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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The coming of the Anglo-Saxons: 449–c.1066</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_coming_of_the_Anglo-Saxons:_449–c.1066-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The coming of the Anglo-Saxons: 449–c.1066 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_coming_of_the_Anglo-Saxons:_449–c.1066-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_other_languages_of_early_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_other_languages_of_early_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The other languages of early Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_other_languages_of_early_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_English_literature:_c._658–1100" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_English_literature:_c._658–1100"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Old English literature: c. 658–1100</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_English_literature:_c._658–1100-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_medieval_literature:_1066–1500" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_medieval_literature:_1066–1500"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Late medieval literature: 1066–1500</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_medieval_literature:_1066–1500-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Late medieval literature: 1066–1500 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Late_medieval_literature:_1066–1500-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Middle_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Middle English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_drama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_drama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Medieval drama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_drama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Renaissance:_1500_–1660" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Renaissance:_1500_–1660"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The Renaissance: 1500 –1660</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Renaissance:_1500_–1660-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Renaissance: 1500 –1660 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Renaissance:_1500_–1660-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Elizabethan_era:_1558–1603" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elizabethan_era:_1558–1603"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Elizabethan era: 1558–1603</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elizabethan_era:_1558–1603-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Drama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jacobean_period:_1603-1625" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jacobean_period:_1603-1625"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Jacobean period: 1603-1625</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jacobean_period:_1603-1625-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drama_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Drama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Prose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Renaissance:_1625–1660" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Renaissance:_1625–1660"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Late Renaissance: 1625–1660</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Renaissance:_1625–1660-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Restoration:_1660–1700" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Restoration:_1660–1700"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The Restoration: 1660–1700</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Restoration:_1660–1700-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Restoration: 1660–1700 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Restoration:_1660–1700-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drama_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Drama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Prose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>18th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 18th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Augustan_age:_1701–1750" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Augustan_age:_1701–1750"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>The Augustan age: 1701–1750</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Augustan_age:_1701–1750-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1707:_Birth_of_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1707:_Birth_of_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>1707: Birth of Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1707:_Birth_of_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose,_including_the_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose,_including_the_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Prose, including the novel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose,_including_the_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drama_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Drama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_roots_of_Romanticism:_1750–1798" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_roots_of_Romanticism:_1750–1798"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>The roots of Romanticism: 1750–1798</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_roots_of_Romanticism:_1750–1798-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanticism:_1798–1837" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanticism:_1798–1837"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Romanticism: 1798–1837</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Romanticism:_1798–1837-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Romanticism: 1798–1837 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Romanticism:_1798–1837-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Romantic_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romantic_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Romantic poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romantic_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Second_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Second generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_poets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_poets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Other poets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_poets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanticism_and_the_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanticism_and_the_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Romanticism and the novel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanticism_and_the_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victorian_literature:_1837–1900" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victorian_literature:_1837–1900"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Victorian literature: 1837–1900</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Victorian_literature:_1837–1900-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Victorian literature: 1837–1900 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Victorian_literature:_1837–1900-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Victorian_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victorian_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Victorian fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victorian_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>The novel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_short_story" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_short_story"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>The short story</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_short_story-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genre_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genre_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Genre fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genre_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children's_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children's_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.4</span> <span>Children's literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children's_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victorian_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victorian_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Victorian poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victorian_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victorian_drama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victorian_drama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Victorian drama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victorian_drama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 20th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modernism_and_cultural_revivals:_1901–1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism_and_cultural_revivals:_1901–1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Modernism and cultural revivals: 1901–1945</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism_and_cultural_revivals:_1901–1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Edwardian_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edwardian_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.1</span> <span>Edwardian fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edwardian_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.2</span> <span>First World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry:_1901–1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry:_1901–1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.3</span> <span>Poetry: 1901–1945</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry:_1901–1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernist_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernist_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.4</span> <span>Modernist novel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernist_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modernism:_1946–2000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modernism:_1946–2000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Late modernism: 1946–2000</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_modernism:_1946–2000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>Novel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drama_5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.2</span> <span>Drama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry_5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.3</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scottish_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scottish_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.4</span> <span>Scottish literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scottish_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genre_fiction_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genre_fiction_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Genre fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genre_fiction_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.1</span> <span>Early 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.2</span> <span>Later 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Science_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.2.1</span> <span>Science fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fantasy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fantasy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.2.2</span> <span>Fantasy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fantasy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_for_children_and_young_adults" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_for_children_and_young_adults"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Literature for children and young adults</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_for_children_and_young_adults-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st-century_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st-century_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>21st-century literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-21st-century_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 21st-century literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-21st-century_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Novel_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novel_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Novel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novel_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Theatre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genre_fiction_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genre_fiction_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Genre fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genre_fiction_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_for_children_and_young_adults_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_for_children_and_young_adults_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Literature for children and young adults</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_for_children_and_young_adults_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Literary institutions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literary_institutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Literary institutions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Literary_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literary_prizes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_prizes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Literary prizes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_prizes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="الأدب البريطاني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأدب البريطاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lliteratura_brit%C3%A1nica" title="Lliteratura británica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lliteratura británica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%96" title="Літаратура Вялікабрытаніі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Літаратура Вялікабрытаніі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_brit%C3%A0nica" title="Literatura britànica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Literatura britànica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Literatur" title="Englische Literatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Englische Literatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_brit%C3%A1nica" title="Literatura británica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura británica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britainiar_literatura" title="Britainiar literatura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Britainiar literatura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_britannique" title="Littérature britannique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature britannique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EA%B5%AD_%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="영국 문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영국 문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բրիտանական գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բրիտանական գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leteratura_ngl%C3%ABija" title="Leteratura nglëija – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Leteratura nglëija" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litterae_Britanniae" title="Litterae Britanniae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Litterae Britanniae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagy-Britannia_irodalma" title="Nagy-Britannia irodalma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nagy-Britannia irodalma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britse_literatuur" title="Britse literatuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Britse literatuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="イギリス文学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イギリス文学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A4" title="ਬਰਤਾਨਵੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਰਤਾਨਵੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8" title="برطانوی ادب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="برطانوی ادب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_do_Reino_Unido" title="Literatura do Reino Unido – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Literatura do Reino Unido" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Британская литература – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Британская литература" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%C3%ABrsia_n%C3%AB_Britanin%C3%AB_e_Madhe" title="Letërsia në Britaninë e Madhe – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Letërsia në Britaninë e Madhe" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය සාහිත්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය සාහිත්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Britanska književnost – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Britanska književnost" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panitikang_Britaniko" title="Panitikang Britaniko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Panitikang Britaniko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanya_edebiyat%C4%B1" title="Britanya edebiyatı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Britanya edebiyatı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Британська література – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Британська література" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8" title="برطانوی ادب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برطانوی ادب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_Britanikanon" title="Literatura Britanikanon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Literatura Britanikanon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For an overview of all English-language literature, see <a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a>.</div> <p> <b>British literature</b> is from the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>. This article covers British literature in the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a>. Anglo-Saxon (<a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>) literature is included, and there is some discussion of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Latin_literature" title="Anglo-Latin literature">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> literature, where literature in these languages relate to the early development of the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">literature</a>. There is also some brief discussion of major figures who wrote in <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a>, but the main discussion is in the various <a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a> articles. </p><p>The article <a href="/wiki/Literature_in_the_other_languages_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature in the other languages of Britain">Literature in the other languages of Britain</a> focuses on the literatures written in the other languages that are, and have been, used in Britain. There are also articles on these various literatures: <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature_in_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin literature in Britain">Latin literature in Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_literature" title="Cornish literature">Cornish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a>, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais_literature" title="Jèrriais literature">Jèrriais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Latin_literature" title="Anglo-Latin literature">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manx_literature" title="Manx literature">Manx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh</a>, etc. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish writers</a> have played an important part in the development of literature in England and <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, but though the whole of <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> was politically part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> from January 1801 to December 1922, it can be controversial to describe <a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a> as British. For some this includes works by authors from <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Literature of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>. </p><p>The United Kingdom publishes more books per capita than any other country in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_identity">British identity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: British identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The nature of <a href="/wiki/Britishness" class="mw-redirect" title="Britishness">British identity</a> has changed over time. The island that contains <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> has been known as <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 23 AD</span>–79).<sup id="cite_ref-PlinyE(4.41)_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlinyE(4.41)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> as the national language had its beginnings with the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_invasion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon invasion">Anglo-Saxon invasion</a> which started around AD 450.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before that, the inhabitants mainly spoke various <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>. The various constituent parts of the present <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> joined at different times. Wales was annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%E2%80%931542" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542">Acts of Union</a> of 1536 and 1542. However, it was not until 1707 with <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">a treaty</a> between England and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a> came into existence. This merged in January 1801 with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a>. Subsequently, <a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish nationalism</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Ireland" title="Partition of Ireland">partition of the island of Ireland</a> in 1922; thus the literature of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> is not British, although literature from <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> is both Irish and British.<sup id="cite_ref-Deane_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deane-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1927 the <a href="/wiki/Royal_and_Parliamentary_Titles_Act_1927" title="Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927">Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927</a> formally changing the name of the <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">UK</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</a>. Until fairly recent times Celtic languages continued to be spoken widely in Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, and these languages still survive, especially in parts of Wales. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Works written in the English language by Welsh writers</a>, especially if their subject matter relates to Wales, has been recognised as a distinctive entity since the 20th century. The need for a separate identity for this kind of writing arose because of the parallel development of modern <a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh-language literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because Britain was a <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">colonial power</a> the use of English spread through the world; from the 19th century or earlier in the United States, and later in other former colonies, major writers in English began to appear beyond the boundaries of Britain and Ireland; later these included Nobel laureates.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_coming_of_the_Anglo-Saxons:_449–c.1066"><span id="The_coming_of_the_Anglo-Saxons:_449.E2.80.93c.1066"></span>The coming of the Anglo-Saxons: 449–c.1066</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The coming of the Anglo-Saxons: 449–c.1066"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_other_languages_of_early_Britain">The other languages of early Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The other languages of early Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> withdrew from Britain in the early 5th century, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Latin" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Latin">Latin literature</a>, mostly ecclesiastical, continued to be written, including <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicles</a> by <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (672/3–735), <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum">Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</a></i>; and <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span>–570), <i><a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</a></i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gododdin1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gododdin1.jpg/170px-Gododdin1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gododdin1.jpg/255px-Gododdin1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gododdin1.jpg/340px-Gododdin1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="969" data-file-height="1305" /></a><figcaption>A facsimile page of <i><a href="/wiki/Y_Gododdin" title="Y Gododdin">Y Gododdin</a></i> c. 1275</figcaption></figure> <p>Various <a href="/wiki/Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic language">Celtic languages</a> were spoken by many British people at that time. Among the more important written works that have survived are <i><a href="/wiki/Y_Gododdin" title="Y Gododdin">Y Gododdin</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Mabinogion" title="Mabinogion">Mabinogion</a>. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Vikings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> settlers and their descendants <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Scotland" title="Scandinavian Scotland">colonised parts of what is now modern Scotland</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_poetry" title="Old Norse poetry">Old Norse poetry</a> survives relating to this period, including the <i><a href="/wiki/Orkneyinga_saga" title="Orkneyinga saga">Orkneyinga saga</a></i>, an historical narrative of the history of the <a href="/wiki/Orkney_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orkney Islands">Orkney Islands</a>, from its capture by the Norwegian king in the 9th century until about 1200.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_English_literature:_c._658–1100"><span id="Old_English_literature:_c._658.E2.80.931100"></span>Old English literature: c. 658–1100</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Old English literature: c. 658–1100"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/170px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/255px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/340px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4098" data-file-height="6868" /></a><figcaption>First page facsimile of <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English literature</a>, or Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses the surviving literature written in <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a>, from the settlement of the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon people">Saxons</a> and other Germanic tribes in England (<a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>) around 450, until "soon after the Norman Conquest" in 1066; that is, c. 1100–50.<sup id="cite_ref-Drabble1996_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drabble1996-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 323">: 323 </span></sup> These works include genres such as <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">sermons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> translations, legal works, <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a>, riddles, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-doma_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doma-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In all. there are about 400 surviving <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> from the period.<sup id="cite_ref-doma_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doma-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Orature" class="mw-redirect" title="Orature">Oral tradition</a> was very strong in early <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">English culture</a> and most literary works were written to be performed.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic poems</a> were thus very popular, and some, including <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i>, have survived to the present day. <i>Beowulf</i> is the most famous work in Old English and has achieved <a href="/wiki/National_epic" title="National epic">national epic</a> status in England, despite being set in Scandinavia. </p><p>Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous: 12 are known by name from medieval sources, but only four of those are known by their vernacular works with any certainty: <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon" title="Cædmon">Cædmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cynewulf" title="Cynewulf">Cynewulf</a>. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cædmon's only known surviving work is <i>Cædmon's Hymn</i>, which probably dates from the late 7th century. </p><p>Chronicles contained a range of historical and literary accounts, and a notable example is the <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Maldon_(poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Battle of Maldon (poem)">Battle of Maldon</a></i> also deals with history. This is the name given to a work, of uncertain date, celebrating the real <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" title="Battle of Maldon">Battle of Maldon</a> of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-Drabble1996_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drabble1996-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 369">: 369 </span></sup> </p><p>Classical antiquity was not forgotten in Anglo-Saxon England, and several Old English poems are adaptations of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">late classical</a> philosophical texts. The longest is <a href="/wiki/King_Alfred" class="mw-redirect" title="King Alfred">King Alfred</a>'s (849–99) translation of <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Consolation_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolation of Philosophy">Consolation of Philosophy</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_medieval_literature:_1066–1500"><span id="Late_medieval_literature:_1066.E2.80.931500"></span>Late medieval literature: 1066–1500</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Late medieval literature: 1066–1500"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bedivere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bedivere.jpg/170px-Bedivere.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bedivere.jpg/255px-Bedivere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bedivere.jpg/340px-Bedivere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="385" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bedivere" title="Bedivere">Sir Bedivere</a> casts <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a>'s sword <a href="/wiki/Excalibur" title="Excalibur">Excalibur</a> back to the <a href="/wiki/Lady_of_the_Lake" title="Lady of the Lake">Lady of the Lake</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Arthurian Cycle</a> has influenced British literature across languages and down the centuries.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English literature</a></div> <p>The linguistic diversity of the islands in the medieval period contributed to a rich variety of artistic production, and made British literature distinctive and innovative.<sup id="cite_ref-Companion_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Companion-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some works were still written in Latin; these include <a href="/wiki/Gerald_of_Wales" title="Gerald of Wales">Gerald of Wales</a>'s late-12th-century book on his beloved Wales, <i><a href="/wiki/Itinerarium_Cambriae" title="Itinerarium Cambriae">Itinerarium Cambriae</a></i>. After the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of 1066, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a> developed, introducing literary trends from <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">Continental Europe</a>, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chanson de geste</a></i>. However, the indigenous development of Anglo-Norman literature was precocious in comparison to continental <a href="/wiki/O%C3%AFl_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Oïl languages">Oïl</a> literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Companion_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Companion-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth" title="Geoffrey of Monmouth">Geoffrey of Monmouth</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1155</span>) was one of the major figures in the <a href="/wiki/English_historians_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="English historians in the Middle Ages">development of British history</a> and of the popularity of the tales of <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a>. He is best known for his chronicle <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Regum_Britanniae" title="Historia Regum Britanniae">Historia Regum Britanniae</a></i> (History of the Kings of Britain) of 1136, which spread <a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic motifs</a> to a wider audience. <a href="/wiki/Wace" title="Wace">Wace</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1110</span> – after 1174), who wrote in <a href="/wiki/Norman-French" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman-French">Norman-French</a>, is the earliest known poet from <a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a>; he also developed the <a href="/wiki/Arthurian_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthurian legend">Arthurian legend</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) At the end of the 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Layamon" title="Layamon">Layamon</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Layamon%27s_Brut" title="Layamon's Brut">Brut</a></i> adapted Wace to make the first English-language work to use the legends of King Arthur and the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_Round_Table" title="Knights of the Round Table">Knights of the Round Table</a>. It was also the first <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> written in English since the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_English">Middle English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Middle English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interest in King Arthur continued in the 15th century with Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malory" title="Thomas Malory">Thomas Malory</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Morte_d%27Arthur" title="Le Morte d'Arthur">Le Morte d'Arthur</a></i> (1485), a popular and influential compilation of some French and English Arthurian romances. It was among the early books printed in England by <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">Caxton</a>. </p><p>In the later medieval period a new form of English now known as <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> evolved. This is the earliest form which is comprehensible to modern readers and listeners, albeit not easily. <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_Bible_translations" title="Middle English Bible translations">Middle English Bible translations</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible" title="Wycliffe's Bible">Wycliffe's Bible</a>, helped to establish English as a literary language. Wycliffe's Bible is the name now given to a group of <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Bible translations</a> into Middle English that were made under the direction of, or at the instigation of, <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>. They appeared over a period from about 1382 to 1395.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Piers_Plowman" title="Piers Plowman">Piers Plowman</a></i> or <i>Visio Willelmi de Petro Plowman</i> (<i>William's Vision of Piers Plowman</i>) (written c. 1360–1387) is a Middle English <a href="/wiki/Allegorical" class="mw-redirect" title="Allegorical">allegorical</a> <a href="/wiki/Narrative_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative poem">narrative poem</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Langland" title="William Langland">William Langland</a>. It is written in unrhymed <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a> divided into sections called "passūs" (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "steps"). <i>Piers</i> is considered by many critics to be one of the early great works of English literature along with <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Chaucer's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Tales" class="mw-redirect" title="Canterbury Tales">Canterbury Tales</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sir_Gawain_and_the_Green_Knight" title="Sir Gawain and the Green Knight">Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</a></i> during the Middle Ages. </p><p><i>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</i> is a late-14th-century Middle English <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative</a> <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">romance</a>. It is one of the better-known Arthurian stories, of an established type known as the "beheading game". Developing from Welsh, Irish and English tradition <i>Sir Gawain</i> highlights the importance of honour and chivalry. "Preserved in the same manuscript with Sir Gawayne were three other poems, now generally accepted as the work of its author, including the intricate elegiac poem, <i><a href="/wiki/Pearl_(poem)" title="Pearl (poem)">Pearl</a></i>."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geoffrey_Chaucer_(17th_century).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg/170px-Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg/255px-Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg/340px-Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4511" data-file-height="5743" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>, father of English literature</figcaption></figure> <p>Geoffrey Chaucer (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1343</span> – 1400), known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages and was the first poet to have been buried in <a href="/wiki/Poet%27s_Corner" class="mw-redirect" title="Poet's Corner">Poet's Corner</a> in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>. Chaucer is best known today for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a></i>, a collection of stories written in Middle English (mostly written in verse although some are in prose), that are presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as they travel together on a journey from <a href="/wiki/Southwark" title="Southwark">Southwark</a> to the shrine of Saint <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Becket" title="Thomas Becket">Thomas Becket</a> at <a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" title="Canterbury Cathedral">Canterbury Cathedral</a>. Chaucer is a crucial figure in developing the legitimacy of Middle English at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin. </p><p>The multilingual nature of the audience for literature in the 14th century can be illustrated by the example of <a href="/wiki/John_Gower" title="John Gower">John Gower</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1330</span> – October 1408). A contemporary of Langland and a personal friend of Chaucer, Gower is remembered primarily for three major works, the <i>Mirroir de l'Omme</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vox_Clamantis" title="Vox Clamantis">Vox Clamantis</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Confessio_Amantis" title="Confessio Amantis">Confessio Amantis</a></i>, three long poems written in <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a>, Latin, and Middle English respectively, which are united by common moral and political themes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women writers were also active, such as Marie de France in the 12th century and <a href="/wiki/Julian_of_Norwich" title="Julian of Norwich">Julian of Norwich</a> in the early 14th century. Julian's <i><a href="/wiki/Revelations_of_Divine_Love" title="Revelations of Divine Love">Revelations of Divine Love</a></i> (around 1393) is believed to be the first published book written by a woman in the English language.<sup id="cite_ref-ec_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ec-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Margery_Kempe" title="Margery Kempe">Margery Kempe</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1373</span> – after 1438) is known for writing <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe" title="The Book of Margery Kempe">The Book of Margery Kempe</a></i>, a work considered by some to be the first autobiography in the English language. </p><p>Major Scottish writers from the 15th century include <a href="/wiki/Robert_Henryson" title="Robert Henryson">Henrysoun</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Dunbar" title="William Dunbar">Dunbar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Douglas" title="Gavin Douglas">Douglas</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Lyndsay" title="David Lyndsay">Lyndsay</a>. The works of <a href="/wiki/Chaucer%27s_influence_on_15th-century_Scottish_literature" title="Chaucer's influence on 15th-century Scottish literature">Chaucer had an influence on Scottish writers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_drama">Medieval drama</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval drama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Medieval theatre</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, drama in the vernacular languages of Europe may have emerged from religious enactments of the <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">Mystery plays</a> were presented on the porches of the cathedrals or by strolling players on <a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints" title="Calendar of saints">feast days</a>. <a href="/wiki/Miracle_play" class="mw-redirect" title="Miracle play">Miracle</a> and mystery plays, along with <a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">moralities</a> and interludes, later evolved into more elaborate forms of drama, such as was seen on the Elizabethan stages. Another form of medieval theatre was the <a href="/wiki/Mummers_Play" class="mw-redirect" title="Mummers Play">mummers' plays</a>, a form of early street theatre associated with the <a href="/wiki/Morris_dance" title="Morris dance">Morris dance</a>, concentrating on themes such as <a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">Saint George</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_dragon" title="European dragon">Dragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood" title="Robin Hood">Robin Hood</a>. These were <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk tales</a> re-telling old stories, and the actors travelled from town to town performing these for their audiences in return for money and hospitality.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mystery plays and miracle plays are among the early formally developed plays in medieval Europe. Mystery plays focused on the representation of Bible stories in churches as <a href="/wiki/Tableau_vivant" title="Tableau vivant">tableaux</a> with accompanying <a href="/wiki/Antiphon" title="Antiphon">antiphonal</a> song. They developed from the 10th to the 16th century, reaching the height of their popularity in the 15th century before being rendered obsolete by the rise of professional theatre.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/170px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/255px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/340px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1178" data-file-height="1338" /></a><figcaption>19th-century engraving of a performance from the Chester mystery <a href="/wiki/Play_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Play cycle">play cycle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There are four complete or nearly complete extant English biblical collections of plays from the late medieval period. The most complete is the <i><a href="/wiki/York_Mystery_Plays" title="York Mystery Plays">York cycle</a></i> of forty-eight pageants. They were performed in the city of <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>, from the middle of the 14th century until 1569.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides the Middle English drama, there are three surviving plays in <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Ordinalia" title="Ordinalia">Ordinalia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having grown out of the religiously based mystery plays, the morality play is a genre of medieval and <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">early Tudor</a> theatrical entertainment, which represented a shift towards a more secular base for European theatre.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morality plays are a type of <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> in which the protagonist is met by <a href="/wiki/Personification" title="Personification">personifications</a> of various <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> attributes who try to prompt him to choose a godly life over one of evil. The plays were most popular in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>The Somonyng of Everyman</i> (<i>The Summoning of Everyman</i>) (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1509</span> – 1519), usually referred to simply as <i><a href="/wiki/Everyman_(15th-century_play)" title="Everyman (15th-century play)">Everyman</a></i>, is a late 15th-century English morality play. Like <a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a>'s allegory <i><a href="/wiki/Pilgrim%27s_Progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim's Progress">Pilgrim's Progress</a></i> (1678), <i>Everyman</i> examines the question of <a href="/wiki/Christian_salvation" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian salvation">Christian salvation</a> through the use of allegorical characters.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Renaissance:_1500_–1660"><span id="The_Renaissance:_1500_.E2.80.931660"></span><span class="anchor" id="The_Renaissance:_1485_-1660"></span>The Renaissance: 1500 –1660</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Renaissance: 1500 –1660"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> style and ideas were slow to penetrate <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Scotland</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a> (1558–1603) is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance. However, many scholars see its beginnings in the early 1500s during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> (1491 – 1547).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Italian literary influences arrived in Britain: the <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnet</a> form was introduced into English by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wyatt_(poet)" title="Thomas Wyatt (poet)">Thomas Wyatt</a> in the early 16th century, and was developed by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Howard,_Earl_of_Surrey" title="Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey">Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey</a>, (1516/1517 – 1547), who also introduced <a href="/wiki/Blank_verse" title="Blank verse">blank verse</a> into England, with his translation of <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i> in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1540</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Global_spread_of_the_printing_press" title="Global spread of the printing press">spread of printing</a> affected the transmission of literature across Britain and Ireland. The first book printed in English, <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">William Caxton</a>'s own translation of <i><a href="/wiki/Recuyell_of_the_Historyes_of_Troye" title="Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye">Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye</a></i>, was printed abroad in 1473, to be followed by the establishment of the first printing press in England in 1474. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isola_di_Utopia_Moro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Isola_di_Utopia_Moro.jpg/170px-Isola_di_Utopia_Moro.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Isola_di_Utopia_Moro.jpg/255px-Isola_di_Utopia_Moro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Isola_di_Utopia_Moro.jpg/340px-Isola_di_Utopia_Moro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a> book <i><a href="/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopia (More book)">Utopia</a></i>, illustration of imaginary island, 1516</figcaption></figure> <p>Latin continued in use as a language of learning long after the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> had established the vernaculars as liturgical languages for the elites. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopia (More book)">Utopia</a></i> is a work of fiction and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a> (1478–1535) published in 1516. The book, written in Latin, is a <a href="/wiki/Frame_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Frame narrative">frame narrative</a> primarily depicting a fictional island society and its religious, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">social</a> and political customs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elizabethan_era:_1558–1603"><span id="Elizabethan_era:_1558.E2.80.931603"></span><span class="anchor" id="Elizabethan_era:_1558-1603"></span>Elizabethan era: 1558–1603</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Elizabethan era: 1558–1603"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">English poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_drama" title="English drama">English drama</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor,_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/170px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/255px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/340px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3059" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s career straddled the change of <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor dynasty">Tudor</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart dynasties</a> and encompassed English history and the emerging imperial idea of the 17th century.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry">Poetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the later 16th century, English poetry used elaborate language and extensive allusions to classical myths. <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Sir Edmund Spenser</a> (1555–99) was the author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Faerie_Queene" title="The Faerie Queene">The Faerie Queene</a></i>, an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor dynasty">Tudor dynasty</a> and Elizabeth I. The works of <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sidney" title="Philip Sidney">Sir Philip Sidney</a> (1554–1586), a poet, courtier and soldier, include <i><a href="/wiki/Astrophel_and_Stella" title="Astrophel and Stella">Astrophel and Stella</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Defence_of_Poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="The Defence of Poetry">The Defence of Poetry</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Countess_of_Pembroke%27s_Arcadia" title="The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia">Arcadia</a></i>. Poems intended to be set to music as songs, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Campion" title="Thomas Campion">Thomas Campion</a>, became popular as printed literature was disseminated more widely in households (see <a href="/wiki/English_Madrigal_School" title="English Madrigal School">English Madrigal School</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama">Drama</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Drama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> (1558–1603) and then James I (1603–25), a London-centred culture that was both courtly and popular, produced great poetry and drama. The English playwrights were intrigued by Italian model: a conspicuous community of Italian actors had settled in London. The linguist and lexicographer <a href="/wiki/John_Florio" title="John Florio">John Florio</a> (1553–1625), whose father was Italian, was a royal language tutor at the Court of <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James I</a>, and a possible friend and influence on <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, had brought much of the Italian language and culture to England. He was also the translator of <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a> into English. The earlier Elizabethan plays include <i><a href="/wiki/Gorboduc_(play)" title="Gorboduc (play)">Gorboduc</a></i> (1561), by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sackville,_1st_Earl_of_Dorset" title="Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset">Sackville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton" title="Thomas Norton">Norton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kyd" title="Thomas Kyd">Thomas Kyd</a>'s (1558–94) <a href="/wiki/Revenge_tragedy" title="Revenge tragedy">revenge tragedy</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spanish_Tragedy" title="The Spanish Tragedy">The Spanish Tragedy</a></i> (1592). Highly popular and influential in its time, <i>The Spanish Tragedy</i> established a new genre in English literature theatre, the <a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">revenge play</a> or revenge tragedy. <a href="/wiki/Jane_Lumley" class="mw-redirect" title="Jane Lumley">Jane Lumley</a> (1537–1578) was the first person to translate <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a> into English. Her translation of <i><a href="/wiki/Iphigeneia_at_Aulis" class="mw-redirect" title="Iphigeneia at Aulis">Iphigeneia at Aulis</a></i> is the first known dramatic work by a woman in English.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> (1564–1616) stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare wrote plays in a variety of genres, including <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_history" title="Shakespearean history">histories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy" title="Shakespearean tragedy">tragedies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_comedies" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespearean comedies">comedies</a> and the late <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare%27s_late_romances" class="mw-redirect" title="William Shakespeare's late romances">romances</a>, or tragicomedies. Works written in the Elizabethan era include the comedy <i><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Night" title="Twelfth Night">Twelfth Night</a></i>, tragedy <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>, and history <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_1" title="Henry IV, Part 1">Henry IV, Part 1</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jacobean_period:_1603-1625"><span class="anchor" id="Jacobean_period:_1558-1603"></span> Jacobean period: 1603-1625</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Jacobean period: 1603-1625"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama_2">Drama</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Drama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shakespeare's career continued during the reign of King James I, and in the early 17th century, he wrote the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_problem_play" title="Shakespearean problem play">problem plays</a>", like <i><a href="/wiki/Measure_for_Measure" title="Measure for Measure">Measure for Measure</a></i> as well as a number of his better-known <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy" title="Shakespearean tragedy">tragedies</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear" title="King Lear">King Lear</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Anthony_and_Cleopatra" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony and Cleopatra">Anthony and Cleopatra</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plots of Shakespeare's tragedies often hinge on fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his final period, Shakespeare turned to <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances" title="Shakespeare's late romances">romance</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">tragicomedy</a> and completed four major plays, including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tempest" title="The Tempest">The Tempest</a></i>. Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other important figures in Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre include <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe" title="Christopher Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a> (1564–1593), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dekker_(writer)" title="Thomas Dekker (writer)">Thomas Dekker</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1572</span> – 1632), <a href="/wiki/John_Fletcher_(playwright)" title="John Fletcher (playwright)">John Fletcher</a> (1579–1625) and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Beaumont" title="Francis Beaumont">Francis Beaumont</a> (1584–1616). Marlowe's subject matter is different from Shakespeare's as it focuses more on the moral drama of the <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">renaissance man</a>. His play <a href="/wiki/Doctor_Faustus_(play)" title="Doctor Faustus (play)">Doctor Faustus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1592</span>), is about a scientist and magician who sells his soul to the Devil. <a href="/wiki/Beaumont_and_Fletcher" title="Beaumont and Fletcher">Beaumont and Fletcher</a> are less known, but they may have helped Shakespeare write some of his better dramas, and were popular at the time. Beaumont's comedy, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Knight_of_the_Burning_Pestle" title="The Knight of the Burning Pestle">The Knight of the Burning Pestle</a></i> (1607), satirises the rising middle class and especially the <i>nouveaux riches</i>. </p><p>After Shakespeare's death, the poet and dramatist <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a> (1572–1637) was the leading literary figure of the Jacobean era. Jonson's aesthetics hark back to the Middle Ages and his characters embody the <a href="/wiki/Humours" class="mw-redirect" title="Humours">theory of humours</a>, based on contemporary medical theory, though the stock types of <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a> were an equal influence.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jonson's major plays include <i><a href="/wiki/Volpone" title="Volpone">Volpone</a></i> (1605 or 1606) and <i><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Fair" title="Bartholomew Fair">Bartholomew Fair</a></i> (1614). </p><p>A popular style of theatre in Jacobean times was the <a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">revenge play</a>, which had been popularised earlier by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kyd" title="Thomas Kyd">Thomas Kyd</a> (1558–94), and then developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Webster" title="John Webster">John Webster</a> (1578–1632) in the 17th century. Webster's famous plays are <i><a href="/wiki/The_White_Devil" title="The White Devil">The White Devil</a></i> (1612) and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Malfi" title="The Duchess of Malfi">The Duchess of Malfi</a></i> (1613). Other revenge tragedies include <i><a href="/wiki/The_Changeling_(play)" title="The Changeling (play)">The Changeling</a></i> written by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Middleton" title="Thomas Middleton">Thomas Middleton</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Rowley" title="William Rowley">William Rowley</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry_2">Poetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shakespeare also popularised the <a href="/wiki/English_sonnet" class="mw-redirect" title="English sonnet">English sonnet</a>, which made significant changes to <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>'s model. A collection of 154 <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets" title="Shakespeare's sonnets">sonnets</a>, dealing with themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality, were first published in a 1609 quarto. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Engraved head-and-shoulders portrait of Francis Bacon wearing a hat and ruff" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/170px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/255px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/340px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1629" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Besides Shakespeare, the major poets of the early 17th century included the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poet" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical poet">metaphysical poets</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a> (1572–1631) and <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert" title="George Herbert">George Herbert</a> (1593–1633). Influenced by continental <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a>, and taking as his subject matter both Christian mysticism and eroticism, Donne's metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic" figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to achieve surprise effects. </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Chapman" title="George Chapman">George Chapman</a> (?1559-?1634) was a successful playwright who is remembered chiefly for his translation in 1616 of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a> into English verse. This was the first complete translation of either poem into the English language, and it had a profound influence on English literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose">Prose</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Prose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Bacon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Francis Bacon">Sir Francis Bacon</a> (1561–1626) wrote the <a href="/wiki/Utopian_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopian novel">utopian novel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/New_Atlantis" title="New Atlantis">New Atlantis</a></i>, and coined the phrase "<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_Is_Power&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Knowledge Is Power (page does not exist)">Knowledge Is Power</a></i>". <a href="/wiki/Francis_Godwin" title="Francis Godwin">Francis Godwin</a>'s 1638 <i><a href="/wiki/The_Man_in_the_Moone" title="The Man in the Moone">The Man in the Moone</a></i> recounts an imaginary voyage to the moon and is now regarded as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_fiction" title="History of science fiction">first work of science fiction</a> in English literature.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>, the translation of <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a> and the Bible into vernacular languages provided new literary models. The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i> (1549) and the <i><a href="/wiki/Authorised_King_James_Version" class="mw-redirect" title="Authorised King James Version">Authorised King James Version</a></i> of the Bible have been hugely influential. The King James Bible, one of the great translation projects in the history of English up to that time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. It continued the tradition of <a href="/wiki/English_translations_of_the_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="English translations of the Bible">Bible translation into English</a> from the original languages that began with the work of <a href="/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale">William Tyndale</a>. (Previous translations into English had relied on the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>). It became the standard Bible of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, and some consider it one of the great literary works of all time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Renaissance:_1625–1660"><span id="Late_Renaissance:_1625.E2.80.931660"></span>Late Renaissance: 1625–1660</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Late Renaissance: 1625–1660"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caroline_era" title="Caroline era">Caroline era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Pepys.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Samuel_Pepys.jpg/170px-Samuel_Pepys.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Samuel_Pepys.jpg/255px-Samuel_Pepys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Samuel_Pepys.jpg/340px-Samuel_Pepys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2343" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a>, took the <a href="/wiki/Diary" title="Diary">diary</a> beyond mere business transaction notes, into the realm of the personal.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">metaphysical poets</a> continued writing in this period. Both John Donne and George Herbert died after 1625, but there was a second generation of metaphysical poets: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Marvell" title="Andrew Marvell">Andrew Marvell</a> (1621–1678), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Traherne" title="Thomas Traherne">Thomas Traherne</a> (1636 or 1637–1674) and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Vaughan" title="Henry Vaughan">Henry Vaughan</a> (1622–1695). Their style was witty, with metaphysical <a href="/wiki/Conceit" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceit">conceits</a> – far-fetched or unusual <a href="/wiki/Simile" title="Simile">similes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Metaphors" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphors">metaphors</a>, such as Marvell's comparison of the soul with a drop of dew;<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Donne's description of the effects of absence on lovers to the action of a pair of compasses.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important group of poets at this time were the <a href="/wiki/Cavalier_poet" title="Cavalier poet">Cavalier poets</a>. They were an important group of writers, who came from the classes that supported King <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> (1639–51). (King Charles reigned from 1625 and was executed in 1649). The best known of these poets are <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herrick_(poet)" title="Robert Herrick (poet)">Robert Herrick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lovelace_(poet)" title="Richard Lovelace (poet)">Richard Lovelace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carew" title="Thomas Carew">Thomas Carew</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Suckling_(poet)" title="John Suckling (poet)">Sir John Suckling</a>. They "were not a formal group, but all were influenced" by <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the Cavalier poets were <a href="/wiki/Courtier" title="Courtier">courtiers</a>, with notable exceptions. For example, Robert Herrick was not a courtier, but his style marks him as a Cavalier poet. Cavalier works make use of allegory and classical allusions, and they are influenced by Latin authors <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg/170px-John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg/255px-John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg/340px-John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1047" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>. His religious <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a></i> was published in 1667.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> (1608–74) is one of the great English poets, who wrote at a time of religious flux and political upheaval. He is generally seen as the last major poet of the English Renaissance, though his major epic poems were written in the Restoration period, including <i><a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a></i> (1671). Among these are <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Allegro" title="L'Allegro">L'Allegro</a></i>, 1631; <i><a href="/wiki/Il_Penseroso" title="Il Penseroso">Il Penseroso</a></i>, 1634; <i><a href="/wiki/Comus" title="Comus">Comus</a></i> (a masque), 1638; and <i><a href="/wiki/Lycidas" title="Lycidas">Lycidas</a></i>, (1638). His later major works are <i><a href="/wiki/Paradise_Regained" title="Paradise Regained">Paradise Regained</a></i>, 1671 and <i><a href="/wiki/Samson_Agonistes" title="Samson Agonistes">Samson Agonistes</a></i>, 1671. Milton's works reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, and the urgent issues and political turbulence of his day. Writing in English, Latin, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime, and his celebrated <i><a href="/wiki/Areopagitica" title="Areopagitica">Areopagitica</a></i> (1644), written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history's influential and impassioned defences of <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Hayley" title="William Hayley">William Hayley</a>'s 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author",<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he remains generally regarded "as one of the preeminent writers in the English language".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Urquhart" title="Thomas Urquhart">Thomas Urquhart</a> (1611–1660) translation of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rabelais" title="François Rabelais">Rabelais</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Gargantua_and_Pantagruel" title="Gargantua and Pantagruel">Gargantua and Pantagruel</a></i> into English has been described as "the greatest Scottish translation since Gavin Douglas's <i>Eneados</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-ScotlandsBooks_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ScotlandsBooks-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Restoration:_1660–1700"><span id="The_Restoration:_1660.E2.80.931700"></span><span class="anchor" id="The_Restoration:1660-1698"></span>The Restoration: 1660–1700</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Restoration: 1660–1700"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Restoration_literature" title="Restoration literature">Restoration literature</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drama_3">Drama</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Drama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy">Restoration comedy</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(1660)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (1660)">Restoration of the monarchy in 1660</a> launched a fresh start for literature, both in celebration of the new worldly and playful court of the king, and in reaction to it. Theatres in England reopened after having been closed during the protectorship of <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritanism</a> lost its momentum, and the bawdy "<a href="/wiki/Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy">Restoration comedy</a>" became a recognisable genre. Restoration comedy refers to English <a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">comedies</a> written and performed in the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">Restoration</a> period from 1660 to 1710.<sup id="cite_ref-George_Henry_Nettleton_p._149_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_Henry_Nettleton_p._149-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, women were allowed to perform on stage for the first time. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Ireland)" title="Restoration (Ireland)">Restoration of the monarchy in Ireland</a> enabled Ogilby to resume his position as Master of the Revels and open the first <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Dublin" title="Theatre Royal, Dublin">Theatre Royal in Dublin</a> in 1662 in Smock Alley. In 1662, <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Philips" title="Katherine Philips">Katherine Philips</a> went to Dublin, where she completed a translation of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Corneille" title="Pierre Corneille">Pierre Corneille</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Pompey" title="The Death of Pompey">Pompée</a></i>, produced with great success in 1663 in the Smock Alley Theatre, and printed in the same year both in Dublin and London. Although other women had translated or written dramas, her translation of Pompey broke new ground as the first rhymed version of a French tragedy in English and the first English play written by a woman to be performed on the professional stage. <a href="/wiki/Aphra_Behn" title="Aphra Behn">Aphra Behn</a> (one of the women writers dubbed "<a href="/wiki/The_fair_triumvirate_of_wit" title="The fair triumvirate of wit">The fair triumvirate of wit</a>") was a prolific dramatist and one of the early English professional female writers. Her greatest dramatic success was <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rover_(play)" title="The Rover (play)">The Rover</a></i> (1677). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry_3">Poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphra_Behn_by_Peter_Lely_ca._1670.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Aphra_Behn_by_Peter_Lely_ca._1670.jpg/170px-Aphra_Behn_by_Peter_Lely_ca._1670.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Aphra_Behn_by_Peter_Lely_ca._1670.jpg/255px-Aphra_Behn_by_Peter_Lely_ca._1670.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Aphra_Behn_by_Peter_Lely_ca._1670.jpg/340px-Aphra_Behn_by_Peter_Lely_ca._1670.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1608" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aphra_Behn" title="Aphra Behn">Aphra Behn</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Behn's depiction of the character Willmore in <i>The Rover</i> and the witty, poetry-reciting rake Dorimant in <a href="/wiki/George_Etherege" title="George Etherege">George Etherege</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Man_of_Mode" title="The Man of Mode">The Man of Mode</a></i> (1676) are seen as a satire on <a href="/wiki/John_Wilmot,_2nd_Earl_of_Rochester" title="John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester">John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester</a> (1647–1680), an English <a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">libertine</a> poet, and a wit of the Restoration court. His contemporary <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Marvell" title="Andrew Marvell">Andrew Marvell</a> described him as "the best English satirist", and he is generally considered to be the most considerable poet and the most learned among the Restoration wits.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <i><a href="/wiki/A_Satyr_Against_Reason_and_Mankind" title="A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind">A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind</a></i> is assumed to be a <a href="/wiki/Hobbesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbesian">Hobbesian</a> critique of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rochester's poetic work varies widely in form, genre, and content. He was part of a "mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease",<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who continued to produce their poetry in manuscripts, rather than in publication. As a consequence, some of Rochester's work deals with topical concerns, such as satires of courtly affairs in <a href="/wiki/Libel_(poetry)" title="Libel (poetry)">libels</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Parodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Parodies">parodies</a> of the styles of his contemporaries, such as <a href="/wiki/Sir_Charles_Scroope" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Charles Scroope">Sir Charles Scroope</a>. He is also notable for his impromptus,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, who spoke of Rochester as "the man of genius, the great poet", admired his satire for its "energy and fire" and translated some lines into French to "display the shining imagination his lordship only could boast".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> (1631–1700) was an English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the Age of Dryden. He established the <a href="/wiki/Heroic_couplet" title="Heroic couplet">heroic couplet</a> as a standard form of English poetry by writing successful satires, religious pieces, fables, epigrams, compliments, prologues, and plays with it; he also introduced the <a href="/wiki/Alexandrine" title="Alexandrine">alexandrine</a> and triplet into the form. In his poems, translations, and criticism, he established a poetic diction appropriate to the heroic couplet. Dryden's great achievements were in satiric verse in works like the mock-heroic <i><a href="/wiki/MacFlecknoe" class="mw-redirect" title="MacFlecknoe">MacFlecknoe</a></i> (1682). <a href="/wiki/W._H._Auden" title="W. H. Auden">W. H. Auden</a> referred to him as "the master of the middle style" that was a model for his contemporaries and for much of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The considerable loss felt by the English literary community at his death was evident from the elegies that it inspired.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexander Pope (1688–1744) was heavily influenced by Dryden, and often borrowed from him; other writers in the 18th century were equally influenced by both Dryden and Pope. </p><p>Though Ben Jonson had been poet laureate to James I in England, this was not then a formal position and the formal title of <a href="/wiki/Poet_Laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Poet Laureate">Poet Laureate</a>, as a royal office, was first conferred by letters patent on John Dryden in 1670. The post then became a regular British institution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prose_2">Prose</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Prose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diarist" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarist">Diarists</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Evelyn" title="John Evelyn">John Evelyn</a> (1620–1706) and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a> (1633–1703) depicted everyday London life and the cultural scene of the times. Their works are among the more important <a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">primary sources</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">Restoration period in England</a>, and consists of <a href="/wiki/Witness" title="Witness">eyewitness</a> accounts of many great events, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London" title="Great Plague of London">Great Plague of London</a> (1644–5), and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London" title="Great Fire of London">Great Fire of London</a> (1666). </p><p>The publication of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress" title="The Pilgrim's Progress">The Pilgrim's Progress</a></i> (Part I:1678; 1684), established the <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> preacher <a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a> (1628–88) as a notable writer. Bunyan's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress" title="The Pilgrim's Progress">The Pilgrim's Progress</a></i> is an <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> of personal salvation and a guide to the Christian life. Bunyan writes about how the individual can prevail against the temptations of mind and body that threaten damnation. The book is written in a straightforward narrative and shows influence from both drama and biography, and yet it also shows an awareness of the grand allegorical tradition found in <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="18th_century">18th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Augustan_age:_1701–1750"><span id="The_Augustan_age:_1701.E2.80.931750"></span><span class="anchor" id="The_Augustan_age:_1701-1750"></span>The Augustan age: 1701–1750</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The Augustan age: 1701–1750"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature" title="Augustan literature">Augustan literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustan_prose" title="Augustan prose">Augustan prose</a></div> <p>The late 17th, early 18th century (1689–1750) in English literature is known as the Augustan Age. Writers at this time "greatly admired their Roman counterparts, imitated their works and frequently drew parallels between" contemporary world and the age of the Roman emperor Augustus (27 AD – BC 14)<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature_(ancient_Rome)" title="Augustan literature (ancient Rome)">Augustan literature (ancient Rome)</a> ). Some of the major writers in this period were the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_people" title="Anglo-Irish people">Anglo-Irish</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a> (1667–1745), <a href="/wiki/William_Congreve" title="William Congreve">William Congreve</a>, (1670–1729), <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Joseph Addison</a> (1672–1719), <a href="/wiki/Richard_Steele" title="Richard Steele">Richard Steele</a> (1672–1729), <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a> (1688–1744), <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fielding" title="Henry Fielding">Henry Fielding</a> (1707–54), <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> (1709–84). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1707:_Birth_of_Britain">1707: Birth of Britain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 1707: Birth of Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tobias_Smollett_c_1770.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Tobias_Smollett_c_1770.jpg/170px-Tobias_Smollett_c_1770.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Tobias_Smollett_c_1770.jpg/255px-Tobias_Smollett_c_1770.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Tobias_Smollett_c_1770.jpg/340px-Tobias_Smollett_c_1770.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1262" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Smollett" title="Tobias Smollett">Tobias Smollett</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Union of the Parliaments of Scotland and England in 1707 to form a single <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a> and the creation of a joint state by the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union</a> had little impact on the literature of England nor on national consciousness among English writers. The situation in Scotland was different: the desire to maintain a cultural identity while partaking of the advantages offered by the English literary market and English literary standard language led to what has been described as the "invention of British literature" by Scottish writers. English writers, if they considered Britain at all, tended to assume it was merely England writ large; Scottish writers were more clearly aware of the new state as a "cultural amalgam comprising more than just England".<sup id="cite_ref-Crawford_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crawford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Rule_Britannia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule Britannia">Rule Britannia</a>!" is an example of the Scottish championing of this new national and literary identity. With the invention of British literature came the development of the early British novels, in contrast to the English novel of the 18th century which continued to deal with England and English concerns rather than exploring the changed political, social and literary environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Crawford_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crawford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Smollett" title="Tobias Smollett">Tobias Smollett</a> (1721–71) was a Scottish pioneer of the British novel, exploring the prejudices inherent within the new social structure of the country through comic <a href="/wiki/Picaresque_novel" title="Picaresque novel">picaresque novels</a>. His <i><a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Roderick_Random" title="The Adventures of Roderick Random">The Adventures of Roderick Random</a></i> (1748) is the first major novel written in English to have a Scotsman as hero,<sup id="cite_ref-Crawford_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crawford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the multinational voices represented in the narrative confront <a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Anti-Scottish sentiment</a>, being published only two years after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden" title="Battle of Culloden">Battle of Culloden</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Expedition_of_Humphry_Clinker" title="The Expedition of Humphry Clinker">The Expedition of Humphry Clinker</a></i> (1771) brings together characters from the extremes of Britain to question how cultural and linguistic differences can be accommodated within the new British identity, and influenced <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cumberland_(dramatist)" title="Richard Cumberland (dramatist)">Richard Cumberland</a> wrote patriotic comedies depicting characters taken from the "outskirts of the empire,".<sup id="cite_ref-EB11_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB11-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His most popular play "<i><a href="/wiki/The_West_Indian" title="The West Indian">The West Indian</a></i>" (1771) was performed in North America and the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose,_including_the_novel"><span id="Prose.2C_including_the_novel"></span>Prose, including the novel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Prose, including the novel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Augustan_prose" title="Augustan prose">Augustan prose</a></div> <p>In prose, the earlier part of the period was overshadowed by the development of the English essay. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Joseph Addison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Steele" title="Richard Steele">Richard Steele</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spectator_(1711)" title="The Spectator (1711)">The Spectator</a></i> established the form of the British periodical essay, inventing the pose of the detached observer of human life who can meditate upon the world without advocating any specific changes in it. However, this was also the time when the English novel, first emerging in the Restoration, developed into a major art form. <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a> turned from journalism and writing criminal lives for the press to writing fictional criminal lives with <i><a href="/wiki/Roxana:_The_Fortunate_Mistress" title="Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress">Roxana</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Moll_Flanders" title="Moll Flanders">Moll Flanders</a>.</i> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robinson_Crusoe_and_Man_Friday_Offterdinger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Robinson_Crusoe_and_Man_Friday_Offterdinger.jpg/170px-Robinson_Crusoe_and_Man_Friday_Offterdinger.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Robinson_Crusoe_and_Man_Friday_Offterdinger.jpg/255px-Robinson_Crusoe_and_Man_Friday_Offterdinger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Robinson_Crusoe_and_Man_Friday_Offterdinger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a>'s 1719 castaway novel <i><a href="/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe" title="Robinson Crusoe">Robinson Crusoe</a></i>, with Crusoe standing over <a href="/wiki/Man_Friday" class="mw-redirect" title="Man Friday">Man Friday</a> after freeing him from the cannibals</figcaption></figure> <p>The English novel has generally been seen as beginning with <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe" title="Robinson Crusoe">Robinson Crusoe</a></i> (1719) and <i><a href="/wiki/Moll_Flanders" title="Moll Flanders">Moll Flanders</a></i> (1722),<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though John Bunyan's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress" title="The Pilgrim's Progress">The Pilgrim's Progress</a></i> (1678) and <a href="/wiki/Aphra_Behn" title="Aphra Behn">Aphra Behn</a>'s, <i><a href="/wiki/Oroonoko" title="Oroonoko">Oroonoko</a></i> (1688) are also contenders.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other major 18th-century British novelists are <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Richardson" title="Samuel Richardson">Samuel Richardson</a> (1689–1761), author of the <a href="/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">epistolary novels</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Pamela,_or_Virtue_Rewarded" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded">Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded</a></i> (1740) and <i><a href="/wiki/Clarissa;_or,_The_History_of_a_Young_Lady" title="Clarissa; or, The History of a Young Lady">Clarissa; or, The History of a Young Lady</a></i> (1747–48); <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fielding" title="Henry Fielding">Henry Fielding</a> (1707–54), who wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Andrews" title="Joseph Andrews">Joseph Andrews</a></i> (1742) and <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Tom_Jones,_a_Foundling" title="The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling">The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling</a></i> (1749). </p><p>If Addison and Steele were dominant in one type of prose, then <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a> author of the satire <i><a href="/wiki/Gulliver%27s_Travels" title="Gulliver's Travels">Gulliver's Travels</a></i> was in another. In <i><a href="/wiki/A_Modest_Proposal" title="A Modest Proposal">A Modest Proposal</a></i> and the <i>Drapier Letters</i>, Swift reluctantly defended the Irish people from the predations of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>. This position provoked riots and arrests, but Swift, who had no love of Irish Roman Catholics, was outraged by the abuses he saw.<sup id="cite_ref-Ousby,_I._1993_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ousby,_I._1993-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The English pictorial <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirist</a> and editorial <a href="/wiki/Cartoonist" title="Cartoonist">cartoonist</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Hogarth" title="William Hogarth">William Hogarth</a> (1697–1764) has been credited with pioneering Western <a href="/wiki/Sequential_art" title="Sequential art">sequential art</a>. His work ranged from <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">realistic</a> portraiture to <a href="/wiki/Comic_strip" title="Comic strip">comic strip</a>-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects". Much of his work satirises contemporary politics and customs.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama_4">Drama</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Drama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Restoration_Comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration Comedy">Restoration Comedy</a></div> <p>Although documented history of <a href="/wiki/Irish_theatre" title="Irish theatre">Irish theatre</a> began at least as early as 1601, the early Irish dramatists of note were <a href="/wiki/William_Congreve" title="William Congreve">William Congreve</a> (1670–1729), one of the more interesting writers of <a href="/wiki/Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy">Restoration comedies</a> and author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Way_of_the_World" title="The Way of the World">The Way of the World</a></i> (1700) and playwright, <a href="/wiki/George_Farquhar" title="George Farquhar">George Farquhar</a> (?1677–1707), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Recruiting_Officer" title="The Recruiting Officer">The Recruiting Officer</a></i> (1706). (Restoration comedy refers to English <a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">comedies</a> written and performed in the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">Restoration</a> period from 1660 to 1710. <a href="/wiki/Comedy_of_manners" title="Comedy of manners">Comedy of manners</a> is used as a synonym of Restoration comedy).<sup id="cite_ref-George_Henry_Nettleton_p._149_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_Henry_Nettleton_p._149-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Irish">Anglo-Irish</a> drama in the 18th century also includes <a href="/wiki/Charles_Macklin" title="Charles Macklin">Charles Macklin</a> (?1699–1797), and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Murphy_(writer)" title="Arthur Murphy (writer)">Arthur Murphy</a> (1727–1805).<sup id="cite_ref-Deane_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deane-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The age of <a href="/wiki/Augustan_drama" title="Augustan drama">Augustan drama</a> was brought to an end by the censorship established by the <a href="/wiki/Licensing_Act_1737" title="Licensing Act 1737">Licensing Act 1737</a>. After 1737, authors with strong political or philosophical points to make would no longer turn to the stage as their first hope of making a living, and novels began to have dramatic structures involving only normal human beings, as the stage was closed off for serious authors. Prior to the Licensing Act 1737, theatre was the first choice for most wits. After it, the novel was<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry_4">Poetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Augustan_poetry" title="Augustan poetry">Augustan poetry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Pope_by_Michael_Dahl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_Pope_by_Michael_Dahl.jpg/170px-Alexander_Pope_by_Michael_Dahl.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_Pope_by_Michael_Dahl.jpg/255px-Alexander_Pope_by_Michael_Dahl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_Pope_by_Michael_Dahl.jpg/340px-Alexander_Pope_by_Michael_Dahl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2981" /></a><figcaption>Pope</figcaption></figure> <p>The most outstanding poet of the age is <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a> (1688–1744), whose major works include: <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Lock" title="The Rape of the Lock">The Rape of the Lock</a></i> (1712; enlarged in 1714); a translation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> (1715–20); a translation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i> (1725–26); <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dunciad" title="The Dunciad">The Dunciad</a></i> (1728; 1743). Since his death, Pope has been in a constant state of re-evaluation. His high artifice, strict prosody, and, at times, the sheer cruelty of his satire were an object of derision for the <a href="/wiki/Romantic_poets" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic poets">Romantic poets</a>, and it was not until the 1930s that his reputation was revived. Pope is now considered the dominant poetic voice of his century, a model of prosodic elegance, biting wit, and an enduring, demanding moral force.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_the_Lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of the Lock">Rape of the Lock</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dunciad" title="The Dunciad">The Dunciad</a></i> are masterpieces of the <a href="/wiki/Mock-epic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mock-epic">mock-epic</a> genre.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was during this time that poet <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a> (1700–48) produced his melancholy <i><a href="/wiki/The_Seasons_(Thomson_poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Seasons (Thomson poem)">The Seasons</a></i> (1728–30) and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Young" title="Edward Young">Edward Young</a> (1681–1765) wrote his poem <i><a href="/wiki/Night-Thoughts" title="Night-Thoughts">Night-Thoughts</a></i> (1742). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_roots_of_Romanticism:_1750–1798"><span id="The_roots_of_Romanticism:_1750.E2.80.931798"></span><span class="anchor" id="The_roots_of_Romanticism:_1750-1798"></span>The roots of Romanticism: 1750–1798</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: The roots of Romanticism: 1750–1798"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Burns_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Robert_Burns_1.jpg/170px-Robert_Burns_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Robert_Burns_1.jpg/255px-Robert_Burns_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Robert_Burns_1.jpg/340px-Robert_Burns_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1548" data-file-height="1880" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> inspired many vernacular writers across Britain and Ireland.</figcaption></figure> <p>The second half of the 18th century is sometimes called the "Age of Johnson". <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> (1709–1784), often referred to as Dr Johnson, was an English author who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and <a href="/wiki/Lexicographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexicographer">lexicographer</a>. Johnson has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After nine years of work, Johnson's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">A Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> was published in 1755; it had a far-reaching effect on <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> and has been described as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship.".<sup id="cite_ref-Bate240_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bate240-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through works such as the "Dictionary, his edition of Shakespeare, and his <i>Lives of the Poets</i> in particular, he helped invent what we now call English Literature".<sup id="cite_ref-britannica1_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This period of the 18th century saw the emergence of three major Irish authors <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Goldsmith" title="Oliver Goldsmith">Oliver Goldsmith</a> (1728–1774), <a href="/wiki/Richard_Brinsley_Sheridan" title="Richard Brinsley Sheridan">Richard Brinsley Sheridan</a> (1751–1816), and <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Sterne" title="Laurence Sterne">Laurence Sterne</a> (1713–1768). Goldsmith settled in London in 1756, where he published the novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Vicar_of_Wakefield" title="The Vicar of Wakefield">The Vicar of Wakefield</a></i> (1766), a pastoral poem with the title <i><a href="/wiki/The_Deserted_Village" title="The Deserted Village">The Deserted Village</a></i> (1770) and two plays: <i>The Good-Natur'd Man</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/She_Stoops_to_Conquer" title="She Stoops to Conquer">She Stoops to Conquer</a></i>. Sheridan was born in Dublin, but his family moved to England in the 1750s. His first play <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rivals" title="The Rivals">The Rivals</a></i> was performed at <a href="/wiki/Covent_Garden" title="Covent Garden">Covent Garden</a>, and it was an instant success. He became the most significant London playwright of the late 18th century with plays like <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_for_Scandal" title="The School for Scandal">The School for Scandal</a></i> and <i>The Critic</i>. Sterne published his famous novel <i><a href="/wiki/Tristram_Shandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tristram Shandy">Tristram Shandy</a></i> in parts from 1759 to 1767.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sentimental_novel" title="Sentimental novel">sentimental novel</a> or the novel of sensibility is a genre which developed during the second half of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the famous sentimental novels in English are <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Richardson" title="Samuel Richardson">Samuel Richardson</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Pamela,_or_Virtue_Rewarded" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded">Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded</a></i> (1740), <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Goldsmith" title="Oliver Goldsmith">Oliver Goldsmith</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Vicar_of_Wakefield" title="The Vicar of Wakefield">The Vicar of Wakefield</a></i> (1766), and <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Sterne" title="Laurence Sterne">Laurence Sterne</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Tristram_Shandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tristram Shandy">Tristram Shandy</a></i> (1759–1767).<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another novel genre also developed in this period. In 1778, <a href="/wiki/Frances_Burney" title="Frances Burney">Frances Burney</a> (1752–1840) wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Evelina" title="Evelina">Evelina</a></i>, one of the ear;y <a href="/wiki/Novel_of_manners" title="Novel of manners">novels of manners</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fanny Burney's novels indeed "were enjoyed and admired by <a href="/wiki/Jane_Austen" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Graveyard_poets" title="Graveyard poets">graveyard poets</a> were a number of pre-Romantic English poets, writing in the 1740s and later, whose works are characterised by their gloomy meditations on mortality, "skulls and coffins, epitaphs and worms" in the context of the graveyard.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this was added, by later practitioners, a feeling for the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">'sublime'</a> and uncanny, and an interest in ancient English poetic forms and folk poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are often considered precursors of the Gothic genre.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poets include; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gray" title="Thomas Gray">Thomas Gray</a> (1716–71), <i><a href="/wiki/Elegy_Written_in_a_Country_Churchyard" title="Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard">Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard</a></i> (1751);<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Cowper" title="William Cowper">William Cowper</a> (1731–1800); <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Smart" title="Christopher Smart">Christopher Smart</a> (1722–71); <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chatterton" title="Thomas Chatterton">Thomas Chatterton</a> (1752–70); <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blair_(poet)" title="Robert Blair (poet)">Robert Blair</a> (1699–1746);<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Young" title="Edward Young">Edward Young</a> (1683–1765), <i>The Complaint, or <a href="/wiki/Night_Thoughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Night Thoughts">Night Thoughts</a> on Life, Death and Immortality</i> (1742–45).<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other precursors of Romanticism are the poets <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a> (1700–48) and <a href="/wiki/James_Macpherson" title="James Macpherson">James Macpherson</a> (1736–96), the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">Gothic novel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Novel_of_sensibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Novel of sensibility">novel of sensibility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also foreshadowing Romanticism was <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a>, in works such as <a href="/wiki/Horace_Walpole" title="Horace Walpole">Horace Walpole</a>'s 1764 novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Castle_of_Otranto" title="The Castle of Otranto">The Castle of Otranto</a></i>. The Gothic fiction genre combines elements of <a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">horror</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romance_novel" title="Romance novel">romance</a>. A pioneering Gothic novelist was <a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Ann Radcliffe</a> author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mysteries_of_Udolpho" title="The Mysteries of Udolpho">The Mysteries of Udolpho</a></i> (1794). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Monk" title="The Monk">The Monk</a></i> (1796), by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Lewis_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Lewis (writer)">Matthew Lewis</a>, is another notable early work in both the Gothic and horror genres. </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Macpherson" title="James Macpherson">James Macpherson</a> (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard <a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a>, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical</a> <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epics</a>. Both <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> (1759–96) and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> (1771–1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> (1759–1796) was a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death, he became a cultural icon in Scotland. Among poems and songs of Burns that remain well known across the world are "Auld Lang Syne"; "<a href="/wiki/A_Red,_Red_Rose" title="A Red, Red Rose">A Red, Red Rose</a>"; "<a href="/wiki/A_Man%27s_A_Man_for_A%27_That" class="mw-redirect" title="A Man's A Man for A' That">A Man's A Man for A' That</a>"; "<a href="/wiki/To_a_Mouse" title="To a Mouse">To a Mouse</a>"; "<a href="/wiki/Tam_o%27_Shanter_(poem)" title="Tam o' Shanter (poem)">Tam o' Shanter</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Ae_Fond_Kiss_(song)" title="Ae Fond Kiss (song)">Ae Fond Kiss</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romanticism:_1798–1837"><span id="Romanticism:_1798.E2.80.931837"></span><span class="anchor" id="Romanticism:_1798-1837"></span>Romanticism: 1798–1837</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Romanticism: 1798–1837"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism#English_literature" title="Romanticism">Romanticism § English literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Romantic literature in English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Romanticism in Scotland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Tyger.jpg/170px-Tyger.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Tyger.jpg/255px-Tyger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Tyger.jpg/340px-Tyger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/The_Tyger" title="The Tyger">The Tyger</a>", published in his <i><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience" title="Songs of Innocence and of Experience">Songs of Innocence and of Experience</a></i>, is a work of Romanticism.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century. Various dates are given for the Romantic period in British literature, but here the publishing of <i><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a></i> in 1798 is taken as the beginning, and the crowning of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> in 1837 as its end, even though, for example, William Wordsworth lived until 1850 and <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a> published before 1798. The writers of this period, however, "did not think of themselves as 'Romantics'", and the term was first used by critics of the Victorian period.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romantic period was one of major social change in England, because of the depopulation of the countryside and the rapid development of overcrowded industrial cities, that took place in the period roughly from 1785 to 1830. The movement of so many people in England was the result of two forces: the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a>, that involved the <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a> of the land, drove workers off the land, and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> which provided them employment, "in the factories and mills, operated by machines driven by <a href="/wiki/Steam-power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-power">steam-power</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, Romanticism may be seen in part as a reaction to the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though it was also a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, as well a reaction against the scientific <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalisation</a> of nature.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> was an especially important influence on the political thinking of many of the Romantic poets.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The landscape is often prominent in the poetry of this period, so that the Romantics, especially perhaps Wordsworth, are often described as 'nature poets'. However, the longer Romantic 'nature poems' have a wider concern because they are usually meditations on "an emotional problem or personal crisis".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romantic_poetry">Romantic poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Romantic poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg/170px-William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg/255px-William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg/340px-William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a> is considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic Age</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The poet, painter, and printmaker <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a> (1757–1827) was one of the early of the English Romantic poets. Largely disconnected from the major streams of the literature of the time, Blake was generally unrecognised during his lifetime, but is now considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic Age</a>. Among his important works are <i><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_Innocence" class="mw-redirect" title="Songs of Innocence">Songs of Innocence</a></i> (1789) and <i><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_Experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Songs of Experience">Songs of Experience</a></i> (1794) "and profound and difficult 'prophecies'" such as <i><a href="/wiki/Visions_of_the_Daughters_of_Albion" title="Visions of the Daughters of Albion">Visions of the Daughters of Albion</a></i> (1793), <i><a href="/wiki/The_First_Book_of_Urizen" class="mw-redirect" title="The First Book of Urizen">The First Book of Urizen</a></i> (1794), and "Jerusalem: the Emanation of the Giant Albion" (1804–?20).<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Blake, among the early Romantics were the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a>, a small group of friends, including <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a> (1770–1850), <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> (1772–1834), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Robert Southey</a> (1774–1843) and journalist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">Thomas De Quincey</a> (1785–1859). However, at the time, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> (1771–1832) was the most famous poet. Scott achieved immediate success with his long narrative poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lay_of_the_Last_Minstrel" title="The Lay of the Last Minstrel">The Lay of the Last Minstrel</a></i> in 1805, followed by the full <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Marmion_(poem)" title="Marmion (poem)">Marmion</a></i> in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish past.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early <a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic Poets</a> brought a new emotionalism and introspection, and their emergence is marked by the first romantic manifesto in English literature, the "Preface" to <i><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a></i> (1798). The poems in <i><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a></i> were mostly by Wordsworth, but Coleridge contributed the long "<a href="/wiki/Rime_of_the_Ancient_Mariner" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime of the Ancient Mariner">Rime of the Ancient Mariner</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among Wordsworth's important poems, are "<a href="/wiki/Michael_(poem)" title="Michael (poem)">Michael</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Lines_Composed_a_Few_Miles_Above_Tintern_Abbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey">Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Resolution_and_Independence" title="Resolution and Independence">Resolution and Independence</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Ode:_Intimations_of_Immortality_from_Recollections_of_Early_Childhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood">Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood</a>" and the autobiographical epic <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prelude" title="The Prelude">The Prelude</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Robert Southey</a> (1774–1843) was another of the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a>", and <a href="/wiki/Poet_Laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Poet Laureate">Poet Laureate</a> for 30 years from 1813 to his death in 1843. Although his fame has been eclipsed by that of his contemporaries and friends <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">Thomas De Quincey</a> (1785–1859) was an English essayist, best known for his <i><a href="/wiki/Confessions_of_an_English_Opium-Eater" title="Confessions of an English Opium-Eater">Confessions of an English Opium-Eater</a></i> (1821),<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an autobiographical account of his <a href="/wiki/Laudanum" title="Laudanum">laudanum</a> and its effect on his life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_generation">Second generation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Second generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_Wollstonecraft_Shelley_Rothwell.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Mary_Wollstonecraft_Shelley_Rothwell.tif/lossy-page1-170px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_Shelley_Rothwell.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Mary_Wollstonecraft_Shelley_Rothwell.tif/lossy-page1-255px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_Shelley_Rothwell.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Mary_Wollstonecraft_Shelley_Rothwell.tif/lossy-page1-340px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_Shelley_Rothwell.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1733" data-file-height="2109" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The second generation of Romantic poets includes <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a> (1788–1824), <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</a> (1792–1822) and <a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">John Keats</a> (1795–1821). Byron, however, was still influenced by 18th-century satirists and was, perhaps, the least "romantic" of the three, preferring "the brilliant wit of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a> to what he called the 'wrong poetical system' of his Romantic contemporaries".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though John Keats shared Byron and Shelley's radical politics, "his best poetry is not political".<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but is especially noted for its sensuous music and imagery, along with a concern with material beauty and the transience of life.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among his famous works are: "<a href="/wiki/The_Eve_of_St_Agnes" class="mw-redirect" title="The Eve of St Agnes">The Eve of St Agnes</a>", "<a href="/wiki/La_Belle_Dame_sans_Merci" title="La Belle Dame sans Merci">La Belle Dame sans Merci</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Ode_to_a_Nightingale" title="Ode to a Nightingale">Ode to a Nightingale</a>", "<a href="/wiki/To_Autumn" title="To Autumn">To Autumn</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Percy Shelley, known to contemporaries for his radical politics and association with figures such as Byron and Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, daughter of radical thinkers William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft, was the third major romantic poet of the second generation. Generally regarded as among the great lyric poets in the English language, Shelley is perhaps best known for poems such as <i><a href="/wiki/Ozymandias" title="Ozymandias">Ozymandias</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ode_to_the_West_Wind" title="Ode to the West Wind">Ode to the West Wind</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/To_a_Skylark" title="To a Skylark">To a Skylark</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Adona%C3%AFs" class="mw-redirect" title="Adonaïs">Adonaïs</a></i>, an elegy written on the death of Keats.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a> (1797–1851) is remembered as the author of <i><a href="/wiki/Frankenstein" title="Frankenstein">Frankenstein</a></i> (1818), an important <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">Gothic novel</a>, as well as being an early example of science fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although sticking to its forms, <a href="/wiki/Felicia_Hemans" title="Felicia Hemans">Felicia Hemans</a> began a process of undermining the Romantic tradition, a deconstruction that was continued by <a href="/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon" title="Letitia Elizabeth Landon">Letitia Elizabeth Landon</a>, as "an urban poet deeply attentive to themes of decay and decomposition".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Landon's novel forms of metrical romance and <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_monologue" title="Dramatic monologue">dramatic monologue</a> were much copied and contributed to her long-lasting influence on Victorian poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_poets">Other poets</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Other poets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another important poet in this period was <a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">John Clare</a> (1793–1864). Clare was the son of a farm labourer, who came to be known for his celebratory representations of the English countryside and his lamentation for the changes taking place in rural England.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Crabbe" title="George Crabbe">George Crabbe</a> (1754–1832) was an English poet who, during the Romantic period, wrote "closely observed, realistic portraits of rural life...in the <a href="/wiki/Heroic_couplet" title="Heroic couplet">heroic couplets</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Augustan_poetry" title="Augustan poetry">Augustan age</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crabbe's works include <i><a href="/wiki/The_Village_(poem)" title="The Village (poem)">The Village</a></i> (1783), <i>Poems</i> (1807), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Borough_(George_Crabbe_(poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Borough (George Crabbe (poem)">The Borough</a></i> (1810). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanticism_and_the_novel">Romanticism and the novel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Romanticism and the novel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/170px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/255px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/340px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1649" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sir_Walter_Scott" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Walter Scott">Sir Walter Scott</a>, 1822</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JaneAusten-1870-cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/JaneAusten-1870-cropped.jpg/170px-JaneAusten-1870-cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/JaneAusten-1870-cropped.jpg/255px-JaneAusten-1870-cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/JaneAusten-1870-cropped.jpg/340px-JaneAusten-1870-cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2390" data-file-height="2755" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jane_Austen" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Major novelists in this period were <a href="/wiki/Jane_Austen" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a> (1775–1817) and the Scotsman <a href="/wiki/Sir_Walter_Scott" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Walter Scott">Sir Walter Scott</a> (1771–1832), and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a> of various kinds also flourished. Austen's works satirise the <a href="/wiki/Sentimental_novel" title="Sentimental novel">novels of sensibility</a> of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century realism.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Austen's works include <i><a href="/wiki/Pride_and_Prejudice" title="Pride and Prejudice">Pride and Prejudice</a></i> (1813) <i><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibility" title="Sense and Sensibility">Sense and Sensibility</a></i> (1811), <i><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_Park" title="Mansfield Park">Mansfield Park</a></i> (1814), <i><a href="/wiki/Emma_(novel)" title="Emma (novel)">Emma</a></i> (1815)<i> and <a href="/wiki/Persuasion_(novel)" title="Persuasion (novel)">Persuasion</a></i> (1818). </p><p>The most important British novelist at the beginning of the early 19th century was Sir Walter Scott, who was not only a highly successful British novelist, but "the greatest single influence on fiction in the 19th century...[and] a European figure".<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott's novel writing career was launched in 1814 with <i><a href="/wiki/Waverley_(novel)" title="Waverley (novel)">Waverley</a></i>, often called the first historical novel, and was followed by <i><a href="/wiki/Ivanhoe" title="Ivanhoe">Ivanhoe</a></i>. The <a href="/wiki/Waverley_Novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Waverley Novels">Waverley Novels</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Antiquary" title="The Antiquary">The Antiquary</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Old_Mortality" title="Old Mortality">Old Mortality</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Heart_of_Midlothian" title="The Heart of Midlothian">The Heart of Midlothian</a></i>, and whose subject is Scottish history, are now generally regarded as Scott's masterpieces.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victorian_literature:_1837–1900"><span id="Victorian_literature:_1837.E2.80.931900"></span><span class="anchor" id="Victorian_literature:_1837-1900"></span>Victorian literature: 1837–1900</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Victorian literature: 1837–1900"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Victorian_literature" title="Victorian literature">Victorian literature</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victorian_fiction">Victorian fiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Victorian fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_novel">The novel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: The novel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_novel" title="English novel">English novel (Victorian)</a></div> <p>It was in the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> (1837–1900) that the novel became the leading <a href="/wiki/Literary_genre" title="Literary genre">literary genre</a> in English.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women played an important part in this rising popularity both as authors and as readers.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monthly <a href="/wiki/Serial_(literature)" title="Serial (literature)">serialising</a> of fiction encouraged this surge in popularity, due to a combination of the rise of literacy, technological advances in printing, and improved economics of distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Circulating_libraries" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulating libraries">Circulating libraries</a>, that allowed books to be borrowed for an annual subscription, were a further factor in the rising popularity of the novel. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Dickens_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Charles_Dickens_3.jpg/170px-Charles_Dickens_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Charles_Dickens_3.jpg/255px-Charles_Dickens_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Charles_Dickens_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a> (1812–70) emerged on the literary scene in the late 1830s and soon became probably the most famous novelist in the history of British literature. Dickens fiercely satirised various aspects of society, including the <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Twist" title="Oliver Twist">Oliver Twist</a></i>, the failures of the legal system in <i><a href="/wiki/Bleak_House" title="Bleak House">Bleak House</a></i>. In more recent years, Dickens has been most admired for his later novels, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Dombey_and_Son" title="Dombey and Son">Dombey and Son</a></i> (1846–1848), <i><a href="/wiki/Bleak_House" title="Bleak House">Bleak House</a></i> (1852–1853) and <i><a href="/wiki/Little_Dorrit" title="Little Dorrit">Little Dorrit</a></i> (1855–1857), <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Expectations" title="Great Expectations">Great Expectations</a></i> (1860–1861), and <i><a href="/wiki/Our_Mutual_Friend" title="Our Mutual Friend">Our Mutual Friend</a></i> (1864–1865).<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An early rival to Dickens was <a href="/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray" title="William Makepeace Thackeray">William Makepeace Thackeray</a> (1811–1863), who during the Victorian period ranked second only to him, but he is now much less read and is known almost exclusively for <i><a href="/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(novel)" title="Vanity Fair (novel)">Vanity Fair</a></i> (1847). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bront%C3%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Brontë">Brontë</a> sisters, Emily, Charlotte and Anne, were other significant novelists in the 1840s and 1850s. Their novels caused a sensation when they were first published and subsequently were accepted as classics. <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">Charlotte Brontë</a>'s (1816–1855) work was <i><a href="/wiki/Jane_Eyre" title="Jane Eyre">Jane Eyre</a></i>, broke new ground in being written from an intensely first-person female perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">Emily Brontë</a>'s (1818–1848) novel was <i><a href="/wiki/Wuthering_Heights" title="Wuthering Heights">Wuthering Heights</a></i> and, according to <a href="/wiki/Juliet_Gardiner" title="Juliet Gardiner">Juliet Gardiner</a>, "the vivid sexual passion and power of its language and imagery impressed, bewildered and appalled reviewers".<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third Brontë novel of 1847 was <a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a>'s (1820–1849) <i><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Grey" title="Agnes Grey">Agnes Grey</a></i>, which deals with the lonely life of a governess. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gaskell" title="Elizabeth Gaskell">Elizabeth Gaskell</a> (1810–1865) was also a successful writer and <i><a href="/wiki/North_and_South_(1855_novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="North and South (1855 novel)">North and South</a></i> contrasts the lifestyle in the industrial north of England with the wealthier south.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Trollope" title="Anthony Trollope">Anthony Trollope</a> (1815–1882) was one of the more successful, prolific and respected English novelists of the Victorian era. Some of his works are set in the imaginary west country county of <a href="/wiki/Barsetshire" title="Barsetshire">Barsetshire</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Warden" title="The Warden">The Warden</a></i> (1855) and <i><a href="/wiki/Barchester_Towers" title="Barchester Towers">Barchester Towers</a></i> (1857). Trollope's novels portray the lives of the landowning and professional classes of early Victorian England.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a> (Mary Ann Evans (1819–1880) was a major novelist of the mid-Victorian period. Her works, especially <i><a href="/wiki/Middlemarch" title="Middlemarch">Middlemarch</a></i> 1871–1872), are important examples of <a href="/wiki/Literary_realism" title="Literary realism">literary realism</a>, and they are admired for their combination of high <a href="/wiki/Victorian_literature" title="Victorian literature">Victorian literary</a> detail, with an intellectual breadth that removes them from the narrow geographic confines they often depict, leading to comparisons with Tolstoy.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Meredith" title="George Meredith">George Meredith</a> (1828–1909) is best remembered for his novels <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ordeal_of_Richard_Feverel" title="The Ordeal of Richard Feverel">The Ordeal of Richard Feverel</a></i> (1859) and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Egoist_(novel)" title="The Egoist (novel)">The Egoist</a></i> (1879). "His reputation stood very high well into" the 20th century but then seriously declined.<sup id="cite_ref-English_Literature_1996_pp.650-1_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-English_Literature_1996_pp.650-1-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:H._G._Wells,_c.1890.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/H._G._Wells%2C_c.1890.jpg/220px-H._G._Wells%2C_c.1890.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/H._G._Wells%2C_c.1890.jpg/330px-H._G._Wells%2C_c.1890.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/H._G._Wells%2C_c.1890.jpg/440px-H._G._Wells%2C_c.1890.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a> studying in London, taken <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1890</span></figcaption></figure> <p>An interest in rural matters and the changing social and economic situation of the countryside is seen in the novels of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hardy" title="Thomas Hardy">Thomas Hardy</a> (1840–1928). A Victorian realist, in the tradition of George Eliot, he was also influenced both in his novels and poetry by Romanticism, especially by <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He gained fame as the author of such novels as, <i><a href="/wiki/Far_from_the_Madding_Crowd" title="Far from the Madding Crowd">Far from the Madding Crowd</a></i> (1874), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mayor_of_Casterbridge" title="The Mayor of Casterbridge">The Mayor of Casterbridge</a></i> (1886), <i><a href="/wiki/Tess_of_the_d%27Urbervilles" title="Tess of the d'Urbervilles">Tess of the d'Urbervilles</a></i> (1891), and <i><a href="/wiki/Jude_the_Obscure" title="Jude the Obscure">Jude the Obscure</a></i> (1895). </p><p>Another significant late 19th-century novelist is <a href="/wiki/George_Gissing" title="George Gissing">George Gissing</a> (1857–1903), who published 23 novels from 1880 to 1903. His best-known novel is <i><a href="/wiki/New_Grub_Street" title="New Grub Street">New Grub Street</a></i> (1891). </p><p>Also in the late 1890s, the Polish-born writer <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a> (1857–1924), an important forerunner of <a href="/wiki/Modernist_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist literature">modernist literature</a>, began publishing his first novels. Conrad's <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Darkness" title="Heart of Darkness">Heart of Darkness</a></i> was published in 1899. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Darkness" title="Heart of Darkness">Heart of Darkness</a></i> (1899) is an important example about the changing times during Queen Victoria's reign, signaling the transition from realism to modernism. While Conrad's depiction of the local Africans in his novel is often criticized as deeply dehumanizing (for example, <a href="/wiki/Chinua_Achebe" title="Chinua Achebe">Chinua Achebe</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/An_Image_of_Africa:_Racism_in_Conrad%27s_Heart_of_Darkness" class="mw-redirect" title="An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness">An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness</a></i>), others argue that this xenophobic characterization belongs to the fictional narrator (<a href="/wiki/Charles_Marlow" title="Charles Marlow">Charles Marlow</a>), and that Conrad seeks to blur the lines between societies, demonstrating the ambiguity and darkness inherent in each.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another major novel of Conrad's published towards the end of the Victorian era was <i><a href="/wiki/Lord_Jim" title="Lord Jim">Lord Jim</a></i> (1900). Considered one of his masterpieces, <i><a href="/wiki/Lord_Jim" title="Lord Jim">Lord Jim</a></i> also makes use of the narration of the character <a href="/wiki/Charles_Marlow" title="Charles Marlow">Marlow</a> to tell the story of a disgraced young sailor who seeks to make amends for abandoning a steamer and its passengers during its moment of need. <i><a href="/wiki/Lord_Jim" title="Lord Jim">Lord Jim</a></i> has also been praised for its innovative psychological exploration of cowardice, self knowledge, and personal growth, as well as its experimental narrative structure anticipating literary modernism. As with <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Darkness" title="Heart of Darkness">Heart of Darkness</a></i>, the novel has also been notable for casting doubts on the assumptions of the colonial order of the day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_short_story">The short story</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: The short story"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are early European examples of <a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short stories</a> published separately from 1790 to 1810, but the first true collections of short stories appeared from 1810 to 1830 in several countries around the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early short stories in the United Kingdom were <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">gothic tales</a> like <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cumberland_(dramatist)" title="Richard Cumberland (dramatist)">Richard Cumberland</a>'s "remarkable narrative" "The Poisoner of Montremos" (1791).<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major novelists like <a href="/wiki/Sir_Walter_Scott" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Walter Scott">Sir Walter Scott</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a> also wrote some short stories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genre_fiction">Genre fiction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Genre fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/British_literature" title="Special:EditPage/British literature">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Important developments occurred in <a href="/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">genre fiction</a> in this era. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Adventure_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventure novel">Adventure novels</a> were popular, including <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Barrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir John Barrow">Sir John Barrow</a>'s descriptive <a href="/wiki/The_Eventful_History_of_the_Mutiny_and_Piratical_Seizure_of_HMS_Bounty" title="The Eventful History of the Mutiny and Piratical Seizure of HMS Bounty">1831 account</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mutiny_on_the_Bounty" title="Mutiny on the Bounty">Mutiny on the Bounty</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Lost_World_(genre)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lost World (genre)">Lost World</a> literary genre was inspired by real stories of archaeological discoveries by imperial adventurers. <a href="/wiki/Sir_Henry_Rider_Haggard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Henry Rider Haggard">Sir Henry Rider Haggard</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/King_Solomon%27s_Mines" title="King Solomon's Mines">King Solomon's Mines</a></i>, one of the early examples, in 1885. Contemporary European politics and diplomatic manoeuvrings informed <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Hope" title="Anthony Hope">Anthony Hope</a>'s swashbuckling <a href="/wiki/Ruritanian_romance" title="Ruritanian romance">Ruritanian adventure novels</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prisoner_of_Zenda" title="The Prisoner of Zenda">The Prisoner of Zenda</a></i> (1894). <a href="/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson" title="Robert Louis Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</a> (1850–1894) also wrote works in this genre, including <i><a href="/wiki/Kidnapped_(novel)" title="Kidnapped (novel)">Kidnapped</a></i> (1886), an <a href="/wiki/Historical" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical">historical</a> novel set in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745" title="Jacobite rising of 1745">Jacobite rising of 1745</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Treasure_Island" title="Treasure Island">Treasure Island</a></i> (1883), the classic <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">pirate</a> adventure. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wilkie_Collins" title="Wilkie Collins">Wilkie Collins</a>' <a href="/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">epistolary novel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Moonstone" title="The Moonstone">The Moonstone</a></i> (1868) is generally considered the first <a href="/wiki/Detective_fiction" title="Detective fiction">detective novel</a> in the English language, and soon after <a href="/wiki/Sir_Arthur_Conan_Doyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Arthur Conan Doyle">Sir Arthur Conan Doyle</a> began his <a href="/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes" title="Sherlock Holmes">Sherlock Holmes</a> series about a London-based "consulting detective". Doyle wrote four novels and 56 short stories featuring Holmes, from 1880 to 1907, with a final case in 1914. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PortraitOfACD.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/PortraitOfACD.JPG/170px-PortraitOfACD.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/PortraitOfACD.JPG/255px-PortraitOfACD.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/PortraitOfACD.JPG/340px-PortraitOfACD.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1996" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sir_Arthur_Conan_Doyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Arthur Conan Doyle">Sir Arthur Conan Doyle</a> was born in Scotland.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a>'s (1866–1946) writing career began in the 1890s with science fiction novels like <i><a href="/wiki/The_War_of_the_Worlds" title="The War of the Worlds">The War of the Worlds</a></i> (1898), which describes an invasion of late Victorian England by <a href="/wiki/Martian" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian">Martians</a>, and Wells is, along with Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a> (1828–1905), as a major figure in the development of the science fiction genre. </p><p>The history of the modern <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a> genre is generally said to begin with <a href="/wiki/George_MacDonald" title="George MacDonald">George MacDonald</a>, the influential author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Princess_and_the_Goblin" title="The Princess and the Goblin">The Princess and the Goblin</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Phantastes" title="Phantastes">Phantastes</a></i> (1858). <a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a> was a popular English poet who also wrote several fantasy novels during the latter part of the 19th century. The <a href="/wiki/Vampire_literature" title="Vampire literature">vampire genre</a> fiction began with <a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">John William Polidori</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/The_Vampyre" title="The Vampyre">The Vampyre</a>" (1819). This short story was inspired by the life of <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a> and his poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Giaour" title="The Giaour">The Giaour</a></i>. Irish writer <a href="/wiki/Bram_Stoker" title="Bram Stoker">Bram Stoker</a> was the author of seminal horror work <i><a href="/wiki/Dracula" title="Dracula">Dracula</a></i> (1897) with the primary antagonist the vampire <a href="/wiki/Count_Dracula" title="Count Dracula">Count Dracula</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Penny_dreadful" title="Penny dreadful">Penny dreadful</a> publications were an alternative to mainstream works, and were aimed at working class adolescents, introducing the infamous <a href="/wiki/Sweeney_Todd" title="Sweeney Todd">Sweeney Todd</a>. The premier <a href="/wiki/Ghost_story" title="Ghost story">ghost story</a> writer of the 19th century was the Irish writer <a href="/wiki/Sheridan_Le_Fanu" title="Sheridan Le Fanu">Sheridan Le Fanu</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Children's_literature"><span id="Children.27s_literature"></span>Children's literature</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Children's literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CharlesDodgson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/ca/CharlesDodgson.jpg/170px-CharlesDodgson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/ca/CharlesDodgson.jpg/255px-CharlesDodgson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/ca/CharlesDodgson.jpg/340px-CharlesDodgson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1879" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Carroll" title="Lewis Carroll">Lewis Carroll</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">Literature for children</a> developed as a separate genre during the Victorian era, and some works became internationally known, such as <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Carroll" title="Lewis Carroll">Lewis Carroll</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Alice%27s_Adventures_in_Wonderland" title="Alice's Adventures in Wonderland">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a></i> (1865). At the end of 19th century, the author and illustrator <a href="/wiki/Beatrix_Potter" title="Beatrix Potter">Beatrix Potter</a> was known for her children's books, which featured animal characters, including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Peter_Rabbit" title="The Tale of Peter Rabbit">The Tale of Peter Rabbit</a></i> (1902). In the latter years of the 19th century, precursors of the modern picture book were illustrated books of poems and short stories produced by illustrators <a href="/wiki/Randolph_Caldecott" title="Randolph Caldecott">Randolph Caldecott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Crane" title="Walter Crane">Walter Crane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kate_Greenaway" title="Kate Greenaway">Kate Greenaway</a>. These had a larger proportion of pictures to words than earlier books, and many of their pictures were in colour. <a href="/wiki/Vice_Versa_(novel)" title="Vice Versa (novel)"><i>Vice Versa</i></a> (1882) by <a href="/wiki/F._Anstey" class="mw-redirect" title="F. Anstey">F. Anstey</a>, sees a father and son <a href="/wiki/Body_swap" title="Body swap">exchange bodies</a> – body swaps have been a popular theme in various media since the book was published. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victorian_poetry">Victorian poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Victorian poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">English poetry (Victorian)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_Tennyson,_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg/170px-Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg/255px-Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg/340px-Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2901" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson" title="Alfred, Lord Tennyson">Alfred, Lord Tennyson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The leading poets during the Victorian period were <a href="/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson" title="Alfred, Lord Tennyson">Alfred, Lord Tennyson</a> (1809–1892), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning" title="Robert Browning">Robert Browning</a> (1812–1889), <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning" title="Elizabeth Barrett Browning">Elizabeth Barrett Browning</a> (1806–1861), and <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a> (1822–1888). The poetry of this period was heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Romantics" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantics">Romantics</a>, but went off in its own directions. Particularly notable was the development of the <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_monologue" title="Dramatic monologue">dramatic monologue</a>, a form used by many poets in this period, but perfected by Browning.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tennyson was <a href="/wiki/Poet_Laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Poet Laureate">Poet Laureate</a> of the United Kingdom during much of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>'s reign. He was described by T.S. Eliot, as "the greatest master of metrics as well as melancholia", and as having "the finest ear of any English poet since <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning" title="Elizabeth Barrett Browning">Elizabeth Barrett Browning</a> was the wife of Robert Browning, she had established her reputation as a major poet before she met him. Her famous work is the sequence of 44 sonnets "<a href="/wiki/Sonnets_from_the_Portuguese" title="Sonnets from the Portuguese">Sonnets from the Portuguese</a>", published in <i>Poems</i> (1850).<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a>'s reputation as a poet has declined in recent years, and he is best remembered now for his critical works, like <i><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_Anarchy" title="Culture and Anarchy">Culture and Anarchy</a></i> (1869) and his 1867 poem "<a href="/wiki/Dover_Beach" title="Dover Beach">Dover Beach</a>". </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti" title="Dante Gabriel Rossetti">Dante Gabriel Rossetti</a> (1828–1882) was a poet, illustrator, painter and translator. He founded the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</a> in 1848 with <a href="/wiki/William_Holman_Hunt" title="William Holman Hunt">William Holman Hunt</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Everett_Millais" title="John Everett Millais">John Everett Millais</a>, and was later to be the main inspiration for a second generation of artists and writers influenced by the movement, notably <a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burne-Jones" title="Edward Burne-Jones">Edward Burne-Jones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Clough" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Clough">Arthur Clough</a> (1819–61) was a minor figure of this era, he has been described as "a fine poet whose experiments in extending the range of literary language and subject were ahead of his time".<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Meredith" title="George Meredith">George Meredith</a> (1828–1909) is remembered for his innovative collection of poems <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Love_(poetry_collection)" title="Modern Love (poetry collection)">Modern Love</a></i> (1862).<sup id="cite_ref-English_Literature_1996_pp.650-1_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-English_Literature_1996_pp.650-1-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the second half of the century, English poets began to take an interest in French <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(movement)" title="Symbolism (movement)">Symbolism</a>. Two groups of poets emerged in the 1890s, the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Yellow_Book" title="The Yellow Book">Yellow Book</a></i> poets who adhered to the tenets of <a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Algernon_Charles_Swinburne" title="Algernon Charles Swinburne">Algernon Charles Swinburne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Symons" title="Arthur Symons">Arthur Symons</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rhymers%27_Club" title="Rhymers' Club">Rhymers' Club</a> group, that included <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Dowson" title="Ernest Dowson">Ernest Dowson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Johnson" title="Lionel Johnson">Lionel Johnson</a> and Irishman <a href="/wiki/William_Butler_Yeats" class="mw-redirect" title="William Butler Yeats">William Butler Yeats</a>. Irishman Yeats went on to become an important modernist in the 20th century. Also in the 1890s <a href="/wiki/A._E._Housman" title="A. E. Housman">A. E. Housman</a> (1859–1936) published at his own expense <i><a href="/wiki/A_Shropshire_Lad" title="A Shropshire Lad">A Shropshire Lad</a></i>. The poems' wistful evocation of doomed youth in the English countryside, in spare language and distinctive imagery, appealed strongly to late Victorian and Edwardian taste.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nonsense_verse" title="Nonsense verse">nonsense verse</a> of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lear" title="Edward Lear">Edward Lear</a>, along with the novels and poems of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Carroll" title="Lewis Carroll">Lewis Carroll</a>, is regarded as a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">surrealism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1846, Lear published <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Book_of_Nonsense" class="extiw" title="s:A Book of Nonsense">A Book of Nonsense</a></i>, a volume of limericks that went through three editions and helped popularise the form. </p><p>Writers of comic verse included the dramatist, librettist, poet and illustrator <a href="/wiki/W._S._Gilbert" title="W. S. Gilbert">W. S. Gilbert</a> (1836–1911), who is best known for his 14 <a href="/wiki/Comic_opera" title="Comic opera">comic operas</a> produced in <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">collaboration</a> with the composer Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Sullivan" title="Arthur Sullivan">Arthur Sullivan</a>, of which the famous include <i><a href="/wiki/H.M.S._Pinafore" title="H.M.S. Pinafore">H.M.S. Pinafore</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance" title="The Pirates of Penzance">The Pirates of Penzance</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mikado" title="The Mikado">The Mikado</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victorian_drama">Victorian drama</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Victorian drama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oscar_Wilde_by_Napoleon_Sarony._Three-quarter-length_photograph,_seated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Oscar_Wilde_by_Napoleon_Sarony._Three-quarter-length_photograph%2C_seated.jpg/170px-Oscar_Wilde_by_Napoleon_Sarony._Three-quarter-length_photograph%2C_seated.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Oscar_Wilde_by_Napoleon_Sarony._Three-quarter-length_photograph%2C_seated.jpg/255px-Oscar_Wilde_by_Napoleon_Sarony._Three-quarter-length_photograph%2C_seated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Oscar_Wilde_by_Napoleon_Sarony._Three-quarter-length_photograph%2C_seated.jpg/340px-Oscar_Wilde_by_Napoleon_Sarony._Three-quarter-length_photograph%2C_seated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2502" data-file-height="4146" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a>, 1882</figcaption></figure> <p>For much of the first half of the 19th century, drama in London and provincial theatres was restricted by a licensing system to the <a href="/wiki/Patent_theatre" title="Patent theatre">Patent theatre</a> companies, and all other theatres could perform only musical entertainments (although magistrates had powers to license occasional dramatic performances). The passing of the <a href="/wiki/Theatres_Act_1843" title="Theatres Act 1843">Theatres Act 1843</a> removed the monopoly on drama held by the Patent theatres. </p><p>Irish playwright <a href="/wiki/Dion_Boucicault" title="Dion Boucicault">Dion Boucicault</a> (1820–90) was an extremely popular writer of comedies who achieved success on the London stage with works like <i>London Assurance</i>, (1841), in the middle of the 19th century. However, drama did not achieve importance as a genre in the 19th century until the end of the century, and then the main figures were also Irish-born. In the last decade of the century major playwrights emerged, including <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a> (1856–1950), <i>Arms and the Man</i> (1894), and <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a> (1854–1900), <i>The Importance of Being Earnest</i> (1895). Both of these Irish writers lived mainly in England and wrote in English, with the exception of some works in French by Wilde. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_English_literature" title="Twentieth-century English literature">Twentieth-century English literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh literature in English</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/British_literature" title="Special:EditPage/British literature">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The year 1922 marked a significant change in the relationship between Great Britain and Ireland, with the setting up of the (predominantly Catholic) <a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a> in most of Ireland, and the predominantly Protestant Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom. This separation also leads to questions as to what extent Irish writing prior to 1922 should be treated as a colonial literature. There are also those who question whether the literature of Northern Ireland is Irish or British. Nationalist movements in Britain, especially in Wales and Scotland, also significantly influenced writers in the 20th and 21st centuries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernism_and_cultural_revivals:_1901–1945"><span id="Modernism_and_cultural_revivals:_1901.E2.80.931945"></span><span class="anchor" id="Modernism_and_cultural_revivals:_1901-1945"></span>Modernism and cultural revivals: 1901–1945</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Modernism and cultural revivals: 1901–1945"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Literary modernism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></div><p>From around 1910 the <a href="/wiki/Modernist_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist literature">Modernist movement</a> began to influence British literature. While their Victorian predecessors had usually been happy to cater to mainstream middle-class taste, 20th-century writers often felt alienated from it, so responded by writing more intellectually challenging works or by pushing the boundaries of acceptable content. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Edwardian_fiction">Edwardian fiction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Edwardian fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The short but influential <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a> emerged with the death of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> in 1901 and continued until the First World War.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, the world was introduced to cozy and puckish animal characters of <a href="/wiki/Beatrix_Potter" title="Beatrix Potter">Beatrix Potter</a> along with the eternally youthful antics of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Pan" title="Peter Pan">Peter Pan</a> (<a href="/wiki/J._M._Barrie" title="J. M. Barrie">J. M. Barrie</a>). <a href="/wiki/A._A._Milne" title="A. A. Milne">A. A. Milne</a> also began to write during this time, but his beloved <a href="/wiki/Winnie-the-Pooh" title="Winnie-the-Pooh">Winnie the Pooh</a> would not be published until 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Just_So_Stories" title="Just So Stories">Just So Stories For Little Children</a></i> (1902) was a successful followup to his earlier adventures with <a href="/wiki/Mowgli" title="Mowgli">Mowgli</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Jungle_Book" title="The Jungle Book">The Jungle Book</a> (1894). </p><p>Other exemplary novels of the time take on an optimistic but critical tone, including <a href="/wiki/E.M._Forster" class="mw-redirect" title="E.M. Forster">E.M. Forster</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Room_with_a_View" title="A Room with a View">A Room with a View</a></i> (1908)<i>.</i> Here, Forster satirizes the classism and xenophobia of Victorian England, using his own travel experiences to question the "ingrained bias[es]" of the previous century.<sup id="cite_ref-historic-uk.com_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historic-uk.com-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's Suffrage Movement</a> was also gaining momentum during this era<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and fiction reflected these ideas. More than ever, fictional women were protagonists (not just supporting roles), and they often crossed social and geographical boundaries through marriage or the pursuit of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-historic-uk.com_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historic-uk.com-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph Conrad, who started writing during the Victorian era, continued to produce important novels into the Edwardian period. <i><a href="/wiki/Nostromo" title="Nostromo">Nostromo</a></i> (1904), long regarded as one of his finest novels, deals with the corrupting impact about wealth on a revolutionary society in a fictional South American country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_World_War">First World War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: First World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The experiences of the First World War were reflected in the work of <a href="/wiki/War_poet" class="mw-redirect" title="War poet">war poets</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Owen" title="Wilfred Owen">Wilfred Owen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Brooke" title="Rupert Brooke">Rupert Brooke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Rosenberg" title="Isaac Rosenberg">Isaac Rosenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Graves" title="Robert Graves">Robert Graves</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Sassoon" title="Siegfried Sassoon">Siegfried Sassoon</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/In_Parenthesis" title="In Parenthesis">In Parenthesis</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> by <a href="/wiki/David_Jones_(poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Jones (poet)">David Jones</a> first published in 1937, is a notable work of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_literature" title="World War I in literature">literature of the First World War</a>, that was influenced by Welsh traditions, despite Jones being born in England. In non-fiction prose <a href="/wiki/T._E._Lawrence" title="T. E. Lawrence">T. E. Lawrence</a>'s (Lawrence of Arabia) autobiographical account in <i><a href="/wiki/Seven_Pillars_of_Wisdom" title="Seven Pillars of Wisdom">Seven Pillars of Wisdom</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> is important. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry:_1901–1945"><span id="Poetry:_1901.E2.80.931945"></span><span class="anchor" id="Poetry:_1901-1945"></span>Poetry: 1901–1945</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Poetry: 1901–1945"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry_in_English" title="Modernist poetry in English">Modernist poetry in English</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomashardy_restored.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Thomashardy_restored.jpg/170px-Thomashardy_restored.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Thomashardy_restored.jpg/255px-Thomashardy_restored.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Thomashardy_restored.jpg/340px-Thomashardy_restored.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3663" data-file-height="5316" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hardy" title="Thomas Hardy">Thomas Hardy</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hardy" title="Thomas Hardy">Thomas Hardy</a> (1840–1928) and <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Manley_Hopkins" title="Gerard Manley Hopkins">Gerard Manley Hopkins</a> (1844–1889), two Victorian poets who published little in the 19th century, have come to be regarded as major poets. While Hardy first established his reputation the late 19th century with novels, he wrote poetry throughout his career. However he did not publish his first collection until 1898, so that he tends to be treated as a 20th-century poet.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gerard Manley Hopkins's <i>Poems</i> were posthumously published in 1918 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bridges" title="Robert Bridges">Robert Bridges</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">Free verse</a> and other stylistic innovations came to the forefront in this era, with which T.S. Eliot and <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a> were especially associated. <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> (1888–1965) was born American, migrating to England in 1914, and he was "arguably the most important English-language poet of the 20th century."<sup id="cite_ref-Collini_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collini-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He produced some of the best-known poems in the English language, including "<a href="/wiki/The_Waste_Land" title="The Waste Land">The Waste Land</a>" (1922) and <i><a href="/wiki/Four_Quartets" title="Four Quartets">Four Quartets</a></i> (1935–1942).<sup id="cite_ref-EB_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Georgian_poets" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian poets">Georgian poets</a> like Rupert Brooke, <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_la_Mare" title="Walter de la Mare">Walter de la Mare</a> (1873–1956) and <a href="/wiki/John_Masefield" title="John Masefield">John Masefield</a> (1878–1967, Poet Laureate from 1930) maintained a conservative approach to poetry by combining romanticism, sentimentality and hedonism. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Thomas_(poet)" title="Edward Thomas (poet)">Edward Thomas</a> (1878–1917) is sometimes treated as another Georgian poet.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1930s the <a href="/wiki/Auden_Group" title="Auden Group">Auden Group</a>, sometimes called simply "the Thirties poets", was an important group of politically left-wing writers, that included <a href="/wiki/W.H._Auden" class="mw-redirect" title="W.H. Auden">W.H. Auden</a> (1907–73) and <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Day-Lewis" title="Cecil Day-Lewis">Cecil Day-Lewis</a> (1904–1972) and <a href="/wiki/Louis_MacNeice" title="Louis MacNeice">Louis MacNeice</a> (1907–1963). Auden was a major poet who had a similar influence on subsequent poets as W.B. Yeats and T.S. Eliot had had on earlier generations.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Keith_Douglas" title="Keith Douglas">Keith Douglas</a> (1920–1944) was noted for his war poetry during World War II and his wry memoir of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert Campaign">Western Desert Campaign</a>, <i>Alamein to Zem Zem</i>. He was killed in action during the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Normandy">invasion of Normandy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alun_Lewis_(poet)" title="Alun Lewis (poet)">Alun Lewis</a> (1915–1944), born in South Wales, was a prominent English-language poet of the war<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Second World War has remained a theme in British literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modernist_novel">Modernist novel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Modernist novel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kiplingcropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kiplingcropped.jpg/170px-Kiplingcropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kiplingcropped.jpg/255px-Kiplingcropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kiplingcropped.jpg/340px-Kiplingcropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="386" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>, 1912</figcaption></figure> <p>While <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a> was to become an important literary movement in the early decades of the new century, there were also many fine writers who, like Thomas Hardy, were not modernists. Novelists include: <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a> (1865–1936), who was also a successful poet; <a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a> (1866–1946); <a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a> (1867–1933), (Nobel Prize in Literature, 1932), whose novels include <i><a href="/wiki/The_Forsyte_Saga" title="The Forsyte Saga">The Forsyte Saga</a></i> (1906–1921); <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Bennett" title="Arnold Bennett">Arnold Bennett</a> (1867–1931) author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Old_Wives%27_Tale" title="The Old Wives' Tale">The Old Wives' Tale</a></i> (1908); <a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a> (1874–1936); <a href="/wiki/E._M._Forster" title="E. M. Forster">E. M. Forster</a> (1879–1970). The most popular British writer of the early years of the 20th century was arguably <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>, a highly versatile writer of novels, short stories and poems, and to date the youngest ever recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Literature">Nobel Prize for Literature</a> (1907).<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a> was a highly prolific author who is now best known for his work in the science fiction genre.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His notable science fiction works include <i><a href="/wiki/The_War_of_the_Worlds" title="The War of the Worlds">The War of the Worlds</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Time_Machine" title="The Time Machine">The Time Machine</a></i>, written in the 1890s. Forster's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Passage_to_India" title="A Passage to India">A Passage to India</a></i> 1924, reflected challenges to imperialism, and his earlier works such as <i><a href="/wiki/A_Room_with_a_View" title="A Room with a View">A Room with a View</a></i> (1908) and <i><a href="/wiki/Howards_End" title="Howards End">Howards End</a></i> (1910) examined the restrictions and hypocrisy of Edwardian society in England. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg/170px-Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg/255px-Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg/340px-Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1263" data-file-height="1843" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a> in 1927</figcaption></figure> <p>Writing in the 1920s and 1930s <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a> was an influential feminist and a major stylistic innovator associated with the <a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(narrative_mode)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)">stream-of-consciousness</a> technique. Her novels include <i><a href="/wiki/Mrs_Dalloway" title="Mrs Dalloway">Mrs Dalloway</a></i> 1925, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Waves" title="The Waves">The Waves</a></i> 1931, and <i><a href="/wiki/A_Room_of_One%27s_Own" title="A Room of One's Own">A Room of One's Own</a></i> 1929, which contains her famous dictum: "A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction".<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Woolf and E. M. Forster were members of the <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury Group</a>, an enormously influential group of English writers, intellectuals, philosophers and artists.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DH_Lawrence_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/DH_Lawrence_1906.jpg/170px-DH_Lawrence_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/DH_Lawrence_1906.jpg/255px-DH_Lawrence_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/DH_Lawrence_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="277" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/D._H._Lawrence" title="D. H. Lawrence">D. H. Lawrence</a>, 1906</figcaption></figure> <p>Other early modernists were <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a> (1873–1957), whose novel <i>Pointed Roof</i> (1915), is one of the early example of the <a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(narrative_mode)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)">stream of consciousness</a> technique and <a href="/wiki/D._H._Lawrence" title="D. H. Lawrence">D. H. Lawrence</a> (1885–1930), who wrote with understanding about the social life of the lower and middle classes, and the personal life of those who could not adapt to the social norms of his time. <i><a href="/wiki/Sons_and_Lovers" title="Sons and Lovers">Sons and Lovers</a></i> 1913, is widely regarded as his earliest masterpiece. There followed <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rainbow" title="The Rainbow">The Rainbow</a></i> in 1915 and its sequel <i><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Love" title="Women in Love">Women in Love</a></i> in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-English_Literature_p._562_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-English_Literature_p._562-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important development, beginning really in the 1930s and 1940s, was a tradition of working class novels that were actually written by writers who had a <a href="/wiki/Proletarian_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Proletarian novel">working-class background</a>. </p><p>An essayist and novelist, <a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a>'s works are considered important social and political commentaries of the 20th century, dealing with issues such as poverty in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Wigan_Pier" title="The Road to Wigan Pier">The Road to Wigan Pier</a></i> (1937) and in the 1940s, his satires of totalitarianism included <i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Farm" title="Animal Farm">Animal Farm</a></i> (1945). <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Lowry" title="Malcolm Lowry">Malcolm Lowry</a> published in the 1930s, and he is best known for <i><a href="/wiki/Under_the_Volcano" title="Under the Volcano">Under the Volcano</a></i> (1947). <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Waugh" title="Evelyn Waugh">Evelyn Waugh</a> satirised the "bright young things" of the 1920s and 1930s, notably in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Handful_of_Dust" title="A Handful of Dust">A Handful of Dust</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_Fall" title="Decline and Fall">Decline and Fall</a></i>, and his novel <i><a href="/wiki/Brideshead_Revisited" title="Brideshead Revisited">Brideshead Revisited</a></i> has a theological basis, aiming to examine the effect of divine grace on its main characters.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a> (1894–1963) published his famous <a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">dystopia</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Brave_New_World" title="Brave New World">Brave New World</a></i> in 1932, the same year as <a href="/wiki/John_Cowper_Powys" title="John Cowper Powys">John Cowper Powys</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Glastonbury_Romance" title="A Glastonbury Romance">A Glastonbury Romance</a></i>. In 1938, <a href="/wiki/Graham_Greene" title="Graham Greene">Graham Greene</a>'s (1904–1991) first major novel <i><a href="/wiki/Brighton_Rock_(novel)" title="Brighton Rock (novel)">Brighton Rock</a></i> was published. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_modernism:_1946–2000"><span id="Late_modernism:_1946.E2.80.932000"></span><span class="anchor" id="Late_modernism:_1946-2000"></span>Late modernism: 1946–2000</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Late modernism: 1946–2000"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:268px;max-width:268px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg/130px-George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg/195px-George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg/260px-George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1176" data-file-height="1594" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png/130px-Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png/195px-Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png/260px-Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="605" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a> (right)</div></div></div></div> <p>Though some have seen modernism ending by around 1939,<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with regard to English literature, "When (if) modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to modernism occurred".<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact a number of modernists were still living and publishing in the 1950s and 1960, including <a href="/wiki/T.S._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Eliot">T.S. Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Cowper_Powys" title="John Cowper Powys">John Cowper Powys</a>. Furthermore, Northumberland poet <a href="/wiki/Basil_Bunting" title="Basil Bunting">Basil Bunting</a>, born in 1901, published little until <i><a href="/wiki/Briggflatts" title="Briggflatts">Briggflatts</a></i> in 1965. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Novel">Novel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Novel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1947 <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Lowry" title="Malcolm Lowry">Malcolm Lowry</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/Under_the_Volcano" title="Under the Volcano">Under the Volcano</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a></i> was published in 1949. An essayist and novelist, Orwell's works are important social and political commentaries of the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Waugh" title="Evelyn Waugh">Evelyn Waugh</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> trilogy <i><a href="/wiki/Sword_of_Honour" title="Sword of Honour">Sword of Honour</a></i> (1952–1961) was published in this period. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Graham_Greene" title="Graham Greene">Graham Greene</a>'s works span the 1930s to the 1980s. He was a convert to Catholicism, and his novels explore the ambivalent moral and political issues of the modern world. Other novelists writing in the 1950s and later were: <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Powell" title="Anthony Powell">Anthony Powell</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dance_to_the_Music_of_Time" title="A Dance to the Music of Time">A Dance to the Music of Time</a></i>; <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize</a> laureate <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Golding" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir William Golding">Sir William Golding</a>; philosopher <a href="/wiki/Dame_Iris_Murdoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Dame Iris Murdoch">Dame Iris Murdoch</a>, whose novels deal with sexual relationships, morality, and the power of the unconscious; and Scottish novelist <a href="/wiki/Muriel_Spark" title="Muriel Spark">Muriel Spark</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Prime_of_Miss_Jean_Brodie_(novel)" title="The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (novel)"><i>The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie</i></a> (1961). <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burgess" title="Anthony Burgess">Anthony Burgess</a> is remembered for his dystopian novel <i><a href="/wiki/A_Clockwork_Orange_(novel)" title="A Clockwork Orange (novel)">A Clockwork Orange</a></i> 1962. <a href="/wiki/Mervyn_Peake" title="Mervyn Peake">Mervyn Peake</a> (1911–1968) published his <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic fantasy">Gothic fantasy</a> <a href="/wiki/Gormenghast_trilogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gormenghast trilogy">Gormenghast trilogy</a> from 1946 to 1959. <a href="/wiki/Angela_Carter" title="Angela Carter">Angela Carter</a> (1940–1992) was a novelist and journalist, known for her <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magical_realism" title="Magical realism">magical realism</a>, and picaresque works. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg/170px-Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg/255px-Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg/340px-Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a>, Cologne, 2006</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sir_Salman_Rushdie" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Salman Rushdie">Sir Salman Rushdie</a> is among a number of writers from former British colonies who permanently settled in Britain. Rushdie achieved fame with <i><a href="/wiki/Midnight%27s_Children" title="Midnight's Children">Midnight's Children</a></i> (1981). His <a href="/wiki/The_Satanic_Verses_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Satanic Verses controversy">controversial novel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Satanic_Verses" title="The Satanic Verses">The Satanic Verses</a></i> (1989) was inspired in part by the life of Muhammad. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a> from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>) published her first novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Grass_Is_Singing" title="The Grass Is Singing">The Grass Is Singing</a></i> in 1950 after immigrating to England. She initially wrote about her African experiences. Lessing soon became a dominant presence in the English literary scene, publishing frequently, and she won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2007. <a href="/wiki/Sir_V._S._Naipaul" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir V. S. Naipaul">Sir V. S. Naipaul</a> (1932–2018) was another immigrant, born in Trinidad, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature. Also from the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> is <a href="/wiki/George_Lamming" title="George Lamming">George Lamming</a> (1927–2022) who wrote <i><a href="/wiki/In_the_Castle_of_My_Skin" title="In the Castle of My Skin">In the Castle of My Skin</a></i> (1953), and from Pakistan came <a href="/wiki/Hanif_Kureshi" title="Hanif Kureshi">Hanif Kureshi</a> (1954–), a playwright, screenwriter, filmmaker, novelist and short story writer. 2017 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> winner <a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Ishiguro" title="Kazuo Ishiguro">Kazuo Ishiguro</a> (1954– ) was born in Japan, but his parents immigrated to Britain when he was age 6,<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he became a British citizen as an adult. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Amis" title="Martin Amis">Martin Amis</a> (1949–2023) was one of the prominent British novelists of the end of the 20th, beginning of the 21st century. <a href="/wiki/Pat_Barker" title="Pat Barker">Pat Barker</a> (1943–) has won many awards for her fiction. English novelist and screenwriter <a href="/wiki/Ian_McEwan" title="Ian McEwan">Ian McEwan</a> (1948– ) is a highly regarded writer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama_5">Drama</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Drama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important cultural movement in the British theatre that developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s was <a href="/wiki/Kitchen_sink_realism" title="Kitchen sink realism">Kitchen sink realism</a> (or kitchen sink drama), art, novels, film, and television plays.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <a href="/wiki/Angry_young_men" title="Angry young men">angry young men</a> was often applied members of this artistic movement. It used a style of <a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">social realism</a> which depicts the domestic lives of the working class to explore social issues and political issues. The <a href="/wiki/Drawing_room_play" title="Drawing room play">drawing room plays</a> of the post war period, typical of dramatists like Sir <a href="/wiki/Terence_Rattigan" title="Terence Rattigan">Terence Rattigan</a> and Sir <a href="/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward" title="Noël Coward">Noël Coward</a>, were challenged in the 1950s in plays like <a href="/wiki/John_Osborne" title="John Osborne">John Osborne</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Look_Back_in_Anger" title="Look Back in Anger">Look Back in Anger</a></i> (1956). </p><p>Again in the 1950s, the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurd" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre of the Absurd">Theatre of the Absurd</a> profoundly affected British dramatists, especially Irishman <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>'s play <i><a href="/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot" title="Waiting for Godot">Waiting for Godot</a></i>. Among those influenced were <a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a> (1930–2008), (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Birthday_Party_(play)" title="The Birthday Party (play)">The Birthday Party</a></i>, 1958), and <a href="/wiki/Tom_Stoppard" title="Tom Stoppard">Tom Stoppard</a> (1937– ) (<i><a href="/wiki/Rosencrantz_and_Guildenstern_Are_Dead" title="Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead">Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead</a></i>,1966).<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Theatres_Act_1968" title="Theatres Act 1968">Theatres Act 1968</a> abolished the system of censorship of the stage that had existed in Great Britain since 1737. The new freedoms of the London stage were tested by <a href="/wiki/Howard_Brenton" title="Howard Brenton">Howard Brenton</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Romans_in_Britain" title="The Romans in Britain">The Romans in Britain</a></i>, first staged at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre" title="Royal National Theatre">National Theatre</a> during 1980, and subsequently the focus of an unsuccessful private prosecution in 1982. </p><p>Other playwrights whose careers began later in the century are <a href="/wiki/Sir_Alan_Ayckbourn" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Alan Ayckbourn">Sir Alan Ayckbourn</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Absurd_Person_Singular" title="Absurd Person Singular">Absurd Person Singular</a></i>, 1972), <a href="/wiki/Michael_Frayn" title="Michael Frayn">Michael Frayn</a> (1933–) playwright and novelist, <a href="/wiki/David_Hare_(playwright)" title="David Hare (playwright)">David Hare</a> (1947– ), <a href="/wiki/David_Edgar_(playwright)" title="David Edgar (playwright)">David Edgar</a> (1948– ). <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Potter" title="Dennis Potter">Dennis Potter</a>'s more distinctive dramatic work was produced for television. </p><p>During the 1950s and 1960s, many major British playwrights either effectively began their careers with the BBC, or had works adapted for radio. Many major British playwrights in fact, either effectively began their careers with the BBC, or had works adapted for radio, including <a href="/wiki/Caryl_Churchill" title="Caryl Churchill">Caryl Churchill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tom_Stoppard" title="Tom Stoppard">Tom Stoppard</a> whose "first professional production was in the fifteen-minute <i>Just Before Midnight</i> programme on BBC Radio, which showcased new dramatists".<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Mortimer" title="John Mortimer">John Mortimer</a> made his radio debut as a dramatist in 1955, with his adaptation of his own novel <i>Like Men Betrayed</i> for the BBC <a href="/wiki/Light_Programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Light Programme">Light Programme</a>. Other notable radio dramatists included <a href="/wiki/Brendan_Behan" title="Brendan Behan">Brendan Behan</a> and novelist <a href="/wiki/Angela_Carter" title="Angela Carter">Angela Carter</a>. </p><p>Among the more famous works created for radio, are <a href="/wiki/Dylan_Thomas" title="Dylan Thomas">Dylan Thomas</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Under_Milk_Wood" title="Under Milk Wood">Under Milk Wood</a></i> (1954), <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/All_That_Fall" title="All That Fall">All That Fall</a></i> (1957), <a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Slight_Ache" title="A Slight Ache">A Slight Ache</a></i> (1959) and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bolt" title="Robert Bolt">Robert Bolt</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Man_for_All_Seasons_(play)" title="A Man for All Seasons (play)">A Man for All Seasons</a></i> (1954).<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry_5">Poetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While poets T. S. Eliot, W. H. Auden and Dylan Thomas were still publishing after 1945, new poets started their careers in the 1950s and 1960s, including <a href="/wiki/Philip_Larkin" title="Philip Larkin">Philip Larkin</a> (1922–1885) (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Whitsun_Weddings" title="The Whitsun Weddings">The Whitsun Weddings</a></i>,1964) and <a href="/wiki/Ted_Hughes" title="Ted Hughes">Ted Hughes</a> (1930–1998) (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Hawk_in_the_Rain" title="The Hawk in the Rain">The Hawk in the Rain</a></i>, 1957). Northern Ireland has produced a number of significant poets, the most famous being Nobel prize winner <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a>. However, Heaney regarded himself as Irish and not British. Others poets from Northern Ireland include <a href="/wiki/Derek_Mahon" title="Derek Mahon">Derek Mahon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Muldoon" title="Paul Muldoon">Paul Muldoon</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Fenton" title="James Fenton">James Fenton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Longley" title="Michael Longley">Michael Longley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medbh_McGuckian" title="Medbh McGuckian">Medbh McGuckian</a>. </p><p>In the 1960s and 1970s <a href="/wiki/Martian_poetry" title="Martian poetry">Martian poetry</a> aimed to break the grip of 'the familiar' by describing ordinary things in unfamiliar ways, for example, through the eyes of a Martian. Poets closely associated with it are <a href="/wiki/Craig_Raine" title="Craig Raine">Craig Raine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Reid_(writer)" title="Christopher Reid (writer)">Christopher Reid</a>. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Amis" title="Martin Amis">Martin Amis</a>, an important novelist in the late 20th century, carried into fiction this drive to make the familiar strange.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another literary movement in this period was the <a href="/wiki/British_Poetry_Revival" title="British Poetry Revival">British Poetry Revival</a>, a wide-reaching collection of groupings and subgroupings that embraces <a href="/wiki/Performance_poetry" title="Performance poetry">performance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sound_poetry" title="Sound poetry">sound</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concrete_poetry" title="Concrete poetry">concrete poetry</a>. Leading poets associated with this movement include <a href="/wiki/J._H._Prynne" title="J. H. Prynne">J. H. Prynne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Mottram" title="Eric Mottram">Eric Mottram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_Raworth" title="Tom Raworth">Tom Raworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denise_Riley" title="Denise Riley">Denise Riley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lee_Harwood" title="Lee Harwood">Lee Harwood</a>. It reacted to the conservative group called "<a href="/wiki/The_Movement_(literature)" title="The Movement (literature)">The Movement</a>". </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_poets" title="Liverpool poets">Liverpool poets</a> were <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Henri" title="Adrian Henri">Adrian Henri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brian_Patten" title="Brian Patten">Brian Patten</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_McGough" title="Roger McGough">Roger McGough</a>. Their works were self-conscious attempts at creating an English equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Beat_Generation" title="Beat Generation">the Beats</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tony_Harrison" title="Tony Harrison">Tony Harrison</a> (1937 – ), who explores the medium of language and the tension between native dialect (in his case, that of working-class Leeds) and acquired language,<sup id="cite_ref-nonmetropolitan_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nonmetropolitan-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Simon_Armitage" title="Simon Armitage">Simon Armitage</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hill" title="Geoffrey Hill">Geoffrey Hill</a> (1932–2016) has been considered to be among the distinguished English poets of his generation,<sup id="cite_ref-Harold_Bloom_1986_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harold_Bloom_1986-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tomlinson" title="Charles Tomlinson">Charles Tomlinson</a> (1927–2015) is another important English poet of an older generation, but "since his first publication in 1951, has built a career that has seen more notice in the international scene than in his native England.<sup id="cite_ref-carcanet1_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carcanet1-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scottish_literature">Scottish literature</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Scottish literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scotland has in the late 20th century produced several important novelists, including <a href="/wiki/James_Kelman" title="James Kelman">James Kelman</a> who like Samuel Beckett can create humour out of grim situations; <a href="/wiki/A._L._Kennedy" title="A. L. Kennedy">A. L. Kennedy</a> whose 2007 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Day_(2007_novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Day (2007 novel)">Day</a></i> was named Book of the Year in the <a href="/wiki/Costa_Book_Awards" title="Costa Book Awards">Costa Book Awards</a>.;<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_Gray" title="Alasdair Gray">Alasdair Gray</a> whose <i><a href="/wiki/Lanark:_A_Life_in_Four_Books" title="Lanark: A Life in Four Books">Lanark: A Life in Four Books</a></i> (1981) is a dystopian fantasy set in his home town Glasgow. </p><p>Highly anglicised Lowland Scots is often used in contemporary Scottish fiction, for example, the Edinburgh dialect of Lowland Scots used in <i><a href="/wiki/Trainspotting_(novel)" title="Trainspotting (novel)">Trainspotting</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Irvine_Welsh" title="Irvine Welsh">Irvine Welsh</a> to give a brutal depiction of the lives of working class Edinburgh drug users.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Northern Ireland, <a href="/wiki/James_Fenton_(Ulster-Scots_poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Fenton (Ulster-Scots poet)">James Fenton</a>'s poetry is written in contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ulster_Scots_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulster Scots dialects">Ulster Scots</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_2003_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_2003-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poet <a href="/wiki/Michael_Longley" title="Michael Longley">Michael Longley</a> (born 1939) has experimented with Ulster Scots for the translation of Classical verse, as in his 1995 collection <i>The Ghost Orchid</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferguson_2008_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2008-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genre_fiction_2">Genre fiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Genre fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genre_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Genre literature">Genre literature</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Early 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among significant writers in this genre in the early 20th century were <a href="/wiki/Erskine_Childers_(author)" title="Erskine Childers (author)">Erskine Childers</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/The_Riddle_of_the_Sands" title="The Riddle of the Sands">The Riddle of the Sands</a></i> (1903), who wrote <a href="/wiki/Spy_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Spy novel">spy novels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emma_Orczy" class="mw-redirect" title="Emma Orczy">Emma Orczy</a> (Baroness Orczy) author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Scarlet_Pimpernel" title="The Scarlet Pimpernel">The Scarlet Pimpernel</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Historical_romance" title="Historical romance">historical romance</a> which recounted the adventures of a member of the English gentry in the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolutionary</a> period. The title character established the notion of a "hero with a <a href="/wiki/Secret_identity" title="Secret identity">secret identity</a>" into popular culture. <a href="/wiki/John_Buchan" title="John Buchan">John Buchan</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/Adventure_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventure novel">adventure novels</a> like <i><a href="/wiki/Prester_John_(novel)" title="Prester John (novel)">Prester John</a></i> (1910). Novels featuring a gentleman adventurer were popular between the wars, exemplified by the series of <a href="/wiki/H._C._McNeile" title="H. C. McNeile">H. C. McNeile</a> with <i><a href="/wiki/Bulldog_Drummond" title="Bulldog Drummond">Bulldog Drummond</a></i> (1920), and <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Charteris" title="Leslie Charteris">Leslie Charteris</a>, whose many books chronicled the adventures of <a href="/wiki/Simon_Templar" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon Templar">Simon Templar</a>, alias <i><a href="/wiki/Simon_Templar#Publishing_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon Templar">The Saint</a></i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agatha_Christie.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Agatha_Christie.png/170px-Agatha_Christie.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Agatha_Christie.png/255px-Agatha_Christie.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Agatha_Christie.png/340px-Agatha_Christie.png 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dame_Agatha_Christie" class="mw-redirect" title="Dame Agatha Christie">Dame Agatha Christie</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The medieval scholar <a href="/wiki/M._R._James" title="M. R. James">M. R. James</a> wrote highly regarded <a href="/wiki/Ghost_story" title="Ghost story">ghost stories</a> in contemporary settings. </p><p>This was called 'the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Detective_Fiction" title="Golden Age of Detective Fiction">Golden Age of Detective Fiction</a>'. <a href="/wiki/Dame_Agatha_Christie" class="mw-redirect" title="Dame Agatha Christie">Dame Agatha Christie</a>, a writer of crime novels, short stories and plays, is best remembered for her 80 detective novels and her successful West End theatre plays. Other female writers in the genre of crime fiction include <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_L._Sayers" title="Dorothy L. Sayers">Dorothy L. Sayers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gentleman_detective" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentleman detective">gentleman detective</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Peter_Wimsey" title="Lord Peter Wimsey">Lord Peter Wimsey</a>), <a href="/wiki/Margery_Allingham" title="Margery Allingham">Margery Allingham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albert_Campion" title="Albert Campion">Albert Campion</a> – supposedly created as a parody of Sayers' Wimsey<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and New Zealander <a href="/wiki/Dame_Ngaio_Marsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Dame Ngaio Marsh">Dame Ngaio Marsh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roderick_Alleyn" title="Roderick Alleyn">Roderick Alleyn</a>). <a href="/wiki/Georgette_Heyer" title="Georgette Heyer">Georgette Heyer</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Historical_romance" title="Historical romance">historical romance</a> genre and alwrote detective fiction. </p><p>A major work of science fiction from the early 20th century is <i><a href="/wiki/A_Voyage_to_Arcturus" title="A Voyage to Arcturus">A Voyage to Arcturus</a></i> by Scottish writer <a href="/wiki/David_Lindsay_(novelist)" title="David Lindsay (novelist)">David Lindsay</a>, first published in 1920,<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was a central influence on <a href="/wiki/C.S._Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="C.S. Lewis">C.S. Lewis</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Trilogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Trilogy">Space Trilogy</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J._R._R._Tolkien,_ca._1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg/170px-J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg/255px-J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg/340px-J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From the early 1930s to late 1940s, an informal literary discussion group associated with the English faculty at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> were <i><a href="/wiki/The_Inklings" class="mw-redirect" title="The Inklings">The Inklings</a></i>. Its leading members were the major <a href="/wiki/High_fantasy" title="High fantasy">fantasy</a> novelists: <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> and <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a>. Lewis is known for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Screwtape_Letters" title="The Screwtape Letters">The Screwtape Letters</a></i> (1942), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia" title="The Chronicles of Narnia">The Chronicles of Narnia</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Space_Trilogy" title="The Space Trilogy">The Space Trilogy</a></i>, and Tolkien is known as the author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hobbit" title="The Hobbit">The Hobbit</a></i> (1937), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Silmarillion" title="The Silmarillion">The Silmarillion</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Later_20th_century">Later 20th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Later 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among important writers of genre fiction in the second half of the 20th century are <a href="/wiki/Thriller_(genre)" title="Thriller (genre)">thriller</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Ian_Fleming" title="Ian Fleming">Ian Fleming</a>, creator of <a href="/wiki/James_Bond_007" class="mw-redirect" title="James Bond 007">James Bond 007</a>. Fleming chronicled Bond's adventures in 12 novels, including <i><a href="/wiki/Casino_Royale_(novel)" title="Casino Royale (novel)">Casino Royale</a></i> (1953). </p><p>In contrast to the larger-than-life spy capers of Bond, <a href="/wiki/John_le_Carr%C3%A9" title="John le Carré">John le Carré</a> was an author of <a href="/wiki/Spy_fiction" title="Spy fiction">spy novels</a> who depicted a shadowy world of espionage and counter-espionage, and his best known novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spy_Who_Came_in_from_the_Cold" title="The Spy Who Came in from the Cold">The Spy Who Came in from the Cold</a></i> (1963) is regarded as orominent in the genre. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Forsyth" title="Frederick Forsyth">Frederick Forsyth</a> writes thriller novels, and <a href="/wiki/Ken_Follett" title="Ken Follett">Ken Follett</a> writes spy thrillers as well as historical novels, notably <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pillars_of_the_Earth" title="The Pillars of the Earth">The Pillars of the Earth</a></i> (1989). </p><p><a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">War novels</a> include <a href="/wiki/Alistair_MacLean" title="Alistair MacLean">Alistair MacLean</a> thriller's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guns_of_Navarone_(novel)" title="The Guns of Navarone (novel)">The Guns of Navarone</a></i> (1957), <i><a href="/wiki/Where_Eagles_Dare" title="Where Eagles Dare">Where Eagles Dare</a></i> (1968), and <a href="/wiki/Jack_Higgins" title="Jack Higgins">Jack Higgins</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/The_Eagle_Has_Landed_(novel)" title="The Eagle Has Landed (novel)">The Eagle Has Landed</a></i> (1975). <a href="/wiki/Patrick_O%27Brian" title="Patrick O'Brian">Patrick O'Brian</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sea_story" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea story">nautical</a> historical novels feature the <i><a href="/wiki/Aubrey%E2%80%93Maturin_series" title="Aubrey–Maturin series">Aubrey–Maturin series</a></i> set in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Welch" title="Ronald Welch">Ronald Welch</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Medal_(literary_award)" title="Carnegie Medal (literary award)">Carnegie Medal</a> winning novel <i><a href="/wiki/Knight_Crusader" title="Knight Crusader">Knight Crusader</a></i> is set in the 12th century and gives a depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a>, featuring the Christian leader and King of England <a href="/wiki/Richard_the_Lionheart" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard the Lionheart">Richard the Lionheart</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Tranter" title="Nigel Tranter">Nigel Tranter</a> also wrote historical novels of celebrated Scottish warriors; <a href="/wiki/Robert_the_Bruce" title="Robert the Bruce">Robert the Bruce</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Tranter#Robert_the_Bruce_trilogy" title="Nigel Tranter">The Bruce Trilogy</a></i>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Murder_mystery" class="mw-redirect" title="Murder mystery">murder mysteries</a> of both <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Rendell" title="Ruth Rendell">Ruth Rendell</a> and <a href="/wiki/P._D._James" title="P. D. James">P. D. James</a> are popular crime fiction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Science_fiction">Science fiction</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Science fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clarke_sm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clarke_sm.jpg/170px-Clarke_sm.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clarke_sm.jpg/255px-Clarke_sm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clarke_sm.jpg/340px-Clarke_sm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sir_Arthur_C._Clarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Arthur C. Clarke">Sir Arthur C. Clarke</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Wyndham" title="John Wyndham">John Wyndham</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">post-apocalyptic</a> science fiction, his notable works being <i><a href="/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Triffids" title="The Day of the Triffids">The Day of the Triffids</a></i> (1951), and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Midwich_Cuckoos" title="The Midwich Cuckoos">The Midwich Cuckoos</a></i> (1957). Other important writers in this genre are <a href="/wiki/Sir_Arthur_C._Clarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Arthur C. Clarke">Sir Arthur C. Clarke</a> <i><a href="/wiki/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(novel)" title="2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)">2001: A Space Odyssey</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Brian_Aldiss" title="Brian Aldiss">Brian Aldiss</a>. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Moorcock" title="Michael Moorcock">Michael Moorcock</a> was involved with the 'New Wave' of science fiction writers "part of whose aim was to invest the genre with literary merit"<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly <a href="/wiki/J._G._Ballard" title="J. G. Ballard">J. G. Ballard</a> (1930–2009) "became known in the 1960s as the most prominent of the 'New Wave' science fiction writers".<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A later major figure in science fiction was <a href="/wiki/Iain_M._Banks" class="mw-redirect" title="Iain M. Banks">Iain M. Banks</a> who created a fictional anarchist, socialist, and utopian society <a href="/wiki/The_Culture" title="The Culture">the Culture</a>. Nobel prize winner <a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a> also published a sequence of five science fiction novels the <i><a href="/wiki/Canopus_in_Argos" title="Canopus in Argos">Canopus in Argos</a>: Archives</i> from 1979 to 1983. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Fantasy">Fantasy</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Fantasy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sir_Terry_Pratchett" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Terry Pratchett">Sir Terry Pratchett</a> is best known for his <i><a href="/wiki/Discworld" title="Discworld">Discworld</a></i> series of comic fantasy novels, that begins with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Colour_of_Magic" title="The Colour of Magic">The Colour of Magic</a></i> (1983), and includes <i><a href="/wiki/Night_Watch_(Discworld)" title="Night Watch (Discworld)">Night Watch</a></i> (2002). While <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gaiman" title="Neil Gaiman">Neil Gaiman</a> is a writer of both science fiction, and fantasy including <i><a href="/wiki/Stardust_(Gaiman_novel)" title="Stardust (Gaiman novel)">Stardust</a></i> (1998). <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Adams" title="Douglas Adams">Douglas Adams</a> is known for his five-volume <a href="/wiki/Comic_science_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Comic science fiction">science fiction comedy</a> series <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy" title="The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>, arguably the most well-known author in the fantasy genre during the 20th century, is responsible for the creation of <a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a> (1954) and the wider <a href="/wiki/Tolkien%27s_Legendarium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkien's Legendarium">Tolkien's Legendarium</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_for_children_and_young_adults">Literature for children and young adults</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Literature for children and young adults"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J._K._Rowling_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/J._K._Rowling_2010.jpg/150px-J._K._Rowling_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/J._K._Rowling_2010.jpg/225px-J._K._Rowling_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/J._K._Rowling_2010.jpg/300px-J._K._Rowling_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1373" data-file-height="1693" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._K._Rowling" title="J. K. Rowling">J. K. Rowling</a>, 2010</figcaption></figure> <p>Significant writers of <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">works for children</a> include, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Grahame" title="Kenneth Grahame">Kenneth Grahame</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wind_in_the_Willows" title="The Wind in the Willows">The Wind in the Willows</a></i> (1908), <a href="/wiki/Rev._W._Awdry" class="mw-redirect" title="Rev. W. Awdry">Rev. W. Awdry</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Railway_Series" title="The Railway Series">The Railway Series</a></i> (1945–2011, <a href="/wiki/A._A._Milne" title="A. A. Milne">A. A. Milne</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Winnie-the-Pooh" title="Winnie-the-Pooh">Winnie-the-Pooh</a></i> (1926), and <a href="/wiki/P._L._Travers" title="P. L. Travers">P. L. Travers</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Mary_Poppins_(book_series)" title="Mary Poppins (book series)">Mary Poppins</a></i>. Prolific children's author <a href="/wiki/Enid_Blyton" title="Enid Blyton">Enid Blyton</a> chronicled the adventures of a group of young children and their dog in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Famous_Five_(novel_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Famous Five (novel series)">The Famous Five</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/T._H._White" title="T. H. White">T. H. White</a> wrote the <a href="/wiki/Arthurian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthurian">Arthurian</a> fantasy <i><a href="/wiki/The_Once_and_Future_King" title="The Once and Future King">The Once and Future King</a></i>, the first part being <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sword_in_the_Stone_(novel)" title="The Sword in the Stone (novel)">The Sword in the Stone</a></i> (1938). <a href="/wiki/Mary_Norton_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Norton (author)">Mary Norton</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Borrowers" title="The Borrowers">The Borrowers</a></i>, featuring tiny people who borrow from humans. Inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Frances_Hodgson_Burnett" title="Frances Hodgson Burnett">Frances Hodgson Burnett</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_Garden" title="The Secret Garden">The Secret Garden</a></i> was the Great Maytham Hall Garden in Kent. <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Lofting" title="Hugh Lofting">Hugh Lofting</a> created the character <a href="/wiki/Doctor_Dolittle" title="Doctor Dolittle">Doctor Dolittle</a> who appears in a series of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_Dolittle#The_books" title="Doctor Dolittle">12 books</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dodie_Smith" title="Dodie Smith">Dodie Smith</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hundred_and_One_Dalmatians" title="The Hundred and One Dalmatians">The Hundred and One Dalmatians</a></i> featured the villainous <a href="/wiki/Cruella_de_Vil" title="Cruella de Vil">Cruella de Vil</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Roald_Dahl" title="Roald Dahl">Roald Dahl</a> is a prominent author of children's fantasy novels, like <i><a href="/wiki/Charlie_and_the_Chocolate_Factory" title="Charlie and the Chocolate Factory">Charlie and the Chocolate Factory</a></i> in 1964, which are often inspired from experiences from his childhood, with often unexpected endings, and unsentimental, dark humour.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular <a href="/wiki/School_story" title="School story">school stories</a> from this period include <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Searle" title="Ronald Searle">Ronald Searle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/St_Trinian%27s_School" title="St Trinian's School">St Trinian's</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/J._K._Rowling" title="J. K. Rowling">J. K. Rowling</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Harry_Potter" title="Harry Potter">Harry Potter</a></i> fantasy series is a sequence of seven novels that chronicle the adventures of the adolescent <a href="/wiki/Magician_(fantasy)" title="Magician (fantasy)">wizard</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Potter_(character)" title="Harry Potter (character)">Harry Potter</a> is the best-selling book series in history. The series has been translated into 67 languages,<sup id="cite_ref-Translations_for_Harry_Potter_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Translations_for_Harry_Potter-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> placing Rowling among the more translated authors in history.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st-century_literature">21st-century literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: 21st-century literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Novel_2">Novel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Novel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 21st century, an outstanding concern with <a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">historical fiction</a> has been noted.<sup id="cite_ref-eb_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Mantel" title="Hilary Mantel">Dame Hilary Mantel</a> (1952–2022)<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a highly successful writer of historical novels, winning the Booker Prize twice for <i><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Hall" title="Wolf Hall">Wolf Hall</a></i> 2009 and <i><a href="/wiki/Bring_Up_the_Bodies" title="Bring Up the Bodies">Bring Up the Bodies</a></i>. One of the more ambitious novelists to emerge in this period is <a href="/wiki/David_Mitchell_(author)" title="David Mitchell (author)">David Mitchell</a>, whose far-reaching novel <i><a href="/wiki/Cloud_Atlas_(novel)" title="Cloud Atlas (novel)">Cloud Atlas</a></i> (2004) spans from the 19th century into the future. Influences from earlier literary styles and techniques in English literature is notable by writers such as <a href="/wiki/Ian_McEwan" title="Ian McEwan">Ian McEwan</a> in his 2002 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Atonement_(novel)" title="Atonement (novel)">Atonement</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-eb_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zadie_Smith" title="Zadie Smith">Zadie Smith</a> was critically acclaimed for her debut novel <i><a href="/wiki/White_Teeth" title="White Teeth">White Teeth</a></i> (2000), and for subsequent novels.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julian_Barnes" title="Julian Barnes">Julian Barnes</a> (1946– ) is another prominent writer, and he won the 2011 Booker Prize for his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sense_of_an_Ending" title="The Sense of an Ending">The Sense of an Ending</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Ishiguro" title="Kazuo Ishiguro">Kazuo Ishiguro</a> was noted for works such as the dystopian <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>-novel <i><a href="/wiki/Never_Let_Me_Go_(novel)" title="Never Let Me Go (novel)">Never Let Me Go</a></i> (2005), and he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/2017_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2017 Nobel Prize in Literature">2017 Nobel Prize in Literature</a> for his novels.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theatre">Theatre</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Theatre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The theatrical landscape has been reconfigured, moving from a single national theatre at the end of the 20th century to four as a result of the devolution of cultural policy.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genre_fiction_3">Genre fiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Genre fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/E._L._James" title="E. L. James">E. L. James</a>' <a href="/wiki/Erotic_romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Erotic romance">erotic romance</a> <a href="/wiki/Fifty_Shades_trilogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifty Shades trilogy">trilogy</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Fifty_Shades_of_Grey" title="Fifty Shades of Grey">Fifty Shades of Grey</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fifty_Shades_Darker" title="Fifty Shades Darker">Fifty Shades Darker</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Fifty_Shades_Freed" title="Fifty Shades Freed">Fifty Shades Freed</a></i>, along with the companion novel <i><a href="/wiki/Grey:_Fifty_Shades_of_Grey_as_Told_by_Christian" title="Grey: Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian">Grey: Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian</a></i>, have sold over 100 million copies globally, and set the record in the United Kingdom as the fastest selling paperback of all time.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The perceived success and promotion of <a href="/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">genre fiction</a> authors from Scotland provoked controversy in 2009 when James Kelman criticised, in a speech at the <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_International_Book_Festival" title="Edinburgh International Book Festival">Edinburgh International Book Festival</a>, the attention afforded to "upper middle-class young magicians" and "detective fiction" by the "Anglocentric" Scottish literary establishment.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_for_children_and_young_adults_2">Literature for children and young adults</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Literature for children and young adults"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cressida_Cowell" title="Cressida Cowell">Cressida Cowell</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Train_Your_Dragon" title="How to Train Your Dragon">How to Train Your Dragon</a></i>, a series of 12 books set in a fictional <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> world. <a href="/wiki/Philip_Pullman" title="Philip Pullman">Philip Pullman</a>'s is famous for his fantasy trilogy <i><a href="/wiki/His_Dark_Materials" title="His Dark Materials">His Dark Materials</a></i>, which follows the <a href="/wiki/Coming-of-age" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming-of-age">coming-of-age</a> of two children as they wander through a series of <a href="/wiki/Parallel_universe_(fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel universe (fiction)">parallel universes</a> against a backdrop of epic events. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_institutions">Literary institutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Literary institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Original literature continues to be promoted by institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a> in Wales and the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Books_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Books Council">Welsh Books Council</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> includes literature within its sphere of activity. <a href="/wiki/Literature_Wales" title="Literature Wales">Literature Wales</a> is the Welsh national literature promotion agency and society of writers,<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which administers the <a href="/wiki/Wales_Book_of_the_Year" title="Wales Book of the Year">Wales Book of the Year</a> award. The imported eisteddfod tradition in the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> encouraged <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">recitation</a> and performance, a tradition that continues today. </p><p>Formed in 1949, the <a href="/wiki/Cheltenham_Literature_Festival" title="Cheltenham Literature Festival">Cheltenham Literature Festival</a> is the longest-running festival of its kind in the world. The <a href="/wiki/Hay_Festival" title="Hay Festival">Hay Festival</a> in Wales attracts wide interest, and the <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_International_Book_Festival" title="Edinburgh International Book Festival">Edinburgh International Book Festival</a> is the largest festival of its kind in the world. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Poetry_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Poetry Society">Poetry Society</a> publishes and promotes poetry, notably through an annual National Poetry Day. <a href="/wiki/World_Book_Day_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="World Book Day (United Kingdom)">World Book Day</a> is observed in Britain and the Crown Dependencies on the first Thursday in March annually. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_prizes">Literary prizes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Literary prizes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_British_literary_awards" title="List of British literary awards">List of British literary awards</a></div> <p>British recipients of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> include <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a> (1907), <a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a> (1932), <a href="/wiki/T.S._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Eliot">T.S. Eliot</a> (1948), <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> (1950), <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1953), <a href="/wiki/William_Golding" title="William Golding">William Golding</a> (1983), <a href="/wiki/V.S._Naipaul" class="mw-redirect" title="V.S. Naipaul">V.S. Naipaul</a> (2001), <a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a> (2005) <a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a> (2007), and <a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Ishiguro" title="Kazuo Ishiguro">Kazuo Ishiguro</a> (2017). </p><p>Literary prizes for which writers from the United Kingdom are eligible include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booker_Prize" title="Booker Prize">Booker Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Writers%27_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Writers' Prize">Commonwealth Writers' Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Dublin_Literary_Award" title="International Dublin Literary Award">International Dublin Literary Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Medal_(literary_award)" title="Carnegie Medal (literary award)">Carnegie Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Book_Awards" title="Costa Book Awards">Costa Book Awards</a> (formerly the Whitbread Awards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Prize_for_Fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Orange Prize for Fiction">Orange Prize for Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Gold_Medal_for_Poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry">Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/47px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/63px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">United Kingdom portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_regional_literature" title="British regional literature">British regional literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">English poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_drama" title="English drama">English drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_novel" title="English novel">English novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_novelists" title="List of English novelists">List of English novelists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_writers" title="List of English writers">List of English writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Literature of Northern Ireland">Literature of Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers of Northern Ireland">List of writers of Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish poetry">Scottish poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Scotland" title="Theatre of Scotland">Theatre of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Renaissance" title="Scottish Renaissance">Scottish Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scots_language" title="History of the Scots language">History of the Scots language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_writers" title="List of Scottish writers">List of Scottish writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Shetland" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Shetland">Literature of Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_poetry" title="Welsh poetry">Welsh poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_writers" title="List of Welsh writers">List of Welsh writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Wales" title="Theatre of Wales">Theatre of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_writing_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's writing in English">Women's writing in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Birmingham" title="Literature of Birmingham">Literature of Birmingham</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFlood2014" class="citation news cs1">Flood, Alison (22 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/22/uk-publishes-more-books-per-capita-million-report">"UK publishes more books per capita than any other country, report shows"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=UK+publishes+more+books+per+capita+than+any+other+country%2C+report+shows&rft.date=2014-10-22&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2014%2Foct%2F22%2Fuk-publishes-more-books-per-capita-million-report&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PlinyE(4.41)-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PlinyE(4.41)_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pliny the Elder's <i>Naturalis Historia</i> Book IV. Chapter XLI <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+4.41&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0138">Latin text</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D30">English translation</a>, numbered Book 4, Chapter 30, at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones & Casey 1988:367–98 "The Gallic Chronicle Restored: a Chronology for the Anglo-Saxon Invasions and the End of Roman Britain".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deane-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Deane_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deane_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeane1986" class="citation book cs1">Deane, Seamus (1986). <i>A Short History of Irish Literature</i>. London: Hutchinson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0091613612" title="Special:BookSources/0091613612"><bdi>0091613612</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Irish+Literature&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0091613612&rft.aulast=Deane&rft.aufirst=Seamus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Garlick" title="Raymond Garlick">Raymond Garlick</a> <i>An Introduction to Anglo-Welsh Literature</i> (University of Wales Press, 1970).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill1988" class="citation news cs1">Hill, Douglas (1 October 1988). "A report on stories from the outposts of Commonwealth literature". <i>The Globe and Mail</i>. p. 21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=A+report+on+stories+from+the+outposts+of+Commonwealth+literature&rft.pages=21&rft.date=1988-10-01&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCrum2003" class="citation news cs1">McCrum, Robert (13 October 2003). "English Is a World Language – and That's to Be Prized". <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. p. B15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=English+Is+a+World+Language+%E2%80%93+and+That%27s+to+Be+Prized&rft.pages=B15&rft.date=2003-10-13&rft.aulast=McCrum&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orkneyjar.com/history/">"Orkneyjar – The History and Archaeology of the Orkney Islands"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Orkneyjar+%E2%80%93+The+History+and+Archaeology+of+the+Orkney+Islands&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forkneyjar.com%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drabble1996-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drabble1996_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drabble1996_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Oxford Companion to English Literature</i>, ed. Margaret Drabble. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1996)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-doma-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-doma_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doma_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Angus_Cameron_(academic)" title="Angus Cameron (academic)">Angus Cameron</a> (1983). "Anglo-Saxon literature" in <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Dictionary of the Middle Ages">Dictionary of the Middle Ages</a></i>, v. 1, pp. 274–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagoun1953" class="citation cs2">Magoun, Francis P jr (1953), "The Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry", <i>Speculum</i>, <b>28</b> (3): 446–67, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2847021">10.2307/2847021</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2847021">2847021</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162903356">162903356</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=The+Oral-Formulaic+Character+of+Anglo-Saxon+Narrative+Poetry&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=446-67&rft.date=1953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162903356%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2847021%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2847021&rft.aulast=Magoun&rft.aufirst=Francis+P+jr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFry1968" class="citation cs2">Fry, Donald K jr (1968), <i>The Be aware of a wolf Poet: A Collection of Critical Essays</i>, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, pp. 83–113</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Be+aware+of+a+wolf+Poet%3A+A+Collection+of+Critical+Essays&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs&rft.pages=83-113&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Fry&rft.aufirst=Donald+K+jr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Keeffe, Katherine O'Brien (January 1987). "Orality and the Developing Text of Caedmon's Hymn". 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Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace, 1999, pp. 165–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/26192/26192-h/26192-h.htm">A Handbook of the Cornish Language, by Henry Jenner</a> A <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a> eBook;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590">A brief history of the Cornish language</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081225172227/http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590">Archived</a> 25 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richardson and Johnston (1991, 97–98).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory</i>, p. 523.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Norton Anthology of English Literature</i>, Vol.1 (2000), pp. 445ff and <i>The Oxford Companion to English Literature</i> (1996), p. 775.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/collections/154826/an-introduction-to-the-english-renaissance">"English Renaissance", Poetry Foundation online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://res.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/229/185.full.pdf+html">the original</a> on 1 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Contemporary+Reception+of+Rochester%27s+A+Satyr+against+Mankind&rft.pub=The+Review+of+English+Studies+%28April+2006%29+57+%28229%29%3A+185%E2%80%93220.&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fres.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcontent%2F57%2F229%2F185.full.pdf%2Bhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander Pope, "First Epistle of the Second Book of Horace", line 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rochester composed at least 10 versions of Impromptus on Charles II <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luminarium.org/eightlit/rochester/wilmotbib.htm">luminarium.org</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/34/2/21.html/">Great Books Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070510204040/http://www.bartleby.com/34/2/21.html">Archived</a> 10 May 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, François Marie Arouet de Voltaire (1694–1778). 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BBC Culture. 19 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+21st+Century%27s+12+greatest+novels&rft.pub=BBC+Culture&rft.date=2015-01-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fculture%2Farticle%2F20150119-the-21st-centurys-12-best-novels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/2017/summary/">"Nobel Prize in Literature 2017"</a>. nobelprize.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nobel+Prize+in+Literature+2017&rft.pub=nobelprize.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fliterature%2F2017%2Fsummary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickson2011" class="citation news cs1">Dickson, Andrew (2 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2011/aug/02/edinburgh-national-theatre-wales-scotland">"Edinburgh festival 2011: where National Theatres meet"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Salon.com&rft.atitle=%22Fifty+Shades+of+Grey%22+coming+in+hardcover&rft.date=2013-01-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F2013%2F01%2F10%2Ffifty_shades_of_grey_coming_in_hardcover%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heraldscotland.com/arts-ents/more-arts-entertainment-news/literary-scotland-torn-apart-over-kelman-spat-1.825273">"Literary Scotland torn apart over Kelman spat"</a>. <i>Sunday Herald</i>. 30 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sunday+Herald&rft.atitle=Literary+Scotland+torn+apart+over+Kelman+spat&rft.date=2009-08-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heraldscotland.com%2Farts-ents%2Fmore-arts-entertainment-news%2Fliterary-scotland-torn-apart-over-kelman-spat-1.825273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.literaturewales.org/">"Literature Wales"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Literature+Wales&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.literaturewales.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBate1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Jackson_Bate" title="Walter Jackson Bate">Bate, Walter Jackson</a> (1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/samueljohnson000bate"><i>Samuel Johnson</i></a>, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-179260-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-179260-3"><bdi>978-0-15-179260-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samuel+Johnson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-15-179260-3&rft.aulast=Bate&rft.aufirst=Walter+Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsamueljohnson000bate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._C._Bradley" title="A. C. Bradley">Bradley, A.C.</a> (1991) [1904]. <i>Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group" title="Penguin Group">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-053019-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-053019-3"><bdi>978-0-14-053019-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespearean+Tragedy%3A+Lectures+on+Hamlet%2C+Othello%2C+King+Lear+and+Macbeth&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-14-053019-3&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=A.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowden1881" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Dowden" title="Edward Dowden">Dowden, Edward</a> (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shakspere01dowdgoog"><i>Shakspere</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/D._Appleton_%26_Company" title="D. Appleton & Company">D. Appleton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8164385">8164385</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6461529M">6461529M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakspere&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+%26+Company&rft.date=1881&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8164385&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6461529M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Dowden&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshakspere01dowdgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Muir_(scholar)" title="Kenneth Muir (scholar)">Muir, Kenneth</a> (2005) [1979]. <i>Shakespeare's Tragic Sequence</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35325-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35325-0"><bdi>978-0-415-35325-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%27s+Tragic+Sequence&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35325-0&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Partridge, A. C. <i>Tudor to Augustan English: a Study in Syntax and Style, from Caxton to Johnson</i>, in series, <i>The Language Library</i>. London: A. Deutsch, 1969. 242 p. Without SBN or ISBN</li> <li><i>The Oxford History of English Literature</i> (in 15 vols.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, reprinted 1990–97.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_literature&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Works related to <a 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_Kingdom_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United Kingdom topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_Kingdom_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_history" title="Timeline of British history">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formation_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland">Formation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_England_and_Scotland_Act_1603" title="Union of England and Scotland Act 1603">Union of England and Scotland Act 1603</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_with_Scotland_(Amendment)_Act_1707" title="Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707">Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar</a></li> <li>Second World War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">civilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">military</a></li></ul></li> <li>Postwar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">social</a></li></ul></li> <li>Since 1979 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">social</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1814–1919</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of law enforcement in the United Kingdom">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Maritime history of the United Kingdom">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mass_surveillance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of mass surveillance in the United Kingdom">Mass surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Military history of the United Kingdom">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">Women's history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geography of the United Kingdom">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Administrative geography of the United Kingdom">Administrative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Counties of the United Kingdom">Counties of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Countries of the United Kingdom">Countries of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Dependencies" title="Crown Dependencies">Crown Dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">Overseas territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="City status in the United Kingdom">City status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of towns in the United Kingdom">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_that_have_gained_independence_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom">Former colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geography of the United Kingdom">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_British_Isles" title="Terminology of the British Isles">terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate of the United Kingdom">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate change in the United Kingdom">change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coastline of the United Kingdom">Coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Great_Britain" title="Geology of Great Britain">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_and_lochs_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of lakes and lochs of the United Kingdom">Lakes and lochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of rivers of the United Kingdom">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_resources_produced_and_traded_by_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom">Resources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Agriculture in the United Kingdom">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Energy in the United Kingdom">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiesel in the United Kingdom">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coal mining in the United Kingdom">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom">hydraulic frac.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hydroelectricity in the United Kingdom">hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom#Ocean_power" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wind power in the United Kingdom">wind</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fishing <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Wales" title="Fishing industry in Wales">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_shooting_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom">Hunting</a></li> <li>Materials <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Forestry in the United Kingdom">forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mining in the United Kingdom">mining</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wildlife <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Great_Britain" title="Fauna of Great Britain">fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Flora of Great Britain and Ireland">flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Corruption in the United Kingdom">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devolution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Devolution in the United Kingdom">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Elections in the United Kingdom">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UK_parliamentary_by-elections" title="UK parliamentary by-elections">By-elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Human rights in the United Kingdom">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United Kingdom">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciaries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Judiciaries of the United Kingdom">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law enforcement in the United Kingdom">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Local government in the United Kingdom">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">Monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">republicanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nationality_law" title="British nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political parties in the United Kingdom">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_leaders_of_British_political_parties" title="List of female leaders of British political parties">Female party leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scandals_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political scandals in the United Kingdom">Political scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Opposition_Shadow_Cabinet_(United_Kingdom)" title="Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (United Kingdom)">Shadow Cabinet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">Cabinet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_governments" title="List of British governments">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_the_Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Departments of the Government of the United Kingdom">Departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunak_ministry" title="Sunak ministry">Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of government ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Naval_Service" title="His Majesty's Naval Service">His Majesty's Naval Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of banks in the United Kingdom">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Budget of the United Kingdom">Budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic geography of the United Kingdom">Economic geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade_agreements_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom">Free trade agreements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Income in the United Kingdom">Income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Manufacturing in the United Kingdom">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Science and technology in the United Kingdom">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_exchanges_in_the_United_Kingdom,_the_British_Crown_Dependencies_and_United_Kingdom_Overseas_Territories" title="List of stock exchanges in the United Kingdom, the British Crown Dependencies and United Kingdom Overseas Territories">Stock exchanges</a> (<a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Exchange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tourism in the United Kingdom">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Transport in the United Kingdom">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Air transport in the United Kingdom">Air transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bus_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Bus transport">Bus transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Driving in the United Kingdom">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Roads in the United Kingdom">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in the United Kingdom">Rail transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Society of the United Kingdom">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cannabis in the United Kingdom">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crime in the United Kingdom">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Demographics of the United Kingdom">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Drug policy of the United Kingdom">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">Environmental inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental issues in the United Kingdom">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Health in the United Kingdom">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Homelessness in the United Kingdom">Homelessness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_England" title="Homelessness in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Scotland" title="Homelessness in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Housing in the United Kingdom">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunger in the United Kingdom">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="Modern immigration to the United Kingdom">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">Innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Languages of the United Kingdom">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of British regions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mental health in the United Kingdom">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prostitution in the United Kingdom">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Public holidays in the United Kingdom">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racism in the United Kingdom">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_care_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social care in the United Kingdom">Social care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Suicide in the United Kingdom">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Universal basic income in the United Kingdom">Universal basic income (UBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Waste in the United Kingdom">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Welfare state in the United Kingdom">Welfare state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Culture of the United Kingdom">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Art of the United Kingdom">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_Save_the_King" title="God Save the King">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cinema of the United Kingdom">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_cuisine" title="British cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wine_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wine from the United Kingdom">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_national_identity" title="British national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mass media in the United Kingdom">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Music of the United Kingdom">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Sport in the United Kingdom">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_the_United_Kingdom,_the_Channel_Islands_and_the_Isle_of_Man" title="List of national symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_the_British" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes of the British">Stereotypes of the British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Countries of the United Kingdom">Countries of the United Kingdom</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_society" title="English society">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England" title="Economy of England">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_England" title="Tourism in England">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_England" title="Education in England">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_England" title="Healthcare in England">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_England" title="Homelessness in England">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland#Geography_and_climate" title="Northern Ireland">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Politics of Northern Ireland">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly" title="Northern Ireland Assembly">Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive" title="Northern Ireland Executive">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland">First Minister and deputy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Law of Northern Ireland">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Economy of Northern Ireland">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Ireland" title="List of tourist attractions in Ireland">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Education in Northern Ireland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Social_Care_(Northern_Ireland)" title="Health and Social Care (Northern Ireland)">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Culture of Northern Ireland">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland#Symbols" title="Northern Ireland">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Scottish_history" title="Timeline of Scottish history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Scotland" title="Geography of Scotland">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Government" title="Scottish Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland" title="First Minister of Scotland">First Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Scotland" title="Economy of Scotland">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Scotland" title="Tourism in Scotland">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Scotland" title="Education in Scotland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Scotland" title="Healthcare in Scotland">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Scotland" title="Homelessness in Scotland">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Scotland" title="National symbols of Scotland">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Wales" title="Education in Wales">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Wales" title="Healthcare in Wales">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Wales" title="National symbols of Wales">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Outline of the United Kingdom">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_United_Kingdom%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of United Kingdom–related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_Kingdom" title="Category:United Kingdom">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="English_literature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English_literature" title="Template:English literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English_literature" title="Template talk:English literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="English_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_English_Jewish_literature" title="Early English Jewish literature">Early English Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_literature" title="Restoration literature">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature" title="Augustan literature">Augustan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_literature" title="Victorian literature">Victorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_English_literature" title="Twentieth-century English literature">Twentieth century</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional/ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_literature" title="American Sign Language literature">American Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_American_literature" title="Arab American literature">Arab American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_American_literature" title="Asian American literature">Asian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Catholic_literature" title="American Catholic literature">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_literature" title="Chicago literature">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_American_literature" title="Franco American literature">Franco American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_literature" title="Hawaiian literature">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">Jewish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latino_literature" title="Latino literature">Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_New_England" title="Literature of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexican_literature" title="New Mexican literature">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_set_in_New_York_City" title="List of books set in New York City">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States_literature" title="Southern United States literature">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_literature" title="Texas literature">Texas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_literature" title="Oceanian literature">Oceanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_literature" title="Australian literature">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_literature" title="New Zealand literature">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_English_literature" title="Bangladeshi English literature">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_literature" title="Canadian literature">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_literature_in_English" title="Philippine literature in English">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English_literature" title="Indian English literature">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_English_literature" title="Pakistani English literature">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_literature" title="South African literature">South African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_literature" title="Celtic literature">Celtic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_drama" title="English drama">English drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">English poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_studies" title="English studies">English studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">European literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_American_Novel" title="Great American Novel">Great American Novel</a></li> <li>Indigenous literatures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_literature" title="Native American literature">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_literatures_in_Canada" title="Indigenous literatures in Canada">Canadian Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_literature" title="Indigenous Australian literature">Australian Indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais_literature" title="Jèrriais literature">Jèrriais literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_fiction" title="Literary fiction">Literary fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_literature" title="Postcolonial literature">Postcolonial literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_writing_(literary_category)" title="Women's writing (literary category)">Women's writing in English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scottish_literature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="color:black;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scottish_literature" title="Template:Scottish literature"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:black">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scottish_literature" title="Template talk:Scottish literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:black">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scottish_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scottish literature"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:black">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scottish_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature"><span style="color:black;">Scottish literature</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scottish literature in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_in_early_modern_Scotland" title="Literature in early modern Scotland">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_18th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish literature in the 18th century">18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_19th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish literature in the 19th century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_in_modern_Scotland" title="Literature in modern Scotland">20th century</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makar" title="Makar">Makars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Renaissance in Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castalian_Band" title="Castalian Band">Castalian Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kailyard_school" title="Kailyard school">Kailyard school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Renaissance" title="Scottish Renaissance">Scottish Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_Renaissance" title="Scottish Gaelic Renaissance">Scottish Gaelic Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartan_Noir" title="Tartan Noir">Tartan Noir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in Scotland">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel_in_Scotland" title="Novel in Scotland">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Scotland" title="Poetry of Scotland">Poetry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots language literature">Lowland Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_writers" title="List of Scottish writers">Writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_dramatists" title="List of Scottish dramatists">Dramatists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_novelists" title="List of Scottish novelists">Novelists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_poets" title="List of Scottish poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_short_story_writers" title="List of Scottish short story writers">Short story writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_science_fiction_writers" title="List of Scottish science fiction writers">Science fiction writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">British literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_literature" title="Celtic literature">Celtic literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">mythology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Scotland" title="Opera in Scotland">Opera in Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_theatres_in_Scotland" title="List of theatres in Scotland">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature" title="Welsh literature">Welsh literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/48px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/64px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Scotland" title="Portal:Scotland">Scotland portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_literature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_literature" title="Template:European literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_literature" title="Template talk:European literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/European_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="European literature">European literature</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_literature" title="Abkhaz literature">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_literature" title="Albanian literature">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_literature" title="Aragonese literature">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_literature" title="Armenian literature">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_literature" title="Aromanian literature">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asturian_literature" title="Asturian literature">Asturian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_literature" title="Austrian literature">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_literature" title="Basque literature">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_literature" title="Belarusian literature">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_literature" title="Belgian literature">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnian literature">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_literature" title="Breton literature">Breton</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_literature" title="Bulgarian literature">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_literature" title="Catalan literature">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_literature" title="Chuvash literature">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_literature" title="Cornish literature">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_literature" title="Crimean Tatar literature">Crimean Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_literature" title="Croatian literature">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_literature" title="Cypriot literature">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature" title="Czech literature">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature" title="Danish literature">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch-language_literature" title="Dutch-language literature">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English <span style="font-size:85%;">(Anglo-Saxon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_literature" title="Estonian literature">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature" title="Faroese literature">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_literature" title="Flemish literature">Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_literature" title="Frisian literature">Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friulian_literature" title="Friulian literature">Friulian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gagauz_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gagauz literature (page does not exist)">Gagauz</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Гагаузская литература">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician-language_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Galician-language literature">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_literature" title="Georgian literature">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature" title="German literature">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_literature" title="Modern Greek literature">modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_literature" title="Hungarian literature">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_literature" title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Literature of Northern Ireland">Northern Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais_literature" title="Jèrriais literature">Jèrriais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_literature" title="Kazakh literature">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_literature" title="Kashubian literature">Kashubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Kosovo" title="Literature of Kosovo">Kosovar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_literature" title="Latvian literature">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_literature" title="Lithuanian literature">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg literature">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_literature" title="Macedonian literature">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_literature" title="Maltese literature">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_literature" title="Manx literature">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Moldova" title="Literature of Moldova">Moldovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Montenegro">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature" title="Norwegian literature">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_literature" title="Occitan literature">Occitan <span style="font-size:85%;">(Provençal)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_literature" title="Ossetian literature">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_literature" title="Polish literature">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_literature" title="Portuguese literature">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_literature" title="Romanian literature">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_literature" title="Sardinian literature">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scots-language_literature" title="Scots-language literature">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_literature" title="Serbian literature">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silesian_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silesian literature (page does not exist)">Silesian</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slezsk%C3%A1_literatura" class="extiw" title="cs:Slezská literatura">cs</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_literature" title="Slovak literature">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_literature" title="Slovene literature">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_literature" title="Spanish literature">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss</a></li> 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