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href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Languages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Languages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proto-Germanic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Germanic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Proto-Germanic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Germanic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_attestations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_attestations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Early attestations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_attestations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_disintegration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_disintegration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Linguistic disintegration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_disintegration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Prehistory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earliest_recorded_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_recorded_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Earliest recorded history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_recorded_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Imperial_Period_to_375" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Imperial_Period_to_375"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Roman Imperial Period to 375 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Imperial_Period_to_375-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Roman_Imperial_period_(27_BCE_–_166_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Roman_Imperial_period_(27_BCE_–_166_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Early Roman Imperial period (27 BCE – 166 CE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Roman_Imperial_period_(27_BCE_–_166_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marcomannic_Wars_to_375_CE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marcomannic_Wars_to_375_CE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Marcomannic Wars to 375 CE </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marcomannic_Wars_to_375_CE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migration_Period_(c._375–568)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migration_Period_(c._375–568)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Migration Period (c. 375–568) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migration_Period_(c._375–568)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Migration_Period_(before_375–420)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Migration_Period_(before_375–420)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Early Migration Period (before 375–420) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Migration_Period_(before_375–420)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Hunnic_Empire_(c._420–453)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Hunnic_Empire_(c._420–453)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 The Hunnic Empire (c. 420–453) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Hunnic_Empire_(c._420–453)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_death_of_Attila_(453–568)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_death_of_Attila_(453–568)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 After the death of Attila (453–568) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_death_of_Attila_(453–568)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_to_c._800" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages_to_c._800"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Early Middle Ages to c. 800 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_to_c._800-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Religion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Germanic_paganism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic_paganism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Germanic paganism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic_paganism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conversion_to_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_to_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Conversion to Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conversion_to_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Runic_writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Runic_writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Runic writing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Runic_writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Personal names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry_and_legend" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_and_legend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Poetry and legend </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_and_legend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germanic_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Germanic law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Warfare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy_and_material_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_and_material_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Economy and material culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy_and_material_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy and material culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy_and_material_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture_and_population_density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture_and_population_density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Agriculture and population density </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture_and_population_density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crafts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crafts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Crafts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crafts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metalworking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metalworking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Metalworking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metalworking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clothing_and_textiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing_and_textiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Clothing and textiles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing_and_textiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Modern reception </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Germanic peoples</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" > 86 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germane" title="Germane – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Germane" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanen" title="Germanen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Germanen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جرمان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جرمان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblos_xerm%C3%A1nicos" title="Pueblos xermánicos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pueblos xermánicos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanlar" title="Germanlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Germanlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="ژرمن‌لر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ژرمن‌لر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_l%C3%A2ng" title="German lâng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="German lâng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B" title="Германцы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Германцы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B" title="Германцы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Германцы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Германи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Германи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani" title="Germani – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Germani" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaned" title="Germaned – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Germaned" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A0nics" title="Germànics – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Germànics" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B9%C4%83%D1%85%C4%95%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Герман йăхĕсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Герман йăхĕсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A1ni" title="Germáni – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Germáni" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniaid" title="Germaniaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Germaniaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanske_folkeslag" title="Germanske folkeslag – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Germanske folkeslag" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanen" title="Germanen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Germanen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaanlased" title="Germaanlased – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Germaanlased" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CF%86%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B1" title="Γερμανικά φύλα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γερμανικά φύλα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblos_germ%C3%A1nicos" title="Pueblos germánicos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pueblos germánicos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%9Cermanoj" title="Ĝermanoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĝermanoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniar_herriak" title="Germaniar herriak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Germaniar herriak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="ژرمن‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژرمن‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanar" title="Germanar – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Germanar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germains" title="Germains – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Germains" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanen" title="Germanen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Germanen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobos_xerm%C3%A1nicos" title="Pobos xermánicos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobos xermánicos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%8C%EB%A5%B4%EB%A7%8C%EC%A1%B1" title="게르만족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="게르만족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AA%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Գերմանական ժողովուրդներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գերմանական ժողովուրդներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani" title="Germani – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Germani" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanala_populi" title="Germanala populi – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Germanala populi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang-orang_Jermanik" title="Orang-orang Jermanik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang-orang Jermanik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanir" title="Germanir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Germanir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani" title="Germani – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Germani" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="שבטים גרמאניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שבטים גרמאניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ძველი გერმანელები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი გერმანელები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagermanik" title="Wagermanik – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Wagermanik" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/German" title="German – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="German" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani_(antiquitas)" title="Germani (antiquitas) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Germani (antiquitas)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2erm%C4%81%C5%86i" title="Ģermāņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģermāņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanai" title="Germanai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Germanai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germane" title="Germane – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Germane" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poplas_germanica" title="Poplas germanica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Poplas germanica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A1nok" title="Germánok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Germánok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Германи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Германи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahoaka_jermanika" title="Vahoaka jermanika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vahoaka jermanika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puak-puak_Jermanik" title="Puak-puak Jermanik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Puak-puak Jermanik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A1nicos" title="Germánicos – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Germánicos" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanen" title="Germanen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Germanen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanen" title="Germanen – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Germanen" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E4%BA%BA" title="ゲルマン人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゲルマン人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%97%DF%AD%DF%8D%DF%99%DF%91%DF%A1%DF%8A%DF%A3%DF%8C%DF%AB_%DF%A1%DF%8C%DF%AC%DF%99%DF%8C%DF%B2%DF%AC%DF%98%DF%8C" title="ߗ߭ߍߙߑߡߊߣߌ߫ ߡߌ߬ߙߌ߲߬ߘߌ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߗ߭ߍߙߑߡߊߣߌ߫ ߡߌ߬ߙߌ߲߬ߘߌ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaanen" title="Germaanen – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Germaanen" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanere" title="Germanere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Germanere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanarar" title="Germanarar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Germanarar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanlar" title="Germanlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Germanlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%95" title="ਜਰਮਨਿਕ ਲੋਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਰਮਨਿਕ ਲੋਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanen" title="Germanen – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Germanen" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trib%C3%B9_germ%C3%A0niche" title="Tribù germàniche – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Tribù germàniche" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanen" title="Germanen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Germanen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanie" title="Germanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Germanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanos" title="Germanos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Germanos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jermane" title="Jermane – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Jermane" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triburi_germanice" title="Triburi germanice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Triburi germanice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B" title="Германцы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Германцы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjermanik%C3%ABt" title="Gjermanikët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjermanikët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Germanic peoples" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A1ni" title="Germáni – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Germáni" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani" title="Germani – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Germani" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%DA%B5%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AC%DB%8E%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="خەڵکانی جێرمانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خەڵکانی جێرمانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Германи – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Германи" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani" title="Germani – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Germani" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaanit" title="Germaanit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Germaanit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaner" title="Germaner – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Germaner" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="செருமானிக் மக்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="செருமானிக் மக்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="กลุ่มชนเจอร์แมนิก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กลุ่มชนเจอร์แมนิก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cermenler" title="Cermenler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Germani" redirects here. For the Iberian people, see <a href="/wiki/Germani_(Oretania)" title="Germani (Oretania)">Germani (Oretania)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Germani_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Germani (disambiguation)">Germani (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_figure_of_a_German_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Bronze_figure_of_a_German_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale.jpg/260px-Bronze_figure_of_a_German_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Bronze_figure_of_a_German_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale.jpg/390px-Bronze_figure_of_a_German_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Bronze_figure_of_a_German_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale.jpg/520px-Bronze_figure_of_a_German_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2461" data-file-height="2635" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> bronze statuette dated to the late 1st century – early 2nd century CE, representing a Germanic man with his hair in a <a href="/wiki/Suebian_knot" title="Suebian knot">Suebian knot</a></figcaption></figure> The Germanic peoples were tribal groups who lived in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>. In modern scholarship, they typically include not only the Roman-era Germani who lived in both <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a> and parts of the Roman empire, but also all Germanic speaking peoples from this era, irrespective of where they lived, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>. Another term, ancient Germans, is considered problematic by many scholars since it suggests identity with present-day <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>. Although the first Roman descriptions of Germani involved tribes west of the Rhine, their homeland of Germania was portrayed as stretching east of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>, to southern <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> in the east, and to the upper <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> in the south. Other Germanic speakers, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a> and Goths, lived further east in what is now <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. The term Germani is generally only used to refer to historical peoples from the 1st to 4th centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher2022292-1">[1]</a> Different academic disciplines have their own definitions of what makes someone or something "Germanic".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202130-2">[2]</a> Some scholars call for the term's total abandonment as a modern construct, since lumping "Germanic peoples" together implies a common group identity for which there is little evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202128-3">[3]</a> Other scholars have defended the term's continued use and argue that a common Germanic language allows one to speak of "Germanic peoples", regardless of whether these ancient and medieval peoples saw themselves as having a common identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010383–385-4">[4]</a> Scholars generally agree that it is possible to refer to Germanic languages from about 500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202132-5">[5]</a> Archaeologists usually associate the earliest clearly identifiable Germanic speaking peoples with the <a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf culture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a> in central and northern Germany and southern Denmark from the 6th to 1st centuries BCE. This existed around the same time that the <a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">First Germanic Consonant Shift</a> is theorized to have occurred, leading to recognizably Germanic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202189,_1310-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[a]</a> Germanic languages expanded south, east, and west, coming into contact with <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Baltic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavic</a> peoples before they were noted by the Romans. Roman authors first described the Germani near the Rhine in the 1st century BCE, while the Roman Empire was establishing its dominance in that region. Under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> (27 BCE – 14 CE), the Romans attempted to conquer a large part of Germania between the Rhine and <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a>, but withdrew after their shocking defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest" title="Battle of the Teutoburg Forest">Battle of the Teutoburg Forest</a> in 9 CE. The Romans continued to manage the Germanic frontier carefully, meddling in cross-border politics, and constructing a long fortified border, the <a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Limes Germanicus</a>. From 166 to 180 CE, Rome was embroiled in a conflict against the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quadi" title="Quadi">Quadi</a> with their allies, which was known as the <a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a>. After this major disruption, new Germanic peoples appear for the first time in the historical record, such as the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> (375–568), such Germanic peoples entered the Roman Empire and eventually established their own "<a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">barbarian kingdoms</a>" within the territory of the Western Roman empire itself. Over time, the Franks became the most powerful of them, conquering many of the others. Eventually, the Frankish king <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> claimed the title of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> for himself in 800. Archaeological finds suggest that Roman-era sources portrayed the Germanic way of life as more primitive than it actually was. Instead, archaeologists have unveiled evidence of a complex society and economy throughout Germania. Germanic-speaking peoples originally shared similar religious practices. Denoted by the term <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a>, they varied throughout the territory occupied by Germanic-speaking peoples. Over the course of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, most continental Germanic peoples and the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> of Britain converted to Christianity, but the Saxons and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavians" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavians">Scandinavians</a> converted only much later. The Germanic peoples shared a native script—known as <a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">runes</a>—from around the first century or before, which was gradually replaced with the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>, although runes continued to be used for specialized purposes thereafter. Traditionally, the Germanic peoples have been seen as possessing a law dominated by the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Feud" title="Feud">feuding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wergild" class="mw-redirect" title="Wergild">blood compensation</a>. The precise details, nature and origin of what is still normally called "<a href="/wiki/Germanic_law" title="Germanic law">Germanic law</a>" are now controversial. Roman sources state that the Germanic peoples made decisions in a popular assembly (the <a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">thing</a>) but that they also had kings and war leaders. The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples probably shared a common poetic tradition, <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a>, and later Germanic peoples also <a href="/wiki/Germanic_heroic_legend" title="Germanic heroic legend">shared legends</a> originating in the Migration Period. The publishing of <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>'s Germania by <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanist scholars</a> in the 1400s greatly influenced the emerging idea of "Germanic peoples". Later scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Romantic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic period">Romantic period</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm</a>, developed several theories about the nature of the Germanic peoples that were highly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">romantic nationalism</a>. For those scholars, the "Germanic" and modern "German" were identical. Ideas about the early Germans were also highly influential among members of the nationalist and racist <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Völkisch">völkisch</a> movement and later co-opted by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazis</a>. During the second half of the 20th century, the controversial misuse of ancient Germanic history and archaeology was discredited and has since resulted in a backlash against many aspects of earlier scholarship. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The etymology of the Latin word Germani, from which Latin Germania and English Germanic are derived, is unknown, although several proposals have been put forward. Even the language from which it derives is a subject of dispute, with proposals of Germanic, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a>, and Latin, and <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a> origins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd19999-10">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herwig_Wolfram" title="Herwig Wolfram">Herwig Wolfram</a>, for example, thinks Germani must be <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram19885-11">[10]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pfeifer_(etymologist)" title="Wolfgang Pfeifer (etymologist)">Wolfgang Pfeifer</a> more or less concurs with Wolfram and surmises that the name Germani is likely of Celtic etymology and is related to the <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> word gair ('neighbours') or could be tied to the Celtic word for their war cries, gairm, which simplifies into 'the neighbours' or 'the screamers'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfeifer2000434-12">[11]</a> Regardless of its language of origin, the name was transmitted to the Romans via Celtic speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a58-13">[12]</a> It is unclear that any people group ever referred to themselves as Germani.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a1-14">[13]</a> By <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, only peoples near the Rhine, especially the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> and sometimes the Alemanni, were called Germani or Germanoi by Latin and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> writers respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202048–57-15">[14]</a> Germani subsequently ceased to be used as a name for any group of people and was revived as such only by the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanists</a> in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a1-14">[13]</a> Previously, scholars during the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian period">Carolingian period</a> (8th–11th centuries) had already begun using Germania and Germanicus in a territorial sense to refer to <a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a4-16">[15]</a> In modern English, the adjective Germanic is distinct from German, which is generally used when referring to modern Germans only. Germanic relates to the ancient Germani or the broader Germanic group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19988-17">[16]</a> In modern German, the ancient Germani are referred to as Germanen and Germania as Germanien, as distinct from modern Germans (Deutsche) and modern Germany (Deutschland). The direct equivalents in English are, however, Germans for Germani and Germany for Germania<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler2016xxii-18">[17]</a> although the Latin Germania is also used. To avoid ambiguity, the Germani may instead be called "ancient Germans" or Germani by using the Latin term in English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski202019-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19988-17">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_definitions_and_controversies">Modern definitions and controversies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern definitions and controversies">edit</a>]</div> The modern definition of Germanic peoples developed in the 19th century, when the term Germanic was linked to the newly identified <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language family">Germanic language family</a>. Linguistics provided a new way of defining the Germanic peoples, which came to be used in historiography and archaeology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010380–381-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202130-2">[2]</a> While Roman authors did not consistently exclude <a href="/wiki/Celtic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic peoples">Celtic-speaking people</a> or have a term corresponding to Germanic-speaking peoples, this new definition—which used the Germanic language as the main criterion—presented the Germani as a people or nation (Volk) with a stable group identity linked to language. As a result, some scholars treat the Germani (Latin) or Germanoi (Greek) of Roman-era sources as non-Germanic if they seemingly spoke non-Germanic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010379–380-21">[20]</a> For clarity, Germanic peoples, when defined as "speakers of a Germanic language", are sometimes referred to as "Germanic-speaking peoples".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202130-2">[2]</a> Today, the term "Germanic" is widely applied to "phenomena including identities, social, cultural or political groups, to material cultural artefacts, languages and texts, and even specific chemical sequences found in human DNA".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich20202–3-22">[21]</a> Several scholars continue to use the term to refer to a culture existing between the 1st to 4th centuries CE, but most historians and archaeologists researching Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages no longer use it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher2022292–293-23">[22]</a> Apart from the designation of a language family (i.e., "Germanic languages"), the application of the term "Germanic" has become controversial in scholarship since 1990,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202130-2">[2]</a> especially among archaeologists and historians. Scholars have increasingly questioned the notion of ethnically defined people groups (Völker) as stable basic actors of history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202131-24">[23]</a> The connection of archaeological assemblages to ethnicity has also been increasingly questioned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010381–382-25">[24]</a> This has resulted in different disciplines developing different definitions of "Germanic".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202130-2">[2]</a> Beginning with the work of the "Toronto School" around <a href="/wiki/Walter_Goffart" title="Walter Goffart">Walter Goffart</a>, various scholars have denied that anything such as a common Germanic ethnic identity ever existed. Such scholars argue that most ideas about Germanic culture are taken from far later epochs and projected backwards to antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich20206-26">[25]</a> Historians of the Vienna School, such as <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pohl" title="Walter Pohl">Walter Pohl</a>, have also called for the term to be avoided or used with careful explanation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202129,_35-27">[26]</a> and argued that there is little evidence for a common Germanic identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a50–51-28">[27]</a> The Anglo-Saxonist <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Neidorf" title="Leonard Neidorf">Leonard Neidorf</a> writes that historians of the continental-European Germanic peoples of the 5th and 6th centuries are "in agreement" that there was no pan-Germanic identity or solidarity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeidorf2018865-29">[28]</a> Whether a scholar favors the existence of a common Germanic identity or not is often related to their position on the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">end of the Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarland202128-30">[29]</a> Defenders of continued use of the term Germanic argue that the speakers of Germanic languages can be identified as Germanic people by language regardless of how they saw themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010383–385-4">[4]</a> Linguists and philologists have generally reacted skeptically to claims that there was no Germanic identity or cultural unity,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich202010-31">[30]</a> and they may view Germanic simply as a long-established and convenient term.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202134-32">[31]</a> Some archaeologists have also argued in favor of retaining the term Germanic due to its broad recognizability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202129-33">[32]</a> Archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Heiko_Steuer" title="Heiko Steuer">Heiko Steuer</a> defines his own work on the Germani in geographical terms (covering Germania), rather than in ethnic terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer20213-34">[33]</a> He nevertheless argues for some sense of shared identity between the Germani, noting the use of a common language, a common <a href="/wiki/Runic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic script">runic script</a>, various common objects of material culture such as <a href="/wiki/Bracteates" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracteates">bracteates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gullgubber" title="Gullgubber">gullgubber</a> (small gold objects) and the confrontation with Rome as things that could cause a sense of shared "Germanic" culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer20211275–1277-35">[34]</a> Despite being cautious of the use of Germanic to refer to peoples, <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Brather" title="Sebastian Brather">Sebastian Brather</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heizmann" title="Wilhelm Heizmann">Wilhelm Heizmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steffen_Patzold" title="Steffen Patzold">Steffen Patzold</a> nevertheless refer to further commonalities such as the widely attested worship of deities such as <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frigg" title="Frigg">Frigg</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_heroic_legend" title="Germanic heroic legend">shared legendary tradition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202134-32">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_terminology">Classical terminology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classical terminology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanias.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Germanias.png/500px-Germanias.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Germanias.png/750px-Germanias.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Germanias.png/1000px-Germanias.png 2x" data-file-width="1682" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Several different regions called Germania in the Roman era, about 0-200 CE (names in red were peoples called Germani, despite not living within Germania)</figcaption></figure> The first author to describe the Germani as a large category of peoples distinct from the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> was <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, writing around 55 BCE during his governorship of Gaul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202035–39-36">[35]</a> In Caesar's account, the clearest defining characteristic of the Germani people was that their homeland was east of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiggsby201051-37">[36]</a> opposite <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> on the west side. Caesar sought to explain both why his legions stopped at the Rhine and also why the Germani were more dangerous than the Gauls to the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202036–37-38">[37]</a> Explaining this threat he also classified the <a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a>, who had previously invaded Italy, as Germani.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202037–38-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a11-40">[39]</a> Although Caesar described the Rhine as the border between Germani and Celts, he also describes the <a href="/wiki/Germani_cisrhenani" title="Germani cisrhenani">Germani cisrhenani</a> on the west bank of the Rhine, who he believed had moved from the east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a52–53-41">[40]</a> It is unclear if these Germani were actually Germanic speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a53–54-42">[41]</a> According to the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> in his Germania (c. 98 CE), it was among this group, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a>, that the name Germani first arose, before it spread to further groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a54–55-43">[42]</a> Tacitus reported that in his time many of the peoples west of the Rhine within Roman Gaul were still considered Germani.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a19-44">[43]</a> Caesar's division of the Germani from the Celts was not taken up by most writers in Greek.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a3-45">[44]</a> Caesar and authors following him regarded Germania as stretching east of the Rhine for an indeterminate distance, bounded by the Baltic Sea and the <a href="/wiki/Hercynian_Forest" title="Hercynian Forest">Hercynian Forest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010376,_511-46">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> and Tacitus placed the eastern border at the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010377-47">[46]</a> The Upper Danube served as a southern border. Between there and the Vistula Tacitus sketched an unclear boundary, describing Germania as separated in the south and east from the Dacians and the Sarmatians by mutual fear or mountains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrebs2011204-48">[47]</a> This undefined eastern border is related to a lack of stable frontiers in this area such as were maintained by Roman armies along the Rhine and Danube.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a3-45">[44]</a> The geographer <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> (2nd century CE) applied the name <a href="/wiki/Germania_magna" class="mw-redirect" title="Germania magna">Germania magna</a> ("Greater Germania", <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Γερμανία Μεγάλη) to this area, contrasting it with the Roman provinces of <a href="/wiki/Germania_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Germania Prima">Germania Prima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germania_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Germania Secunda">Germania Secunda</a> (on the west bank of the Rhine).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010510–511-49">[48]</a> In modern scholarship, Germania magna is sometimes also called Germania libera ("free Germania"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010513-50">[49]</a> a name coined by Jacob Grimm around 1835.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher2022293-51">[50]</a> Caesar and, following him, Tacitus, depicted the Germani as sharing elements of a common culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiebeschuetz201597-52">[51]</a> A small number of passages by Tacitus and other Roman authors (Caesar, Suetonius) mention Germanic tribes or individuals speaking a language distinct from Gaulish. For Tacitus (Germania 43, 45, 46), language was a characteristic, but not defining feature of the Germanic peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a9–10-53">[52]</a> Many of the ascribed ethnic characteristics of the Germani represented them as typically "barbarian", including the possession of stereotypical vices such as "wildness" and of virtues such as chastity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a4–5-54">[53]</a> Tacitus was at times unsure whether a people were Germanic or not. He expressed uncertainty about the <a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Peucini</a>, who he says spoke and lived like the Germani, though they did not live in Germania, and they were beginning to look like Sarmatians through intermarriage. The <a href="/wiki/Osi_(tribe)" title="Osi (tribe)">Osi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cotini" title="Cotini">Cotini</a> lived in Germania, but were not Germani, because they had other languages and customs.<a href="#cite_note-55">[b]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aesti" title="Aesti">Aesti</a> lived on the eastern shore of the Baltic and were like Suebi in their appearance and customs, although they spoke a different language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a9–10-53">[52]</a> Ancient authors did not differentiate consistently between a territorial definition ("those living in Germania") and an ethnic definition ("having Germanic ethnic characteristics"), and the two definitions did not always align.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a53-56">[54]</a> In the 3rd century, when Romans encountered Germanic-speaking peoples living north of the Lower Danube who fought on horseback, such as Goths and Gepids, they did not call them Germani. Instead, they connected them with non-Germanic-speaking peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, who shared a similar culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a3-45">[44]</a> Romans also called them "Gothic peoples", (gentes Gothicae) even if they did not speak a Germanic language, and they often referred to the Goths as "<a href="/wiki/Getae" title="Getae">Getae</a>", equating them to a non-Germanic people residing in the same region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202047-57">[55]</a> The writer <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> described these new "Getic" peoples as sharing similar appearance, laws, Arian religion, and a common language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202047–48-58">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subdivisions">Subdivisions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Subdivisions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ingaevones" title="Ingaevones">Ingaevones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herminones" class="mw-redirect" title="Herminones">Herminones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Istaevones" class="mw-redirect" title="Istaevones">Istaevones</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1st_century_Germani.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/1st_century_Germani.png/300px-1st_century_Germani.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/1st_century_Germani.png/450px-1st_century_Germani.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/1st_century_Germani.png 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>The approximate positions of the three groups and their sub-peoples reported by Tacitus: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a> (part of the Herminones)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Other <a href="/wiki/Herminones" class="mw-redirect" title="Herminones">Herminones</a></div></figcaption></figure> Several ancient sources list subdivisions of the Germanic tribes. Writing in the first century CE, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> lists five Germanic subgroups: the Vandili, the Inguaeones, the Istuaeones (living near the Rhine), the Herminones (in the Germanic interior), and the Peucini Basternae (living on the lower Danube near the Dacians).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERübekeil2017986-59">[57]</a> In chapter 2 of the Germania, written about a half-century later, Tacitus lists only three subgroups: the Ingvaeones (near the sea), the Herminones (in the interior of Germania), and the Istvaeones (the remainder of the tribes);<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETacitus1948102-60">[58]</a> Tacitus says these groups each claimed descent from the god <a href="/wiki/Mannus" title="Mannus">Mannus</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Tuisto" title="Tuisto">Tuisto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolters2001567-61">[59]</a> Tacitus also mentions a second tradition that there were four sons of either Mannus or Tuisto from whom the groups of the Marsi, Gambrivi, Suebi, and Vandili claim descent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolters2001568-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a57-63">[61]</a> The Herminones are also mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a>, but otherwise, these divisions do not appear in other ancient works on the Germani.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolters2001568-62">[60]</a> There are a number of inconsistencies in the listing of Germanic subgroups by Tacitus and Pliny. While both Tacitus and Pliny mention some Scandinavian tribes, they are not integrated into the subdivisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERübekeil2017986-59">[57]</a> While Pliny lists the <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a> as part of the Herminones, Tacitus treats them as a separate group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolters2001470-64">[62]</a> Additionally, Tacitus's description of a group of tribes as united by the cult of <a href="/wiki/Nerthus" title="Nerthus">Nerthus</a> (Germania 40) as well as the cult of the <a href="/wiki/Alcis_(gods)" title="Alcis (gods)">Alcis</a> controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Nahanarvali" title="Nahanarvali">Nahanarvali</a> (Germania 43) and Tacitus's account of the origin myth of the <a href="/wiki/Semnones" title="Semnones">Semnones</a> (Germania 39) all suggest different subdivisions than the three mentioned in Germania chapter 2.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolters2001470–471-65">[63]</a> The subdivisions found in Pliny and Tacitus have been very influential for scholarship on Germanic history and language up until recent times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERübekeil2017986-59">[57]</a> However, outside of Tacitus and Pliny there are no other textual indications that these groups were important. The subgroups mentioned by Tacitus are not used by him elsewhere in his work, contradict other parts of his work, and cannot be reconciled with Pliny, who is equally inconsistent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolters2001470-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a57-63">[61]</a> Additionally, there is no linguistic or archaeological evidence for these subgroups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolters2001470-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202159-66">[64]</a> New archaeological finds have tended to show that the boundaries between Germanic peoples were very permeable, and scholars now assume that migration and the collapse and formation of cultural units were constant occurrences within Germania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021125–126-67">[65]</a> Nevertheless, various aspects such as the alliteration of many of the tribal names in Tacitus's account and the name of Mannus himself suggest that the descent from Mannus was an authentic Germanic tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolters2001471-68">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages">Languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Proto-Germanic">edit</a>]</div> All <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> derive from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> (PIE), which is generally thought to have been spoken between 4500 and 2500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> The ancestor of Germanic languages is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto- or Common Germanic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenzl19721232-70">[68]</a> and likely represented a group of mutually intelligible <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010593-71">[69]</a> They share distinctive characteristics which set them apart from other Indo-European sub-families of languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a>, the conservation of the PIE <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut</a> system in the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb system</a> (notably in <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">strong verbs</a>), or the merger of the vowels a and o qualities (ə, a, o > a; ā, ō > ō).<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Pre-Germanic</a> linguistic period (2500–500 BCE), the <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> was almost certainly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">an unknown non-Indo-European language</a>, still noticeable in the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[c]</a> Although Proto-Germanic is reconstructed without dialects via the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>, it is almost certain that it never was a uniform proto-language.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> The late Jastorf culture occupied so much territory that it is unlikely that Germanic populations spoke a single dialect, and traces of early linguistic varieties have been highlighted by scholars.<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> Sister dialects of Proto-Germanic itself certainly existed, as evidenced by the absence of the First Germanic Sound Shift (Grimm's law) in some "Para-Germanic" recorded proper names, and the reconstructed Proto-Germanic language was only one among several dialects spoken at that time by peoples identified as "Germanic" by Roman sources or archeological data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge200685-79">[76]</a> Although Roman sources name various Germanic tribes such as Suevi, Alemanni, <a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Bauivari</a>, etc., it is unlikely that the members of these tribes all spoke the same dialect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010595-80">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_attestations">Early attestations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early attestations">edit</a>]</div> Definite and comprehensive evidence of Germanic lexical units only occurred after <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>'s conquest of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> in the 1st century BCE, after which contacts with Proto-Germanic speakers began to intensify. The <a href="/wiki/Alcis_(gods)" title="Alcis (gods)">Alcis</a>, a pair of brother gods worshipped by the <a href="/wiki/Nahanarvali" title="Nahanarvali">Nahanarvali</a>, are given by Tacitus as a Latinized form of *alhiz (a kind of '<a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">stag</a>'), and the word sapo ('hair dye') is certainly borrowed from Proto-Germanic *saipwōn- (English <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a>), as evidenced by the parallel Finnish loanword saipio.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> The name of the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_spear" title="Migration Period spear">framea</a>, described by Tacitus as a short spear carried by Germanic warriors, most likely derives from the <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compound</a> *fram-ij-an- ('forward-going one'), as suggested by comparable semantical structures found in early <a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">runes</a> (e.g., raun-ij-az 'tester', on a lancehead) and <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">linguistic cognates</a> attested in the later <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> languages: fremja, fremmian and fremmen all mean 'to carry out'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERübekeil2017990-82">[79]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helm_von_Negau;_KHM,_Wien_Inschrift.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Helm_von_Negau%3B_KHM%2C_Wien_Inschrift.jpg/261px-Helm_von_Negau%3B_KHM%2C_Wien_Inschrift.jpg" decoding="async" width="261" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Helm_von_Negau%3B_KHM%2C_Wien_Inschrift.jpg/392px-Helm_von_Negau%3B_KHM%2C_Wien_Inschrift.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Helm_von_Negau%3B_KHM%2C_Wien_Inschrift.jpg/522px-Helm_von_Negau%3B_KHM%2C_Wien_Inschrift.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2558" data-file-height="965" /></a><figcaption>The inscription on the <a href="/wiki/Negau_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Negau helmet">Negau helmet B</a>, carved in the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a> during the 3rd–2nd c. BCE, is generally regarded as Proto-Germanic.<a href="#cite_note-negau-83">[80]</a></figcaption></figure> In the absence of earlier evidence, it must be assumed that Proto-Germanic speakers living in Germania were members of preliterate societies.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> The only pre-Roman inscriptions that could be interpreted as Proto-Germanic, written in the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a>, have not been found in Germania but rather in the Venetic region. The inscription harikastiteiva\\\ip, engraved on the <a href="/wiki/Negau_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Negau helmet">Negau helmet</a> in the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE, possibly by a Germanic-speaking warrior involved in combat in northern Italy, has been interpreted by some scholars as Harigasti Teiwǣ (*harja-gastiz 'army-guest' + *teiwaz 'god, deity'), which could be an invocation to a war-god or a mark of ownership engraved by its possessor.<a href="#cite_note-negau-83">[80]</a> The inscription Fariarix (*farjōn- 'ferry' + *rīk- 'ruler') carved on <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachms</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a> (mid-1st c. BCE) may indicate the Germanic name of a Celtic ruler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017875-85">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_disintegration">Linguistic disintegration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Linguistic disintegration">edit</a>]</div> By the time Germanic speakers entered written history, their linguistic territory had stretched farther south, since a Germanic <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> (where neighbouring language varieties diverged only slightly between each other, but remote dialects were not necessarily <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a> due to accumulated differences over the distance) covered a region roughly located between the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> during the first two centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> East Germanic speakers dwelled on the Baltic sea coasts and islands, while speakers of the Northwestern dialects occupied territories in present-day Denmark and bordering parts of Germany at the earliest date when they can be identified.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> In the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, migrations of East Germanic gentes from the Baltic Sea coast southeastwards into the hinterland led to their separation from the dialect continuum.<a href="#cite_note-auto-88">[85]</a> By the late 3rd century CE, linguistic divergences like the West Germanic loss of the final consonant -z had already occurred within the "residual" Northwest dialect continuum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017876–877-89">[86]</a> The latter definitely ended after the 5th- and 6th-century migrations of <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a> and part of the <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxon</a> tribes towards modern-day England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017881-90">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weyer_(Mechernich)_-_Weihestein_des_Caldinius_Firminius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Weyer_%28Mechernich%29_-_Weihestein_des_Caldinius_Firminius.jpg/220px-Weyer_%28Mechernich%29_-_Weihestein_des_Caldinius_Firminius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Weyer_%28Mechernich%29_-_Weihestein_des_Caldinius_Firminius.jpg/330px-Weyer_%28Mechernich%29_-_Weihestein_des_Caldinius_Firminius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Weyer_%28Mechernich%29_-_Weihestein_des_Caldinius_Firminius.jpg/440px-Weyer_%28Mechernich%29_-_Weihestein_des_Caldinius_Firminius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3723" data-file-height="5464" /></a><figcaption> Replica of an altar for the Matrons of Vacallina (<a href="/wiki/Matres_and_Matronae" title="Matres and Matronae">Matronae Vacallinehae</a>) from Mechernich-Weyer, Germany</figcaption></figure> The Germanic languages are traditionally divided between <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a> branches.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> The modern prevailing view is that North and West Germanic were also encompassed in a larger subgroup called Northwest Germanic.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest Germanic</a>: mainly characterized by the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">i-umlaut</a>, and the shift of the long vowel *ē towards a long *ā in accented syllables;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStiles2017903–905-93">[90]</a> it remained a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> following the migration of East Germanic speakers in the 2nd–3rd century CE;<a href="#cite_note-auto-88">[85]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Norse">Primitive Norse</a>: initially characterized by the <a href="/wiki/Monophthongization" title="Monophthongization">monophthongization</a> of the sound ai to ā (attested from c. 400 BCE);<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> a uniform northern dialect or koiné attested in runic inscriptions from the 2nd century CE onward,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERübekeil2017991-95">[92]</a> it remained practically unchanged until a transitional period that started in the late 5th century;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017877-96">[93]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, a language attested by runic inscriptions written in the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Fuþark</a> from the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a> (8th–9th centuries CE);<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017878-97">[94]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a>: including <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a> (attested from the 5th c. CE), <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> (late 5th c.), <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a> (6th c.), <a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a> (6th c.), <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> (6th c.), and possibly <a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a> (6th c.), which is only scarcely attested;<a href="#cite_note-:1-98">[95]</a> they are mainly characterized by the loss of the final consonant -z (attested from the late 3rd century),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017877,_881-99">[96]</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">j-consonant gemination</a> (attested from c. 400 BCE);<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERübekeil2017992-100">[97]</a> early inscriptions from the West Germanic areas found on altars where votive offerings were made to the Matronae Vacallinehae (Matrons of Vacallina) in the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a> dated to c. 160–260 CE; West Germanic remained a "residual" dialect continuum until the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon migrations</a> in the 5th–6th centuries CE;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017881-90">[87]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic</a>, of which only <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> is attested by both <a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">runic inscriptions</a> (from the 3rd c. CE) and textual evidence (principally <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Wulfila's Bible</a>; c. 350–380). It became extinct after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> in the early 8th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017879-101">[98]</a> The inclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic languages</a> within the East Germanic group, while plausible, is still uncertain due to their scarce attestation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERübekeil2017987,_997–998-102">[99]</a> The latest attested East Germanic language, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a>, has been partially recorded in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedoma2017880-103">[100]</a></li></ul> Further internal classifications are still debated among scholars, as it is unclear whether the internal features shared by several branches are due to early common innovations or to the later diffusion of local dialectal innovations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2004339-104">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[d]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> The Germanic-speaking peoples speak an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European language</a>. The leading theory for the origin of Germanic languages, suggested by archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence,<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> postulates a diffusion of Indo-European languages from the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> towards Northern Europe during the third millennium BCE, via linguistic contacts and migrations from the <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a> towards modern-day Denmark, resulting in cultural mixing with the earlier <a href="/wiki/Funnelbeaker_culture" title="Funnelbeaker culture">Funnelbeaker culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[e]</a> The subsequent culture of the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a> (c. 2000/1750 – c. 500 BCE) shows definite cultural and population continuities with later Germanic peoples,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010636-7">[7]</a> and is often supposed to have been the culture in which the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Parent_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Parent Language">Germanic Parent Language</a>, the predecessor of the Proto-Germanic language, developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch202038-109">[104]</a> However, it is unclear whether these earlier peoples possessed any ethnic continuity with the later Germanic peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199911-8">[8]</a> Generally, scholars agree that it is possible to speak of Germanic-speaking peoples after 500 BCE, although the first attestation of the name Germani is not until much later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202132-5">[5]</a> Between around 500 BCE and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini#CE_and_BCE" title="Anno Domini">common era</a>, archeological and linguistic evidence suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urheimat">Urheimat</a> ('original homeland') of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic language</a>, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, existed in or near the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">archaeological culture</a> known as the late <a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf culture</a>, of the central Elbe in present day Germany, stretching north into Jutland and east into present day Poland.<a href="#cite_note-110">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[f]</a> If the Jastorf Culture is the origin of the Germanic peoples, then the Scandinavian peninsula would have become Germanic either via migration or assimilation over the course of the same period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010635-112">[106]</a> Alternatively, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermann_Ament&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermann Ament (page does not exist)">Hermann Ament</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Ament" class="extiw" title="de:Hermann Ament">de</a>] has stressed that two other archaeological groups must have belonged to the Germani, one on either side of the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Rhine" title="Lower Rhine">Lower Rhine</a> and reaching to the <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a>, and another in Jutland and southern Scandinavia. These groups would thus show a "polycentric origin" for the Germanic peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a49–50-113">[107]</a> The neighboring <a href="/wiki/Przeworsk_culture" title="Przeworsk culture">Przeworsk culture</a> in modern Poland is thought to possibly reflect a Germanic and <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavic</a> component.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997470-114">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[g]</a> The identification of the Jastorf culture with the Germani has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Brather" title="Sebastian Brather">Sebastian Brather</a>, who notes that it seems to be missing areas such as southern Scandinavia and the Rhine-Weser area, which linguists argue to have been Germanic, while also not according with the Roman era definition of Germani, which included Celtic-speaking peoples further south and west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrather2004181–183-116">[109]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArcheologicalCulturesOfCentralEuropeAtEarlyPreRomanIronAge.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/ArcheologicalCulturesOfCentralEuropeAtEarlyPreRomanIronAge.png/220px-ArcheologicalCulturesOfCentralEuropeAtEarlyPreRomanIronAge.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/ArcheologicalCulturesOfCentralEuropeAtEarlyPreRomanIronAge.png/330px-ArcheologicalCulturesOfCentralEuropeAtEarlyPreRomanIronAge.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/ArcheologicalCulturesOfCentralEuropeAtEarlyPreRomanIronAge.png/440px-ArcheologicalCulturesOfCentralEuropeAtEarlyPreRomanIronAge.png 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>: Orange Field – <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a>), Dark Red – <a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf culture</a> (Germanic), Dark Green – <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Scandinavia" title="Iron Age Scandinavia">Iron Age Scandinavia</a> (Germanic)</figcaption></figure> A category of evidence used to locate the Proto-Germanic homeland is founded on traces of early linguistic contacts with neighbouring languages. Germanic loanwords in the <a href="/wiki/Finnic_languages" title="Finnic languages">Finnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_languages" title="Sámi languages">Sámi languages</a> have preserved archaic forms (e.g. Finnic kuningas, from Proto-Germanic *kuningaz 'king'; rengas, from *hringaz 'ring'; etc.),<a href="#cite_note-117">[110]</a> with the older loan layers possibly dating back to an earlier period of intense contacts between pre-Germanic and <a href="/wiki/Finno-Permic_languages" title="Finno-Permic languages">Finno-Permic</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Finno-Samic_languages" title="Finno-Samic languages">Finno-Samic</a>) speakers.<a href="#cite_note-118">[111]</a> Shared <a href="/wiki/Lexical_Innovation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical Innovation">lexical innovations</a> between <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a> and Germanic languages, concentrated in certain semantic domains such as religion and warfare, indicates intensive contacts between the Germani and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic peoples">Celtic peoples</a>, usually identified with the archaeological <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a>, found in southern Germany and the modern Czech Republic.<a href="#cite_note-119">[112]</a> Early contacts probably occurred during the Pre-Germanic and Pre-Celtic periods, dated to the 2nd millennium BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch202079–80-120">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[h]</a> and the Celts appear to have had a large amount of influence on Germanic culture from up until the first century CE, which led to a high degree of Celtic-Germanic shared material culture and social organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1998145–159-122">[114]</a> Some evidence of linguistic convergence between Germanic and <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic languages</a>, whose Urheimat is supposed to have been situated north of the Alps before the 1st millennium BCE, have also been highlighted by scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimmelkjær_Sandgaard_HansenKroonen2022161–163-123">[115]</a> Shared changes in their grammars also suggest early contacts between Germanic and <a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic languages</a>; however, some of these innovations are shared with Baltic only, which may point to linguistic contacts during a relatively late period, at any rate after the initial breakup of Balto-Slavic into <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, with the similarities to Slavic being seen as remnants of Indo-European archaisms or the result of secondary contacts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010581–582-124">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimmelkjær_Sandgaard_HansenKroonen2022166–167-125">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[i]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earliest_recorded_history">Earliest recorded history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Earliest recorded history">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sciri" title="Sciri">Sciri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanisation_of_Gaul" title="Germanisation of Gaul">Germanisation of Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></div> According to some authors the <a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Peucini" class="mw-redirect" title="Peucini">Peucini</a>, were the first Germani to be encountered by the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> and thus to be mentioned in historical records.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaciałowiczRudnickiStrobin2016136–138-127">[118]</a> They appear in historical sources going as far back as the 3rd century BCE through the 4th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199923-128">[119]</a> Another eastern people known from about 200 BCE, and sometimes believed to be Germanic-speaking, are the <a href="/wiki/Sciri" title="Sciri">Sciri</a> (Greek: Skiroi), who are recorded threatening the city of <a href="/wiki/Olbia_(Pontic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olbia (Pontic)">Olbia</a> on the Black Sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaniotis2013209–211-129">[120]</a> Late in the 2nd century BCE, Roman and Greek sources recount the migrations of the Cimbri, Teutones and <a href="/wiki/Ambrones" title="Ambrones">Ambrones</a> whom Caesar later classified as Germanic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaulMartens1995133,_153–154-130">[121]</a> The movements of these groups through parts of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a> (113–101 BCE) against the Romans, in which the Teutons and Cimbri were victorious over several Roman armies but were ultimately defeated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1979245–247-131">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns200372-132">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoolf2012105–107-133">[124]</a> The first century BCE was a time of the expansion of Germanic-speaking peoples at the expense of Celtic-speaking polities in modern southern Germany and the Czech Republic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199922-134">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a13-135">[126]</a> Before 60 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Ariovistus" title="Ariovistus">Ariovistus</a>, described by Caesar as king of the Germani, led a force including Suevi across the Rhine into Gaul near <a href="/wiki/Besan%C3%A7on" title="Besançon">Besançon</a>, successfully aiding the <a href="/wiki/Sequani" title="Sequani">Sequani</a> against their enemies the <a href="/wiki/Aedui" title="Aedui">Aedui</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magetobriga" title="Battle of Magetobriga">Battle of Magetobriga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanderhoevenVanderhoeven2004144-136">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199945-137">[128]</a> Ariovistus was initially considered an ally of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006204-138">[129]</a> In 58 BCE, with increasing numbers of settlers crossing the Rhine to join Ariovistus, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> went to war with them, defeating them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vosges_(58_BC)" title="Battle of Vosges (58 BC)">Battle of Vosges</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199945-137">[128]</a> <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2006230-139">[130]</a> In the following years Caesar pursued a controversial campaign to conquer all of Gaul on behalf of Rome, establishing the Rhine as a border. In 55 BCE he crossed the Rhine into Germania near <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>. Near modern <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a> he also massacred a large migrating group of <a href="/wiki/Tencteri" title="Tencteri">Tencteri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Usipetes" title="Usipetes">Usipetes</a> who had crossed the Rhine from the east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009212,_note_2-140">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Imperial_Period_to_375">Roman Imperial Period to 375</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Roman Imperial Period to 375">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germania_romana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Germania_romana.jpg/300px-Germania_romana.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Germania_romana.jpg/450px-Germania_romana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Germania_romana.jpg/600px-Germania_romana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="951" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption>The Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Germania_Antiqua" title="Germania Antiqua">Germania</a>, in existence from 7 BCE to 9 CE. The dotted line represents the <a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Limes Germanicus</a>, the fortified border constructed following the final withdrawal of Roman forces from Germania.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Roman_Imperial_period_(27_BCE_–_166_CE)">Early Roman Imperial period (27 BCE – 166 CE)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Early Roman Imperial period (27 BCE – 166 CE)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Imperial_campaigns_in_Germania" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Imperial campaigns in Germania">Early Imperial campaigns in Germania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a></div> Throughout the reign of Augustus—from 27 BCE until 14 CE—the Roman empire expanded into Gaul, with the Rhine as a border. Starting in 13 BCE, there were Roman campaigns across the Rhine for a 28-year period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2004155-141">[132]</a> First came the pacification of the Usipetes, Sicambri, and <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a> near the Rhine, then attacks increased further from the Rhine, on the <a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cherusci" title="Cherusci">Cherusci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suevi" class="mw-redirect" title="Suevi">Suevi</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen2006180–182-142">[133]</a> These campaigns eventually reached and even crossed the Elbe, and in 5 CE Tiberius was able to show strength by having a Roman fleet enter the Elbe and meet the legions in the heart of Germania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen2006183-143">[134]</a> Once Tiberius subdued the Germanic people between the Rhine and the Elbe, the region at least up to <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a>—and possibly up to the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a>—was made the Roman province <a href="/wiki/Germania_Antiqua" title="Germania Antiqua">Germania</a> and provided soldiers to the Roman army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallerDannenbauer197030-144">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021995-145">[136]</a> However, within this period two Germanic kings formed larger alliances. Both of them had spent some of their youth in Rome; the first of them was <a href="/wiki/Maroboduus" title="Maroboduus">Maroboduus</a> of the Marcomanni,<a href="#cite_note-147">[j]</a> who had led his people away from the Roman activities into <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, which was defended by forests and mountains, and had formed alliances with other peoples. In 6 CE, Rome planned an attack against him but the campaign was cut short when forces were needed for the <a href="/wiki/Bellum_Batonianum" title="Bellum Batonianum">Illyrian revolt</a> in the Balkans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallerDannenbauer197030-144">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2016275-148">[138]</a> Just three years later (9 CE), the second of these Germanic figures, <a href="/wiki/Arminius" title="Arminius">Arminius</a> of the Cherusci—initially an ally of Rome—drew a large Roman force into an ambush in northern Germany, and destroyed the three legions of <a href="/wiki/Publius_Quinctilius_Varus" title="Publius Quinctilius Varus">Publius Quinctilius Varus</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest" title="Battle of the Teutoburg Forest">Battle of the Teutoburg Forest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2016276–277-149">[139]</a> Marboduus and Arminius went to war with each other in 17 CE; Arminius was victorious and Marboduus was forced to flee to the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a15-150">[140]</a> Following the Roman defeat at the Teutoburg Forest, Rome gave up on the possibility of fully integrating this region into the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021994-151">[141]</a> Rome launched successful campaigns across the Rhine between 14 and 16 CE under Tiberius and Germanicus, but the effort of integrating Germania now seemed to outweigh its benefits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallerDannenbauer197030–31-152">[142]</a> In the reign of Augustus's successor, Tiberius, it became state policy to expand the empire no further than the frontier based roughly upon the Rhine and Danube, recommendations that were specified in the will of Augustus and read aloud by Tiberius himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells199598-153">[143]</a> Roman intervention in Germania led to a shifting and unstable political situation, in which pro- and anti-Roman parties vied for power. Arminius was murdered in 21 CE by his fellow Germanic tribesmen, due in part to these tensions and for his attempt to claim supreme kingly power for himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a15-150">[140]</a> In the wake of Arminius's death, Roman diplomats sought to keep the Germanic peoples divided and fractious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a16-154">[144]</a> Rome established relationships with individual Germanic kings that are often discussed as being similar to <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client states</a>; however, the situation on the border was always unstable, with rebellions by the <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a> in 28 CE, and attacks by the <a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a> in the 60s CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a16–17-155">[145]</a> The most serious threat to the Roman order was the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Batavi" title="Revolt of the Batavi">Revolt of the Batavi</a> in 69 CE, during the civil wars following the death of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a17-156">[146]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a> had long served as auxiliary troops in the Roman army as well as in the imperial bodyguard as the so-called <a href="/wiki/Numerus_Batavorum" title="Numerus Batavorum">Numerus Batavorum</a>, often called the Germanic bodyguard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoymans200457–58-157">[147]</a> The uprising was led by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Civilis" title="Gaius Julius Civilis">Gaius Julius Civilis</a>, a member of the Batavian royal family and Roman military officer, and attracted a large coalition of people both inside and outside of the Roman territory. The revolt ended following several defeats, with Civilis claiming to have only supported the imperial claims of <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, who was victorious in the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a17–18-158">[148]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg/220px-Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg/330px-Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg/440px-Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bog_body" title="Bog body">bog body</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Osterby_Man" title="Osterby Man">Osterby Man</a>, displaying the <a href="/wiki/Suebian_knot" title="Suebian knot">Suebian knot</a>, a hairstyle which, according to Tacitus, was common among Germanic warriors<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021683-159">[149]</a></figcaption></figure> The century after the Batavian Revolt saw mostly peace between the Germanic peoples and Rome. In 83 CE, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a> attacked the Chatti north of Mainz (Mogontiacum).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a18-160">[150]</a> This war would last until 85 CE. Following the end of the war with the Chatti, Domitian reduced the number of Roman soldiers on the upper Rhine and shifted the Roman military to guarding the Danube frontier, beginning the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">limes</a>, the longest fortified border in the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199952–53-161">[151]</a> The period afterwards was peaceful enough that the emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> reduced the number of soldiers on the frontier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a25-162">[152]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Edward_James_(historian)" title="Edward James (historian)">Edward James</a>, the Romans appear to have reserved the right to choose rulers among the barbarians on the frontier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames201431-163">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marcomannic_Wars_to_375_CE">Marcomannic Wars to 375 CE</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Marcomannic Wars to 375 CE">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></div> Following sixty years of quiet on the frontier, 166 CE saw a major incursion of peoples from north of the Danube during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199954-164">[154]</a> By 168 (during the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_plague" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine plague">Antonine plague</a>), barbarian hosts consisting of Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges, attacked and pushed their way to Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardHeichelheimYeo2016340-165">[155]</a> They advanced as far as Upper Italy, destroyed Opitergium/Oderzo and besieged Aquileia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a26-166">[156]</a> The Romans had finished the war by 180, through a combination of Roman military victories, the resettling of some peoples on Roman territory, and by making alliances with others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199955-167">[157]</a> Marcus Aurelius's successor <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> chose not to permanently occupy any territory conquered north of the Danube, and the following decades saw an increase in the defenses at the limes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a26-166">[156]</a> The Romans renewed their right to choose the kings of the Marcomanni and Quadi, and Commodus forbid them to hold assemblies unless a Roman centurion was present.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames201432-168">[158]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps,_Roma,_Lazio,_00186,_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_(Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus)_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/495px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/660px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10569" data-file-height="7000" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of Romans fighting Goths on the <a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_Battle_sarcophagus" title="Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus">Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus</a> (c. 250–260 CE)</figcaption></figure> The period after the Marcomannic Wars saw the emergence of peoples with new names along the Roman frontiers, which were probably formed by the merger of smaller groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199955-167">[157]</a> These new confederacies or peoples tended to border the Roman imperial frontier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007120-169">[159]</a> Many ethnic names from earlier periods disappear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a26–27-170">[160]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Alamanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Alamanni">Alamanni</a> emerged along the upper Rhine and are mentioned in Roman sources from the third century onward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary1999109-171">[161]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> begin to be mentioned along the lower Danube, where they attacked the city of <a href="/wiki/Histria_(ancient_city)" title="Histria (ancient city)">Histria</a> in 238.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999140-172">[162]</a> The Franks are first mentioned occupying territory between the Rhine and Weser.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199956-173">[163]</a> The Lombards seem to have moved their center of power to the central Elbe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a57-63">[61]</a> Groups such as the Alamanni, Goths, and Franks were not unified polities; they formed multiple, loosely associated groups, who often fought each other and some of whom sought Roman friendship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames201440–45-174">[164]</a> The Romans also begin to mention seaborne attacks by the Saxons, a term used generically in Latin for Germanic-speaking pirates. A system of defenses on both sides of the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">Saxon Shore</a>, was established to deal with their raids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997244-175">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2014122-176">[166]</a> From 250 onward, the Gothic peoples formed the "single most potent threat to the northern frontier of Rome".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199956-173">[163]</a> In 250 CE a Gothic king <a href="/wiki/Cniva" title="Cniva">Cniva</a> led Goths with Bastarnae, Carpi, Vandals, and <a href="/wiki/Taifali" class="mw-redirect" title="Taifali">Taifali</a> into the empire, laying siege to <a href="/wiki/Philippopolis_(Thrace)" title="Philippopolis (Thrace)">Philippopolis</a>. He followed his victory there with another on the marshy terrain at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abritus" title="Battle of Abritus">Abrittus</a>, a battle which cost the life of Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999140-172">[162]</a> In 253/254, further attacks occurred reaching <a href="/wiki/Thessalonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2009112-177">[167]</a> In 267/268 there were large raids led by the Herules in 267/268, and a mixed group of Goths and Herules in 269/270. Gothic attacks were abruptly ended in the years after 270, after a Roman victory in which the Gothic king <a href="/wiki/Cannabaudes" title="Cannabaudes">Cannabaudes</a> was killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999141–142-178">[168]</a> The Roman limes largely collapsed in 259/260,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199957-179">[169]</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a> (235–284),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a57-63">[61]</a> and Germanic raids penetrated as far as northern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a27-180">[170]</a> The limes on the Rhine and upper Danube was brought under control again in 270s, and by 300 the Romans had reestablished control over areas they had abandoned during the crisis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a27-180">[170]</a> From the later third century onward, the Roman army relied increasingly on troops of Barbarian origin, often recruited from Germanic peoples, with some functioning as senior commanders in the Roman army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199959–61-181">[171]</a> In the 4th century, warfare along the Rhine frontier between the Romans and Franks and Alemanni seems to have mostly consisted of campaigns of plunder, during which major battles were avoided.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a35-182">[172]</a> The Romans generally followed a policy of trying to prevent strong leaders from emerging among the barbarians, using treachery, kidnapping, and assassination, paying off rival tribes to attack them, or by supporting internal rivals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007125-183">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Migration_Period_(c._375–568)">Migration Period (c. 375–568)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Migration Period (c. 375–568)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/220px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/330px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/440px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption>2nd century to 6th century simplified migrations</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> is traditionally cited by historians as beginning in 375 CE, under the assumption that the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> prompted the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> to seek shelter within the Roman Empire in 376.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpringer20101020–1021-184">[174]</a> The end of the migration period is usually set at 568 when the Lombards invaded Italy. During this time period, numerous barbarian groups invaded the Roman Empire and established new kingdoms within its boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpringer20101021-185">[175]</a> These Germanic migrations traditionally mark the transition between antiquity and the beginning of the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrather20101034-186">[176]</a> The reasons for the migrations of the period are unclear, but scholars have proposed overpopulation, climate change, bad harvests, famines, and adventurousness as possible reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrather20101035-1036-187">[177]</a> Migrations were probably carried out by relatively small groups rather than entire peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrather20101036-188">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Migration_Period_(before_375–420)">Early Migration Period (before 375–420)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Early Migration Period (before 375–420)">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Greuthungi" title="Greuthungi">Greuthungi</a>, a Gothic group in modern Ukraine under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Ermanaric" title="Ermanaric">Ermanaric</a>, were among the first peoples attacked by the Huns, apparently facing Hunnic pressure for some years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996101-189">[179]</a> Following Ermanaric's death, the Greuthungi's resistance broke and they moved toward the <a href="/wiki/Dniester" title="Dniester">Dniester</a> river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather199698–100-190">[180]</a> A second Gothic group, the <a href="/wiki/Tervingi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tervingi">Tervingi</a> under King <a href="/wiki/Athanaric" title="Athanaric">Athanaric</a>, constructed a <a href="/wiki/Athanaric%27s_Wall" title="Athanaric's Wall">defensive earthwork</a> against the Huns near the Dniester.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999143-191">[181]</a> However, these measures did not stop the Huns and the majority of the Tervingi abandoned Athanaric; they subsequently fled—accompanied by a contingent of Greuthungi—to the Danube in 376, seeking asylum in the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996100-192">[182]</a> The emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> chose only to admit the Tervingi, who were settled in the Roman provinces of <a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999143-191">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996131-193">[183]</a> Due to mistreatment by the Romans, the Tervingi revolted in 377, starting the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376-382)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic War (376-382)">Gothic War</a>, joined by the Greuthungi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996131–132-194">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999143-191">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[k]</a> The Goths and their allies defeated the Romans first at <a href="/wiki/Marcianople" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcianople">Marcianople</a>, then defeated and killed emperor Valens in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a> in 378, destroying two-thirds of Valens' army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007176–178-197">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram199779–87-198">[187]</a> Following further fighting, peace was negotiated in 382, granting the Goths considerable autonomy within the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996135–137-199">[188]</a> However, these Goths—who would be known as the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>—revolted several more times,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996138–139-200">[189]</a> finally coming to be ruled by <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999145-201">[190]</a> In 397, the disunited eastern Empire submitted to some of his demands, possibly giving him control over <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996143–144-202">[191]</a> In the aftermath of the large-scale Gothic entries into the empire, the Franks and Alemanni became more secure in their positions in 395, when <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, the barbarian generalissimo who held power in the western Empire, made agreements with them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007199-203">[192]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stilicho.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Stilicho.jpg/220px-Stilicho.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Stilicho.jpg/330px-Stilicho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Stilicho.jpg/440px-Stilicho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="651" /></a><figcaption>A replica of an ivory <a href="/wiki/Diptych" title="Diptych">diptych</a> probably depicting <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a> (on the right), the son of a <a href="/wiki/Vandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandal">Vandal</a> father and a Roman mother, who became the most powerful man in the Western Roman Empire from 395 to 408 CE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199961-204">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram199789-205">[194]</a></figcaption></figure> In 401, Alaric invaded Italy, coming to an understanding with Stilicho in 404/5.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999145–146-206">[195]</a> This agreement allowed Stilicho to fight against the force of <a href="/wiki/Radagaisus" title="Radagaisus">Radagaisus</a>, who had crossed the Middle Danube in 405/6 and invaded Italy, only to be defeated outside Florence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2009182-207">[196]</a> That same year, a large force of Vandals, Suevi, Alans, and Burgundians <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Rhine" title="Crossing of the Rhine">crossed the Rhine</a>, fighting the Franks but facing no Roman resistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007211-208">[197]</a> In 409, the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans crossing the Pyrenees into Spain, where they took possession of the northern part of the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999172-209">[198]</a> The Burgundians seized the land around modern <a href="/wiki/Speyer" title="Speyer">Speyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worms_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Worms (city)">Worms</a>, and Strasbourg, territory that was recognized by the Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999197-210">[199]</a> When Stilicho fell from power in 408, Alaric invaded Italy again and eventually <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">sacked Rome</a> in 410; Alaric died shortly thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996147–148-211">[200]</a> The Visigoths withdrew into Gaul where they faced a power struggle until the succession of <a href="/wiki/Wallia" title="Wallia">Wallia</a> in 415 and his son <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_I" title="Theodoric I">Theodoric I</a> in 417/18.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996147–149-212">[201]</a> Following successful campaigns against them by the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Flavius Constantius</a>, the Visigoths were settled as Roman allies in Gaul between modern Toulouse and Bourdeaux.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996150-213">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007228–230-214">[203]</a> Other Goths, including those of Athanaric, continued to live outside the empire, with three groups crossing into the Roman territory after the Tervingi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996102–103-215">[204]</a> The Huns gradually conquered Gothic groups north of the Danube, of which at least six are known, from 376 to 400. <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Those in Crimea</a> may never have been conquered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996111–112-216">[205]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a> also formed an important Germanic people under Hunnic rule; the Huns had largely conquered them by 406.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999223-217">[206]</a> One Gothic group under Hunnic domination was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Amal_dynasty" title="Amal dynasty">Amal dynasty</a>, who would form the core of the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996113–114-218">[207]</a> The situation outside the Roman empire in 410s and 420s is poorly attested, but it is clear that the Huns continued to spread their influence onto the middle Danube.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoffart2006109-219">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Hunnic_Empire_(c._420–453)">The Hunnic Empire (c. 420–453)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Hunnic Empire (c. 420–453)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></div> In 428, the Vandal leader <a href="/wiki/Geiseric" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiseric">Geiseric</a> moved his forces across the strait of Gibraltar into north Africa. Within two years, they had conquered most of north Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999176-220">[209]</a> By 434, following a renewed political crisis in Rome, the Rhine frontier had collapsed, and in order to restore it, the Roman magister militum <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Aetius" title="Flavius Aetius">Flavius Aetius</a> engineered the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom in 435/436, possibly with Hunnic mercenaries, and launched several successful campaigns against the Visigoths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007243–244-221">[210]</a> In 439, the Vandals conquered <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, which served as an excellent base for further raids throughout the Mediterranean and became the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999176–177-222">[211]</a> The loss of Carthage forced Aetius to make peace with the Visigoths in 442, effectively recognizing their independence within the boundaries of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007245-247-223">[212]</a> During the resulting peace, Aetius resettled the Burgundians in <a href="/wiki/Sapaudia" title="Sapaudia">Sapaudia</a> in southern Gaul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007248-224">[213]</a> In the 430s, Aetius negotiated peace with the Suevi in Spain, leading to a practical loss of Roman control in the province.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007240-225">[214]</a> Despite the peace, the Suevi expanded their territory by conquering Mérida in 439 and Seville in 441.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999174-226">[215]</a> By 440, <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a> and the Huns had come to rule a multi-ethnic empire north of the Danube; two of the most important peoples within this empire were the <a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a> and the Goths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996109-227">[216]</a> The Gepid king <a href="/wiki/Ardaric" title="Ardaric">Ardaric</a> came to power around 440 and participated in various Hunnic campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999223-217">[206]</a> In 450, the Huns interfered in a Frankish succession dispute, leading in 451 to an invasion of Gaul. Aetius, by uniting a coalition of Visigoths, part of the Franks, and others, was able to defeat the Hunnic army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plains" title="Battle of the Catalaunian Plains">Battle of the Catalaunian Plains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007251–253-228">[217]</a> In 453, Attila died unexpectedly, and an alliance led by Ardaric's Gepids rebelled against the rule of his sons, defeating them in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nedao" title="Battle of Nedao">Battle of Nedao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999223-217">[206]</a> Either before or after Attila's death, <a href="/wiki/Valamer" class="mw-redirect" title="Valamer">Valamer</a>, a Gothic ruler of the Amal dynasty, seems to have consolidated power over a large part of the Goths in the Hunnic domain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996116-229">[218]</a> For the next 20 years, the former subject peoples of the Huns would fight among each other for preeminence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996151–152-230">[219]</a> The arrival of the Saxons in Britain is traditionally dated to 449, however, archaeology indicates they had begun arriving in Britain earlier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames201465-231">[220]</a> Latin sources used Saxon generically for seaborne raiders, meaning that not all of the invaders belonged to the continental Saxons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997244-175">[165]</a> According to the British monk <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> (c. 500 – c. 570), this group had been recruited to protect the <a href="/wiki/Romano-British" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-British">Romano-British</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>, but had revolted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames201464-232">[221]</a> They quickly established themselves as rulers on the eastern part of the island.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997242-233">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="After_the_death_of_Attila_(453–568)">After the death of Attila (453–568)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: After the death of Attila (453–568)">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png/300px-Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png/450px-Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png/600px-Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2830" data-file-height="1967" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a> and peoples after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in 476 CE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mausoleum_of_Theodoric_(Ravenna)_-_Exterior.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric_%28Ravenna%29_-_Exterior.jpg/220px-Mausoleum_of_Theodoric_%28Ravenna%29_-_Exterior.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric_%28Ravenna%29_-_Exterior.jpg/330px-Mausoleum_of_Theodoric_%28Ravenna%29_-_Exterior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric_%28Ravenna%29_-_Exterior.jpg/440px-Mausoleum_of_Theodoric_%28Ravenna%29_-_Exterior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7069" data-file-height="7544" /></a><figcaption>Mausoleum of <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</a></figcaption></figure> In 455, in the aftermath of the death of Aetius in 453 and the murder of emperor <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a> in 455,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007255-234">[223]</a> the Vandals invaded Italy and <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">sacked Rome</a> in 455.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999177-235">[224]</a> In 456, the Romans persuaded the Visigoths to fight the Suevi, who had broken their treaty with Rome. The Visigoths and a force of Burgundians and Franks defeated the Suevi at the Battle of Campus Paramus, reducing Suevi control to northwestern Spain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999174-226">[215]</a> The Visigoths went on to conquer all of the Iberian Peninsula by 484 except a small part that remained under Suevian control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999153-236">[225]</a> The Ostrogoths, led by Valamer's brother Thiudimer, invaded the Balkans in 473. Thiudimer's son <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric</a> succeeded him in 476.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996154–155-237">[226]</a> In that same year, a barbarian commander in the Roman Italian army, <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>, mutinied and removed the final western Roman emperor, <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007280-238">[227]</a> Odoacer ruled Italy for himself, largely continuing the policies of Roman imperial rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007284–285-239">[228]</a> He destroyed the Kingdom of the Rugians, in modern Austria, in 487/488.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a42-240">[229]</a> Theodoric, meanwhile, successfully extorted the Eastern Empire through a series of campaigns in the Balkans. The eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a> agreed to send Theodoric to Italy in 487/8.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996216–217-241">[230]</a> After a successful invasion, Theodoric killed and replaced Odoacer in 493, founding a new Ostrogothic kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996219–220-242">[231]</a> Theodoric died in 526, amid increasing tensions with the eastern empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999170-243">[232]</a> Toward the end of the migration period, in the early 500s, Roman sources portray a completely changed ethnic landscape outside of the empire: the Marcomanni and Quadi disappeared, as had the Vandals. Instead, the Thuringians, Rugians, Sciri, Herules, Goths, and Gepids are mentioned as occupying the Danube frontier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoffart2006111-244">[233]</a> From the mid-5th century onward, the Alamanni had greatly expanded their territory in all directions and launched numerous raids into Gaul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a31-245">[234]</a> The territory under the Frankish influence had grown to encompass northern Gaul and Germania to the Elbe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a34-246">[235]</a> The Frankish king <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> united the various Frankish groups in 490s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999184-247">[236]</a> and conquered the Alamanni by 506.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a32-248">[237]</a> From the 490s onward, Clovis waged wars against the Visigoths, defeating them in 507 and taking control of most of Gaul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999184-247">[236]</a> Clovis's heirs conquered the Thuringians by 530 and the Burgundians by 532.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999200,_240-249">[238]</a> The continental Saxons, composed of many subgroups, were made tributary to the Franks, as were the Frisians, who faced an attack by the Danes under <a href="/wiki/Hygelac" title="Hygelac">Hygelac</a> in 533.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a39–40-250">[239]</a> The Vandal and Ostrogothic kingdoms were destroyed in 534 and 555 respectively by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire under <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2007284-251">[240]</a> Around 500, a new ethnic identity appears in modern southern Germany, the <a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Baiuvarii</a> (Bavarians), under the patronage of Theodoric's Ostrogothic kingdom and then of the Franks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a42-240">[229]</a> The Lombards, moving out of Bohemia, destroyed the kingdom of the Heruli in Pannonia in 510. In 568, after destroying the Gepid kingdom, the last Germanic kingdom in the <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpathian basin">Carpathian basin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a42-240">[229]</a> the Lombards under <a href="/wiki/Alboin" title="Alboin">Alboin</a> invaded northern Italy, eventually conquering most of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999226-252">[241]</a> This invasion has traditionally been regarded as the end of the migration period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpringer20101021-185">[175]</a> The eastern part of Germania, formerly inhabited by the Goths, Gepids, Vandals, and Rugians, was gradually Slavicized, a process enabled by the invasion of the nomadic <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a41-2-253">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Middle_Ages_to_c._800">Early Middle Ages to c. 800</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages to c. 800">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franks_expansion.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franks_expansion.gif/250px-Franks_expansion.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franks_expansion.gif/375px-Franks_expansion.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franks_expansion.gif/500px-Franks_expansion.gif 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption>Frankish expansion from the early kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> (481) to the divisions of <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Charlemagne's Empire</a> (843–870)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_(15139266039).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/British_Museum_%2815139266039%29.jpg/220px-British_Museum_%2815139266039%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/British_Museum_%2815139266039%29.jpg/330px-British_Museum_%2815139266039%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/British_Museum_%2815139266039%29.jpg/440px-British_Museum_%2815139266039%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo_helmet" title="Sutton Hoo helmet">Sutton Hoo helmet</a> from c. 625 in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></figcaption></figure> Merovingian Frankia became divided into three subkingdoms: <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> in the east around the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neustria" title="Neustria">Neustria</a> in the west around <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy" title="Kingdom of Burgundy">Burgundy</a> in the southeast around <a href="/wiki/Chalon-sur-Sa%C3%B4ne" title="Chalon-sur-Saône">Chalon-sur-Saône</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckQuak2010853-254">[243]</a> The Franks ruled a multilingual and multi-ethnic kingdom, divided between a mostly Romance-speaking West and a mostly Germanic-speaking east, that integrated former Roman elites but remained centered on a Frankish ethnic identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckQuak2010857–858-255">[244]</a> In 687, the <a href="/wiki/Pippinids" title="Pippinids">Pippinids</a> came to control the Merovingian rulers as <a href="/wiki/Mayors_of_the_palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayors of the palace">mayors of the palace</a> in Neustria. Under their direction, the subkingdoms of Frankia were reunited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckQuak2010863-864-256">[245]</a> Following the mayoralty of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a>, the Pippinids replaced the Merovingians as kings in 751, when Charles's son <a href="/wiki/Pepin_the_Short" title="Pepin the Short">Pepin the Short</a> became king and founded the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a>. His son, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, would go on to conquer the Lombards, Saxons, and Bavarians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckQuak2010864-865-257">[246]</a> Charlemagne was crowned <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> in 800 and regarded his residence of <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a> as the new Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999193-258">[247]</a> Following their invasion in 568, the Lombards quickly conquered larger parts of the Italian peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999226–227-259">[248]</a> From 574 to 584, a period without a single Lombard ruler, the Lombards nearly collapsed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997293–294-260">[249]</a> until a more centralized Lombard polity emerged under King <a href="/wiki/Agilulf" title="Agilulf">Agilulf</a> in 590.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999228-261">[250]</a> The invading Lombards only ever made up a very small percentage of the Italian population, however Lombard ethnic identity expanded to include people of both Roman and barbarian descent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENedomaScardigli2010129-262">[251]</a> Lombard power reached its peak during the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Liutprand,_King_of_the_Lombards" title="Liutprand, King of the Lombards">Liutprand</a> (712–744).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999234-263">[252]</a> After Liutprand's death, the Frankish King Pippin the Short invaded in 755, greatly weakening the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999234-263">[252]</a> The Lombard kingdom was finally annexed by Charlemagne in 773.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997300-264">[253]</a> After a period of weak central authority, the Visigothic kingdom came under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Liuvigild" title="Liuvigild">Liuvigild</a>, who conquered the Kingdom of the Suebi in 585.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999158,_174-265">[254]</a> A Visigothic identity that was distinct from the Romance-speaking population they ruled had disappeared by 700, with the removal of all legal differences between the two groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1996297–298-266">[255]</a> In 711, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">a Muslim army landed at Grenada</a>; the entire Visigothic kingdom would be conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> by 725.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997277–278-267">[256]</a> In what would become England, the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> were divided into several competing kingdoms, the most important of which were <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhnWilson2010614-268">[257]</a> In the 7th century, Northumbria established overlordship over the other Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, until Mercia revolted under <a href="/wiki/Wulfhere" class="mw-redirect" title="Wulfhere">Wulfhere</a> in 658. Subsequently, Mercia would establish dominance until 825 with the death of King <a href="/wiki/Cenwulf" class="mw-redirect" title="Cenwulf">Cenwulf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhnWilson2010614-268">[257]</a> Few written sources report on <a href="/wiki/Vendel_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Vendel period">Vendel period</a> Scandinavia from 400 to 700, however this period saw profound societal changes and the formation of early states with connections to the Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999210,_219-269">[258]</a> In 793, the first recorded <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Viking</a> raid occurred at <a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne" title="Lindisfarne">Lindisfarne</a>, ushering in the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapelleBrather2010157–158-270">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_paganism">Germanic paganism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Germanic paganism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_folklore" title="Proto-Germanic folklore">Proto-Germanic folklore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Germanic mythology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">List of Germanic deities</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MUFT_-_Oberdorla_G%C3%B6tter_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/MUFT_-_Oberdorla_G%C3%B6tter_2.jpg/164px-MUFT_-_Oberdorla_G%C3%B6tter_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/MUFT_-_Oberdorla_G%C3%B6tter_2.jpg/246px-MUFT_-_Oberdorla_G%C3%B6tter_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/MUFT_-_Oberdorla_G%C3%B6tter_2.jpg/328px-MUFT_-_Oberdorla_G%C3%B6tter_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2168" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Wooden idols from <a href="/wiki/Opfermoor_Vogtei" title="Opfermoor Vogtei">Oberdorla moor</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a>. The idols were found in context with animal bones and other evidence of sacrificial rites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021641–642-271">[260]</a></figcaption></figure> Germanic paganism refers to the traditional, culturally significant religion of the Germanic-speaking peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010863-272">[261]</a> It did not form a uniform religious system across Germanic-speaking Europe, but varied from place to place, people to people, and time to time. In many contact areas (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a> and eastern and northern Scandinavia), it was similar to neighboring religions such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Finnic_peoples" title="Baltic Finnic peoples">Finnic peoples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010865–866-273">[262]</a> The term is sometimes applied as early as the <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, or the earlier <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, but it is more generally restricted to the time period after the Germanic languages had become distinct from other Indo-European languages. From the first reports in Roman sources to the final conversion to Christianity, Germanic paganism thus covers a period of around one thousand years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010866–867-274">[263]</a> Scholars are divided as to the degree of continuity between the religious practices of the earlier Germanic peoples and those attested in later <a href="/wiki/Norse_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse paganism">Norse paganism</a> and elsewhere: while some scholars argue that Tacitus, early medieval sources, and the Norse sources indicate religious continuity, other scholars are highly skeptical of such arguments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020265-275">[264]</a> Like their neighbors and other historically related peoples, the ancient Germanic peoples <a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">venerated numerous indigenous deities</a>. These deities are attested throughout literature authored by or written about Germanic-speaking peoples, including <a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">runic inscriptions</a>, contemporary written accounts, and in folklore after Christianization. As an example, the second of the two <a href="/wiki/Merseburg_charms" title="Merseburg charms">Merseburg charms</a> (two <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> examples of <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a> from a manuscript dated to the ninth century) mentions six deities: <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Woden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baldr" title="Baldr">Balder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinthgunt" title="Sinthgunt">Sinthgunt</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B3l_(Germanic_mythology)" title="Sól (Germanic mythology)">Sunna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frigg" title="Frigg">Frija</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fulla" title="Fulla">Volla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-276">[265]</a> With the exception of Sinthgunt, proposed <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> to these deities occur in other Germanic languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>. By way of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philologists</a> are then able to reconstruct and propose early Germanic forms of these names from early <a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Germanic mythology</a>. Compare the following table: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Old High German </th> <th>Old Norse </th> <th>Old English </th> <th>Proto-Germanic reconstruction </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Wuotan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469-277">[266]</a> </td> <td>Óðinn<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469-277">[266]</a> </td> <td>Wōden<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469-277">[266]</a> </td> <td>*Wōđanaz<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469-277">[266]</a> </td> <td>A deity similarly associated with healing magic in the Old English <a href="/wiki/Nine_Herbs_Charm" title="Nine Herbs Charm">Nine Herbs Charm</a> and particular forms of magic throughout the Old Norse record. This deity is strongly associated with extensions of *Frijjō (see below). </td></tr> <tr> <td>Balder<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200333-278">[267]</a> </td> <td>Baldr<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200333-278">[267]</a> </td> <td>Bældæg<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200333-278">[267]</a> </td> <td>*Balđraz<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200333-278">[267]</a> </td> <td>In Old Norse texts, where the only description of the deity occurs, Baldr is a son of the god Odin and is associated with beauty and light. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sunne<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003361,_385,_387-279">[268]</a> </td> <td>Sól<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003361,_385,_387-279">[268]</a> </td> <td>Sigel<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003361,_385,_387-279">[268]</a> </td> <td>*Sowelō ~ *Sōel<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003385-280">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagnússon1989463–464-281">[270]</a> </td> <td>A theonym identical to the proper noun 'Sun'. A goddess and the personified Sun. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Volla<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003118-282">[271]</a> </td> <td>Fulla<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003118-282">[271]</a> </td> <td>Unattested </td> <td>*Fullōn<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003118-282">[271]</a> </td> <td>A goddess associated with extensions of the goddess *Frijjō (see below). The Old Norse record refers to Fulla as a servant of the goddess Frigg, while the second Merseburg Charm refers to Volla as Friia's sister. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Friia<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114-283">[272]</a> </td> <td>Frigg<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114-283">[272]</a> </td> <td>Frīg<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114-283">[272]</a> </td> <td>*Frijjō<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114-283">[272]</a> </td> <td>Associated with the goddess Volla/Fulla in both the Old High German and Old Norse records, this goddess is also strongly associated with the god Odin (see above) in both the Old Norse and Langobardic records. </td></tr></tbody></table> The structure of the magic formula in this charm has a long history prior to this attestation: it is first known to have occurred in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic India">Vedic India</a>, where it occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>, dated to around 500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-284">[273]</a> Numerous other beings common to various groups of ancient Germanic peoples receive mention throughout the ancient Germanic record. One such type of entity, a variety of supernatural women, is also mentioned in the first of the two Merseburg Charms: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Old High German </th> <th>Old Norse </th> <th>Old English </th> <th>Proto-Germanic reconstruction </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>itis<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200372-285">[274]</a> </td> <td>dís<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200372-285">[274]</a> </td> <td>ides<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200372-285">[274]</a> </td> <td>*đīsō<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200372-285">[274]</a> </td> <td>A type of goddess-like supernatural entity. The West Germanic forms present some linguistic difficulties but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (compare Old English ides Scildinga and Old Norse dís Skjǫldunga).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroonen201396,_114–115-286">[275]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Other widely attested entities from the North and West Germanic folklore include <a href="/wiki/Elf" title="Elf">elves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_(folklore)" title="Dwarf (folklore)">dwarfs</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mare_(folklore)" title="Mare (folklore)">mare</a>. (For more discussion on these entities, see <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_folklore" title="Proto-Germanic folklore">Proto-Germanic folklore</a>.) The great majority of material describing Germanic mythology stems from the North Germanic record. The body of myths among the North Germanic-speaking peoples is known today as <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a> and is attested in numerous works, the most expansive of which are the <a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Prose_Edda" title="Prose Edda">Prose Edda</a>. While these texts were composed in the 13th century, they frequently quote genres of traditional alliterative verse known today as <a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">eddic poetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skald#Skaldic_poetry" title="Skald">skaldic poetry</a> dating to the pre-Christian period.<a href="#cite_note-287">[276]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inscription_on_Golden_horn_of_Gallehus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Inscription_on_Golden_horn_of_Gallehus.jpg/220px-Inscription_on_Golden_horn_of_Gallehus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Inscription_on_Golden_horn_of_Gallehus.jpg/330px-Inscription_on_Golden_horn_of_Gallehus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Inscription_on_Golden_horn_of_Gallehus.jpg/440px-Inscription_on_Golden_horn_of_Gallehus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="623" /></a><figcaption>An image of a museum reproduction of one of the two golden horns of Gallehus, found in Denmark and dating to the early fifth century. Composed in Proto-Norse, the Elder Futhark inscription on the horn features the earliest known generally accepted example of Germanic alliterative verse.</figcaption></figure> West Germanic mythology (that of speakers of, e.g., Old English and Old High German) is comparatively poorly attested. Notable texts include the <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_Baptismal_Vow" title="Old Saxon Baptismal Vow">Old Saxon Baptismal Vow</a> and the Old English <a href="/wiki/Nine_Herbs_Charm" title="Nine Herbs Charm">Nine Herbs Charm</a>. While most extant references are simply to deity names, some narratives do survive into the present, such as the Lombard origin myth, which details a tradition among the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> that features the deities Frea (cognate with Old Norse Frigg) and Godan (cognate with Old Norse Óðinn). Attested in the 7th-century <a href="/wiki/Origo_Gentis_Langobardorum" title="Origo Gentis Langobardorum">Origo Gentis Langobardorum</a> and the 8th-century <a href="/wiki/Historia_Langobardorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Langobardorum">Historia Langobardorum</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a>, the narrative strongly corresponds in numerous ways with the prose introduction to the eddic poem <a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l" title="Grímnismál">Grímnismál</a>, recorded in 13th-century Iceland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek1993298–300-288">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[278]</a> Very few texts make up the corpus of Gothic and other East Germanic languages, and East Germanic paganism and its associated mythic body is especially poorly attested. Notable topics that provide insight into the matter of East Germanic paganism include the <a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Pietroassa" title="Ring of Pietroassa">Ring of Pietroassa</a>, which appears to be a cult object (see also <a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic runic inscriptions</a>), and the mention of the Gothic Anses (cognate with Old Norse <a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a> '(pagan) gods') by <a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-290">[279]</a> Practices associated with the religion of the ancient Germanic peoples see fewer attestations. However, elements of religious practices are discernable throughout the textual record associated with the ancient Germanic peoples, including <a href="/wiki/Sacred_trees_and_groves_in_Germanic_paganism_and_mythology" title="Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology">a focus on sacred groves and trees</a>, the presence of <a href="/wiki/Seeress_(Germanic)" title="Seeress (Germanic)">seeresses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_folklore#Other" title="Proto-Germanic folklore">numerous vocabulary items</a>. The archaeological record has yielded a variety of depictions of deities, a number of them associated with depictions of the ancient Germanic peoples (see <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphic_wooden_cult_figurines_of_Central_and_Northern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe">Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe</a>). Notable from the Roman period are the <a href="/wiki/Matres_and_Matronae" title="Matres and Matronae">Matres and Matronae</a>, some having Germanic names, to whom devotional altars were set up in regions of Germania, Eastern Gaul, and Northern Italy (with a small distribution elsewhere) that were occupied by the Roman army from the first to the fifth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek1993204–205-291">[280]</a> Germanic mythology and religious practice is of particular interest to Indo-Europeanists, scholars who seek to identify aspects of ancient Germanic culture—both in terms of linguistic correspondence and by way of <a href="/wiki/Motif-Index_of_Folk-Literature#Terminology" title="Motif-Index of Folk-Literature">motifs</a>—stemming from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European culture">Proto-Indo-European culture</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a>. The primordial being Ymir, attested solely in Old Norse sources, makes for a commonly cited example. In Old Norse texts, the death of this entity results in creation of the cosmos, a complex of motifs that finds strong correspondence elsewhere in the Indo-European sphere, notably in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic mythology">Vedic mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-292">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conversion_to_Christianity">Conversion to Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Conversion to Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Christianisation of the Germanic peoples</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wulfila_bibel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wulfila_bibel.jpg/235px-Wulfila_bibel.jpg" decoding="async" width="235" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wulfila_bibel.jpg/353px-Wulfila_bibel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wulfila_bibel.jpg/470px-Wulfila_bibel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption>Page from the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Argenteus" title="Codex Argenteus">Codex Argenteus</a> containing the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a> translated by <a href="/wiki/Wulfila" class="mw-redirect" title="Wulfila">Wulfila</a></figcaption></figure> Germanic peoples began entering the Roman Empire in large numbers at the same time that <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> was spreading there,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECusack199835-293">[282]</a> and this connection was a major factor encouraging conversion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2010a356-294">[283]</a> The East Germanic peoples, the Langobards, and the Suevi in Spain converted to <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian Christianity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiekGschwantler2010350-295">[284]</a> a form of Christianity that believed that God the Father was superior to God the Son.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2010a802-296">[285]</a> The first Germanic people to convert to Arianism were the Visigoths, at the latest in 376 when they entered the Roman Empire. This followed a longer period of missionary work by both <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Orthodox</a> Christians and Arians, such as the Arian <a href="/wiki/Wulfila" class="mw-redirect" title="Wulfila">Wulfila</a>, who was made missionary bishop of the Goths in 341 and translated the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Bible into Gothic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiekGschwantler2010350–353-297">[286]</a> The Arian Germanic peoples all eventually converted to Nicene Christianity, which had become the dominant form of Christianity within the Roman Empire; the last to convert were the Visigoths in Spain under their king <a href="/wiki/Reccared" class="mw-redirect" title="Reccared">Reccared</a> in 587.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECusack199850–51-298">[287]</a> The areas of the Roman Empire conquered by the Franks, <a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Baiuvarii</a> were mostly Christian already, but it appears that Christianity declined there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiekGschwantler2010360–362-299">[288]</a> In 496, the Frankish king <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> converted to Nicene Christianity. This began a period of missionizing within Frankish territory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiekGschwantler2010362–364-300">[289]</a> The Anglo-Saxons gradually converted following a mission sent by Pope <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory the Great">Gregory the Great</a> in 595.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStenton1971104–128-301">[290]</a> In the 7th century, Frankish-supported missionary activity spread out of Gaul, led by figures of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mission" title="Anglo-Saxon mission">Anglo-Saxon mission</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiekGschwantler2010364–371-302">[291]</a> The Saxons initially rejected Christianization,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadberg2010588-303">[292]</a> but were eventually forcibly converted by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> as a result of their conquest in the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Wars" title="Saxon Wars">Saxon Wars</a> in 776/777.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadberg2010588–589-304">[293]</a> While attempts to convert the Scandinavian peoples began in 831, they were mostly unsuccessful until the 10th and 11th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiekGschwantler2010389–391-305">[294]</a> The last Germanic people to convert were the Swedes, although the <a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a> had converted earlier. The pagan <a href="/wiki/Temple_at_Uppsala" title="Temple at Uppsala">Temple at Uppsala</a> seems to have continued to exist into the early 1100s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiekGschwantler2010401–404-306">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Runic_writing">Runic writing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Runic writing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kam-med-runer-fra-Vimose_DO-4148_2000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Kam-med-runer-fra-Vimose_DO-4148_2000.jpg/220px-Kam-med-runer-fra-Vimose_DO-4148_2000.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Kam-med-runer-fra-Vimose_DO-4148_2000.jpg/330px-Kam-med-runer-fra-Vimose_DO-4148_2000.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Kam-med-runer-fra-Vimose_DO-4148_2000.jpg/440px-Kam-med-runer-fra-Vimose_DO-4148_2000.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1616" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vimose_Comb" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimose Comb">Vimose Comb</a>, housed at the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Denmark" title="National Museum of Denmark">National Museum of Denmark</a> and dating to around from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 160 CE, bears the oldest generally accepted runic inscription.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2004139-307">[296]</a></figcaption></figure> Germanic speakers developed a native script, the runes (or the fuþark), and the earliest known form of which consists of 24 characters. The runes are generally held to have been used exclusively by Germanic-speaking populations.<a href="#cite_note-310">[l]</a> All known early runic inscriptions are found in Germanic contexts with the potential exception of one inscription, which may indicate cultural transfer between the Germanic speakers to Slavic speakers (and may potentially be the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Christian_Slavic_writing#Evidence_from_archaeology" title="Pre-Christian Slavic writing">earliest known writing among Slavic speakers</a>).<a href="#cite_note-312">[m]</a> Like other indigenous scripts of Europe, the runes ultimately developed from the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>, but unlike similar scripts, the runes were not replaced by the Latin alphabet by the first century BCE. Runes remained in use among the Germanic peoples throughout their history despite the significant influence of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-314">[n]</a> The precise date that Germanic speakers developed the runic alphabet is unknown, with estimates varying from 100 BCE to 100 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1998254-315">[301]</a> Generally accepted inscriptions in the oldest attested form of the script, called the <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a>, date from 200 to 700 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2004125-316">[302]</a> The word rune is widely attested among Germanic languages, where it developed from Proto-Germanic *rūna and held a primary meaning of 'secret',<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2004121-317">[303]</a> but also other meanings such as 'whisper', 'mystery', 'closed deliberation', and 'council'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1998255-318">[304]</a> In most cases, runes appear not to have been used for everyday communication and knowledge of them may have generally been limited to a small group,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1998254-315">[301]</a> for whom the term erilaR is attested from the sixth century onward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2004132-319">[305]</a> The letters of the Elder Futhark are arranged in an order called the futhark, so named after its first six characters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2004121–122-320">[306]</a> The alphabet is supposed to have been extremely phonetic, and each letter could also represent a word or concept, so that, for instance, the f-rune also stood for *fehu ('cattle, property'). Such examples are known as <a href="/wiki/Begriffsrunen" class="mw-redirect" title="Begriffsrunen">Begriffsrunen</a> ('concept runes').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2004123-321">[307]</a> Runic inscriptions are found on organic materials such as wood, bone, horn, ivory, and animal hides, as well as on stone and metal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2010b999–1006-322">[308]</a> Inscriptions tend to be short,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1998254-315">[301]</a> and are difficult to interpret as profane or magical. They include names, inscriptions by the maker of an object, memorials to the dead, as well as inscriptions that are religious or magical in nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüwel2004131–132-323">[309]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_names">Personal names</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Personal names">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr359_Istaby,_Istabystenen_-_KMB_-_16000300013393.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dr359_Istaby%2C_Istabystenen_-_KMB_-_16000300013393.jpg/220px-Dr359_Istaby%2C_Istabystenen_-_KMB_-_16000300013393.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dr359_Istaby%2C_Istabystenen_-_KMB_-_16000300013393.jpg/330px-Dr359_Istaby%2C_Istabystenen_-_KMB_-_16000300013393.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dr359_Istaby%2C_Istabystenen_-_KMB_-_16000300013393.jpg/440px-Dr359_Istaby%2C_Istabystenen_-_KMB_-_16000300013393.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Istaby_Runestone" title="Istaby Runestone">The Istaby Stone (DR359)</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Runestone" title="Runestone">runestone</a> that features a <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Norse">Proto-Norse</a> <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a> inscription describing three generations of men. Their names share the common element of 'wolf' (wulfaz) and alliterate.</figcaption></figure> Germanic personal names are commonly dithematic, consisting of two components that may be combined freely (such as the Old Norse female personal name Sigríðr, consisting of sigr 'victory' + fríðr 'beloved'). As summarized by Per Vikstrand, "The old Germanic personal names are, from a social and ideological point of view, characterized by three main features: religion, heroism, and family bonds. The religious aspect [of Germanic names] seems to be an inherited, Indo-European trace, which the Germanic languages share with Greek and other Indo-European languages."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVikstrand2020127-324">[310]</a> One point of debate surrounding Germanic name-giving practice is whether name elements were considered semantically meaningful when combined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVikstrand2020127-324">[310]</a> Whatever the case, an element of a name could be inherited by a male or female's offspring, leading to an alliterative lineage (related, see <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Istaby_Runestone" title="Istaby Runestone">runestone D359 in Istaby, Sweden</a> provides one such example, where three generations of men are connected by way of the element *wulfaz, meaning 'wolf' (the alliterative Haþuwulfaz, *Heruwulfaz, and Hariwulfaz).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVikstrand2020127-324">[310]</a> Sacral components to Germanic personal names are also attested, including elements such as *hailaga- and *wīha- (both usually translated as 'holy, sacred', see for example <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9_(shrine)" title="Vé (shrine)">Vé</a>), and deity names (<a href="/wiki/Theonym" title="Theonym">theonyms</a>). Deity names as first components of personal names are attested primarily in Old Norse names, where they commonly reference in particular the god <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a> (Old Norse Þórr).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVikstrand2020129-132-325">[311]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry_and_legend">Poetry and legend</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Poetry and legend">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">Alliterative verse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_heroic_legend" title="Germanic heroic legend">Germanic heroic legend</a></div> The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples were a largely <a href="/wiki/Orality" title="Orality">oral culture</a>. Written literature in Germanic languages is not recorded until the 6th century (<a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a>) or the 8th century in modern England and Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010609-326">[312]</a> The philologist <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Heusler" title="Andreas Heusler">Andreas Heusler</a> proposed the existence of various genres of literature in the "Old Germanic" period, which were largely based on genres found in high medieval <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> poetry. These include ritual poetry, epigrammatic poetry (Spruchdichtung), memorial verses (Merkdichtung), lyric, narrative poetry, and praise poetry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010614–615-327">[313]</a> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Beck_(philologist)" title="Heinrich Beck (philologist)">Heinrich Beck</a> suggests that, on the basis of Latin mentions in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the following genres can be adduced: <a href="/wiki/Origo_gentis" title="Origo gentis">origo gentis</a> (the origin of a people or their rulers), the fall of heroes (casus heroici), praise poetry, and laments for the dead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010616-328">[314]</a> Some stylistic aspects of later Germanic poetry appear to have origins in the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European">Indo-European</a> period, as shown by comparison with ancient Greek and Sanskrit poetry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010609–611-329">[315]</a> Originally, the Germanic-speaking peoples shared a metrical and poetic form, alliterative verse, which is attested in very similar forms in Old Saxon, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, and in a modified form in <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaymesSamples199639–40-330">[316]</a> Alliterative verse is not attested in the small extant <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> corpus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoering2020242-331">[317]</a> The poetic forms diverge among the different languages from the 9th century onward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillet200827–28-332">[318]</a> Later Germanic peoples shared a common <a href="/wiki/Germanic_heroic_legend" title="Germanic heroic legend">legendary tradition</a>. These heroic legends mostly involve historical personages who lived during the <a href="/wiki/Migration_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration period">migration period</a> (4th–6th centuries CE), placing them in highly ahistorical and mythologized settings;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillet20084–7-333">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-335">[o]</a> they originate and develop as part of an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillet200811–13-336">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiefenbachReichertBeck1999267–268-337">[322]</a> Some early Gothic heroic legends are already found in <a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>' Getica (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 551).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaubrichs2004519-338">[323]</a> The close link between Germanic heroic legend and Germanic language and possibly poetic devices is shown by the fact that the Germanic speakers in <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> who adopted a Romance language, do not preserve Germanic legends but rather developed their own heroic folklore—excepting the figure of <a href="/wiki/Walter_of_Aquitaine" title="Walter of Aquitaine">Walter of Aquitaine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhosh2007249-339">[324]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_law">Germanic law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Germanic law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic law">Early Germanic law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bracteate_from_Funen,_Denmark_(DR_BR42).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Bracteate_from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg/220px-Bracteate_from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Bracteate_from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg/330px-Bracteate_from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Bracteate_from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg/440px-Bracteate_from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1641" data-file-height="1540" /></a><figcaption>Germanic bracteate from Funen, Denmark</figcaption></figure> Until the middle of the 20th century, the majority of scholars assumed the existence of a distinct Germanic legal culture and law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDilcher2011241–242-340">[325]</a> Early ideas about Germanic law have come under intense scholarly scrutiny since the 1950s, and specific aspects of it such as the legal importance of <a href="/wiki/Sippe" title="Sippe">Sippe</a>, retinues, and loyalty, and the concept of outlawry can no longer be justified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010811-341">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDilcher2011245-342">[327]</a> Besides the assumption of a common Germanic legal tradition and the use of sources of different types from different places and time periods,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010811-341">[326]</a> there are no native sources for early Germanic law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010798–799-343">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDilcher2011243-344">[329]</a> The earliest written legal sources, the Leges Barbarorum, were all written under Roman and Christian influence and often with the help of Roman jurists,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELück2010423–424-345">[330]</a> and contain large amounts of "Vulgar Latin Law", an unofficial legal system that functioned in the Roman provinces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010800–801-346">[331]</a> As of 2023, scholarly consensus is that Germanic law is best understood in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, in that whereas Roman law was "learned" and the same across regions, Germanic law was not learned and incorporated regional peculiarities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDusilKannowskiSchwedler202378-347">[332]</a> Common elements include an emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Orality" title="Orality">orality</a>, gesture, formulaic language, legal symbolism, and ritual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDilcher2011246–247-348">[333]</a> Some items in the "Leges", such as the use of vernacular words, may reveal aspects of originally Germanic, or at least non-Roman, law. Legal historian Ruth Schmidt-Wiegand writes that this vernacular, often in the form of Latinized words, belongs to "the oldest layers of a Germanic legal language" and shows some similarities to Gothic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidt-Wiegand2010396-349">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010801-350">[335]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warfare">Warfare</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Warfare">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg/220px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg/330px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg/440px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Image of Romans fighting the <a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Column of Marcus Aurelius">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a> (193 CE)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_warfare" title="Early Germanic warfare">Early Germanic warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_organization_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Military organization of the Germanic peoples">Military organization of the Germanic peoples</a></div> Warfare seems to have been a constant in Germanic society,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021673-351">[336]</a> including conflicts among and within Germanic peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021794-352">[337]</a> There is no common Germanic word for "war", and it was not necessarily differentiated from other forms of violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010665–667-353">[338]</a> Historical information on Germanic warfare almost entirely depends on Greco-Roman sources,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200462-354">[339]</a> however their accuracy has been questioned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674-355">[340]</a> The core of the army was formed by the <a href="/wiki/Comitatus_(warband)" title="Comitatus (warband)">comitatus</a> (retinue), a group of warriors following a chief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021785-356">[341]</a> As retinues grew larger, their names could become associated with entire peoples. Many retinues functioned as <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a> (mercenary units in the Roman army).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021793–794-357">[342]</a> Roman sources stress, perhaps partially as a <a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">literary topos</a>, that the Germanic peoples fought without discipline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199868–69-358">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200463-359">[344]</a> Germanic warriors fought mostly on foot,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199935-360">[345]</a> in tight formations in close combat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663-361">[346]</a> Tacitus mentions a single formation as used by the Germani, the wedge (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: cuneus).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010678–679-362">[347]</a> Cavalry was rare: in the Roman period, it mostly consisted of chiefs and their immediate retinues,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199935-360">[345]</a> who may have dismounted to fight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672-363">[348]</a> However, East Germanic peoples such as the Goths developed cavalry forces armed with lances due to contact with various nomadic peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199942-364">[349]</a> Archaeological finds, mostly in the form of grave goods, indicate that most warriors were armed with spear, shield, and often with swords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663-361">[346]</a> Higher status individuals were often buried with spurs for riding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672-363">[348]</a> The only archaeological evidence for helmets and <a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">chain mail</a> shows them to be of Roman manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021661-365">[350]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy_and_material_culture">Economy and material culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Economy and material culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture_and_population_density">Agriculture and population density</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Agriculture and population density">edit</a>]</div> Unlike agriculture in the Roman provinces, which was organized around the large farms known as <a href="/wiki/Villa_rustica" title="Villa rustica">villae rusticae</a>, Germanic agriculture was organized around villages. When Germanic peoples expanded into northern Gaul in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, they brought this village-based agriculture with them, which increased the agricultural productivity of the land; <a href="/wiki/Heiko_Steuer" title="Heiko Steuer">Heiko Steuer</a> suggests this means that Germania was more agriculturally productive than is generally assumed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021409-366">[351]</a> Villages were not distant from each other but often within sight, revealing a fairly high population density, and contrary to the assertions of Roman sources, only about 30% of Germania was covered in forest, about the same percentage as today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer20211273-367">[352]</a> Based on pollen samples and the finds of seeds and plant remains, the chief grains cultivated in Germania were barley, oats, and wheat (both <a href="/wiki/Einkorn" title="Einkorn">Einkorn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emmer" title="Emmer">emmer</a>), while the most common vegetables were beans and peas. Flax was also grown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199979-368">[353]</a> Agriculture in Germania relied heavily on animal husbandry, primarily the raising of cattle, which were smaller than their Roman counterparts<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199976–77-369">[354]</a> Both cultivation and animal husbandry methods improved with time, with examples being the introduction of rye, which grew better in Germania, and the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Three-field_system" title="Three-field system">three-field system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021410-370">[355]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crafts">Crafts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Crafts">edit</a>]</div> It is unclear if there was a special class of craftsmen in Germania, however archaeological finds of tools are frequent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021427–428-371">[356]</a> Many everyday items such as dishes were made out of wood, and archaeology has found the remains of wooden well construction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021248-372">[357]</a> The 4th-century CE Nydam and Illerup ships show highly developed knowledge of ship construction, while elite graves have revealed wooden furniture with complex <a href="/wiki/Woodworking_joints" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodworking joints">joinery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021429-373">[358]</a> Products made from ceramics included cooking, drinking, and storage, vessels, as well as lamps. While originally formed by hand, the period around 1 CE saw the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">potter's wheel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021435-374">[359]</a> Some of the ceramics produced on potter's wheels seem to have been done in direct imitation of Roman wares,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999130-375">[360]</a> and may have been produced by Romans in Germania or by Germani who had learned Roman techniques while serving in the Roman army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021507-376">[361]</a> The shape and decoration of Germanic ceramics vary by region and archaeologists have traditionally used these variations to determine larger cultural areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021434-377">[362]</a> Many ceramics were probably produced locally in hearths, but large pottery kilns have also been discovered, and it seems clear that there were areas of specialized production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999130-375">[360]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metalworking">Metalworking</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Metalworking">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viking_gold_necklace2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Viking_gold_necklace2.jpg/220px-Viking_gold_necklace2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Viking_gold_necklace2.jpg/330px-Viking_gold_necklace2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Viking_gold_necklace2.jpg/440px-Viking_gold_necklace2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1078" /></a><figcaption> A 5th-century CE gold collar from Ålleberg, Sweden. It displays Germanic <a href="/wiki/Filigree" title="Filigree">filigree</a> work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999123-378">[363]</a></figcaption></figure> Despite the claims of Roman writers such as Tacitus that the Germani had little iron and lacked expertise in working it, deposits of iron were commonly found in Germania and Germanic smiths were skillful metalworkers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999127-379">[364]</a> Smithies are known from multiple settlements, and smiths were often buried with their tools.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021469-380">[365]</a> An iron mine discovered at Rudki, in the <a href="/wiki/%C5%81ysog%C3%B3ry" title="Łysogóry">Łysogóry</a> mountains of modern central Poland, operated from the 1st to the 4th centuries CE and included a substantial smelting workshop; similar facilities have been found in Bohemia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999128–129-381">[366]</a> The remains of large smelting operations have been discovered by <a href="/wiki/Ribe" title="Ribe">Ribe</a> in Jutland (4th to 6th century CE),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021444-382">[367]</a> as well as at Glienick in northern Germany and at <a href="/wiki/Heeten" class="mw-redirect" title="Heeten">Heeten</a> in the Netherlands (both 4th century CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021448–449-383">[368]</a> Germanic smelting furnaces may have produced metal that was as high-quality as that produced by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999129-384">[369]</a> In addition to large-scale production, nearly every individual settlement seems to have produced some iron for local use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021444-382">[367]</a> Iron was used for agricultural tools, tools for various crafts, and for weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021452-385">[370]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> was needed in order to make molds and for the production of jewelry, however it is unclear if the Germani were able to produce lead. While lead mining is known from within the <a href="/wiki/Siegerland" title="Siegerland">Siegerland</a> across the Rhine from the Roman Empire, it is sometimes theorized that this was the work of Roman miners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021455–456-386">[371]</a> Another mine within Germania was near modern <a href="/wiki/Soest,_Germany" title="Soest, Germany">Soest</a>, where again it is theorized that lead was exported to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021459–460-387">[372]</a> The neighboring Roman provinces of <a href="/wiki/Germania_superior" class="mw-redirect" title="Germania superior">Germania superior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germania_inferior" class="mw-redirect" title="Germania inferior">Germania inferior</a> produced a great deal of lead, which has been found stamped as plumbum Germanicum ("Germanic lead") in Roman shipwrecks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021455–457-388">[373]</a> Deposits of gold are not found naturally within Germania and had to either be imported<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999120-389">[374]</a> or could be found having naturally washed down rivers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021510–511-390">[375]</a> The earliest known gold objects made by Germanic craftsmen are mostly small ornaments dating from the later 1st century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999120-389">[374]</a> Silver working likewise dates from the first century CE, and silver often served as a decorative element with other metals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999126–127-391">[376]</a> From the 2nd century onward, increasingly complex gold jewelry was made, often inlaid with precious stones and in a <a href="/wiki/Polychrome_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Polychrome style">polychrome style</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999122–123-392">[377]</a> Inspired by Roman metalwork, Germanic craftsmen also began working with gold and silver-gilt foils on belt buckles, jewelry, and weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999123-378">[363]</a> Pure gold objects produced in the late Roman period included <a href="/wiki/Torc" title="Torc">torcs</a> with snakeheads, often displaying <a href="/wiki/Filigree" title="Filigree">filigree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">cloisonné</a> work, techniques that dominated throughout Germanic Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999123–124-393">[378]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing_and_textiles">Clothing and textiles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Clothing and textiles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorsberg_Trousers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Thorsberg_Trousers.jpg/220px-Thorsberg_Trousers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Thorsberg_Trousers.jpg/330px-Thorsberg_Trousers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Thorsberg_Trousers.jpg/440px-Thorsberg_Trousers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>A pair of trousers with attached stockings found in the <a href="/wiki/Thorsberg_moor" title="Thorsberg moor">Thorsberg moor</a> (3rd century CE)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021431-394">[379]</a></figcaption></figure> Clothing does not generally preserve well archaeologically. Early Germanic clothing is shown on some Roman stone monuments such as <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Column of Marcus Aurelius">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a>, and is occasionally discovered in finds from in <a href="/wiki/Moorland" title="Moorland">moors</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021430–431-395">[380]</a> mostly from Scandinavia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanck-BurgessMüllerHägg20101214-396">[381]</a> Frequent finds include long trousers, sometimes including connected stockings, shirt-like gowns (Kittel) with long sleeves, large pieces of cloth, and capes with fur on the inside.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanck-BurgessMüllerHägg20101214–1215-397">[382]</a> All of these are thought to be male clothing, while finds of tubular garments are thought to be female clothing. These would have reached to the ankles and would likely have been held in place by brooches at the height of the shoulders, as shown on Roman monuments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanck-BurgessMüllerHägg20101215-398">[383]</a> On Roman depictions, the dress was gathered below the breast or at the waist, and there are frequently no sleeves. Sometimes a blouse or skirt is depicted below the dress, along with a neckerchief around the throat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999131-399">[384]</a> By the middle of the 5th century CE, both men and women among the continental Germanic peoples came to wear a Roman-style <a href="/wiki/Tunic" title="Tunic">tunic</a> as their most important piece of clothing. This was secured at the waist and likely adopted due to intensive contact with the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanck-BurgessMüllerHägg20101221–1222-400">[385]</a> The Romans typically depict Germanic men and women as bareheaded, although some head-coverings have been found. Although Tacitus mentions an undergarment made of linen, no examples of these have been found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999131-399">[384]</a> Surviving examples indicate that Germanic textiles were of high quality and mostly made of <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">wool</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021431-394">[379]</a> Roman depictions show the Germani wearing materials that were only lightly worked.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanck-BurgessMüllerHägg20101216-401">[386]</a> Surviving examples indicate that a variety of weaving techniques were used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999131-399">[384]</a> Leather was used for shoes, belts, and other gear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021433–434-402">[387]</a> <a href="/wiki/Spindle_(textiles)" title="Spindle (textiles)">Spindles</a>, sometimes made of glass or amber, and the weights from <a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">looms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Distaff" title="Distaff">distaffs</a> are frequently found in Germanic settlements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021431-394">[379]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade">Trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Trade">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athena-Schale_Hildesheimer_Silberfund.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Athena-Schale_Hildesheimer_Silberfund.jpg/280px-Athena-Schale_Hildesheimer_Silberfund.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Athena-Schale_Hildesheimer_Silberfund.jpg/420px-Athena-Schale_Hildesheimer_Silberfund.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Athena-Schale_Hildesheimer_Silberfund.jpg/560px-Athena-Schale_Hildesheimer_Silberfund.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3067" data-file-height="2358" /></a><figcaption>The Minerva Bowl, part of the <a href="/wiki/Hildesheim_Treasure" title="Hildesheim Treasure">Hildesheim Treasure</a>, likely a Roman diplomatic gift.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200464-403">[388]</a> The treasure may date from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (37–68 CE) or the early <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a> (69–96 CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199992-404">[389]</a></figcaption></figure> Archaeology shows that from at least the turn of the 3rd century CE larger regional settlements in Germania existed that were not exclusively involved in an agrarian economy, and that the main settlements were connected by paved roads. The entirety of Germania was within a system of long-distance trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer20211274–1275-405">[390]</a> Migration-period seaborne trade is suggested by <a href="/wiki/Gudme" title="Gudme">Gudme</a> on the Danish island of <a href="/wiki/Funen" title="Funen">Funen</a> and other harbors on the Baltic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199998-406">[391]</a> Roman trade with Germania is poorly documented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199988-407">[392]</a> Roman merchants crossing the Alps for Germania are recorded already by Caesar in the 1st century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200464-403">[388]</a> During the imperial period, most trade probably took place in trading posts in Germania or at major Roman bases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199989-408">[393]</a> The most well-known Germanic export to the Roman Empire was amber, with a trade centered on the Baltic coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200465-409">[394]</a> Economically, however, amber is likely to have been fairly unimportant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199995-410">[395]</a> The use of Germanic loanwords in surviving Latin texts suggests that besides amber (glaesum), the Romans also imported the feathers of Germanic geese (ganta) and hair dye (sapo). Germanic slaves were also a major commodity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200466-411">[396]</a> Archaeological discoveries indicate that lead was exported from Germania as well, perhaps mined in Roman-Germanic "joint ventures".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021461-412">[397]</a> Products imported from Rome are found archaeologically throughout the Germanic sphere and include vessels of bronze and silver, glassware, pottery, brooches; other products such as textiles and foodstuffs may have been just as important.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199987-413">[398]</a> Rather than mine and smelt <a href="/wiki/Non-ferrous_metal" title="Non-ferrous metal">non-ferrous metals</a> themselves, Germanic smiths seem to have often preferred to melt down finished metal objects from Rome, which were imported in large numbers, including coins, metal vessels, and metal statues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021463–469-414">[399]</a> Tacitus mentions in Germania chapter 23 that the Germani living along the Rhine bought wine, and Roman wine has been found in Denmark and northern Poland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200464-403">[388]</a> Finds of Roman silver coinage and weapons might have been war booty or the result of trade, while high quality silver items may have been diplomatic gifts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199987–88-415">[400]</a> Roman coinage may have acted as a form of currency as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999101-416">[401]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_Axe_culture#Genetics" title="Battle Axe culture">Battle Axe culture § Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture#Genetics" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker culture § Genetics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age#Genetics" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age § Genetics</a></div> The use of genetic studies to investigate the Germanic past is controversial, with scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Guy_Halsall" title="Guy Halsall">Guy Halsall</a> suggesting it could represent a hearkening back to 19th-century ideas of race.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2014518-417">[402]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Brather" title="Sebastian Brather">Sebastian Brather</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heizmann" title="Wilhelm Heizmann">Wilhelm Heizmann</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Steffen_Patzold" title="Steffen Patzold">Steffen Patzold</a> write that genetics studies are of great use for demographic history, but cannot give us any information about cultural history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202132–33-418">[403]</a> In a 2013 book which reviewed studies made up until then, scholars noted that most Germanic speakers today have a <a href="/wiki/Y-DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-DNA">Y-DNA</a> that is a mixture including <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_I1_(Y-DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup I1 (Y-DNA)">haplogroup I1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a#R-Z282_(R1a1a1b1a)_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Haplogroup R1a">R1a1a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269#R-P312" title="Haplogroup R-M269">R1b-P312</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269#R1b1a1a2a1a1_(R-U106)" title="Haplogroup R-M269">R1b-U106</a>; however, the authors also note that these groups are older than Germanic languages and found among speakers of other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManco2013208-419">[404]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_reception">Modern reception</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Modern reception">edit</a>]</div> The rediscovery of Tacitus's Germania in the 1450s was used by German <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanists</a> to claim a glorious classical past for their nation that could compete with that of Greece and Rome,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonecker202068-420">[405]</a> and to equate the "Germanic" with the "German".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200425–26-421">[406]</a> While the humanists' notion of the "Germanic" was initially vague, later it was narrowed and used to support a notion of German(ic) superiority to other nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonecker202067–71-422">[407]</a> Equally important was <a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Getica" title="Getica">Getica</a>, rediscovered by <a href="/wiki/Aeneas_Sylvius_Piccolomini" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini">Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini</a> in the mid-15th century and first printed in 1515 by <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Peutinger" title="Konrad Peutinger">Konrad Peutinger</a>, which depicted Scandinavia as the "womb of nations" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: vagina nationum) from which all the historical northeastern European barbarians migrated in the distant past.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonecker202075-423">[408]</a> While treated with suspicion by German scholars, who preferred the indigenous origin given by Tacitus, this motif became very popular in contemporary Swedish <a href="/wiki/Gothicism" title="Gothicism">Gothicism</a>, as it supported Sweden's imperial ambitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonecker202076-424">[409]</a> Peutinger printed the Getica together with <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Deacon" title="Paul the Deacon">Paul the Deacon</a>'s History of the Lombards, so that the Germania, the Getica, and the History of the Lombards formed the basis for the study of the Germanic past.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202040-425">[410]</a> Scholars did not clearly differentiate between the Germanic peoples, Celtic peoples, and the "Scythian peoples" until the late 18th century with the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European">Indo-European</a> and the establishment of language as the primary criterion for nationality. Before that time, German scholars considered the Celtic peoples to be part of the Germanic group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonecker202080–84-426">[411]</a> The beginning of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Germanic philology</a> proper starts around the turn of the 19th century, with <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Jacob</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Grimm" title="Wilhelm Grimm">Wilhelm Grimm</a> being the two most significant founding figures. Their oeuvre included various monumental works on linguistics, culture, and literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold20215–6-427">[412]</a> Jacob Grimm offered many arguments identifying the <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> as the "most Germanic" of the Germanic-speaking peoples, many of which were taken up later by others who sought to equate "Germanicness" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Germanentum) with "Germanness" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Deutschtum).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200426–27-428">[413]</a> Grimm also argued that the Scandinavian sources were, while much later, more "pure" attestations of "Germanness" than those from the south, an opinion that remains common today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200427-429">[414]</a> German <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> thinkers of the <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Völkisch">völkisch</a> movement placed a great emphasis on the connection of modern Germans to the Germania using Tacitus to prove the purity and virtue of the German people, which had allowed them to conquer the decadent Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMosse196467–71-430">[415]</a> German historians used the Germanic past to argue for a <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a>, democratic form of government and a unified German state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202111-431">[416]</a> Contemporary <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalism</a> in Scandinavia placed more weight on the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a>, resulting in the movement known as <a href="/wiki/Scandinavism" title="Scandinavism">Scandinavism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerry201227,_220,_238–248-432">[417]</a> In the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Kossinna" title="Gustaf Kossinna">Gustaf Kossinna</a> developed several widely accepted theories tying archaeological finds of specific assemblages of objects. Kossina used his theories to extend Germanic identity back to the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic period">Neolithic period</a> and to state with confidence when and where various Germanic and other peoples had migrated within Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999251–252-433">[418]</a> In the 1930s and 40s, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> made use of notions of Germanic "purity" reaching back into the earliest prehistoric times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd19999-10">[9]</a> Nazi ideologues also used the "Germanic" nature of peoples such as the Franks and Goths to justify territorial annexations in northern France, Ukraine, and the Crimea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall200714-434">[419]</a> Scholars reinterpreted Germanic culture to justify the Nazis' rule as anchored in the Germanic past, emphasizing noble leaders and warlike retinues who dominated surrounding peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202111–12-435">[420]</a> After 1945, these associations led to a scholarly backlash and re-examining of Germanic origins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd19999-10">[9]</a> Many medieval specialists have even argued that scholars should avoid the term Germanic altogether since it is too emotionally charged, adding that it has been politically abused and creates more confusion than clarity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser2007379-436">[421]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">List of early Germanic peoples</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> The earlier <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a> of southern Scandinavia also shows definite population and material continuities with the Jastorf Culture,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010636-7">[7]</a> but it is unclear whether these indicate ethnic continuity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199911-8">[8]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Tacitus, Germania 43: Cotinos Gallica, Osos Pannonica lingua coarguit non esse Germanos. However they were Germanic by country (natio), Germania 28: Osis, Germanorum natione. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> The reconstruction of such loanwords remains a difficult task, since no descendant language of substrate dialects is attested, and plausible etymological explanations have been found for many Germanic lexemes previously regarded as of non-Indo-European origin. The English term sword, long regarded as "without etymology", was found to be cognate with the Ancient Greek áor, the sword hung to the shoulder with valuable rings, both descending from the PIE root *swerd-, denoting the 'suspended sword'. Similarly, the word hand could descend from a PGer. form *handu- 'pike' (< *handuga- 'having a pike'), possibly related to Greek kenteîn 'to stab, poke' and kéntron 'stinging agent, pricker'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeebold2017978–979-74">[72]</a> However, there is still a set of words of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> origin, attested in <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> since the 8th c., which have found so far no competing Indo-European etymologies, however unlikely: e.g., Adel 'aristocratic lineage'; Asch 'barge'; Beute 'board'; Loch 'lock'; Säule 'pillar'; etc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeebold2017979–980-75">[73]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRübekeil2017">Rübekeil 2017</a>, pp. 996–997: West Germanic: "There seems to be a principal distinction between the northern and the southern part of this group; the demarcation between both parts, however, is a matter of controversy. The northern part, North Sea Gmc or Ingvaeonic, is the larger one, but it is a moot point whether Old Saxon and Old Low Franconian really belong to it, and if yes, to what extent they participate in all its characteristic developments. (...) As a whole, there are arguments for a close relationship between Anglo-Frisian on the one hand and Old Saxon and Old Low Franconian on the other; there are, however, counter-arguments as well. The question as to whether the common features are old and inherited or have emerged by connections over the North Sea is still controversial." </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIversenKroonen2017">Iversen & Kroonen 2017</a>, p. 521: "In the more than 250 years (ca. 2850–2600 B.C.E.) when late Funnel Beaker farmers coexisted with the new <a href="/wiki/Single_Grave_culture" title="Single Grave culture">Single Grave culture</a> communities within a relatively small area of present-day Denmark, processes of cultural and linguistic exchange were almost inevitable—if not widespread." </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRinge2006">Ringe 2006</a>, p. 85: "Early Jastorf, at the end of the 7th century BCE, is almost certainly too early for the last common ancestor of the attested languages; but later Jastorf culture and its successors occupy so much territory that their populations are most unlikely to have spoken a single dialect, even granting that the expansion of the culture was relatively rapid. It follows that our reconstructed PGmc was only one of the dialects spoken by peoples identified archeologically, or by the Romans, as 'Germans'; the remaining Germanic peoples spoke sister dialects of PGmc." <a href="#CITEREFPolomé1992">Polomé 1992</a>, p. 51: "...if the Jastorf culture and, probably, the neighboring Harpstedt culture to the west constitute the Germanic homeland, a spread of Proto-Germanic northwards and eastwards would have to be assumed, which might explain both the archaisms and the innovative features of North Germanic and East Germanic, and would fit nicely with recent views locating the homeland of the Goths in Poland." </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Mallory and Adams observe: "The Przeworsk Culture shows continuity with preceding cultures (Lusatian) and insures that the Slavic homeland was in its territory from whence the Venedi, one of the earliest historically attested Slavic tribes are specifically derived. On the other hand, Germanicists have argued that the Przeworsk culture was occupied by the Elbe-Germanic tribes and there are also those who argue that the Przeworsk reflects both a Germanic and Slavic component."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997470-114">[108]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoch2020">Koch 2020</a>, pp. 79–80: "New words shared between these languages at this period are not detectable as loanwords. The smaller number that do show Celtic innovations probably post-date the transition from Pre-Celtic to Proto-Celtic ~1200 BC. For example, the Celto-Germanic group name giving Proto-Germanic *Burgunþaz and Pro-Celtic *Brigantes was *Bhr̥ghn̥tes, which then independently underwent the Germanic and Celtic treatments of Proto-Indo-European syllabic *r̥ and *n̥ . It would be unlikely for the name to have its attested Germanic form if it had been borrowed from Celtic after ~1200 BC and probably impossible after ~900 BC." </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010">Timpe & Scardigli 2010</a>, pp. 581–582: "Also: eine Gemeinsamkeit von Germ., Balt. und Slaw., wobei die Neuerungen vor allem in einer Gemeinsamkeit von Germ. und Balt. zum Ausdruck kommen; die Gemeinsamkeit von Germ. und Slaw. beruht mehr auf der Bewahrung urspr. Verhältnisse und weist damit nicht auf engere Gemeinsamkeiten im Verlauf der Entwicklung. (...) Die Kontakte zum Extrem auf der anderen Seite, dem Slaw., sind wohl nur als eine Begleiterscheinung der Kontakte zum Balt. aufzufassen. Diese Kontakte zum Balt. müssen allerdings teilweise recht alt sein."; <a href="#CITEREFSimmelkjær_Sandgaard_HansenKroonen2022">Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen & Kroonen 2022</a>, pp. 166–167: "... as for the Balto-Slavic connection, other pieces of evidence show shared innovations with Baltic only, not with Slavic, which indicates a period of contact and joint development between Germanic and Balto-Slavic languages during a relatively late time period and, in any event, after the initial breakup of Balto-Slavic." </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Tacitus referred to him as king of the Suevians.<a href="#cite_note-146">[137]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> During the initial stage of the conflict between the Romans and the Tervingi, the Greuthungi had crossed the Danube into the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009b252-195">[185]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> "The indigenous ancient alphabet of Germania, the fuþark, consisted of twenty-four characters named runes."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELooijenga2020820-308">[297]</a> "The discovery of a rune-inscribed bone from Lány (Břeclav, Moravia/Czech Republic) challenges the prevalent opinion that the older fuþark was used exclusively by Germanic-speaking populations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacháček_et_al.20214-309">[298]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> "Runes are an alphabetic script, called fuþark, used among Germanic tribes ... The find reported here renders six of the last eight runes of the older fuþark, making it the first find containing the final part of the older fuþark in South-Germanic inscriptions, and the only one found in a non-Germanic context."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacháček_et_al.20211,_2-311">[299]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> "For unknown reasons the Latin, or Roman, alphabet was not adapted in the North, but instead an alphabet was created that reflected Roman influence, but deviated in crucial features. History of writing in the Mediterranean area shows that there were many indigenous scripts, all somehow descending from the Phoenician mother script, but they were all replaced in ultimately the first century BC by the Roman script, the writing system of the leading culture."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELooijenga2020819-313">[300]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> Historian Shami Ghosh for instance, argues: "It is certainly the case that the Goths, Lombards, Franks, Angles, Saxons, and Burgundians...were all Germanic peoples, in that their vernacular tongue belonged to the Germanic sub-group of the Indo-European family of languages. It is also the case that the corpus of what literary scholars define as Germanic heroic poetry does contain narratives that have as a historical core events that took place largely in the period c.300–c.600—insofar as any of these narratives can in fact be related to any sort of historical realities at all. But there is little evidence from before the eighth century, at least, for any sense even of an awareness of an inter-relatedness among these peoples, and certainly not of any perception among them of any significance of such inter-relatedness—any sort of knowledge of and meaning granted to a common 'Germanentum', or 'Germanic-ness', that has any relation to the burden of significance such a concept has borne in modern scholarship. Furthermore, the historical links between the extant heroic texts and any verifiable historical fact are both invariably slender and often quite tenuous, and therefore should not be overvalued."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhosh20168-334">[320]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher2022292-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinacher2022292_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinacher2022">Steinacher 2022</a>, p. 292. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202130-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202130_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202130_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202130_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202130_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202130_2-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202128-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202128_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010383–385-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010383–385_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010383–385_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010">Timpe & Scardigli 2010</a>, pp. 383–385. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202132-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202132_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202132_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202189,_1310-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202189,_1310_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 89, 1310. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010636-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010636_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010636_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010">Timpe & Scardigli 2010</a>, p. 636. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd199911-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd199911_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd199911_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTodd1999">Todd 1999</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd19999-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd19999_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd19999_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd19999_10-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTodd1999">Todd 1999</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram19885-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolfram19885_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWolfram1988">Wolfram 1988</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfeifer2000434-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPfeifer2000434_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPfeifer2000">Pfeifer 2000</a>, p. 434. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a58-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a58_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a1-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a1_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a1_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202048–57-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinacher202048–57_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinacher2020">Steinacher 2020</a>, pp. 48–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a4-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a4_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19988-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19988_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19988_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen1998">Green 1998</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler2016xxii-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinkler2016xxii_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinkler2016">Winkler 2016</a>, p. xxii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski202019-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulikowski202019_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKulikowski2020">Kulikowski 2020</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010380–381-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010380–381_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010">Timpe & Scardigli 2010</a>, pp. 380–381. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010379–380-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010379–380_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010">Timpe & Scardigli 2010</a>, pp. 379–380. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich20202–3-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich20202–3_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarlandFriedrich2020">Harland & Friedrich 2020</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher2022292–293-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinacher2022292–293_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinacher2022">Steinacher 2022</a>, pp. 292–293. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202131-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202131_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBratherHeizmannPatzold2021">Brather, Heizmann & Patzold 2021</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010381–382-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010381–382_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010">Timpe & Scardigli 2010</a>, pp. 381–382. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich20206-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich20206_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarlandFriedrich2020">Harland & Friedrich 2020</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202129,_35-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202129,_35_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 29, 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a50–51-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a50–51_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, pp. 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeidorf2018865-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeidorf2018865_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeidorf2018">Neidorf 2018</a>, p. 865. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarland202128-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarland202128_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarland2021">Harland 2021</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich202010-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlandFriedrich202010_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarlandFriedrich2020">Harland & Friedrich 2020</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202134-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202134_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBratherHeizmannPatzold202134_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBratherHeizmannPatzold2021">Brather, Heizmann & Patzold 2021</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer202129-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer202129_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer20213-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer20213_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer20211275–1277-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer20211275–1277_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 1275–1277. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202035–39-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinacher202035–39_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinacher2020">Steinacher 2020</a>, pp. 35–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERiggsby201051-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiggsby201051_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRiggsby2010">Riggsby 2010</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202036–37-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinacher202036–37_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinacher2020">Steinacher 2020</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinacher202037–38-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinacher202037–38_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinacher2020">Steinacher 2020</a>, pp. 37–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a11-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a11_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a52–53-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a52–53_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, pp. 52–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a53–54-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a53–54_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, pp. 53–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a54–55-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a54–55_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a19-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a19_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a3-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a3_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a3_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPohl2004a3_45-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPohl2004a">Pohl 2004a</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010376,_511-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010376,_511_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010">Timpe & Scardigli 2010</a>, pp. 376, 511. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010377-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010377_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010">Timpe & Scardigli 2010</a>, p. 377. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrebs2011204-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrebs2011204_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKrebs2011">Krebs 2011</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010510–511-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimpeScardigli2010510–511_49-0">^</a> <a 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href="#CITEREFBeckQuak2010">Beck & Quak 2010</a>, pp. 857–858. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckQuak2010863-864-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckQuak2010863-864_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckQuak2010">Beck & Quak 2010</a>, p. 863-864. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckQuak2010864-865-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckQuak2010864-865_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckQuak2010">Beck & Quak 2010</a>, p. 864-865. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999193-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd1999193_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTodd1999">Todd 1999</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999226–227-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd1999226–227_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTodd1999">Todd 1999</a>, pp. 226–227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997293–294-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997293–294_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWolfram1997">Wolfram 1997</a>, pp. 293–294. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999228-261"><a 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pp. 297–298. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997277–278-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolfram1997277–278_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWolfram1997">Wolfram 1997</a>, pp. 277–278. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhnWilson2010614-268">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhnWilson2010614_268-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhnWilson2010614_268-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuhnWilson2010">Kuhn & Wilson 2010</a>, p. 614. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd1999210,_219-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd1999210,_219_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTodd1999">Todd 1999</a>, pp. 210, 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECapelleBrather2010157–158-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECapelleBrather2010157–158_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCapelleBrather2010">Capelle & Brather 2010</a>, pp. 157–158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021641–642-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021641–642_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 641–642. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010863-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010863_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHultgård2010">Hultgård 2010</a>, p. 863. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010865–866-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010865–866_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHultgård2010">Hultgård 2010</a>, pp. 865–866. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010866–867-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHultgård2010866–867_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHultgård2010">Hultgård 2010</a>, pp. 866–867. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020265-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020265_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchjødt2020">Schjødt 2020</a>, p. 265. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> For general discussion regarding the Merseburg Charms, see for example <a href="#CITEREFLindow2001">Lindow 2001</a>, pp. 227–28 and <a href="#CITEREFSimek1993">Simek 1993</a>, pp. 84, 278–279. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469-277">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469_277-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469_277-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469_277-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003469_277-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 469. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200333-278">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel200333_278-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel200333_278-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel200333_278-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel200333_278-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003361,_385,_387-279">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003361,_385,_387_279-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003361,_385,_387_279-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003361,_385,_387_279-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, pp. 361, 385, 387. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003385-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003385_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 385. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagnússon1989463–464-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagnússon1989463–464_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagnússon1989">Magnússon 1989</a>, pp. 463–464. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003118-282">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003118_282-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003118_282-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003118_282-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114-283">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114_283-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114_283-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114_283-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003114_283-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> The Atharveda charm is specifically charm 12 of book four of the Atharveda. See discussion in for example <a href="#CITEREFStorms2013">Storms 2013</a>, pp. 107–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel200372-285">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel200372_285-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel200372_285-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel200372_285-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel200372_285-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroonen201396,_114–115-286"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKroonen201396,_114–115_286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKroonen2013">Kroonen 2013</a>, pp. 96, 114–115. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> For a concise overview of sources on Germanic mythology, see <a href="#CITEREFSimek1993">Simek 1993</a>, pp. 298–300. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek1993298–300-288"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek1993298–300_288-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimek1993">Simek 1993</a>, pp. 298–300. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> On the correspondences between the prose introduction to Grímnismál and the Langobardic origin myth, see for example <a href="#CITEREFLindow2001">Lindow 2001</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> Regarding the Ring of Pietroassa, see for example discussion in <a href="#CITEREFMacLeodMees2006">MacLeod & Mees 2006</a>, pp. 173–174. 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.refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_W._Anthony" title="David W. 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Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7306-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7306-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-7306-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121419/https://books.google.com/books?id=PaRNJOLnRMUC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Barbarians%2C+100+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+400&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+MD&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7306-5&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPaRNJOLnRMUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapelleBrather2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Capelle, Torsten; Brather, Sebastian (2010) [2007]. "Wikingerzeit". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/database/GAO/entry/RGA_6503/html">Archived copy</a>. 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Retrieved 5 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft.btitle=Germanische+Altertumskunde+Online&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Capelle&rft.aufirst=Torsten&rft.au=Brather%2C+Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdatabase%2FGAO%2Fentry%2FRGA_6503%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaniotis2013" class="citation book cs1">Chaniotis, Angelos (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8DhXkbiOEUkC">"Paradoxon, Enargeia, Empathy"</a>. In Kremmydas, Christos; Tempest, Kathryn (eds.). Hellenistic Oratory: Continuity and Change. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965431-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965431-4"><bdi>978-0-19-965431-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121417/https://books.google.com/books?id=8DhXkbiOEUkC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paradoxon%2C+Enargeia%2C+Empathy&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+Oratory%3A+Continuity+and+Change&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-965431-4&rft.aulast=Chaniotis&rft.aufirst=Angelos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8DhXkbiOEUkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCusack1998" class="citation book cs1">Cusack, Carole M. (1998). Conversion among the Germanic Peoples. 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Retrieved 27 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft.btitle=Germanische+Altertumskunde+Online&rft.pages=801-807&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=D%C3%BCwel&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdatabase%2FGAO%2Fentry%2FRGA_275%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDüwel2010b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Düwel, Klaus (2010b) [2003]. 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Retrieved 23 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft.btitle=Germanische+Altertumskunde+Online&rft.pages=997-1024&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=D%C3%BCwel&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdatabase%2FGAO%2Fentry%2FRGA_4785%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_W._Fortson_IV" title="Benjamin W. 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Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-51173-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-51173-6"><bdi>978-0-674-51173-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Barbarians+and+Ethnicity&rft.btitle=Late+Antiquity%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Postclassical+World&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-51173-6&rft.aulast=Geary&rft.aufirst=Patrick+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flateantiquitygui00bowe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhosh2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shami_Ghosh" title="Shami Ghosh">Ghosh, Shami</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7848981">"On the origins of Germanic heroic poetry: a case study of the legend of the Burgundians"</a>. 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Retrieved 28 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+Geschichte+der+deutschen+Sprache+und+Literatur&rft.atitle=On+the+origins+of+Germanic+heroic+poetry%3A+a+case+study+of+the+legend+of+the+Burgundians&rft.volume=129&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=220-252&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2FBGSL.2007.220&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161148492%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Shami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7848981&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhosh2016" class="citation book cs1">Ghosh, Shami (2016). Writing the Barbarian Past: Studies in Early Medieval Historical Narrative. 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(eds.), Interrogating the 'Germanic', De Gruyter, pp. 241–250, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110701623-003">10.1515/9783110701623-003</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241474332">241474332</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%28Proto-%29Germanic+Alliterative+Verse%3A+Linguistic+Limits+on+a+Cultural+Phenomenon&rft.btitle=Interrogating+the+%27Germanic%27&rft.pages=241-250&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110701623-003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241474332%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Goering&rft.aufirst=Nelson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoffart2006" class="citation book cs1">Goffart, Walter (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dM3kdRzztiIC">Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire</a>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-81222-105-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-81222-105-3"><bdi>978-0-81222-105-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121417/https://books.google.com/books?id=dM3kdRzztiIC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarian+Tides%3A+The+Migration+Age+and+the+Later+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-81222-105-3&rft.aulast=Goffart&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdM3kdRzztiIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2006" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12048-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12048-6"><bdi>978-0-300-12048-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%3A+Life+of+a+Colossus&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12048-6&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1v1ODgAAQBAJ">"'Instinctive Genius': The depiction of Caesar the general"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Welch" title="Kathryn Welch">Kathryn Welch</a>; Anton Powell (eds.). Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments. Classical Press of Wales. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-910589-36-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-910589-36-6"><bdi>978-1-910589-36-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121418/https://books.google.com/books?id=1v1ODgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 27 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Instinctive+Genius%27%3A+The+depiction+of+Caesar+the+general&rft.btitle=Julius+Caesar+as+Artful+Reporter%3A+The+War+Commentaries+as+Political+Instruments&rft.pub=Classical+Press+of+Wales&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-910589-36-6&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1v1ODgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2009b" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009b). How Rome Fell. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30013-719-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30013-719-4"><bdi>978-0-30013-719-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Rome+Fell&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-30013-719-4&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2016" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian (2016). In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30021-852-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30021-852-7"><bdi>978-0-30021-852-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Name+of+Rome%3A+The+Men+Who+Won+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-30021-852-7&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Howard_Green" title="Dennis Howard Green">Green, Dennis H.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RONb2alF0rEC">Language and History in the Early Germanic World</a> (2001 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79423-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79423-7"><bdi>978-0-521-79423-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121418/https://books.google.com/books?id=RONb2alF0rEC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+History+in+the+Early+Germanic+World&rft.edition=2001&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79423-7&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Dennis+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRONb2alF0rEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGruen2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Gruen, Erich S. (2006). "The Expansion of the Empire under Augustus". In Alan K. Bowman; Edward Champlin; Andrew Lintott (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C–A.D. 69. Oxford and New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26430-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26430-3"><bdi>978-0-521-26430-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Expansion+of+the+Empire+under+Augustus&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-26430-3&rft.aulast=Gruen&rft.aufirst=Erich+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallerDannenbauer1970" class="citation book cs1">Haller, Johannes; Dannenbauer, Henirich (1970). Der Eintritt der Germanen in die Geschichte. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11101-001-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11101-001-4"><bdi>978-3-11101-001-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Eintritt+der+Germanen+in+die+Geschichte&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+%26+Co.&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-3-11101-001-4&rft.aulast=Haller&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft.au=Dannenbauer%2C+Henirich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsall2007" class="citation book cs1">Halsall, Guy (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S7ULzYGIj8oC">Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568</a>. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52143-543-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-52143-543-7"><bdi>978-0-52143-543-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121419/https://books.google.com/books?id=S7ULzYGIj8oC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarian+Migrations+and+the+Roman+West%2C+376%E2%80%93568&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-52143-543-7&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS7ULzYGIj8oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsall2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Halsall" title="Guy Halsall">Halsall, Guy</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/gh/article-abstract/32/4/515/602058">"Two Worlds Become One: A 'Counter-Intuitive' View of the Roman Empire and 'Germanic' Migration"</a>. <a href="/wiki/German_History_(journal)" title="German History (journal)">German History</a>. 32 (4). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>: 515–532. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgerhis%2Fghu107">10.1093/gerhis/ghu107</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200119174713/https://academic.oup.com/gh/article-abstract/32/4/515/602058">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=German+History&rft.atitle=Two+Worlds+Become+One%3A+A+%27Counter-Intuitive%27+View+of+the+Roman+Empire+and+%27Germanic%27+Migration&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=515-532&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgerhis%2Fghu107&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fgh%2Farticle-abstract%2F32%2F4%2F515%2F602058&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlandFriedrich2020" class="citation cs2">Harland, James M.; Friedrich, Matthias (2020), "Introduction: The 'Germanic' and its Discontents", in Friedrich, Matthias; Harland, James M. (eds.), Interrogating the 'Germanic', De Gruyter, pp. 1–18, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110701623-003">10.1515/9783110701623-003</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241474332">241474332</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+%27Germanic%27+and+its+Discontents&rft.btitle=Interrogating+the+%27Germanic%27&rft.pages=1-18&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110701623-003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241474332%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft.au=Friedrich%2C+Matthias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarland2021" class="citation book cs1">Harland, James M. (2021). Ethnic Identity and the Archaeology of the aduentus Saxonum: A Modern Framework and its Problems. University of Amsterdam Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9789048544967">10.1515/9789048544967</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-485-4496-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-485-4496-7"><bdi>978-90-485-4496-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244947891">244947891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Identity+and+the+Archaeology+of+the+aduentus+Saxonum%3A+A+Modern+Framework+and+its+Problems&rft.pub=University+of+Amsterdam+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244947891%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9789048544967&rft.isbn=978-90-485-4496-7&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaubrichs2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Haubrichs" title="Wolfgang Haubrichs">Haubrichs, Wolfgang</a> (2004). ""Heroische Zeiten?" Wanderungen von Heldennamen und Heldensagen zwischen den germanischen gentes des frühen Mittelalters". In Nahl, Astrid von; Lennart, Elmevik; Brink, Stefan (eds.). Namenwelten: Orts- und Personennamen in historischer Sicht ; Gewidmet Thorsten Andersson zu seinem 75. Geburtstag. de Gruyter. pp. 513–534.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Heroische+Zeiten%3F%22+Wanderungen+von+Heldennamen+und+Heldensagen+zwischen+den+germanischen+gentes+des+fr%C3%BChen+Mittelalters&rft.btitle=Namenwelten%3A+Orts-+und+Personennamen+in+historischer+Sicht+%3B+Gewidmet+Thorsten+Andersson+zu+seinem+75.+Geburtstag&rft.pages=513-534&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Haubrichs&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaymesSamples1996" class="citation book cs1">Haymes, Edward R.; Samples, Susan T. (1996). Heroic legends of the North: an introduction to the Nibelung and Dietrich cycles. New York: Garland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0033-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0033-5"><bdi>978-0-8153-0033-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heroic+legends+of+the+North%3A+an+introduction+to+the+Nibelung+and+Dietrich+cycles&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Garland&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-0033-5&rft.aulast=Haymes&rft.aufirst=Edward+R.&rft.au=Samples%2C+Susan+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1979" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William V. (1979). War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814866-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814866-1"><bdi>978-0-19-814866-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Imperialism+in+Republican+Rome%2C+327%E2%80%9370+B.C.&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814866-1&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Heather, Peter</a> (1996). The Goths. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Goths&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Heather, Peter</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ho8sAQAAIAAJ">Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe</a>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989226-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989226-6"><bdi>978-0-19-989226-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121419/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ho8sAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+and+Barbarians%3A+The+Fall+of+Rome+and+the+Birth+of+Europe&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-989226-6&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHo8sAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeyd2017" class="citation journal cs1">Heyd, Volker (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/kossinnas-smile/8ABA3BD9132B7605E8871236065CD4E3">"Kossinna's smile"</a>. Antiquity. 91 (356): 348–359. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2017.21">10.15184/aqy.2017.21</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10138%2F255652">10138/255652</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-598X">0003-598X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164376362">164376362</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191113212023/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/kossinnas-smile/8ABA3BD9132B7605E8871236065CD4E3">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2019. 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Retrieved 27 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft.btitle=Germanische+Altertumskunde+Online&rft.pages=859-914&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Hultg%C3%A5rd&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdatabase%2FGAO%2Fentry%2FRGA_4615%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIversenKroonen2017" class="citation journal cs1">Iversen, Rune; Kroonen, Guus (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/184141394/AJA121_04_Iversen.pdf">"Talking Neolithic: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on How Indo-European Was Implemented in Southern Scandinavia"</a> (PDF). 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Rudolf Simek, Die Germanen"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_deutsches_Altertum_und_deutsche_Literatur" title="Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur">Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur</a> (in German). 136 (3). <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._Hirzel_Verlag" class="extiw" title="de:S. Hirzel Verlag">S. Hirzel Verlag</a>: 379–382. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20658494">20658494</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220423073615/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20658494">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2022. 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Douglas; Rasmussen, Simon; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Sikora, Martin (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2017.17">"Re-theorising mobility and the formation of culture and language among the Corded Ware Culture in Europe"</a>. 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ELH. 85 (4): 847–875. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Felh.2018.0031">10.1353/elh.2018.0031</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165792664">165792664</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032019/https://www.academia.edu/38393055">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ELH&rft.atitle=Beowulf+as+Pre-National+Epic%3A+Ethnocentrism+in+the+Poem+and+its+Criticism&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=847-875&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Felh.2018.0031&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165792664%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Neidorf&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F38393055&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrel2003" class="citation book cs1">Orel, Vladimir (2003). A Handbook of Germanic Etymology. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12875-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12875-0"><bdi>978-90-04-12875-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Germanic+Etymology&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12875-0&rft.aulast=Orel&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadberg2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Padberg, Lutz E. V. (2010) [2007]. "Zwangsbekehrung". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/database/GAO/entry/RGA_6675/html">Archived copy</a>. Germanische Altertumskunde Online. pp. 1171–1177. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818130044/https://www.degruyter.com/document/database/GAO/entry/RGA_6675/html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft.btitle=Germanische+Altertumskunde+Online&rft.pages=1171-1177&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Padberg&rft.aufirst=Lutz+E.+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdatabase%2FGAO%2Fentry%2FRGA_6675%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenzl1972" class="citation book cs1">Penzl, Herbert (1972). "Old Germanic Languages". In Haugen, Einar (ed.). Linguistics in Western Europe, Part 2: The Study of Languages. de Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1232–1281.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Old+Germanic+Languages&rft.btitle=Linguistics+in+Western+Europe%2C+Part+2%3A+The+Study+of+Languages&rft.pages=1232-1281&rft.pub=de+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Penzl&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfeifer2000" class="citation book cs1">Pfeifer, Wolfgang (2000). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-05000-626-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-05000-626-0"><bdi>978-3-05000-626-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+des+Deutschen&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pub=Deutscher+Taschenbuch+Verlag&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-05000-626-0&rft.aulast=Pfeifer&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohl2004a" class="citation cs2">Pohl, Walter (2004a), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZZHAAAAQBAJ">Die Germanen</a>, Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte, vol. 57, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-486-70162-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-486-70162-3"><bdi>978-3-486-70162-3</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121922/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZZHAAAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023, retrieved 30 March 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Germanen&rft.series=Enzyklop%C3%A4die+deutscher+Geschichte&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-486-70162-3&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9ZZHAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolomé1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edgar_C._Polom%C3%A9" title="Edgar C. Polomé">Polomé, Edgar C.</a> (1992). Lippi-Green, Rosina (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GsEvtZOAlHoC">Recent Developments in Germanic Linguistics</a>. John Benjamins Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3593-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3593-0"><bdi>978-90-272-3593-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121921/https://books.google.com/books?id=GsEvtZOAlHoC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recent+Developments+in+Germanic+Linguistics&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-90-272-3593-0&rft.aulast=Polom%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Edgar+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGsEvtZOAlHoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuhvel1989" class="citation book cs1">Puhvel, Jaan (1989) [1987]. Comparative Mythology. The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-3938-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-3938-2"><bdi>978-0-8018-3938-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Mythology&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2&rft.aulast=Puhvel&rft.aufirst=Jaan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Reich_(geneticist)" title="David Reich (geneticist)">Reich, David</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rKZTDwAAQBAJ">Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-255438-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-255438-3"><bdi>978-0-19-255438-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121921/https://books.google.com/books?id=rKZTDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+We+Are+and+How+We+Got+Here%3A+Ancient+DNA+and+the+new+science+of+the+human+past&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-255438-3&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrKZTDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiggsby2010" class="citation book cs1">Riggsby, Andrew M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ERHUAAAAQBAJ">Caesar in Gaul and Rome: War in Words</a>. University of Texas Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77451-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77451-3"><bdi>978-0-292-77451-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121922/https://books.google.com/books?id=ERHUAAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar+in+Gaul+and+Rome%3A+War+in+Words&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-292-77451-3&rft.aulast=Riggsby&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DERHUAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Ringe" title="Donald Ringe">Ringe, Donald</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2DooDwAAQBAJ">From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic</a>. A Linguistic History of English. Vol. 1 (2017 ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-153633-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-153633-5"><bdi>978-0-19-153633-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121922/https://books.google.com/books?id=2DooDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Proto-Indo-European+to+Proto-Germanic&rft.series=A+Linguistic+History+of+English&rft.edition=2017&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-153633-5&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2DooDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoymans2004" class="citation book cs1">Roymans, Nico (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cWdZAQAAQBAJ">Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power : The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire</a>. Amsterdam University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5356-705-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5356-705-0"><bdi>978-90-5356-705-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230113105054/https://books.google.com/books?id=cWdZAQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Identity+and+Imperial+Power+%3A+The+Batavians+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-5356-705-0&rft.aulast=Roymans&rft.aufirst=Nico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcWdZAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRübekeil2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_R%C3%BCbekeil" title="Ludwig Rübekeil">Rübekeil, Ludwig</a> (2017). "The dialectology of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QgA3DwAAQBAJ">Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics</a>. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-054243-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-054243-1"><bdi>978-3-11-054243-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121920/https://books.google.com/books?id=QgA3DwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+dialectology+of+Germanic&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+and+Historical+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-11-054243-1&rft.aulast=R%C3%BCbekeil&rft.aufirst=Ludwig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQgA3DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanders2010" class="citation book cs1">Sanders, Ruth H. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d8YTDAAAQBAJ">German: Biography of a Language</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538845-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538845-9"><bdi>978-0-19-538845-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121923/https://books.google.com/books?id=d8YTDAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German%3A+Biography+of+a+Language&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-538845-9&rft.aulast=Sanders&rft.aufirst=Ruth+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd8YTDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchäferdiekGschwantler2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schäferdiek, Knut; Gschwantler, Otto (2010) [1975]. 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"Leges". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/database/GAO/entry/RGA_3286/html">Archived copy</a>. Germanische Altertumskunde Online. pp. 419–447. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210815062255/https://www.degruyter.com/document/database/GAO/entry/RGA_3286/html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft.btitle=Germanische+Altertumskunde+Online&rft.pages=419-447&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Schmidt-Wiegand&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdatabase%2FGAO%2Fentry%2FRGA_3286%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchjødt2020" class="citation book cs1">Schjødt, Jens Peter (2020). "Continuity and Break: Germanic". In Schjødt, Jens Peter; Lindow, John; Andrén, Anders (eds.). The Pre-Christian Religions of the North: History and Structures. Vol. 1. Brepols. pp. 247–268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57489-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57489-9"><bdi>978-2-503-57489-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Continuity+and+Break%3A+Germanic&rft.btitle=The+Pre-Christian+Religions+of+the+North%3A+History+and+Structures&rft.pages=247-268&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-2-503-57489-9&rft.aulast=Schj%C3%B8dt&rft.aufirst=Jens+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Schrijver" title="Peter Schrijver">Schrijver, Peter</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MUVJAgAAQBAJ">Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25449-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25449-1"><bdi>978-1-134-25449-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121925/https://books.google.com/books?id=MUVJAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Contact+and+the+Origins+of+the+Germanic+Languages&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-134-25449-1&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMUVJAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeebold2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elmar_Seebold" title="Elmar Seebold">Seebold, Elmar</a> (2017). "The lexicon of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QgA3DwAAQBAJ">Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics</a>. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-054243-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-054243-1"><bdi>978-3-11-054243-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121920/https://books.google.com/books?id=QgA3DwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+lexicon+of+Germanic&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+and+Historical+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-11-054243-1&rft.aulast=Seebold&rft.aufirst=Elmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQgA3DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimek1993" class="citation book cs1">Simek, Rudolf (1993). Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85991-513-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85991-513-7"><bdi>978-0-85991-513-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Northern+Mythology&rft.pub=D.S.+Brewer&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-85991-513-7&rft.aulast=Simek&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmelkjær_Sandgaard_HansenKroonen2022" class="citation book cs1">Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen, Bjarne; Kroonen, Guus Jan (2022). "Germanic". In Olander, Thomas (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108758666">10.1017/9781108758666</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-49979-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-49979-8"><bdi>978-1-108-49979-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161016819">161016819</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Germanic&rft.btitle=The+Indo-European+Language+Family%3A+A+Phylogenetic+Perspective&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161016819%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108758666&rft.isbn=978-1-108-49979-8&rft.aulast=Simmelkj%C3%A6r+Sandgaard+Hansen&rft.aufirst=Bjarne&rft.au=Kroonen%2C+Guus+Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpringer2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Springer, Matthias (2010) [2006]. "Völkerwanderung". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/database/GAO/entry/RGA_6244/html">Germanische Altertumskunde Online</a>. de Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=V%C3%B6lkerwanderung&rft.btitle=Germanische+Altertumskunde+Online&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Springer&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdatabase%2FGAO%2Fentry%2FRGA_6244%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinacher2020" class="citation cs2">Steinacher, Roland (2020), "Rome and Its Created Northerners", in Friedrich, Matthias; Harland, James M. 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Germania: Anzeiger der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. 100: 291–312.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Germania%3A+Anzeiger+der+R%C3%B6misch-Germanischen+Kommission+des+Deutschen+Arch%C3%A4ologischen+Instituts&rft.atitle=Germania+and+the+Germani+%E2%80%93+Where+are+We+Now%3F&rft.volume=100&rft.pages=291-312&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Steinacher&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Findex.php%2Fgermania%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F99125%2F94021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStenton1971" class="citation book cs1">Stenton, Frank (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (3 ed.). 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Germanen aus Sicht der Archäologie: Neue Thesen zu einem alten Thema. de Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germanen+aus+Sicht+der+Arch%C3%A4ologie%3A+Neue+Thesen+zu+einem+alten+Thema&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Steuer&rft.aufirst=Heiko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteuer2006" class="citation book cs1">Steuer, Heiko (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eZ6eDwAAQBAJ">"Warrior Bands, War Lords, and the Birth of Tribes and States in the First Millennium AD in Middle Europe"</a>. In Otto, Ton; Thrane, Henrik; Vandkilde, Helle (eds.). Warfare and Society: Archaeological and Social Anthropological Perspectives. Aarhus University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7934-935-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7934-935-3"><bdi>978-87-7934-935-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423122444/https://books.google.com/books?id=eZ6eDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Warrior+Bands%2C+War+Lords%2C+and+the+Birth+of+Tribes+and+States+in+the+First+Millennium+AD+in+Middle+Europe&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Society%3A+Archaeological+and+Social+Anthropological+Perspectives&rft.pub=Aarhus+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-87-7934-935-3&rft.aulast=Steuer&rft.aufirst=Heiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeZ6eDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiles2017" class="citation book cs1">Stiles, Patrick V. (2017). "The phonology of Germanic". 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Springer Netherlands. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-6312-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-017-6312-7"><bdi>978-94-017-6312-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Saxon+Magic&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-017-6312-7&rft.aulast=Storms&rft.aufirst=Godfrid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus1948" class="citation book cs1">Tacitus (1948). The Agricola and The Germania. Translated by Mattingly, H.; Handford, S. A. 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Germanische Altertumskunde Online. pp. 363–876. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817192455/https://www.degruyter.com/document/database/GAO/entry/RGA_1884/html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021. 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Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Germans&rft.edition=2009&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3756-0&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp5QdmV3zNpIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanderhoevenVanderhoeven2004" class="citation book cs1">Vanderhoeven, Alain; Vanderhoeven, Michel (2004). "Confrontation in Archaeology. Aspects of Roman military presence in Tongeren". In Vermeulen, Frank; Sas, Kathy; Dhaeze, Wouter (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zY4g1kfWvCMC">Archaeology in Confrontation: Aspects of Roman Military Presence in the Northwest</a>. Academia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-382-0578-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-382-0578-6"><bdi>978-90-382-0578-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423122612/https://books.google.com/books?id=zY4g1kfWvCMC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Confrontation+in+Archaeology.+Aspects+of+Roman+military+presence+in+Tongeren&rft.btitle=Archaeology+in+Confrontation%3A+Aspects+of+Roman+Military+Presence+in+the+Northwest&rft.pub=Academia+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-382-0578-6&rft.aulast=Vanderhoeven&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft.au=Vanderhoeven%2C+Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzY4g1kfWvCMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVikstrand2020" class="citation cs2">Vikstrand, Per (1 January 2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/M.PCRN-EB.5.116932">"5- Language: Placenames and Personal Names"</a>, The Pre-Christian Religions of the North: History and Structures, Pre-Christian Religions of the North, Brepols Publishers, pp. 115–134, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2Fm.pcrn-eb.5.116932">10.1484/m.pcrn-eb.5.116932</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57489-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57489-9"><bdi>978-2-503-57489-9</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229209928">229209928</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220210014044/https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/M.PCRN-EB.5.116932">archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2022, retrieved 10 February 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Pre-Christian+Religions+of+the+North%3A+History+and+Structures&rft.atitle=5-+Language%3A+Placenames+and+Personal+Names&rft.pages=115-134&rft.date=2020-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229209928%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2Fm.pcrn-eb.5.116932&rft.isbn=978-2-503-57489-9&rft.aulast=Vikstrand&rft.aufirst=Per&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brepolsonline.net%2Fdoi%2F10.1484%2FM.PCRN-EB.5.116932&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardHeichelheimYeo2016" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Allen; Heichelheim, Fritz; Yeo, Cedric (2016). A History of the Roman People. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-84679-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-84679-5"><bdi>978-0-205-84679-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Roman+People&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-205-84679-5&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft.au=Heichelheim%2C+Fritz&rft.au=Yeo%2C+Cedric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2004" class="citation book cs1">Wells, Peter S. (2004). The Battle That Stopped Rome. New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-39335-203-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-39335-203-0"><bdi>978-0-39335-203-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battle+That+Stopped+Rome&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-39335-203-0&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Peter+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1995" class="citation book cs1">Wells, Colin Michael (1995). The Roman Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-67477-770-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-67477-770-5"><bdi>978-0-67477-770-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-67477-770-5&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Colin+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkler2016" class="citation book cs1">Winkler, Martin M. (2016). Arminius the Liberator : myth and ideology. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arminius+the+Liberator+%3A+myth+and+ideology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Martin+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2017" class="citation journal cs1">Witzel, Michael (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/43680899">"Ymir in India, China – and Beyonds"</a>. Old Norse Mythology in Comparative Perspective. 3. Harvard University Press: 363–380. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209145604/https://www.academia.edu/43680899">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Old+Norse+Mythology+in+Comparative+Perspective&rft.atitle=Ymir+in+India%2C+China+%E2%80%93+and+Beyonds&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=363-380&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F43680899&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfram1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herwig_Wolfram" title="Herwig Wolfram">Wolfram, Herwig</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xsQxcJvaLjAC">History of the Goths</a>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05259-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05259-8"><bdi>978-0-520-05259-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423122511/https://books.google.com/books?id=xsQxcJvaLjAC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Goths&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05259-8&rft.aulast=Wolfram&rft.aufirst=Herwig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxsQxcJvaLjAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfram1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herwig_Wolfram" title="Herwig Wolfram">Wolfram, Herwig</a> (1997) [1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tOnQDfRU-poC">The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples</a>. Translated by Dunlap, Thomas. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08511-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08511-4"><bdi>978-0-520-08511-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423122528/https://books.google.com/books?id=tOnQDfRU-poC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+and+its+Germanic+Peoples&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08511-4&rft.aulast=Wolfram&rft.aufirst=Herwig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtOnQDfRU-poC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolters2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wolters, Reinhard (2001). "Mannusstämme". In Beck, Heinrich; et al. (eds.). Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Vol. 19. de Gruyter. pp. 467–478.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mannusst%C3%A4mme&rft.btitle=Reallexikon+der+Germanischen+Altertumskunde&rft.pages=467-478&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Wolters&rft.aufirst=Reinhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolf2012" class="citation book cs1">Woolf, Greg (2012). Rome: An Empire's Story. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-932518-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-932518-4"><bdi>978-0-19-932518-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+An+Empire%27s+Story&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-932518-4&rft.aulast=Woolf&rft.aufirst=Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+peoples" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Germanic_peoples" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> and <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Germanic_history_and_culture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Germanic history and culture">Ancient Germanic history and culture</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of a <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article about <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Teutonic_Peoples" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Teutonic Peoples">Germanic peoples</a>.</div></div> </div> Classical and medieval sources <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wp92bUzuMoQC">Agathias, Histories</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/venerablebedesec00bede/">Bede, Ecclesiastical history of England</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede/bede5.shtml">in Latin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:latinLit:phi0448.phi001">Caesar, De Bello Gallico</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi027">Cicero, Against Piso</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/">Dio Cassius, Roman History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html">Historia Augusta</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gothichistoryofj00jorduoft/page/n4/mode/2up">Jordanes, Getica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0914.phi00140">Titus Livy, History of Rome</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyoflangoba00pauluoft">Paul the Deacon, History of the Langobards</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/pauldeacon.html">in Latin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0978.phi001">Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015042048507">Pomponius Mela, Description of the World</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nt0KDAAAQBAJ">Procopius, Gothic War</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy">Ptolemy, Geography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001">Strabo, Geography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/">Suetonius, 12 Caesars</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi002">Tacitus, Germania</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi004">Tacitus, The History</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_peoples" title="Template talk:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Germanic peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethnolinguistic group</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern European</a> origin primarily identified as speakers of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture" title="Early Germanic culture">Early culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_early_Germanic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Family in early Germanic culture">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Folklore </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_folklore" title="Proto-Germanic folklore">Proto-Germanic folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon mythology">Anglo-Saxon mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental Germanic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_funerary_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic funerary practices">Funerary practices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_burial_mounds" title="Anglo-Saxon burial mounds">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_law" title="Germanic law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_law" title="Medieval Scandinavian law">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_name" title="Germanic name">Names</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_name" title="Gothic name">Gothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbers_in_Germanic_paganism" title="Numbers in Germanic paganism">Numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_in_Germanic_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rings in Germanic paganism">Rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture#Scripts" title="Early Germanic culture">Scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic symbols">Symbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_warfare" title="Early Germanic warfare">Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare" title="Gothic and Vandal warfare">Gothic and Vandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Viking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brisigavi" title="Brisigavi">Brisgavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucinobantes" title="Bucinobantes">Bucinobantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentienses" title="Lentienses">Lentienses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetovari" title="Raetovari">Raetovari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrabaecampi" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrabaecampi">Adrabaecampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrones" title="Ambrones">Ambrones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampsivarii" title="Ampsivarii">Ampsivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angrivarii" title="Angrivarii">Angrivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armalausi" title="Armalausi">Armalausi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auiones" title="Auiones">Auiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarpi" title="Avarpi">Avarpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baemi" title="Baemi">Baemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Baiuvarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banochaemae" title="Banochaemae">Banochaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germani_cisrhenani" title="Germani cisrhenani">Germani cisrhenani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caerosi" title="Caerosi">Caeroesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condrusi" title="Condrusi">Condrusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paemani" title="Paemani">Paemani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segni_(tribe)" title="Segni (tribe)">Segni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morini" title="Morini">Morini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateinoi" title="Bateinoi">Bateinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baetasii" title="Baetasii">Betasii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brondings" title="Brondings">Brondings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buri_tribe" title="Buri tribe">Buri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caritni" title="Caritni">Caritni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuari" title="Casuari">Casuari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaedini" title="Chaedini">Chaedini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaemae" title="Chaemae">Chaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chali" title="Chali">Chali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charudes" title="Charudes">Charudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chasuarii" title="Chasuarii">Chasuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattuarii" title="Chattuarii">Chattuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherusci" title="Cherusci">Cherusci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobandi" title="Cobandi">Cobandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corconti" title="Corconti">Corconti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cugerni" title="Cugerni">Cugerni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danes_(tribe)" title="Danes (tribe)">Danes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dauciones" title="Dauciones">Dauciones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulgubnii" title="Dulgubnii">Dulgubnii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favonae" title="Favonae">Favonae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firaesi" title="Firaesi">Firaesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosi" title="Fosi">Fosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_Franks" title="Ripuarian Franks">Ripuarian Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisiavones" title="Frisiavones">Frisiavones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambrivii" title="Gambrivii">Gambrivii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greuthungi" title="Greuthungi">Greuthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutones" title="Gutones">Gutones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thervingi" title="Thervingi">Thervingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_Goths" title="Thracian Goths">Thracian Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutes" title="Gutes">Gutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermunduri" title="Hermunduri">Hermunduri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilleviones" title="Hilleviones">Hilleviones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingaevones" title="Ingaevones">Ingaevones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irminones" title="Irminones">Irminones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istvaeones" title="Istvaeones">Istvaeones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juthungi" title="Juthungi">Juthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacringi" title="Lacringi">Lacringi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemovii" title="Lemovii">Lemovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hea%C3%B0obards" title="Heaðobards">Heaðobards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugii" title="Lugii">Lugii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diduni" title="Diduni">Diduni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helisii" class="mw-redirect" title="Helisii">Helisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helveconae" title="Helveconae">Helveconae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manimi" title="Manimi">Manimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahanarvali" title="Nahanarvali">Nahanarvali</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsacii" title="Marsacii">Marsacii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Marsi (Germanic tribe)">Marsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattiaci" title="Mattiaci">Mattiaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemetes" title="Nemetes">Nemetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Njars" title="Njars">Njars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuithones" title="Nuithones">Nuithones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osi_(tribe)" title="Osi (tribe)">Osi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadi" title="Quadi">Quadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reudigni" title="Reudigni">Reudigni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugii" title="Rugii">Rugii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugini" title="Rugini">Rugini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnones" title="Semnones">Semnones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicambri" title="Sicambri">Sicambri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciri" title="Sciri">Sciri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitones" title="Sitones">Sitones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suarines" title="Suarines">Suarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunici" title="Sunici">Sunici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedes_(tribe)" title="Swedes (tribe)">Swedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taifals" title="Taifals">Taifals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tencteri" title="Tencteri">Tencteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelir" title="Thelir">Thelir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuringii" title="Thuringii">Thuringii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texandri" title="Texandri">Toxandri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboci" title="Triboci">Triboci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubantes" title="Tubantes">Tubantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulingi" title="Tulingi">Tulingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubii" title="Ubii">Ubii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usipetes" title="Usipetes">Usipetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagoth" title="Vagoth">Vagoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdingi" title="Hasdingi">Hasdingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silingi" title="Silingi">Silingi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vangiones" title="Vangiones">Vangiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varisci" title="Varisci">Varisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victohali" title="Victohali">Victohali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidivarii" title="Vidivarii">Vidivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinoviloth" title="Vinoviloth">Vinoviloth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warini" title="Warini">Warini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Christianization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Christianization of the Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization of Scandinavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Christianization of Iceland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Germanic_peoples" title="Category:Germanic peoples">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Barbarian_kingdoms_established_around_the_Migration_Period" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Template:Barbarian kingdoms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Template talk:Barbarian kingdoms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Barbarian kingdoms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Barbarian_kingdoms_established_around_the_Migration_Period" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a> established around the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alamannia" title="Alamannia">Alamannian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Burgundians" title="Kingdom of the Burgundians">Burgundian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepid kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Kingdom of Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Mauro-Roman kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugiland" title="Rugiland">Rugian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Suebi" title="Kingdom of the Suebi">Suebian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22633#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22633#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22633#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4020378-5">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11953040v">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11953040v">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562422">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph117581&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120559&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008026">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" 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[\"CITEREFDüwel2010b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeary1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhosh2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhosh2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoering2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoffart2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2009b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGruen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallerDannenbauer1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalsall2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalsall2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarland2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarlandFriedrich2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaubrichs2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaymesSamples1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeather1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeather2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeyd2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHultgård2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIversenKroonen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiser2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaulMartens1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinder1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebs2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKristiansenAllentoftFreiIversen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKroonen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhnWilson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulikowski2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebeschuetz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindow2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLooijenga2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLück2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacLeodMees2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacháček_et_al.2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaciałowiczRudnickiStrobin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagnússon1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalloryAdams1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManco2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillet2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMosse1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurdoch2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNedoma2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNedomaScardigli2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeidorf2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrel2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPadberg2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenzl1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfeifer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohl2004a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolomé1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuhvel1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiggsby2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRinge2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoymans2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRübekeil2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanders2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchjødt2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt-Wiegand2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchrijver2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchäferdiekGschwantler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeebold2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimek1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmelkjær_Sandgaard_HansenKroonen2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpringer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinacher2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinacher2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStenton1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteuer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteuer2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStiles2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStorms2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTacitus1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiefenbachReichertBeck1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimpeScardigli2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTodd1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanderhoevenVanderhoeven2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVikstrand2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWardHeichelheimYeo2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinkler2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfram1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfram1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolters2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolf2012\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Barbarian kingdoms\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 73,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 19,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Commons category multi\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911 poster\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 15,\n [\"Further\"] = 6,\n [\"Germanic peoples\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 76,\n [\"Interlanguage link\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 52,\n [\"Langx\"] = 5,\n [\"Legend\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 473,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 4,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","520","27.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","300","16.0"],["?","160","8.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","5.3"],["type","80","4.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","3.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","60","3.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.2"],["gsub","40","2.1"],["[others]","420","22.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-645858d48f-6xv87","timestamp":"20241202164415","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script 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