff</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Rahm_Emanuel" title="Rahm Emanuel">Rahm Emanuel</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–10</td><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_(United_States)" title="National Security Advisor (United States)">National Security Advisor</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/James_L._Jones" title="James L. Jones">James L. Jones</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–10</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Pete_Rouse" title="Pete Rouse">Pete Rouse</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2010–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Donilon" title="Thomas E. Donilon">Thomas E. Donilon</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2010–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/William_M._Daley" title="William M. Daley">William M. Daley</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–12</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Susan_Rice" title="Susan Rice">Susan Rice</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jack_Lew" title="Jack Lew">Jack Lew</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2012–13</td><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/Deputy_National_Security_Advisor_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy National Security Advisor (United States)">Deputy National Security Advisor</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Donilon" title="Thomas E. Donilon">Thomas E. Donilon</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–10</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Denis_McDonough" title="Denis McDonough">Denis McDonough</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Denis_McDonough" title="Denis McDonough">Denis McDonough</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2010–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Deputy_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Deputy Chief of Staff">White House Deputy Chief of Staff</a> for Policy</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Mona_Sutphen" title="Mona Sutphen">Mona Sutphen</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Antony_Blinken" title="Antony Blinken">Antony Blinken</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Nancy-Ann_DeParle" title="Nancy-Ann DeParle">Nancy-Ann DeParle</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–13</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Avril_Haines" title="Avril Haines">Avril Haines</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2015–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Rob_Nabors" title="Rob Nabors">Rob Nabors</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–15</td><td style="width:21%"> Dep. National Security Advisor, Homeland Security</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/John_O._Brennan" class="mw-redirect" title="John O. Brennan">John O. Brennan</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> White House Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jim_Messina_(political_staffer)" title="Jim Messina (political staffer)">Jim Messina</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Monaco" title="Lisa Monaco">Lisa Monaco</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Alyssa_Mastromonaco" title="Alyssa Mastromonaco">Alyssa Mastromonaco</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–14</td><td style="width:21%"> Dep. National Security Advisor, Iraq and Afghanistan</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Lute" title="Douglas Lute">Douglas Lute</a>†</td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Anita_Decker_Breckenridge" title="Anita Decker Breckenridge">Anita Decker Breckenridge</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Dep. National Security Advisor, Strategic Comm.</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Ben_Rhodes_(White_House_staffer)" title="Ben Rhodes (White House staffer)">Ben Rhodes</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> White House Deputy Chief of Staff for Planning</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Mark_B._Childress" title="Mark B. Childress">Mark B. Childress</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2012–14</td><td style="width:21%"> Dep. National Security Advisor, Chief of Staff</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Lippert" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark Lippert">Mark Lippert</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Kristie_Canegallo" title="Kristie Canegallo">Kristie Canegallo</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Denis_McDonough" title="Denis McDonough">Denis McDonough</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–10</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/Counselor_to_the_President" title="Counselor to the President">Counselor to the President</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Pete_Rouse" title="Pete Rouse">Pete Rouse</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–13</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Brooke_D._Anderson" title="Brooke D. Anderson">Brooke D. Anderson</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–12</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/John_Podesta" title="John Podesta">John Podesta</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–15</td><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Communications_Director" title="White House Communications Director">White House Communications Director</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Moran" title="Ellen Moran">Ellen Moran</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/Senior_Advisor_to_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Senior Advisor to the President of the United States">Senior Advisor to the President</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/David_Axelrod_(political_consultant)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Axelrod (political consultant)">David Axelrod</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Anita_Dunn" title="Anita Dunn">Anita Dunn</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/David_Plouffe" title="David Plouffe">David Plouffe</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–13</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Pfeiffer" title="Daniel Pfeiffer">Daniel Pfeiffer</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Pfeiffer" title="Daniel Pfeiffer">Daniel Pfeiffer</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–15</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Palmieri" title="Jennifer Palmieri">Jennifer Palmieri</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–15</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Shailagh_Murray" title="Shailagh Murray">Shailagh Murray</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2015–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jen_Psaki" title="Jen Psaki">Jen Psaki</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2015–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Senior Advisor to the President</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Pete_Rouse" title="Pete Rouse">Pete Rouse</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–10</td><td style="width:21%"> Deputy White House Communications Director</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jen_Psaki" title="Jen Psaki">Jen Psaki</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Brian_Deese" title="Brian Deese">Brian Deese</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2015–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Palmieri" title="Jennifer Palmieri">Jennifer Palmieri</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Senior Advisor to the President and</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Valerie_Jarrett" title="Valerie Jarrett">Valerie Jarrett</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Amy Brundage</td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–16</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Assistant to the President for</td><td style="width:8%"></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"></td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Liz Allen</td><td style="width:5%"> 2016–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs</td><td style="width:8%"></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"></td><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Press_Secretary" title="White House Press Secretary">White House Press Secretary</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gibbs" title="Robert Gibbs">Robert Gibbs</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Public_Liaison" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of Public Liaison">Public Engagement</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Tina_Tchen" title="Tina Tchen">Tina Tchen</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jay_Carney" title="Jay Carney">Jay Carney</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Jon Carson</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–13</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Josh_Earnest" title="Josh Earnest">Josh Earnest</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Paulette L. Aniskoff</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Deputy Press Secretary</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Bill_Burton_(political_consultant)" title="Bill Burton (political consultant)">Bill Burton</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/White_House_Office_of_Intergovernmental_Affairs" title="White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs">Intergovernmental Affairs</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Cecilia_Mu%C3%B1oz" title="Cecilia Muñoz">Cecilia Muñoz</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–12</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Josh_Earnest" title="Josh Earnest">Josh Earnest</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> David Agnew</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2012–14</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Schultz" title="Eric Schultz">Eric Schultz</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Abramson" title="Jerry Abramson">Jerry Abramson</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Director of Special Projects</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Cutter" title="Stephanie Cutter">Stephanie Cutter</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2010–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/National_Economic_Council_(United_States)" title="National Economic Council (United States)">National Economic Council</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lawrence Summers</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–10</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, Speechwriting</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jon_Favreau_(speechwriter)" title="Jon Favreau (speechwriter)">Jon Favreau</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Gene_Sperling" title="Gene Sperling">Gene Sperling</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–14</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Cody_Keenan" title="Cody Keenan">Cody Keenan</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Zients" title="Jeff Zients">Jeff Zients</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, Digital Strategy</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Macon_Phillips" title="Macon Phillips">Macon Phillips</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Chair, <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Economic_Advisers" title="Council of Economic Advisers">Council of Economic Advisers</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Christina_Romer" title="Christina Romer">Christina Romer</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–10</td><td style="width:21%"> Chief Digital Officer</td><td style="width:8%"> Jason Goldman</td><td style="width:5%"> 2015–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Austan_Goolsbee" title="Austan Goolsbee">Austan Goolsbee</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2010–13</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, Legislative Affairs</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Phil_Schiliro" title="Phil Schiliro">Phil Schiliro</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jason_Furman" title="Jason Furman">Jason Furman</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Rob_Nabors" title="Rob Nabors">Rob Nabors</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Chair, <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Council_on_Jobs_and_Competitiveness" title="President's Council on Jobs and Competitiveness">Economic Recovery Advisory Board</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Volcker" title="Paul Volcker">Paul Volcker</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Katie_Beirne_Fallon" title="Katie Beirne Fallon">Katie Beirne Fallon</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–16</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Chair, <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Council_on_Jobs_and_Competitiveness" title="President's Council on Jobs and Competitiveness">Council on Jobs and Competitiveness</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Immelt" title="Jeff Immelt">Jeff Immelt</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–13</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Miguel Rodriguez</td><td style="width:5%"> 2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Domestic_Policy_Council" title="United States Domestic Policy Council">Domestic Policy Council</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Melody_Barnes" title="Melody Barnes">Melody Barnes</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–12</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Amy Rosenbaum</td><td style="width:5%"> 2016–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Cecilia_Mu%C3%B1oz" title="Cecilia Muñoz">Cecilia Muñoz</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2012–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, Political Affairs</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Gaspard" title="Patrick Gaspard">Patrick Gaspard</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/White_House_Office_of_Faith-Based_and_Neighborhood_Partnerships" title="White House Office of Faith-Based and Neighborhood Partnerships">Office of Faith-Based and Neighborhood Partnerships</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Joshua_DuBois" title="Joshua DuBois">Joshua DuBois</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–13</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/David_Simas" title="David Simas">David Simas</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–16</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Melissa_Rogers" title="Melissa Rogers">Melissa Rogers</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, Presidential Personnel</td><td style="width:8%"> Nancy Hogan</td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/White_House_Office_of_Health_Reform" title="White House Office of Health Reform">Office of Health Reform</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Nancy-Ann_DeParle" title="Nancy-Ann DeParle">Nancy-Ann DeParle</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Johnathan D. McBride</td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_National_AIDS_Policy" title="Office of National AIDS Policy">Office of National AIDS Policy</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Crowley" title="Jeffrey Crowley">Jeffrey Crowley</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Valerie E. Green</td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–15</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Grant N. Colfax</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–13</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Rodin A. Mehrbani</td><td style="width:5%"> 2016–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Douglas M. Brooks</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–17</td><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Office_of_the_Staff_Secretary" title="White House Office of the Staff Secretary">White House Staff Secretary</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Brown_(lawyer)" title="Lisa Brown (lawyer)">Lisa Brown</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/White_House_Office_of_Urban_Affairs" title="White House Office of Urban Affairs">Office of Urban Affairs</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Carri%C3%B3n_Jr." title="Adolfo Carrión Jr.">Adolfo Carrión Jr.</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–10</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Rajesh_De" title="Rajesh De">Rajesh De</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–12</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Racquel S. Russell</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2010–14</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Douglas Kramer</td><td style="width:5%"> 2012–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Roy Austin Jr.</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Joani Walsh</td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/White_House_Office_of_Energy_and_Climate_Change_Policy" title="White House Office of Energy and Climate Change Policy">Office of Energy and Climate Change Policy</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Carol_Browner" title="Carol Browner">Carol Browner</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, Management and Administration</td><td style="width:8%"> Bradley J. Kiley</td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Counsel" title="White House Counsel">White House Counsel</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Gregory_B._Craig" title="Gregory B. Craig">Greg Craig</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–10</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Katy A. Kale</td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–15</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bauer" title="Robert Bauer">Bob Bauer</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2010–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Maju_Varghese" title="Maju Varghese">Maju Varghese</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2015–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Ruemmler" title="Kathryn Ruemmler">Kathryn Ruemmler</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–14</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, Scheduling and Advance</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Alyssa_Mastromonaco" title="Alyssa Mastromonaco">Alyssa Mastromonaco</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Neil_Eggleston" title="Neil Eggleston">Neil Eggleston</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Danielle Crutchfield</td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Cabinet_Secretary" title="White House Cabinet Secretary">White House Cabinet Secretary</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Chris_Lu" title="Chris Lu">Chris Lu</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–13</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Chase Cushman</td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Danielle_C._Gray" title="Danielle C. Gray">Danielle C. Gray</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–14</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, White House Information Technology</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/David_Recordon" title="David Recordon">David Recordon</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2015–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Broderick_D._Johnson" title="Broderick D. Johnson">Broderick D. Johnson</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Administration" title="Office of Administration">Office of Administration</a></td><td style="width:8%"> Cameron Moody</td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Personal Aide to the President</td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Reggie_Love" title="Reggie Love">Reggie Love</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Beth Jones</td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–15</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Brian_Mosteller" title="Brian Mosteller">Brian Mosteller</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–12</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Cathy Solomon</td><td style="width:5%"> 2015–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Marvin D. Nicholson</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2012–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Science_and_Technology_Policy" title="Office of Science and Technology Policy">Office of Science and Technology Policy</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/John_Holdren" title="John Holdren">John Holdren</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office_Operations" title="Oval Office Operations">Oval Office Operations</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Brian_Mosteller" title="Brian Mosteller">Brian Mosteller</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2012–17</td><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Technology_Officer_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Technology Officer of the United States">Chief Technology Officer</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Aneesh_Chopra" title="Aneesh Chopra">Aneesh Chopra</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–12</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/Secretary_to_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Secretary to the President of the United States">Personal Secretary to the President</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Katie_Johnson_(presidential_secretary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Katie Johnson (presidential secretary)">Katie Johnson</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Todd_Park" title="Todd Park">Todd Park</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2012–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Anita_Decker_Breckenridge" title="Anita Decker Breckenridge">Anita Decker Breckenridge</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–14</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Megan_Smith" title="Megan Smith">Megan Smith</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Ferial_Govashiri" title="Ferial Govashiri">Ferial Govashiri</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2014–17</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget" title="Office of Management and Budget">Office of Management and Budget</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Peter_R._Orszag" title="Peter R. Orszag">Peter R. Orszag</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–10</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_First_Lady_of_the_United_States" title="Office of the First Lady of the United States">Chief of Staff to the First Lady</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jackie_Norris" title="Jackie Norris">Jackie Norris</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jack_Lew" title="Jack Lew">Jack Lew</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2010–12</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Susan_Sher" title="Susan Sher">Susan Sher</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Zients" title="Jeff Zients">Jeff Zients</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2012–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Tina_Tchen" title="Tina Tchen">Tina Tchen</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Mathews_Burwell" title="Sylvia Mathews Burwell">Sylvia Mathews Burwell</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Social_Secretary" title="White House Social Secretary">White House Social Secretary</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Desir%C3%A9e_Rogers" title="Desirée Rogers">Desirée Rogers</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–10</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Brian_Deese" title="Brian Deese">Brian Deese</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Julianna_Smoot" title="Julianna Smoot">Julianna Smoot</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2010–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Shaun_Donovan" title="Shaun Donovan">Shaun Donovan</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bernard" title="Jeremy Bernard">Jeremy Bernard</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–15</td><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Chief_Information_Officer_of_the_United_States" title="Federal Chief Information Officer of the United States">Chief Information Officer</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Vivek_Kundra" title="Vivek Kundra">Vivek Kundra</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–11</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Deesha_Dyer" title="Deesha Dyer">Deesha Dyer</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2015–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Steven_VanRoekel" title="Steven VanRoekel">Steven VanRoekel</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2011–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_to_the_Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States">Chief of Staff to the Vice President</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Ron_Klain" title="Ron Klain">Ron Klain</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Tony Scott</td><td style="width:5%"> 2015–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Reed_(political_operative)" title="Bruce Reed (political operative)">Bruce Reed</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–13</td><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Trade_Representative" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Trade Representative">United States Trade Representative</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Ron_Kirk" title="Ron Kirk">Ron Kirk</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–13</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Steve_Ricchetti" title="Steve Ricchetti">Steve Ricchetti</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Froman" title="Michael Froman">Michael Froman</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2013–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> <a href="/wiki/White_House_Chief_Usher" title="White House Chief Usher">White House Chief Usher</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_W._Rochon" title="Stephen W. Rochon">Stephen W. Rochon</a>†</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–11</td><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_National_Drug_Control_Policy" title="Office of National Drug Control Policy">Office of National Drug Control Policy</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Gil_Kerlikowske" title="Gil Kerlikowske">Gil Kerlikowske</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Angella_Reid" title="Angella Reid">Angella Reid</a></td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2011–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Botticelli" title="Michael Botticelli">Michael Botticelli</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–17</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"> Director, <a href="/wiki/White_House_Military_Office" title="White House Military Office">White House Military Office</a></td><td style="width:8%"> George Mulligan</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2009–13</td><td style="width:21%"> Chair, <a href="/wiki/Council_on_Environmental_Quality" title="Council on Environmental Quality">Council on Environmental Quality</a></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Sutley" title="Nancy Sutley">Nancy Sutley</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2009–14</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Emmett Beliveau</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2013–15</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Michael Boots</td><td style="width:5%"> 2014–15</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> Dabney Kern</td><td style="width:5%; border-right:1px #dde solid;"> 2016–17</td><td style="width:21%"></td><td style="width:8%"> <a href="/wiki/Christy_Goldfuss" title="Christy Goldfuss">Christy Goldfuss</a></td><td style="width:5%"> 2015–17</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>† Remained from <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">previous administration</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_secretaries_of_the_treasury" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:USSecTreas" title="Template:USSecTreas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:USSecTreas" title="Template talk:USSecTreas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:USSecTreas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:USSecTreas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_secretaries_of_the_treasury" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">United States secretaries of the treasury</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott_Jr." title="Oliver Wolcott Jr.">Wolcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dexter" title="Samuel Dexter">Dexter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Gallatin" title="Albert Gallatin">Gallatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Campbell" title="George W. Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_J._Dallas_(statesman)" title="Alexander J. Dallas (statesman)">Dallas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Crawford" title="William H. Crawford">Crawford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_D._Ingham" title="Samuel D. Ingham">Ingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_McLane" title="Louis McLane">McLane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Duane" title="William J. Duane">Duane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Taney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Woodbury" title="Levi Woodbury">Woodbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ewing" title="Thomas Ewing">Ewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Forward" title="Walter Forward">Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Spencer" class="mw-redirect" title="John C. Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_M._Bibb" title="George M. Bibb">Bibb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Walker" title="Robert J. Walker">Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Meredith" title="William M. Meredith">Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Corwin" title="Thomas Corwin">Corwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Guthrie_(Kentucky_politician)" title="James Guthrie (Kentucky politician)">Guthrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_Cobb" title="Howell Cobb">Cobb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Francis_Thomas" title="Philip Francis Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Dix" title="John Adams Dix">Dix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Fessenden" title="William P. Fessenden">Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_McCulloch" title="Hugh McCulloch">McCulloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_S._Boutwell" title="George S. Boutwell">Boutwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Adams_Richardson" title="William Adams Richardson">Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Bristow" title="Benjamin Bristow">Bristow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lot_M._Morrill" title="Lot M. Morrill">Morrill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Windom" title="William Windom">Windom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Folger" title="Charles J. Folger">Folger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Q._Gresham" title="Walter Q. Gresham">Gresham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_McCulloch" title="Hugh McCulloch">McCulloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Manning" title="Daniel Manning">Manning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Fairchild" title="Charles S. Fairchild">Fairchild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Windom" title="William Windom">Windom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Foster_(Ohio_politician)" title="Charles Foster (Ohio politician)">Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Carlisle" title="John G. Carlisle">Carlisle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_J._Gage" title="Lyman J. Gage">Gage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._M._Shaw" title="L. M. Shaw">Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Cortelyou" title="George B. Cortelyou">Cortelyou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_MacVeagh" title="Franklin MacVeagh">MacVeagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">McAdoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Glass" title="Carter Glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_F._Houston" title="David F. Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Mellon" title="Andrew Mellon">Mellon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogden_L._Mills" title="Ogden L. Mills">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Woodin" title="William H. Woodin">Woodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Morgenthau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Vinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Snyder" title="John Wesley Snyder">Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_M._Humphrey" title="George M. Humphrey">Humphrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Anderson_(Texas_politician)" title="Robert B. Anderson (Texas politician)">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Douglas_Dillon" title="C. Douglas Dillon">Dillon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Fowler" title="Henry H. Fowler">Fowler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Barr" title="Joseph W. Barr">Barr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_M._Kennedy_(politician)" title="David M. Kennedy (politician)">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Connally" title="John Connally">Connally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">Shultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Simon" title="William E. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._Michael_Blumenthal" title="W. Michael Blumenthal">Blumenthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._William_Miller" title="G. William Miller">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Regan" title="Donald Regan">Regan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baker" title="James Baker">Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_F._Brady" title="Nicholas F. Brady">Brady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Bentsen" title="Lloyd Bentsen">Bentsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rubin" title="Robert Rubin">Rubin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Summers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_H._O%27Neill" title="Paul H. O'Neill">O'Neill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Snow" title="John W. Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Paulson" title="Henry Paulson">Paulson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Geithner" title="Timothy Geithner">Geithner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Lew" title="Jack Lew">Lew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Mnuchin" title="Steven Mnuchin">Mnuchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Yellen" title="Janet Yellen">Yellen</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury"><img alt="Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury.svg/110px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury.svg/165px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury.svg/220px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="246" /></a></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cabinet_of_President_Bill_Clinton_(1993–2001)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clinton_cabinet" title="Template:Clinton cabinet"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clinton_cabinet" title="Template talk:Clinton cabinet"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clinton_cabinet" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clinton cabinet"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cabinet_of_President_Bill_Clinton_(1993–2001)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a> of <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (1993–2001)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Cabinet" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cabinet</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> (1993–2001) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_presidency_of_Al_Gore" title="Vice presidency of Al Gore">tenure</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="15" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bill_Clinton.jpg/100px-Bill_Clinton.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bill_Clinton.jpg/150px-Bill_Clinton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bill_Clinton.jpg/200px-Bill_Clinton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2299" data-file-height="3000" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Christopher" title="Warren Christopher">Warren Christopher</a> (1993–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madeleine_Albright" title="Madeleine Albright">Madeleine Albright</a> (1997–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Bentsen" title="Lloyd Bentsen">Lloyd Bentsen</a> (1993–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rubin" title="Robert Rubin">Robert Rubin</a> (1995–1999)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lawrence Summers</a> (1999–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Les_Aspin" title="Les Aspin">Les Aspin</a> (1993–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Perry" title="William J. Perry">William J. Perry</a> (1994–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cohen" title="William Cohen">William Cohen</a> (1997–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Reno" title="Janet Reno">Janet Reno</a> (1993–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Babbitt" title="Bruce Babbitt">Bruce Babbitt</a> (1993–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Espy" title="Mike Espy">Mike Espy</a> (1993–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Glickman" title="Dan Glickman">Dan Glickman</a> (1995–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce" title="United States Secretary of Commerce">Secretary of Commerce</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Brown" title="Ron Brown">Ron Brown</a> (1993–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mickey_Kantor" title="Mickey Kantor">Mickey Kantor</a> (1996–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Daley" title="William M. Daley">William M. Daley</a> (1997–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Mineta" title="Norman Mineta">Norman Mineta</a> (2000–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Labor" title="United States Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Robert Reich</a> (1993–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Herman" title="Alexis Herman">Alexis Herman</a> (1997–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Secretary of Health and Human Services">Secretary of Health and Human Services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Shalala" title="Donna Shalala">Donna Shalala</a> (1993–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" title="United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development">Secretary of Housing and Urban Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cisneros" title="Henry Cisneros">Henry Cisneros</a> (1993–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Cuomo" title="Andrew Cuomo">Andrew Cuomo</a> (1997–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Transportation" title="United States Secretary of Transportation">Secretary of Transportation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Pe%C3%B1a" title="Federico Peña">Federico Peña</a> (1993–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_E._Slater" title="Rodney E. Slater">Rodney E. Slater</a> (1997–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Energy" title="United States Secretary of Energy">Secretary of Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazel_R._O%27Leary" title="Hazel R. O'Leary">Hazel R. O'Leary</a> (1993–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Pe%C3%B1a" title="Federico Peña">Federico Peña</a> (1997–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Richardson" title="Bill Richardson">Bill Richardson</a> (1998–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Education" title="United States Secretary of Education">Secretary of Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Riley" title="Richard Riley">Richard Riley</a> (1993–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Veterans_Affairs" title="United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs">Secretary of Veterans Affairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Brown" title="Jesse Brown">Jesse Brown</a> (1993–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togo_D._West_Jr." title="Togo D. West Jr.">Togo D. West Jr.</a> (1998–2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cabinet-level" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cabinet-level</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrator_of_the_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency">Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Browner" title="Carol Browner">Carol Browner</a> (1993–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget" title="Office of Management and Budget">Director of the Office of Management and Budget</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Panetta" title="Leon Panetta">Leon Panetta</a> (1993–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Rivlin" title="Alice Rivlin">Alice Rivlin</a> (1994–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Raines" title="Franklin Raines">Franklin Raines</a> (1996–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Lew" title="Jack Lew">Jack Lew</a> (1998–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence" title="Director of Central Intelligence">Director of Central Intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Deutch" title="John M. Deutch">John M. Deutch</a> (1995–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Tenet" title="George Tenet">George Tenet</a> (1996–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_States_Trade_Representative" title="Office of the United States Trade Representative">Trade Representative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mickey_Kantor" title="Mickey Kantor">Mickey Kantor</a> (1993–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlene_Barshefsky" title="Charlene Barshefsky">Charlene Barshefsky</a> (1996–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_United_Nations" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Nations">Ambassador to the United Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madeleine_Albright" title="Madeleine Albright">Madeleine Albright</a> (1993–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Richardson" title="Bill Richardson">Bill Richardson</a> (1997–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Holbrooke" title="Richard Holbrooke">Richard Holbrooke</a> (1999–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Economic_Advisers" title="Council of Economic Advisers">Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Tyson" title="Laura Tyson">Laura Tyson</a> (1993–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a> (1995–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Yellen" title="Janet Yellen">Janet Yellen</a> (1997–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Neil_Baily" title="Martin Neil Baily">Martin Neil Baily</a> (1999–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrator_of_the_Small_Business_Administration" title="Administrator of the Small Business Administration">Administrator of the Small Business Administration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Lader" title="Philip Lader">Philip Lader</a> (1994–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aida_%C3%81lvarez" title="Aida Álvarez">Aida Álvarez</a> (1997–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency" title="Federal Emergency Management Agency">Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Lee_Witt" title="James Lee Witt">James Lee Witt</a> (1993–2001)*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Office_of_National_Drug_Control_Policy" title="Office of National Drug Control Policy">Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lee_P._Brown" title="Lee P. Brown">Lee P. Brown</a> (1993–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_McCaffrey" title="Barry McCaffrey">Barry McCaffrey</a> (1996–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Chief of Staff">White House Chief of Staff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mack_McLarty" title="Mack McLarty">Mack McLarty</a> (1993–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Panetta" title="Leon Panetta">Leon Panetta</a> (1994–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erskine_Bowles" title="Erskine Bowles">Erskine Bowles</a> (1997–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Podesta" title="John Podesta">John Podesta</a> (1998–2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>* <i>took office in 1993, raised to cabinet-rank in 1996</i></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="John_Bates_Clark_Medal_recipients" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d3d3d3;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Bates_Clark_Medal_recipients" title="Template:John Bates Clark Medal recipients"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_Bates_Clark_Medal_recipients" title="Template talk:John Bates Clark Medal recipients"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Bates_Clark_Medal_recipients" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Bates Clark Medal recipients"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Bates_Clark_Medal_recipients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark_Medal" title="John Bates Clark Medal">John Bates Clark Medal</a> recipients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul A. Samuelson</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> (1951)</li> <li><i>No Award</i> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Tobin" title="James Tobin">James Tobin</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth J. Arrow</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Klein" title="Lawrence Klein">Lawrence R. Klein</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert M. Solow</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_S._Houthakker" title="Hendrik S. Houthakker">Hendrik S. Houthakker</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zvi_Griliches" title="Zvi Griliches">Zvi Griliches</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary S. Becker</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Nerlove" title="Marc Nerlove">Marc Leon Nerlove</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dale_W._Jorgenson" title="Dale W. Jorgenson">Dale W. Jorgenson</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_M._Fisher" title="Franklin M. Fisher">Franklin M. Fisher</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_McFadden" title="Daniel McFadden">Daniel McFadden</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Feldstein" title="Martin Feldstein">Martin S. Feldstein</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph E. Stiglitz</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Spence" title="Michael Spence">A. Michael Spence</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Heckman" title="James Heckman">James J. Heckman</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_A._Hausman" title="Jerry A. Hausman">Jerry A. Hausman</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_J._Grossman" title="Sanford J. Grossman">Sanford J. Grossman</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_M._Kreps" title="David M. Kreps">David M. Kreps</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul R. Krugman</a> (1991)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lawrence H. Summers</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Card" title="David Card">David Card</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_M._Murphy" title="Kevin M. Murphy">Kevin M. Murphy</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Shleifer" title="Andrei Shleifer">Andrei Shleifer</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Rabin" title="Matthew Rabin">Matthew Rabin</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Levitt" title="Steven Levitt">Steven Levitt</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu" title="Daron Acemoglu">Daron Acemoglu</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Athey" title="Susan Athey">Susan C. Athey</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Saez" title="Emmanuel Saez">Emmanuel Saez</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Duflo" title="Esther Duflo">Esther Duflo</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Levin_(economist)" title="Jonathan Levin (economist)">Jonathan Levin</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Finkelstein" title="Amy Finkelstein">Amy Finkelstein</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_Chetty" title="Raj Chetty">Raj Chetty</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Gentzkow" title="Matthew Gentzkow">Matthew Gentzkow</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_G._Fryer_Jr." title="Roland G. Fryer Jr.">Roland Fryer</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuliy_Sannikov" title="Yuliy Sannikov">Yuliy Sannikov</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Donaldson_(economist)" title="Dave Donaldson (economist)">Dave Donaldson</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parag_Pathak" title="Parag Pathak">Parag Pathak</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emi_Nakamura" title="Emi Nakamura">Emi Nakamura</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissa_Dell" title="Melissa Dell">Melissa Dell</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Andrews" title="Isaiah Andrews">Isaiah Andrews</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_Itskhoki" title="Oleg Itskhoki">Oleg Itskhoki</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Zucman" title="Gabriel Zucman">Gabriel Zucman</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philipp_Strack&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philipp Strack (page does not exist)">Philipp Strack</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_Harvard_University" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_University_presidents" title="Template:Harvard University presidents"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Harvard_University_presidents" title="Template talk:Harvard University presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Harvard_University_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Harvard University presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_Harvard_University" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_Harvard_University" title="President of Harvard University"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Presidents of Harvard University</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Eaton" title="Nathaniel Eaton">Eaton</a><sup>†</sup> (1637–1639)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Dunster" title="Henry Dunster">Dunster</a> (1640–1654)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Chauncy" title="Charles Chauncy">Chauncy</a> (1654–1672)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hoar" title="Leonard Hoar">Hoar</a> (1672–1675)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urian_Oakes" title="Urian Oakes">Oakes</a> (1675–1681)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Harvard)" title="John Rogers (Harvard)">Rogers</a> (1682–1684)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Increase_Mather" title="Increase Mather">Mather</a> (1685–1701)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Willard" title="Samuel Willard">S. Willard</a>* (1701–1707)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Leverett_the_Younger" title="John Leverett the Younger">Leverett</a> (1708–1724)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wadsworth" title="Benjamin Wadsworth">Wadsworth</a> (1725–1737)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Holyoke" title="Edward Holyoke">Holyoke</a> (1737–1769)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Winthrop_(educator)" title="John Winthrop (educator)">Winthrop</a>* (1769)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Locke_(educator)" title="Samuel Locke (educator)">Locke</a> (1770–1773)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Winthrop* (1773-1774)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Langdon" title="Samuel Langdon">Langdon</a> (1774–1780)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wigglesworth_(1732%E2%80%931794)" title="Edward Wigglesworth (1732–1794)">Wigglesworth</a>* (1780-1781)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Willard" title="Joseph Willard">J. Willard</a> (1781–1804)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eliphalet_Pearson" title="Eliphalet Pearson">Pearson</a>* (1804–1806)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Webber" title="Samuel Webber">Webber</a> (1806–1810)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ware_(Unitarian)" title="Henry Ware (Unitarian)">Ware</a>* (1810)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_Kirkland" title="John Thornton Kirkland">Kirkland</a> (1810–1828)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Ware* (1828-1829)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Quincy_III" title="Josiah Quincy III">Quincy</a> (1829–1845)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Everett" title="Edward Everett">Everett</a> (1846–1849)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jared_Sparks" title="Jared Sparks">Sparks</a> (1849–1853)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Walker_(Harvard)" title="James Walker (Harvard)">Walker</a> (1853–1860)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Conway_Felton" title="Cornelius Conway Felton">Felton</a> (1860–1862)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Preston_Peabody" title="Andrew Preston Peabody">Peabody</a>* (1860–1862)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hill_(clergyman)" title="Thomas Hill (clergyman)">Hill</a> (1862-1868)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Peabody* (1868–1869)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Eliot" title="Charles William Eliot">Eliot</a> (1869–1909)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/A._Lawrence_Lowell" title="A. Lawrence Lowell">Lowell</a> (1909–1933)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">Conant</a> (1933–1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Pusey" title="Nathan Pusey">Pusey</a> (1953–1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Bok" title="Derek Bok">Bok</a> (1971–1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Rudenstine" title="Neil Rudenstine">Rudenstine</a> (1991–2001)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Summers</a> (2001–2006)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Bok" title="Derek Bok">Bok</a>* (2006–2007)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Drew_Gilpin_Faust" title="Drew Gilpin Faust">Faust</a> (2007–2018)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bacow" title="Lawrence Bacow">Bacow</a> (2018–2023)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claudine_Gay" title="Claudine Gay">Gay</a> (2023–2024)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Garber" title="Alan Garber">Garber</a> (2024–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;"><div><sup>†</sup> – titled as the Schoolmaster;<span class="nowrap"> </span>* indicates acting or interim president</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="OpenAI" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:OpenAI" title="Template:OpenAI"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:OpenAI" title="Template talk:OpenAI"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:OpenAI" title="Special:EditPage/Template:OpenAI"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="OpenAI" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/OpenAI" title="OpenAI">OpenAI</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ChatGPT" title="ChatGPT">ChatGPT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ChatGPT_in_education" title="ChatGPT in education">in education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DALL-E" title="DALL-E">DALL-E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GitHub_Copilot" title="GitHub Copilot">GitHub Copilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPT_Store" title="GPT Store">GPT Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenAI_Five" title="OpenAI Five">OpenAI Five</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SearchGPT" title="SearchGPT">SearchGPT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sora_(text-to-video_model)" title="Sora (text-to-video model)">Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whisper_(speech_recognition_system)" title="Whisper (speech recognition system)">Whisper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundation models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OpenAI_Codex" title="OpenAI Codex">OpenAI Codex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_pre-trained_transformer" title="Generative pre-trained transformer">Generative pre-trained transformer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GPT-1" title="GPT-1">GPT-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPT-2" title="GPT-2">GPT-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPT-3" title="GPT-3">GPT-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPT-4" title="GPT-4">GPT-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPT-4o" title="GPT-4o">GPT-4o</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenAI_o1" title="OpenAI o1">o1</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">CEOs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Altman" title="Sam Altman">Sam Altman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Sam_Altman_from_OpenAI" title="Removal of Sam Altman from OpenAI">removal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mira_Murati" title="Mira Murati">Mira Murati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Shear" title="Emmett Shear">Emmett Shear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Board of directors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Altman" title="Sam Altman">Sam Altman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_D%27Angelo" title="Adam D'Angelo">Adam D'Angelo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Desmond-Hellmann" title="Sue Desmond-Hellmann">Sue Desmond-Hellmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nakasone" title="Paul Nakasone">Paul Nakasone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Seligman" title="Nicole Seligman">Nicole Seligman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidji_Simo" title="Fidji Simo">Fidji Simo</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lawrence Summers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bret_Taylor" title="Bret Taylor">Bret Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Brockman" title="Greg Brockman">Greg Brockman</a> (2017–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reid_Hoffman" title="Reid Hoffman">Reid Hoffman</a> (2019–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Hurd" title="Will Hurd">Will Hurd</a> (2021–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holden_Karnofsky" title="Holden Karnofsky">Holden Karnofsky</a> (2017–2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a> (2015–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Sutskever" title="Ilya Sutskever">Ilya Sutskever</a> (2017–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Toner" title="Helen Toner">Helen Toner</a> (2021–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shivon_Zilis" title="Shivon Zilis">Shivon Zilis</a> (2019–2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/AI_Dungeon" title="AI Dungeon">AI Dungeon</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AutoGPT" title="AutoGPT">AutoGPT</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Deep_Learning_(South_Park)" title="Deep Learning (South Park)">Deep Learning</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LangChain" title="LangChain">LangChain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Copilot" title="Microsoft Copilot">Microsoft Copilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer_(deep_learning_architecture)" title="Transformer (deep learning architecture)">Transformer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:OpenAI" title="Category:OpenAI">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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