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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style>The Second Polish Republic,<a href="#cite_note-10">[f]</a> at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland,<a href="#cite_note-11">[g]</a> was a country in <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a> that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939. The state was established in the final stage of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The Second Republic ceased to exist in 1939, after <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Poland was invaded</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet Union</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Slovak_invasion_of_Poland" title="Slovak invasion of Poland">Slovak Republic</a>, marking the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">European theatre of the Second World War</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Polish government-in-exile</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and later <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">fall of France</a> in 1940. <table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Republic of Poland</div><div class="ib-country-names">Rzeczpospolita Polska (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1918–1939</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Poland_(1928%E2%80%931980).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Second Polish Republic"><img alt="Flag of Second Polish Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800"></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Poland" title="Flag of Poland">Flag</a> (1928–1939)</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Poland_(1928%E2%80%931939).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms (1928–1939) of Second Polish Republic"><img alt="Coat of arms (1928–1939) of Second Polish Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931939%29.svg/85px-Coat_of_arms_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931939%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931939%29.svg/128px-Coat_of_arms_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931939%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931939%29.svg/170px-Coat_of_arms_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931939%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3045" data-file-height="3807"></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland" title="Coat of arms of Poland">Coat of arms</a> (1928–1939)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <a href="/wiki/Poland_Is_Not_Yet_Lost" title="Poland Is Not Yet Lost">Mazurek Dąbrowskiego</a> (English: "Poland Is Not Yet Lost") (1927–1939) <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="163" data-mwtitle="Mazurek_Dąbrowskiego_(1939;_instrumental).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Mazurek_D%C4%85browskiego_%281939%3B_instrumental%29.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/Mazurek_D%C4%85browskiego_%281939%3B_instrumental%29.ogg/Mazurek_D%C4%85browskiego_%281939%3B_instrumental%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Poland_1930.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Second Polish Republic in 1930"><img alt="The Second Polish Republic in 1930" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Poland_1930.svg/250px-Poland_1930.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Poland_1930.svg/375px-Poland_1930.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Poland_1930.svg/500px-Poland_1930.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456"></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Second Polish Republic in 1930</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Administrative divisions of the Second Polish Republic in 1930"><img alt="Administrative divisions of the Second Polish Republic in 1930" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png/250px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png/375px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png/500px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4286"></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Administrative divisions of the Second Polish Republic in 1930</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Second_Polish_Republic&params=52_13_48_N_21_00_40_E_region:PL">52°13′48″N 21°00′40″E / 52.23000°N 21.01111°E / 52.23000; 21.01111</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Recognized regional languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> (since 1920)<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> (since 1924)<a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> (since 1924)<a href="#cite_note-5">[c]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> (since 1924)<a href="#cite_note-6">[d]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"> (1931)</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Majority: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>75.3% <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Poland" title="Catholic Church in Poland">Catholicism</a> <ul><li>64.8% <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Roman Catholic</a></li> <li>10.5% <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Greek Catholic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="padding: 0px;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:left; padding: 0px;">Minorities:</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left; padding: 0px;">11.8% <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> 9.8% <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Jewish</a> 2.6% <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Poland" title="Protestantism in Poland">Protestant</a> 0.5% Other Christian 0.02% Other</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Pole</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data">Unitary <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary republic</a> <ul><li>under an <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> dictatorship (1928–1939)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Poland" title="List of heads of state of Poland">President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1918–1922 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[e]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1922 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Narutowicz" title="Gabriel Narutowicz">Gabriel Narutowicz</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1922–1926 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wojciechowski" title="Stanisław Wojciechowski">Stanisław Wojciechowski</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1926–1939 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Mo%C5%9Bcicki" title="Ignacy Mościcki">Ignacy Mościcki</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Poland">Prime Minister</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1918–1919 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_Moraczewski" title="Jędrzej Moraczewski">Jędrzej Moraczewski</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1936–1939 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Felicjan_S%C5%82awoj_Sk%C5%82adkowski" title="Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski">Felicjan S. Składkowski</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Poland" title="Parliament of Poland">Parliament</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Upper chamber</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate of the Republic of Poland">Senate</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Lower chamber</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Establishment</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• End of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">11 November 1918</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">28 June 1919</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Riga" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Riga">Peace of Riga</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">18 March 1921</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/May_Coup_(Poland)" title="May Coup (Poland)">Sanation Coup d'état</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">12–14 May 1926</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">German invasion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 September 1939</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet invasion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">17 September 1939</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_(1939)" title="Siege of Warsaw (1939)">Fall of Warsaw</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">28 September 1939</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kock_(1939)" title="Battle of Kock (1939)">Complete occupation</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">6 October 1939</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">388,634 km2 (150,052 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1921 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">25,694,700<a href="#cite_note-gus1921-8">[3]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1931 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">31,915,779<a href="#cite_note-Polish_Census_1931-9">[4]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Polish_marka" title="Polish marka">Marka</a> (until 1924) <a href="/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty" title="Polish złoty">Złoty</a> (after 1924)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/20px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)">Kingdom of Poland</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Military_Administration_in_Poland" title="Military Administration in Poland">Military Administration in Poland</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/20px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/30px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281936%E2%80%931955%2C_gold_star%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281936%E2%80%931955%2C_gold_star%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281936%E2%80%931955%2C_gold_star%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281936%E2%80%931955%2C_gold_star%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281936%E2%80%931955%2C_gold_star%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281936%E2%80%931955%2C_gold_star%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Slovakia_%281939%E2%80%931945%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Slovakia_%281939%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Slovakia_%281939%E2%80%931945%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Slovakia_%281939%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Slovakia_%281939%E2%80%931945%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Slovakia_%281939%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lithuania_(1918%E2%80%931940)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940)">Republic of Lithuania</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> When, after several regional conflicts, most importantly the victorious <a href="/wiki/Polish-Soviet_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Soviet war">Polish-Soviet war</a>, the borders of the state were finalized in the year 1922, Poland's neighbours were <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. It had access to the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> via a short strip of coastline known as the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Corridor" title="Polish Corridor">Polish Corridor</a> on either side of the city of <a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a>. Between March and August 1939, Poland also shared a border with the then-<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1920%E2%80%931946)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)">Hungarian</a> governorate of <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia_during_World_War_II" title="Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II">Subcarpathia</a>. In 1938, the Second Republic was the sixth largest country in Europe. According to the <a href="/wiki/Polish_census_of_1921" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish census of 1921">1921 census</a>, the number of inhabitants was 25.7 million. By 1939, just before the outbreak of World War II, this had grown to an estimated 35.1 million. Almost a third of the population came from <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority groups</a>: 13.9% <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a>; 10% <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>; 3.1% <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusians</a>; 2.3% <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> and 3.4% <a href="/wiki/Czechs" title="Czechs">Czechs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a>. At the same time, a significant number of ethnic Poles lived outside the country's borders. The Second Republic maintained moderate economic development. The cultural hubs of interwar Poland – <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Wilno</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lwów</a> – became major European cities and the sites of internationally acclaimed universities and other institutions of higher education. Although Polish Jews were some of the biggest supporters of Second Republic leader <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a>, even after he returned to politics and <a href="/wiki/May_Coup_(Poland)" title="May Coup (Poland)">staged a coup in 1926</a>, after his death in 1935 <a href="/wiki/Pi%C5%82sudski%27s_colonels" title="Piłsudski's colonels">Pilsudskites</a> ruling the Republic began to openly discriminate against its Jewish (and, to a lesser extent, its Ukrainian) citizens, restricting Jewish entry into professions and placing limitations on Jewish businesses.<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-12">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-journals.uchicago.edu-13">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skalmowski-14">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Polish_Review-15">[8]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Name">1 Name</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Background">2 Background</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#End_of_the_First_World_War">2.1 End of the First World War</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Formation_of_the_Republic">2.2 Formation of the Republic</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Politics_and_government">3 Politics and government</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Chief_of_State">3.1 Chief of State</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Presidents">3.2 Presidents</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Prime_ministers">3.3 Prime ministers</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Military">3.4 Military</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Economy">4 Economy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Major_industrial_centres">4.1 Major industrial centres</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Transport">4.2 Transport</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Agriculture">4.3 Agriculture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#German_trade">4.4 German trade</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Education_and_culture">5 Education and culture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Administrative_divisions">6 Administrative divisions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Demographics">7 Demographics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Largest_cities_in_the_Second_Polish_Republic">7.1 Largest cities in the Second Polish Republic</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Prewar_population_density">7.2 Prewar population density</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Status_of_ethnic_minorities">8 Status of ethnic minorities</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Jews">8.1 Jews</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Ukrainians">8.2 Ukrainians</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Geography">9 Geography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Waters">9.1 Waters</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Invasion_of_Poland_in_1939">10 Invasion of Poland in 1939</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#See_also">11 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Notes">12 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#References">13 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Further_reading">14 Further reading</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Politics_and_diplomacy">14.1 Politics and diplomacy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Social_and_economic_topics">14.2 Social and economic topics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Primary_sources">14.3 Primary sources</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Historiography">14.4 Historiography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#External_links">15 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> The official name of the state was the Republic of Poland. In the <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish language</a>, it was referred to as Rzeczpospolita Polska (<a href="/wiki/Abbreviation" title="Abbreviation">abbr.</a> RP), with the term <a href="/wiki/Rzeczpospolita" title="Rzeczpospolita">Rzeczpospolita</a> being a traditional name for the republic when referring to various <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish</a> states, including the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> (considered to be the First Polish Republic, Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita), and later, the current <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1989%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Poland (1989–present)">Third Polish Republic</a>. In other regionally-used official languages, the state was referred to as: Republik Polen in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, Польська Республіка (<a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ukrainian" title="Romanization of Ukrainian">transcription</a>: Polʹsʹka Respublika) in <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>, Польская Рэспубліка (<a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Belarusian" title="Romanization of Belarusian">transcription</a>: Poĺskaja Respublika) in <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>, and Lenkijos Respublika, in <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>. Between 14 November 1918<a href="#cite_note-16">[9]</a> and 13 March 1919,<a href="#cite_note-17">[10]</a> the state was referred to in <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> as Republika Polska, instead of Rzeczpospolita Polska. Both terms mean the Republic; however, republika is a general term, while Rzeczpospolita traditionally refers exclusively to Polish states. Additionally, between 8 November 1918 and 16 August 1919, the Journal of Laws of the State of Poland referred to the country as the State of Poland (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Państwo Polskie).<a href="#cite_note-18">[11]</a> Following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, and the establishment of the later states of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1989%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Poland (1989–present)">Third Polish Republic</a>, the historical state is referred to as the Second Polish Republic. In the Polish language, the country is traditionally referred to as II Rzeczpospolita (Druga Rzeczpospolita), which means the Second Republic. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1918%E2%80%931939)" title="History of Poland (1918–1939)">History of Poland (1918–1939)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_history#The_Second_Polish_Republic_(1918%E2%80%9339)" title="Timeline of Polish history">Timeline of Polish history § The Second Polish Republic (1918–39)</a></div> After more than a <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">century of partitions</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Partition" title="Austrian Partition">Austrian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Partition" title="Prussian Partition">Prussian</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Partition" title="Russian Partition">Russian</a> imperial powers, Poland re-emerged as a sovereign state at the end of the First World War in Europe in 1917–1918.<a href="#cite_note-19">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies100-20">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[14]</a> The victorious <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies of the First World War</a> confirmed the rebirth of Poland in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> of June 1919. It was one of the great stories of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">1919 Paris Peace Conference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[15]</a> Poland solidified its independence in a series of border wars fought by the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Polish_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Army">Polish Army</a> from 1918 to 1921.<a href="#cite_note-Davies-23">[16]</a> The extent of the eastern half of the interwar territory of Poland was settled diplomatically in 1922 and internationally recognised by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_First_World_War">End of the First World War</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: End of the First World War" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Over the course of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> (1914–1918), the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> gradually dominated the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Imperial Russian Army</a> fell back. German and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a> armies seized the <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Russian-ruled part of what became Poland</a>. In a failed attempt to resolve the <a href="/wiki/Polish_question" title="Polish question">Polish question</a> as quickly as possible, Berlin set up the <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)">Kingdom of Poland</a> on 14 January 1917, with a governing <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Council_of_State" title="Provisional Council of State">Provisional Council of State</a> and (from 15 October 1917) a <a href="/wiki/Regency_Council_(Poland)" title="Regency Council (Poland)">Regency Council</a> (Rada Regencyjna Królestwa Polskiego). The Council administered the country under German auspices (see also <a href="/wiki/Mitteleuropa" title="Mitteleuropa">Mitteleuropa</a>), pending <a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">the election of a king</a>. More than a month before Germany surrendered on 11 November 1918 and the war ended, the Regency Council had dissolved the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Council_of_State" title="Provisional Council of State">Provisional Council of State</a> and announced its intention to restore Polish independence (7 October 1918).<a href="#cite_note-26">[19]</a> With the notable exception of the <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a>-oriented <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania">Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania</a> (SDKPiL), most Polish political parties supported this move. On 23 October the Regency Council appointed a new government under <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_%C5%9Awie%C5%BCy%C5%84ski" title="Józef Świeżyński">Józef Świeżyński</a> and began conscription into the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Army">Polish Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_the_Republic">Formation of the Republic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Formation of the Republic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg/130px-Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="578"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 130px;height: 163px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg/130px-Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg.png" data-width="130" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg/195px-Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg/260px-Coat_of_arms_of_Poland2_1919-1927.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Coat of arms of Poland, 1919-1927</figcaption></figure> In 1918–1919, over 100 <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Councils_in_Poland" title="Workers' Councils in Poland">workers' councils</a> sprang up on Polish territories;<a href="#cite_note-28">[21]</a> on 5 November 1918, in <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_Delegates" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet of Delegates">Soviet of Delegates</a> was established. On 6 November socialists proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Tarnobrzeg" title="Republic of Tarnobrzeg">Republic of Tarnobrzeg</a> at Tarnobrzeg in Austrian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Galicia</a>. The same day the Socialist, <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Daszy%C5%84ski" title="Ignacy Daszyński">Ignacy Daszyński</a>, set up a <a href="/wiki/Provisional_People%27s_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland">Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland</a> (Tymczasowy Rząd Ludowy Republiki Polskiej) in Lublin. On Sunday, 10 November at 7 a.m., <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a>, newly freed from 16 months in a German prison in <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg" title="Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a>, returned by train to Warsaw. Piłsudski, together with Colonel <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Sosnkowski" title="Kazimierz Sosnkowski">Kazimierz Sosnkowski</a>, was greeted at Warsaw's railway station by Regent <a href="/wiki/Zdzis%C5%82aw_Lubomirski" title="Zdzisław Lubomirski">Zdzisław Lubomirski</a> and by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Adam_Koc" title="Adam Koc">Adam Koc</a>. Next day, due to his popularity and support from most political parties, the Regency Council appointed Piłsudski as Commander in Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. On 14 November, the Council dissolved itself and transferred all its authority to Piłsudski as Chief of State (<a href="/wiki/Naczelnik_Pa%C5%84stwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Naczelnik Państwa">Naczelnik Państwa</a>). After consultation with Piłsudski, Daszyński's government dissolved itself and a new government formed under <a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_Moraczewski" title="Jędrzej Moraczewski">Jędrzej Moraczewski</a>. In 1918, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> became the first country in Europe to recognise Poland's renewed sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-29">[22]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna,_August.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna%2C_August.jpg/220px-Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna%2C_August.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="660"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 121px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna%2C_August.jpg/220px-Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna%2C_August.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="121" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna%2C_August.jpg/330px-Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna%2C_August.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna%2C_August.jpg/440px-Polish-soviet_war_1920_Polish_defences_near_Milosna%2C_August.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Polish defences at <a href="/wiki/Mi%C5%82osna,_Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship" title="Miłosna, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship">Miłosna</a>, during the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Warsaw_(1920)" title="Battle of Warsaw (1920)">Battle of Warsaw</a>, August 1920</figcaption></figure> Centres of government that formed at that time in <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a> (formerly Austrian-ruled southern Poland) included the National Council of the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Cieszyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Cieszyn">Principality of Cieszyn</a> (established in November 1918), the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Zakopane" title="Republic of Zakopane">Republic of Zakopane</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Liquidation_Committee" title="Polish Liquidation Committee">Polish Liquidation Committee</a> (28 October). Soon afterward, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a> broke out in <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lwów</a> (1 November 1918) between forces of the <a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">Military Committee of Ukrainians</a> and the Polish irregular units made up of students known as the <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Eaglets" title="Lwów Eaglets">Lwów Eaglets</a>, who were later supported by the Polish Army (see <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lw%C3%B3w_(1918)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Lwów (1918)">Battle of Lwów (1918)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Przemy%C5%9Bl_(1918)" title="Battle of Przemyśl (1918)">Battle of Przemyśl (1918)</a>). Meanwhile, in western Poland, another war of national liberation began under the banner of the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)">Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)</a>. In January 1919, <a href="/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="First Czechoslovak Republic">Czechoslovak</a> forces attacked Polish units in the area of Trans-Olza (see <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_War" title="Polish–Czechoslovak War">Polish–Czechoslovak War</a>). Soon afterwards, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a> (ca 1919–1920) began, and, in August 1919, Polish-speaking residents of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a> initiated a series of three <a href="/wiki/Silesian_Uprisings" title="Silesian Uprisings">Silesian Uprisings</a>. The most critical military conflict of that period, however, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> (1919-1921), ended in a decisive Polish victory.<a href="#cite_note-30">[23]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Politics_and_government">Politics and government</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Politics and government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_(-1930).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg/170px-J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1649"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 234px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg/170px-J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="234" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg/255px-J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg/340px-J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_Poland" title="Marshal of Poland">Marshal</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naczelnik_Pa%C5%84stwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Naczelnik Państwa">Chief of State (Naczelnik Państwa)</a> between November 1918 and December 1922</figcaption></figure> The Second Polish Republic was a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary democracy</a> from 1919 (see <a href="/wiki/Small_Constitution_of_1919" title="Small Constitution of 1919">Small Constitution of 1919</a>) to 1926, with the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Poland" title="President of Poland">President</a> having limited powers. The <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of the Republic of Poland">Parliament</a> elected him, and he could appoint the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Poland" title="Prime Minister of Poland">Prime Minister</a> as well as the government with the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a>'s (lower house's) approval, but he could only dissolve the Sejm with the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate of the Republic of Poland">Senate</a>'s consent. Moreover, his power to pass decrees was limited by the requirement that the Prime Minister and the appropriate other Minister had to verify his decrees with their signatures. Poland was one of the first countries in the world to recognise <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women's suffrage</a>. Women in Poland were granted the right to vote on 28 November 1918 by a decree of <a href="/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">General</a> Józef Piłsudski.<a href="#cite_note-31">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-new_sources-32">[25]</a> The major political parties at this time were the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Socialist_Party" title="Polish Socialist Party">Polish Socialist Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Poland)" title="National Democracy (Poland)">National Democrats</a>, various <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Poland)" title="People's Party (Poland)">Peasant Parties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_Christian_Democratic_Party" title="Polish Christian Democratic Party">Christian Democrats</a>, and political groups of ethnic minorities (German: <a href="/wiki/German_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="German Social Democratic Party of Poland">German Social Democratic Party of Poland</a>, Jewish: <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Poland" title="General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland">General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Jewish_Socialist_Workers_Party" title="United Jewish Socialist Workers Party">United Jewish Socialist Workers Party</a>, and Ukrainian: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Democratic_Alliance" title="Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance">Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance</a>). Frequently changing governments (see <a href="/wiki/1919_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1919 Polish legislative election">1919 Polish legislative election</a>, <a href="/wiki/1922_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1922 Polish legislative election">1922 Polish legislative election</a>) and other negative publicity the politicians received (such as accusations of corruption or the <a href="/wiki/1919_Polish_coup_attempt" title="1919 Polish coup attempt">1919 Polish coup attempt</a>), made them increasingly unpopular. Major politicians at this time, in addition to General Piłsudski, included peasant activist <a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Witos" title="Wincenty Witos">Wincenty Witos</a> (Prime Minister three times) and right-wing leader <a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Roman Dmowski</a>. Ethnic minorities were represented in the Sejm; e.g. in 1928 – 1930 there was the Ukrainian-Belarusian Club, with 26 Ukrainian and 4 Belarusian members. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg/220px-Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1457"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 158px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg/220px-Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg/330px-Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg/440px-Pi%C5%82sudski_May_1926.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/May_Coup_(Poland)" title="May Coup (Poland)">The May Coup d'État</a> (1926)</figcaption></figure> After the Polish–Soviet War, <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_Poland" title="Marshal of Poland">Marshal</a> Piłsudski led an intentionally modest life, writing historical books for a living. After he took power through a <a href="/wiki/May_Coup_(Poland)" title="May Coup (Poland)">military coup</a> in May 1926, he emphasised that he wanted to heal Polish society and politics of excessive partisan politics. His regime, accordingly, was called <a href="/wiki/Sanation" title="Sanation">Sanacja</a> in Polish. The <a href="/wiki/1928_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1928 Polish legislative election">1928 parliamentary elections</a> were still considered free and fair, although the pro-Piłsudski <a href="/wiki/Nonpartisan_Bloc_for_Cooperation_with_the_Government" title="Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government">Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government</a> won them. The following three parliamentary elections (in <a href="/wiki/1930_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1930 Polish legislative election">1930</a>, <a href="/wiki/1935_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Polish legislative election">1935</a> and <a href="/wiki/1938_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1938 Polish legislative election">1938</a>) were manipulated, with opposition activists sent to <a href="/wiki/Bereza_Kartuska_prison" class="mw-redirect" title="Bereza Kartuska prison">Bereza Kartuska prison</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Brest_trials" title="Brest trials">Brest trials</a>). As a result, the pro-government party <a href="/wiki/Camp_of_National_Unity" title="Camp of National Unity">Camp of National Unity</a> won huge majorities in them. Piłsudski died just after an <a href="/wiki/April_Constitution_of_Poland" title="April Constitution of Poland">authoritarian constitution</a> was approved in the spring of 1935. During the last four years of the Second Polish Republic, the major politicians included President <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Mo%C5%9Bcicki" title="Ignacy Mościcki">Ignacy Mościcki</a>, Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck" title="Józef Beck">Józef Beck</a> and the Commander-in-Chief of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Army">Polish Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_Poland" title="Marshal of Poland">Marshal</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Rydz-%C5%9Amig%C5%82y" title="Edward Rydz-Śmigły">Edward Rydz-Śmigły</a>. The country was divided into <a href="/wiki/Electoral_districts_of_Poland_(1935%E2%80%931939)" title="Electoral districts of Poland (1935–1939)">104 electoral districts</a>, and those politicians who were forced to leave Poland founded <a href="/wiki/Front_Morges" title="Front Morges">Front Morges</a> in 1936. The government that ruled the Second Polish Republic in its final years is frequently referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pi%C5%82sudski%27s_colonels" title="Piłsudski's colonels">Piłsudski's colonels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-new_sources-32">[25]</a> <table width="98%"> <tbody><tr> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; width: 100%; background: #EFEFEF;">Presidents and Prime ministers (November 1918 – September 1939) </div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg/250px-Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="343" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1319"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 343px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg/250px-Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="343" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg/375px-Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg/500px-Rydz_Smigly_Bulawa1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Mo%C5%9Bcicki" title="Ignacy Mościcki">Ignacy Mościcki</a>, <a href="/wiki/President_of_Poland" title="President of Poland">President of Poland</a> (left), Warsaw, 10 November 1936, awarding the <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_Poland" title="Marshal of Poland">Marshal</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bulawa" title="Bulawa">buława</a> to <a href="/wiki/Edward_Rydz-%C5%9Amig%C5%82y" title="Edward Rydz-Śmigły">Edward Rydz-Śmigły</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chief_of_State">Chief of State</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a> (22 November 1918 – 9 December 1922)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presidents">Presidents</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Narutowicz" title="Gabriel Narutowicz">Gabriel Narutowicz</a> (9 December 1922 – 16 December 1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wojciechowski" title="Stanisław Wojciechowski">Stanisław Wojciechowski</a>: 20 December 1922 – 14 May 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Mo%C5%9Bcicki" title="Ignacy Mościcki">Ignacy Mościcki</a> – 1 June 1926 – 30 September 1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Wieniawa-D%C5%82ugoszowski" title="Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski">Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski</a> – 1 October 1939)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prime_ministers">Prime ministers</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_Moraczewski" title="Jędrzej Moraczewski">Jędrzej Moraczewski</a> (18 November 1918 – 16 January 1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Ignacy Paderewski</a> (18 January 1919 – 27 November 1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_Skulski" title="Leopold Skulski">Leopold Skulski</a> (13 December 1919 – 9 June 1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Grabski" title="Władysław Grabski">Władysław Grabski</a> (27 June 1920 – 24 July 1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Witos" title="Wincenty Witos">Wincenty Witos</a> (24 July 1920 – 13 September 1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Ponikowski" title="Antoni Ponikowski">Antoni Ponikowski</a> (19 September 1921 – 5 March 1922)</li> <li>Antoni Ponikowski (10 March 1922 – 6 June 1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artur_%C5%9Aliwi%C5%84ski" title="Artur Śliwiński">Artur Śliwiński</a> (28 June 1922 – 7 July 1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Korfanty" title="Wojciech Korfanty">Wojciech Korfanty</a> (14 July 1922 – 31 July 1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Nowak" title="Julian Nowak">Julian Nowak</a> (31 July 1922 – 14 December 1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski" title="Władysław Sikorski">Władysław Sikorski</a> (16 December 1922 – 26 May 1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Witos" title="Wincenty Witos">Wincenty Witos</a> (28 May 1923 – 14 December 1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Grabski" title="Władysław Grabski">Władysław Grabski</a> (19 December 1923 – 14 November 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Skrzy%C5%84ski" title="Aleksander Skrzyński">Aleksander Skrzyński</a> (20 November 1925 – 5 May 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Witos" title="Wincenty Witos">Wincenty Witos</a> (10 May 1926 – 14 May 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Bartel" title="Kazimierz Bartel">Kazimierz Bartel</a> (15 May 1926 – 4 June 1926)</li> <li>Kazimierz Bartel (8 June 1926 – 24 September 1926)</li> <li>Kazimierz Bartel (27 September 1926 – 30 September 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a> (2 October 1926 – 27 June 1928)</li> <li>Kazimierz Bartel (27 June 1928 – 13 April 1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_%C5%9Awitalski" title="Kazimierz Świtalski">Kazimierz Świtalski</a> (14 April 1929 – 7 December 1929)</li> <li>Kazimierz Bartel (29 December 1929 – 15 March 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walery_S%C5%82awek" title="Walery Sławek">Walery Sławek</a> (29 March 1930 – 23 August 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a> (25 August 1930 – 4 December 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walery_S%C5%82awek" title="Walery Sławek">Walery Sławek</a> (4 December 1930 – 26 May 1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Prystor" title="Aleksander Prystor">Aleksander Prystor</a> (27 May 1931 – 9 May 1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janusz_J%C4%99drzejewicz" title="Janusz Jędrzejewicz">Janusz Jędrzejewicz</a> (10 May 1933 – 13 May 1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Koz%C5%82owski" title="Leon Kozłowski">Leon Kozłowski</a> (15 May 1934 – 28 March 1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walery_S%C5%82awek" title="Walery Sławek">Walery Sławek</a> (28 March 1935 – 12 October 1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Zyndram-Ko%C5%9Bcia%C5%82kowski" title="Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski">Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski</a> (13 October 1935 – 15 May 1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felicjan_S%C5%82awoj_Sk%C5%82adkowski" title="Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski">Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski</a> (15 May 1936 – 30 September 1939)</li></ul></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Military" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PZL-37_Los.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/PZL-37_Los.jpg/220px-PZL-37_Los.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="95" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="259"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 95px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/PZL-37_Los.jpg/220px-PZL-37_Los.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="95" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/PZL-37_Los.jpg/330px-PZL-37_Los.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/PZL-37_Los.jpg/440px-PZL-37_Los.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/PZL.37_%C5%81o%C5%9B" title="PZL.37 Łoś">PZL.37 Łoś</a> was a Polish twin-engine <a href="/wiki/Medium_bomber" title="Medium bomber">medium bomber</a>.</figcaption></figure> Interwar Poland had a large army of 270,000 soldiers on active duty: in 37 infantry divisions, 11 cavalry brigades, and two armored brigades, plus artillery units. Another 700,000 men served in the reserves. At the outbreak of the war, the Polish Army was able to put in the field almost one million soldiers, 4,300 guns, around 1,000 armored vehicles including in between 200 and 300 tanks (the majority of the armored vehicles were outclassed <a href="/wiki/Tankette" title="Tankette">tankettes</a>) and 745 aircraft (however, only around 450 of them were bombers and fighters available to fight as of 1 September 1939).<a href="#cite_note-Williamson2011-34">[27]</a> The training of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish_Army" title="History of the Polish Army">Polish Army</a> was thorough. The <a href="/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer" title="Non-commissioned officer">non-commissioned officers</a> were a competent body of men with expert knowledge and high ideals. The officers, both senior and junior, constantly refreshed their training in the field and in the lecture hall, where modern technical achievement and the lessons of contemporary wars were demonstrated and discussed. The equipment of the Polish Army was less developed technically than that of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and its rearmament was slowed by confidence in Western European military support and by budget difficulties.<a href="#cite_note-35">[28]</a> The Polish command system at the level of the entire Polish military and the armies was obsolete. The generals in command of armies had to ask permission from the high command. The Polish military attempted to organize fronts made of <a href="/wiki/Army_group" title="Army group">army groups</a> only when it was already too late during the Polish Defensive War in 1939. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Economy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg/170px-Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3451"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 244px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg/170px-Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="244" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg/255px-Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg/340px-Polish_pavilion_Paris_1937.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Polish pavilion at <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne" title="Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne">Expo 1937</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poland_NYC_1939.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Poland_NYC_1939.jpg/170px-Poland_NYC_1939.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="791"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 231px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Poland_NYC_1939.jpg/170px-Poland_NYC_1939.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="231" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Poland_NYC_1939.jpg/255px-Poland_NYC_1939.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Poland_NYC_1939.jpg/340px-Poland_NYC_1939.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Polish pavilion at the <a href="/wiki/1939_World%27s_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="1939 World's Fair">1939 World's Fair</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> </figcaption></figure> After regaining its independence, Poland was faced with major economic difficulties. In addition to the devastation brought by the First World War, the exploitation of the Polish economy by the German and Russian occupying powers, and the sabotage performed by retreating armies, the new republic was faced with the task of economically unifying disparate economic regions, which had previously been part of different countries and different empires.<a href="#cite_note-wolf-36">[29]</a> Within the borders of the Republic were the remnants of three different economic systems, with five different currencies (the <a href="/wiki/German_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="German mark">German mark</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ruble" title="Ruble">Imperial Russian rouble</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_krone" title="Austrian krone">Austrian krone</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_marka" title="Polish marka">Polish marka</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German_ostrubel" title="German ostrubel">Ostrubel</a>)<a href="#cite_note-wolf-36">[29]</a> and with little or no direct infrastructural links. The situation was so bad that neighbouring industrial centres, as well as major cities, lacked direct <a href="/wiki/Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway">railway</a> links because they had been parts of different jurisdictions and different empires. For example, there was no direct railway connection between Warsaw and <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> until 1934. This situation was described by <a href="/wiki/Melchior_Wa%C5%84kowicz" title="Melchior Wańkowicz">Melchior Wańkowicz</a> in his book <a href="/wiki/Sztafeta" title="Sztafeta">Sztafeta</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In addition to this was the massive destruction left after both the First World War and the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a>. There was also a great economic disparity between the <a href="/wiki/Kresy_Wschodnie" class="mw-redirect" title="Kresy Wschodnie">eastern</a> (commonly called Poland B) and western (called Poland A) parts of the country, with the western half, especially areas that had belonged to <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, being much more developed and prosperous. Frequent border closures and a <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_customs_war" title="German–Polish customs war">customs war</a> with <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> also had negative economic impacts on Poland. In 1924, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Grabski" title="Władysław Grabski">Władysław Grabski</a>, who was also the Economic Minister, introduced the <a href="/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty" title="Polish złoty">złoty</a> as a single common currency for Poland (replacing the marka), which remained a stable currency. The currency helped Poland to control the massive <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a>. It was the only country in Europe able to do this without foreign loans or aid.<a href="#cite_note-onet-37">[30]</a> The average annual growth rate (<a href="/wiki/GDP_per_capita" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP per capita">GDP per capita</a>) was 5.24% in 1920–29 and 0.34% in 1929–38.<a href="#cite_note-Broadberry-38">[31]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:0em 0.5em 0.5em 1.5em; font-size:85%;"> <caption>GDP per capita <a href="#cite_note-Broadberry-38">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maddison-39">[32]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Geary%E2%80%93Khamis_dollar" class="mw-redirect" title="Geary–Khamis dollar">Int$.</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1922</td> <td>1,382 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1929</td> <td>2,117 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1930</td> <td>1,994 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1931</td> <td>1,823 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1932</td> <td>1,658 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1933</td> <td>1,590 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1934</td> <td>1,593 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1935</td> <td>1,597 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1936</td> <td>1,626 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1937</td> <td>1,915 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1938</td> <td>2,182 </td></tr></tbody></table> Hostile relations with neighbours were a major problem for the economy of interbellum Poland. In the year 1937, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign trade">foreign trade</a> with all neighbours amounted to only 21% of Poland's total. Trade with Germany, Poland's most important neighbour, accounted for 14.3% of Polish exchange. Foreign trade with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (0.8%) was virtually nonexistent. <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> accounted for 3.9%, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> for 0.3%, and <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> for 0.8%. By mid-1938, after the <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a> with <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Germany">Greater Germany</a> was responsible for as much as 23% of Polish foreign trade.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_(81562876)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_%2881562876%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_%2881562876%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5051" data-file-height="3189"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 139px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_%2881562876%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_%2881562876%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="139" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_%2881562876%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_%2881562876%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_%2881562876%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-M.S_%22Batory%22._1937-1939_%2881562876%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Poland's <a href="/wiki/MS_Batory" title="MS Batory">MS Batory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Gdynia" title="Port of Gdynia">sea port</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a>, ca 1937-1939</figcaption></figure> Piłsudski's regime followed the conservative free-market economic tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> throughout its existence. Poland had one of the lowest taxation rates in Europe, with 9.3% of taxes as a distribution of national income. Piłsudski's regime was also heavily dependent on foreign investments and economies, with 45.4% of Polish equity capital controlled by foreign corporations. After the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, the Polish economy crumbled and failed to recover until <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Mo%C5%9Bcicki" title="Ignacy Mościcki">Ignacy Mościcki</a>'s government introduced economic reforms with more government interventions with an increase in tax revenues and public spending after Piłsudski's death. These interventionist policies saw Poland's economy recover from the recession.<a href="#cite_note-40">[33]</a> The basis of Poland's gradual recovery after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> was the mass economic development plans of the new government (see <a href="/wiki/Four_Year_Plan_(Poland)" title="Four Year Plan (Poland)">Four Year Plan</a>) under economist <a href="/wiki/Eugeniusz_Kwiatkowski" title="Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski">Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski</a>, which oversaw the building of three key infrastructural elements. The first was the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a> seaport, which allowed Poland to completely bypass <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Gdańsk</a> (which was under heavy German pressure to boycott Polish coal exports). The second was construction of the 500-kilometre rail connection between <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a> and Gdynia, called the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Coal_Trunk-Line" title="Polish Coal Trunk-Line">Polish Coal Trunk-Line</a>, which served freight trains with coal. The third was the creation of a central industrial district named COP – <a href="/wiki/Centralny_Okr%C4%99g_Przemys%C5%82owy" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy">Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy</a> (<a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>: Central Industrial Region). Unfortunately, these developments were interrupted and largely destroyed by the German and Soviet invasion and the start of the Second World War.<a href="#cite_note-AHP-41">[34]</a> Other achievements of interbellum Poland included <a href="/wiki/Stalowa_Wola" title="Stalowa Wola">Stalowa Wola</a> (a brand new city, built in a forest around a steel mill), <a href="/wiki/Mo%C5%9Bcice" title="Mościce">Mościce</a> (now a district of <a href="/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w" title="Tarnów">Tarnów</a>, with a large nitrate factory), and the creation of the central bank <a href="/wiki/Bank_Polski_SA" title="Bank Polski SA">Bank Polski SA</a>. There were several trade fairs, with the most popular being <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_International_Fair" title="Poznań International Fair">Poznań International Fair</a>, Lwów's <a href="/wiki/Targi_Wschodnie" class="mw-redirect" title="Targi Wschodnie">Targi Wschodnie</a>, and Wilno's <a href="/wiki/Targi_P%C3%B3%C5%82nocne" title="Targi Północne">Targi Północne</a>. <a href="/wiki/Polish_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Radio">Polish Radio</a> had ten stations (see <a href="/wiki/Radio_stations_in_interwar_Poland" title="Radio stations in interwar Poland">Radio stations in interwar Poland</a>), with the eleventh one planned to be opened in the autumn of 1939. Furthermore, in 1935, Polish engineers began working on TV services. By early 1939, experts of the Polish Radio built four TV sets. The first movie broadcast by experimental Polish TV was <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82%C3%B3wna_(film)" title="Barbara Radziwiłłówna (film)">Barbara Radziwiłłówna</a>, and by 1940, a regular TV service was scheduled to begin operation.<a href="#cite_note-42">[35]</a> Interbellum Poland was also a country with numerous social problems. Unemployment was high, and poverty in the countryside was widespread, which resulted in several cases of social unrest, such as the <a href="/wiki/1923_Krak%C3%B3w_riot" title="1923 Kraków riot">1923 Kraków riot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1937_peasant_strike_in_Poland" title="1937 peasant strike in Poland">1937 peasant strike in Poland</a>. There were conflicts with national minorities, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Ukrainians_in_Eastern_Galicia_(1930)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia (1930)">Pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia (1930)</a>, relations with Polish neighbours were sometimes complicated (see <a href="/wiki/Soviet_raid_on_Sto%C5%82pce" title="Soviet raid on Stołpce">Soviet raid on Stołpce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_border_conflicts" title="Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts">Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/1938_Polish_ultimatum_to_Lithuania" title="1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania">1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania</a>). On top of this, there were natural disasters, such as the <a href="/wiki/1934_flood_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="1934 flood in Poland">1934 flood in Poland</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_industrial_centres">Major industrial centres</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Major industrial centres" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg/220px-Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="643"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg/220px-Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg/330px-Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg/440px-Agfacolor_Elektrownia_%C5%81aziska_Polska_1939_Henryk_Podd%C4%99bski.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Coal power station in Łaziska Górne, Silesian Voivodeship in 1939. It was the largest Polish power plant in the years 1927-1953 (<a href="/wiki/Agfacolor" title="Agfacolor">Agfacolor</a>).<a href="#cite_note-43">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[37]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie,_aerial_view_(-1936).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie%2C_aerial_view_%28-1936%29.JPG/220px-Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie%2C_aerial_view_%28-1936%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="95" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1135" data-file-height="488"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 95px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie%2C_aerial_view_%28-1936%29.JPG/220px-Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie%2C_aerial_view_%28-1936%29.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="95" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie%2C_aerial_view_%28-1936%29.JPG/330px-Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie%2C_aerial_view_%28-1936%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie%2C_aerial_view_%28-1936%29.JPG/440px-Targi_Wschodnie_we_Lwowie%2C_aerial_view_%28-1936%29.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Targi_Wschodnie" class="mw-redirect" title="Targi Wschodnie">Eastern Trade Fair</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lwów</a>, 1936</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gdynia_234669023555.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Gdynia_234669023555.jpg/220px-Gdynia_234669023555.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1367" data-file-height="960"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 154px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Gdynia_234669023555.jpg/220px-Gdynia_234669023555.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Gdynia_234669023555.jpg/330px-Gdynia_234669023555.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Gdynia_234669023555.jpg/440px-Gdynia_234669023555.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a>, a modern Polish seaport established in 1926</figcaption></figure> Interbellum Poland was unofficially divided into two parts – better developed "Poland A" in the west, and underdeveloped "Poland B" in the east. Polish industry was concentrated in the west, mostly in Polish <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a>, and the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland" title="Lesser Poland">Lesser Poland</a>'s province of <a href="/wiki/Zag%C5%82%C4%99bie_D%C4%85browskie" class="mw-redirect" title="Zagłębie Dąbrowskie">Zagłębie Dąbrowskie</a>, where the bulk of coal mines and steel plants was located. Furthermore, heavy industry plants were located in <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa" title="Częstochowa">Częstochowa</a> (Huta Częstochowa, founded in 1896), <a href="/wiki/Ostrowiec_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tokrzyski" title="Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski">Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski</a> (Huta Ostrowiec, founded in 1837–1839), <a href="/wiki/Stalowa_Wola" title="Stalowa Wola">Stalowa Wola</a> (brand new industrial city, which was built from scratch in 1937 – 1938), <a href="/wiki/Chrzan%C3%B3w" title="Chrzanów">Chrzanów</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fablok" title="Fablok">Fablok</a>, founded in 1919), <a href="/wiki/Jaworzno" title="Jaworzno">Jaworzno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trzebinia" title="Trzebinia">Trzebinia</a> (oil refinery, opened in 1895), <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a> (the seat of Polish textile industry), <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a> (<a href="/wiki/H._Cegielski_%E2%80%93_Pozna%C5%84" title="H. Cegielski – Poznań">H. Cegielski – Poznań</a>), Kraków and Warsaw (<a href="/wiki/Ursus_Factory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ursus Factory">Ursus Factory</a>). Further east, in <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a>, industrial centres included two major cities of the region – <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lwów</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilno" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno">Wilno</a> (<a href="/wiki/Elektrit" title="Elektrit">Elektrit</a>).<a href="#cite_note-liberte.pl-45">[38]</a> Besides coal mining, Poland also had deposits of oil in <a href="/wiki/Boryslav" title="Boryslav">Borysław</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drohobych" title="Drohobych">Drohobycz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jas%C5%82o" title="Jasło">Jasło</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorlice" title="Gorlice">Gorlice</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Polmin" title="Polmin">Polmin</a>), potassium salt (<a href="/wiki/TESP_(company)" title="TESP (company)">TESP</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bazaltove" class="mw-redirect" title="Bazaltove">Janowa Dolina</a>). Apart from already-existing industrial areas, in the mid-1930s an ambitious, state-sponsored project called the <a href="/wiki/Central_Industrial_Region_(Poland)" title="Central Industrial Region (Poland)">Central Industrial Region</a> was started under Minister <a href="/wiki/Eugeniusz_Kwiatkowski" title="Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski">Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski</a>. One of the characteristic features of the Polish economy in the interbellum was the gradual nationalisation of major plants. This was the case for the <a href="/wiki/Ursus_Factory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ursus Factory">Ursus Factory</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Pa%C5%84stwowe_Zak%C5%82ady_In%C5%BCynieryjne" class="mw-redirect" title="Państwowe Zakłady Inżynieryjne">Państwowe Zakłady Inżynieryjne</a>) and several steelworks, such as Huta Pokój in <a href="/wiki/Ruda_%C5%9Al%C4%85ska" title="Ruda Śląska">Ruda Śląska</a> – Nowy Bytom, Huta Królewska in <a href="/wiki/Chorz%C3%B3w" title="Chorzów">Chorzów</a> – Królewska Huta, Huta Laura in <a href="/wiki/Siemianowice_%C5%9Al%C4%85skie" title="Siemianowice Śląskie">Siemianowice Śląskie</a>, as well as Scheibler and Grohman Works in Łódź.<a href="#cite_note-liberte.pl-45">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Transport" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg/300px-WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="984"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 231px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg/300px-WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="231" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg/450px-WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg/600px-WWII-Poland-1939-communications_and_industry.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Industry and communications in Poland before the start of the Second World War</figcaption></figure> According to the 1939 Statistical Yearbook of Poland, the total length of the railways in Poland (as of 31 December 1937) was 20,118 km (12,501 mi). Rail density was 5.2 km (3.2 mi) per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). Railways were very dense in the western part of the country, while in the east, especially <a href="/wiki/Polesie" class="mw-redirect" title="Polesie">Polesie</a>, rail was non-existent in some counties. During the interbellum period, the Polish Government constructed several new lines, mainly in the central part of the country (see also <a href="/wiki/Polish_State_Railroads_Summer_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish State Railroads Summer 1939">Polish State Railroads Summer 1939</a>). Construction of the extensive <a href="/wiki/Warszawa_G%C5%82%C3%B3wna_railway_station" title="Warszawa Główna railway station">Warszawa Główna railway station</a> was never finished due to the war, while Polish railways were famous for their punctuality (see <a href="/wiki/Luxtorpeda" title="Luxtorpeda">Luxtorpeda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strza%C5%82a_Ba%C5%82tyku" title="Strzała Bałtyku">Strzała Bałtyku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lataj%C4%85cy_Wilnianin" title="Latający Wilnianin">Latający Wilnianin</a>). In the interbellum, the road network of Poland was dense, but the quality of the roads was very poor – only 7% of all roads were paved and ready for automobile use, and none of the major cities were connected with each other by a good-quality highway. In 1939 the Poles built only one highway: 28 km of straight concrete road connecting the villages of Warlubie and Osiek (mid-northern Poland). It was designed by Italian engineer Piero Puricelli. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CWS_T-1_torpedo_(replika)_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/CWS_T-1_torpedo_%28replika%29_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG/220px-CWS_T-1_torpedo_%28replika%29_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4018" data-file-height="2682"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/CWS_T-1_torpedo_%28replika%29_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG/220px-CWS_T-1_torpedo_%28replika%29_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/CWS_T-1_torpedo_%28replika%29_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG/330px-CWS_T-1_torpedo_%28replika%29_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/CWS_T-1_torpedo_%28replika%29_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG/440px-CWS_T-1_torpedo_%28replika%29_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/CWS_T-1" title="CWS T-1">CWS T-1</a> Torpedo was the first serially-built car manufactured in Poland.</figcaption></figure> In the mid-1930s, Poland had 340,000 km (211,266 mi) of roads, but only 58,000 had a hard surface (gravel, <a href="/wiki/Cobblestone" title="Cobblestone">cobblestone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sett_(paving)" title="Sett (paving)">sett</a>), and 2,500 were modern, with an asphalt or concrete surface. In different parts of the country, there were sections of paved roads, which suddenly ended, and were followed by dirt roads.<a href="#cite_note-polityka-46">[39]</a> The poor condition of the roads was the result of both long-lasting foreign dominance and inadequate funding. On 29 January 1931, the Polish Parliament created the State Road Fund, the purpose of which was to collect money for the construction and conservation of roads. The government drafted a 10-year plan, with road priorities: a highway from Wilno, through Warsaw and Kraków, to <a href="/wiki/Zakopane" title="Zakopane">Zakopane</a> (called Marshal Piłsudski Highway), asphalt highways from Warsaw to Poznań and Łódź, as well as a Warsaw ring road. However, the plan turned out to be too ambitious, with insufficient money in the national budget to pay for it. In January 1938, the Polish Road Congress estimated that Poland would need to spend three times as much money on roads to keep up with <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>. In 1939, before the outbreak of the war, <a href="/wiki/LOT_Polish_Airlines" title="LOT Polish Airlines">LOT Polish Airlines</a>, which was established in 1929, had its hub at <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Chopin_Airport" title="Warsaw Chopin Airport">Warsaw Okęcie Airport</a>. At that time, LOT maintained several services, both domestic and international. Warsaw had regular domestic connections with <a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a>-<a href="/wiki/Rumia" title="Rumia">Rumia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Danzig</a>-<a href="/wiki/Wrzeszcz" title="Wrzeszcz">Langfuhr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katowice-Muchowiec_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Katowice-Muchowiec Airport">Katowice-Muchowiec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w-Rakowice-Czy%C5%BCyny_Airport" title="Kraków-Rakowice-Czyżyny Airport">Kraków-Rakowice-Czyżyny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lviv_Danylo_Halytskyi_International_Airport" title="Lviv Danylo Halytskyi International Airport">Lwów-Skniłów</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84%E2%80%93%C5%81awica_Airport" title="Poznań–Ławica Airport">Poznań-Ławica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Wilno-Porubanek</a>. Furthermore, in cooperation with <a href="/wiki/Air_France" title="Air France">Air France</a>, <a href="/wiki/TAROM" title="TAROM">LARES</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lufthansa" title="Lufthansa">Lufthansa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malert" title="Malert">Malert</a>, international connections were maintained with <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaunas" title="Kaunas">Kaunas</a>, London, Paris, <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>, Rome, <a href="/wiki/Tallinn" title="Tallinn">Tallinn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zagreb" title="Zagreb">Zagreb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ministerstwa-47">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Agriculture" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg/170px-Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="716"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 216px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg/170px-Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="216" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg/255px-Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg/340px-Libiaz-zniwa1938.a.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Manual harvesting in Żarki, Lesser Poland Voivodeship in August 1938 (Agfacolor).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg/170px-PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 227px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg/170px-PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="227" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg/255px-PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg/340px-PL_Ursus_Ci%C4%85g%C3%B3wka.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ciągówka Ursus was the first Polish farm tractor, produced from 1922 to 1927 in the <a href="/wiki/Ursus_Factory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ursus Factory">Ursus Factory</a>.</figcaption></figure> Statistically, the majority of citizens lived in the countryside (75% in 1921). Farmers made up 65% of the population. In 1929, agricultural production made up 65% of Poland's GNP.<a href="#cite_note-lex-48">[41]</a> After 123 years of partitions, regions of the country were very unevenly developed. The lands of the former <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> were the most advanced; in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland" title="Greater Poland">Greater Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pomerelia" title="Pomerelia">Pomerelia</a>, farming and crops were on a Western European level.<a href="#cite_note-onet1-49">[42]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] The situation was much worse in parts of <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Borderlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Borderlands">Eastern Borderlands</a>, and what was formerly <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a>, where agriculture was quite backward and primitive, with a large number of small farms, unable to succeed in either the domestic or international market. Another problem was the overpopulation of the countryside, which resulted in chronic unemployment. Living conditions were so bad in several eastern regions, such as the counties inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Hutsul" class="mw-redirect" title="Hutsul">Hutsul</a> minority, that there was permanent starvation.<a href="#cite_note-przeglad-tygodnik-50">[43]</a> Farmers rebelled against the government (see: <a href="/wiki/1937_peasant_strike_in_Poland" title="1937 peasant strike in Poland">1937 peasant strike in Poland</a>), and the situation began to change in the late 1930s, due to the construction of several factories for the <a href="/wiki/Central_Industrial_Region_(Poland)" title="Central Industrial Region (Poland)">Central Industrial Region</a>, which gave employment to thousands of rural and small town residents. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_trade">German trade</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: German trade" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Beginning in June 1925, there was a customs' war, with the <a href="/wiki/Revanchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Revanchist">revanchist</a> Weimar Republic <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_customs_war" title="German–Polish customs war">imposing a trade embargo against Poland</a> for nearly a decade; it involved tariffs and broad economic restrictions. After 1933 the trade war ended. The new agreements regulated and promoted trade. Germany became Poland's largest trading partner, followed by Britain. In October 1938, Germany granted a credit of 60,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Reichsmark" title="Reichsmark">RM</a> to Poland (120,000,000 zloty, or <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">£</a>4,800,000) which was never realised, due to the outbreak of war. Germany would deliver factory equipment and machinery in return for Polish timber and agricultural produce. This new trade was to be in addition to the existing German-Polish trade agreements.<a href="#cite_note-biznes-51">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[45]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Education_and_culture">Education and culture</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Education and culture" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_culture_in_the_Interbellum" title="Polish culture in the Interbellum">Polish culture in the Interbellum</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg/180px-Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="273" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="2659"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 273px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg/180px-Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="273" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg/270px-Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg/360px-Kazimierz_Bartel_1929.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Poland" title="Prime Minister of Poland">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Bartel" title="Kazimierz Bartel">Kazimierz Bartel</a>, also a scholar and mathematician</figcaption></figure> In 1919, the Polish government <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Second_Polish_Republic" title="Education in the Second Polish Republic">introduced compulsory education</a> for all children aged 7 to 14, in an effort to limit illiteracy, which was widespread, especially in the former <a href="/wiki/Russian_Partition" title="Russian Partition">Russian Partition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Partition" title="Austrian Partition">Austrian Partition</a> of eastern Poland. In 1921, one-third of citizens of Poland remained illiterate (38% in the countryside). The process was slow, but by 1931 the illiteracy level had dropped to 23% overall (27% in the countryside) and further down to 18% in 1937. By 1939, over 90% of children attended school.<a href="#cite_note-liberte.pl-45">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies175-53">[46]</a> In 1932, <a href="/wiki/Janusz_J%C4%99drzejewicz" title="Janusz Jędrzejewicz">Janusz Jędrzejewicz</a>, the Minister for Religion and Education, carried out <a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzejewicz_reform" title="Jędrzejewicz reform">a major reform</a> which introduced two main levels of education: common school (szkoła powszechna), with three levels – 4 grades + 2 grades + 1 grade; and middle school (szkoła średnia), with two levels – 4 grades of comprehensive middle school and 2 grades of specified high school (classical, humanistic, natural and mathematical). A graduate of middle school received a small <a href="/wiki/Matura" title="Matura">matura</a>, while a graduate of high school received a big matura, which enabled them to seek university-level education. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warsaw_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Warsaw_1938.jpg/200px-Warsaw_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="136" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4946" data-file-height="3366"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 136px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Warsaw_1938.jpg/200px-Warsaw_1938.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="136" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Warsaw_1938.jpg/300px-Warsaw_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Warsaw_1938.jpg/400px-Warsaw_1938.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_in_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum in Warsaw">National Museum in Warsaw</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Muzeum Narodowe w Warszawie) opened in 1938.</figcaption></figure> Before 1918, Poland had three universities: <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_University" title="Jagiellonian University">Jagiellonian University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Warsaw" title="University of Warsaw">University of Warsaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lviv_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Lviv University">Lwów University</a>. The <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_II_Catholic_University_of_Lublin" title="John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin">Catholic University of Lublin</a> was established in 1918; <a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Adam Mickiewicz University">Adam Mickiewicz University</a>, Poznań, in 1919; and finally, in 1922, after the annexation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Central_Lithuania" title="Republic of Central Lithuania">Republic of Central Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_University" title="Vilnius University">Wilno University</a> became the Republic's sixth university. There were also three <a href="/wiki/Technical_college" class="mw-redirect" title="Technical college">technical colleges</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_University_of_Technology" title="Warsaw University of Technology">Warsaw University of Technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lviv_Polytechnic" title="Lviv Polytechnic">Lwów Polytechnic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/AGH_University_of_Science_and_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="AGH University of Science and Technology">AGH University of Science and Technology</a> in Kraków, established in 1919. <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_University_of_Life_Sciences" title="Warsaw University of Life Sciences">Warsaw University of Life Sciences</a> was an agricultural institute. By 1939, there were around 50,000 students enrolled in further education. 28% of students at universities were women, which was the second highest share in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-54">[47]</a> Polish science in the interbellum was renowned for its mathematicians gathered around the <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_School_of_Mathematics" title="Lwów School of Mathematics">Lwów School of Mathematics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_School_of_Mathematics" title="Kraków School of Mathematics">Kraków School of Mathematics</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_School_of_Mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw School of Mathematics">Warsaw School of Mathematics</a>. There were world-class philosophers in the <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w%E2%80%93Warsaw_school" title="Lwów–Warsaw school">Lwów–Warsaw school</a> of logic and philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-GaNeSt-55">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Florian_Znaniecki" title="Florian Znaniecki">Florian Znaniecki</a> founded Polish sociological studies. <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Weigl" title="Rudolf Weigl">Rudolf Weigl</a> invented a vaccine against typhus. <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a> counted among the most important anthropologists of the 20th century. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rejewski%26Rozycki%26Zygalski.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Rejewski%26Rozycki%26Zygalski.jpg/350px-Rejewski%26Rozycki%26Zygalski.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="148" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="211"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 148px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Rejewski%26Rozycki%26Zygalski.jpg/350px-Rejewski%26Rozycki%26Zygalski.jpg" data-width="350" data-height="148" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Rejewski%26Rozycki%26Zygalski.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marian_Rejewski" title="Marian Rejewski">Marian Rejewski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_R%C3%B3%C5%BCycki" title="Jerzy Różycki">Jerzy Różycki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Zygalski" title="Henryk Zygalski">Henryk Zygalski</a>, Polish <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cryptologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptologist">cryptologists</a> who worked at breaking the German <a href="/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma ciphers</a> before and during the Second World War</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Polish_literature" title="Polish literature">Polish literature</a>, the 1920s were marked by the domination of poetry. Polish poets were divided into two groups – the <a href="/wiki/Skamander" title="Skamander">Skamanderites</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jan_Lecho%C5%84" title="Jan Lechoń">Jan Lechoń</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Tuwim" title="Julian Tuwim">Julian Tuwim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoni_S%C5%82onimski" title="Antoni Słonimski">Antoni Słonimski</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jaros%C5%82aw_Iwaszkiewicz" title="Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz">Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurists</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anatol_Stern" title="Anatol Stern">Anatol Stern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Jasie%C5%84ski" title="Bruno Jasieński">Bruno Jasieński</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Wat" title="Aleksander Wat">Aleksander Wat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Przybo%C5%9B" title="Julian Przyboś">Julian Przyboś</a>). Apart from well-established novelists (<a href="/wiki/Stefan_%C5%BBeromski" title="Stefan Żeromski">Stefan Żeromski</a>, <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont" title="Władysław Reymont">Władysław Reymont</a>), new names appeared in the interbellum – <a href="/wiki/Zofia_Na%C5%82kowska" title="Zofia Nałkowska">Zofia Nałkowska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maria_D%C4%85browska" title="Maria Dąbrowska">Maria Dąbrowska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaros%C5%82aw_Iwaszkiewicz" title="Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz">Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Parandowski" title="Jan Parandowski">Jan Parandowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Schultz" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruno Schultz">Bruno Schultz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ignacy_Witkiewicz" title="Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz">Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witold_Gombrowicz" title="Witold Gombrowicz">Witold Gombrowicz</a>. Among other notable artists there were sculptor <a href="/wiki/Xawery_Dunikowski" title="Xawery Dunikowski">Xawery Dunikowski</a>, painters <a href="/wiki/Julian_Fa%C5%82at" title="Julian Fałat">Julian Fałat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Kossak" title="Wojciech Kossak">Wojciech Kossak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacek_Malczewski" title="Jacek Malczewski">Jacek Malczewski</a>, composers <a href="/wiki/Karol_Szymanowski" title="Karol Szymanowski">Karol Szymanowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feliks_Nowowiejski" title="Feliks Nowowiejski">Feliks Nowowiejski</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Artur_Rubinstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Artur Rubinstein">Artur Rubinstein</a>, singer <a href="/wiki/Jan_Kiepura" title="Jan Kiepura">Jan Kiepura</a>. Theatre was immensely popular in the interbellum, with three main centres in the cities of Warsaw, Wilno and Lwów. Altogether, there were 103 theatres in Poland and a number of other theatrical institutions (including 100 folk theatres). In 1936, different shows were seen by 5 million people, and main figures of Polish theatre of the time were <a href="/wiki/Juliusz_Osterwa" title="Juliusz Osterwa">Juliusz Osterwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Jaracz" title="Stefan Jaracz">Stefan Jaracz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leon_Schiller" title="Leon Schiller">Leon Schiller</a>. Also, before the outbreak of the war, there were approximately one million radios (see <a href="/wiki/Radio_stations_in_interwar_Poland" title="Radio stations in interwar Poland">Radio stations in interwar Poland</a>). </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Administrative divisions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_division_of_the_Second_Polish_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative division of the Second Polish Republic">Administrative division of the Second Polish Republic</a></div> The administrative division of the Second Republic was based on a three-tier system, referring to the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_division_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>. On the lowest rung were the <a href="/wiki/Gmina" title="Gmina">gminy</a>, local town and village governments akin to districts or parishes. These were then grouped together into <a href="/wiki/Powiat" title="Powiat">powiaty</a> (akin to counties), which, in turn, were grouped as województwa (<a href="/wiki/Voivodeship" title="Voivodeship">voivodeships</a>, akin to provinces). This administrative system passed into the modern Third Polish Republic. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png/220px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4286"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 236px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png/220px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="236" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png/330px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png/440px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1930.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Administrative map of Poland (1930)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png/220px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4286"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 236px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png/220px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="236" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png/330px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png/440px-PolishRepublicAdminMap1939.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Administrative Map in 1939 showing April 1938 voivodeship revisions, reclaimed <a href="/wiki/Trans-Olza" title="Trans-Olza">Trans-Olza</a> and Slovak border changes</div></div></div></div></div> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:94%"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="6" style="background:#efefef;text-align:center;">Polish voivodeships (1 April 1937) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#f7f7f7;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Car_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Car plate">Car plates</a> (starting 1937) </th> <th>Voivodeship or city </th> <th>Capital </th> <th>Area (1930) in 1,000s km2 </th> <th>Population (1931) in 1,000s </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center">00–19</td> <td>City of Warsaw</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> </td> <td align="right">0.14</td> <td align="right">1,179.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">85–89</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw Voivodeship (1919–39)">warszawskie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> </td> <td align="right">31.7</td> <td align="right">2,460.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">20–24</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Białystok Voivodeship (1919–39)">białostockie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a> </td> <td align="right">26.0</td> <td align="right">1,263.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">25–29</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kielce_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kielce Voivodeship (1919–39)">kieleckie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kielce" title="Kielce">Kielce</a> </td> <td align="right">22.2</td> <td align="right">2,671.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">30–34</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="Kraków Voivodeship (1919–1939)">krakowskie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> </td> <td align="right">17.6</td> <td align="right">2,300.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">35–39</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lublin Voivodeship (1919–39)">lubelskie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> </td> <td align="right">26.6</td> <td align="right">2,116.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">40–44</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Lwów Voivodeship">lwowskie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lwów</a> </td> <td align="right">28.4</td> <td align="right">3,126.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">45–49</td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Łódź Voivodeship (1919–39)">łódzkie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a> </td> <td align="right">20.4</td> <td align="right">2,650.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">50–54</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nowogr%C3%B3dek_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nowogródek Voivodeship (1919–39)">nowogródzkie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Novogrudok" title="Novogrudok">Nowogródek</a> </td> <td align="right">23.0</td> <td align="right">1,057.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">55–59</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Polesie_Voivodeship" title="Polesie Voivodeship">poleskie</a> (Polesia)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brest,_Belarus" title="Brest, Belarus">Brześć nad Bugiem</a> </td> <td align="right">36.7</td> <td align="right">1,132.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">60–64</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomeranian Voivodeship (1919–39)">pomorskie</a> (Pomeranian)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toru%C5%84" title="Toruń">Toruń</a> </td> <td align="right">25.7</td> <td align="right">1,884.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">65–69</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1921%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poznań Voivodeship (1921–39)">poznańskie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a> </td> <td align="right">28.1</td> <td align="right">2,339.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">70–74</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Stanisławów Voivodeship">stanisławowskie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ivano-Frankivsk" title="Ivano-Frankivsk">Stanisławów</a> </td> <td align="right">16.9</td> <td align="right">1,480.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">75–79</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship_(1920%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Silesian Voivodeship (1920–39)">śląskie</a> (Silesian)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Katowice" title="Katowice">Katowice</a> </td> <td align="right">5.1</td> <td align="right">1,533.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">80–84</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tarnopol_Voivodeship" title="Tarnopol Voivodeship">tarnopolskie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ternopil" title="Ternopil">Tarnopol</a> </td> <td align="right">16.5</td> <td align="right">1,600.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">90–94</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wilno_Voivodeship_(1926%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno Voivodeship (1926–39)">wileńskie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Wilno</a> </td> <td align="right">29.0</td> <td align="right">1,276.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">95–99</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1921%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)">wołyńskie</a> (Volhynian)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lutsk" title="Lutsk">Łuck</a> </td> <td align="right">35.7</td> <td align="right">2,085.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">The borders of several western and central voivodeships <a href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Polish_Voivodeships_on_1_April_1938" title="Territorial changes of Polish Voivodeships on 1 April 1938">were revised on 1 April 1938</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Demographics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Percent_Polish_1931_census.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Percent_Polish_1931_census.png/220px-Percent_Polish_1931_census.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1868" data-file-height="2148"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 253px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Percent_Polish_1931_census.png/220px-Percent_Polish_1931_census.png" data-width="220" data-height="253" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Percent_Polish_1931_census.png/330px-Percent_Polish_1931_census.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Percent_Polish_1931_census.png/440px-Percent_Polish_1931_census.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>% of ethnic Poles by voivodeship according to the 1931 census</figcaption></figure> Historically, Poland was almost always a multiethnic country. This was especially true for the Second Republic, when independence was once again achieved in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a>, the latter war being officially ended by the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Riga" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Riga">Peace of Riga</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Polish_census_of_1921" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish census of 1921">census of 1921</a> shows 30.8% of the population consisted of ethnic minorities,<a href="#cite_note-MJ-56">[49]</a> compared with a share of 1.6% (solely identifying with a non-Polish ethnic group) or 3.8% (including those identifying with both the Polish ethnicity and with another ethnic group) in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-stat-57">[50]</a> The first spontaneous flight of about 500,000 Poles from the Soviet Union occurred during the reconstitution of sovereign Poland. In the second wave, between November 1919 and June 1924, some 1,200,000 people left the territory of the USSR for Poland. It is estimated that some 460,000 of them spoke Polish as the first language.<a href="#cite_note-ePWN-58">[51]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/1931_Polish_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="1931 Polish Census">1931 Polish Census</a>: 69% of the population was Polish, 14% were Ukrainian, around 10% Jewish, 3% Belarusian, 2% German and 3% other, including Lithuanian, Czech, Armenian, Russian, and Romani. The situation of minorities was a complex subject and changed during the period.<a href="#cite_note-Davies-23">[16]</a> Poland was also a nation of many religions. In 1921, 16,057,229 Poles (approx. 62.5%) were <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman (Latin) Catholics</a>, 3,031,057 citizens of Poland (approx. 11.8%) were <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Rite_Catholic_Churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Rite Catholic Churches">Eastern Rite Catholics</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church">Ukrainian Greek Catholics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church" title="Armenian Catholic Church">Armenian Rite Catholics</a>), 2,815,817 (approx. 10.95%) were <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a>, 2,771,949 (approx. 10.8%) were Jewish, and 940,232 (approx. 3.7%) were Protestants (mostly <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a>).<a href="#cite_note-PSL-59">[52]</a> By 1931, Poland had the second largest Jewish population in the world, with one-fifth of all the world's Jews residing within its borders (approx. 3,136,000).<a href="#cite_note-MJ-56">[49]</a> The urban population of interbellum Poland was rising steadily; in 1921, only 24% of Poles lived in the cities, in the late 1930s, that proportion grew to 30%. In more than a decade, the population of Warsaw grew by 200,000, Łódź by 150,000, and Poznań – by 100,000. This was due not only to internal migration, but also to an extremely high birth rate.<a href="#cite_note-liberte.pl-45">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Largest_cities_in_the_Second_Polish_Republic">Largest cities in the Second Polish Republic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Largest cities in the Second Polish Republic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg/220px-Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="995"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 232px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg/220px-Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="232" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg/330px-Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg/440px-Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Poland's population density in 1930</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg/220px-GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2152" data-file-height="2796"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 286px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg/220px-GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="286" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg/330px-GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg/440px-GUS_languages1931_Poland.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Contemporary map showing language frequency in 1931 across Poland; red: more than 50% native Polish speakers; green: more than 50% native language other than Polish, including <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian and less frequent others</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg/220px-Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2630" data-file-height="1609"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 135px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg/220px-Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="135" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg/330px-Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg/440px-Artyleria_g%C3%B3rska_II_Brygady_Legion%C3%B3w_Polskich.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Officers from the Second Mountain Brigade of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Legions_in_World_War_I" title="Polish Legions in World War I">Polish Legions in the First World War</a> establishing the Polish-Czechoslovak border; they are pictured near the summit of Popadia in <a href="/wiki/Gorgany" title="Gorgany">Gorgany</a> during the formation of the Second Republic, 1915.</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="3%"> </th> <th width="25%">City </th> <th width="20%">Population </th> <th width="20%">Voivodeship </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center">1</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Warszawa_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Warszawy"><noscript><img alt="Herb Warszawy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/POL_Warszawa_COA.svg/25px-POL_Warszawa_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="42" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1247"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 42px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/POL_Warszawa_COA.svg/25px-POL_Warszawa_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Warszawy" data-width="25" data-height="42" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/POL_Warszawa_COA.svg/38px-POL_Warszawa_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/POL_Warszawa_COA.svg/50px-POL_Warszawa_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a></td> <td align="center">1,289,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw Voivodeship (1919–39)">Warsaw Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">2</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Łodzi"><noscript><img alt="Herb Łodzi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg/25px-POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="32" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="611"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 32px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg/25px-POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Łodzi" data-width="25" data-height="32" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg/38px-POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg/50px-POL_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a></td> <td align="center">672,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Voivodeship" title="Łódź Voivodeship">Łódź Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">3</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Lwowa"><noscript><img alt="Herb Lwowa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg/25px-POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="35" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="1199"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 35px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg/25px-POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Lwowa" data-width="25" data-height="35" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg/38px-POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg/50px-POL_Lw%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lwów</a></td> <td align="center">318,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Lwów Voivodeship">Lwów Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">4</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Poznania"><noscript><img alt="Herb Poznania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg/25px-POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="38" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1134"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 38px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg/25px-POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Poznania" data-width="25" data-height="38" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg/38px-POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg/50px-POL_Pozna%C5%84_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a></td> <td align="center">272,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_Voivodeship" title="Poznań Voivodeship">Poznań Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">5</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Krakowa"><noscript><img alt="Herb Krakowa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg/25px-POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="38" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="766"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 38px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg/25px-POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Krakowa" data-width="25" data-height="38" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg/38px-POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg/50px-POL_Krak%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a></td> <td align="center">259,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="Kraków Voivodeship (1919–1939)">Kraków Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">6</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Wilna"><noscript><img alt="Herb Wilna" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg/24px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="30" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="344" data-file-height="423"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 24px;height: 30px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg/24px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Wilna" data-width="24" data-height="30" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg/37px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg/49px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Vilnius.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Wilno" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno">Wilno</a></td> <td align="center">209,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Wilno_Voivodeship_(1926-1939)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno Voivodeship (1926-1939)">Wilno Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">7</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Bydgoszczy"><noscript><img alt="Herb Bydgoszczy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg/25px-POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="30" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="888"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 30px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg/25px-POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Bydgoszczy" data-width="25" data-height="30" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg/38px-POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg/50px-POL_Bydgoszcz_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Bydgoszcz" title="Bydgoszcz">Bydgoszcz</a></td> <td align="center">141,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_Voivodeship" title="Poznań Voivodeship">Poznań Voivodeship</a> later <a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Pomeranian Voivodeship">Pomeranian Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">8</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_(II_RP).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Częstochowy"><noscript><img alt="Herb Częstochowy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_%28II_RP%29.svg/25px-POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_%28II_RP%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="36" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="238" data-file-height="345"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 36px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_%28II_RP%29.svg/25px-POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_%28II_RP%29.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Częstochowy" data-width="25" data-height="36" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_%28II_RP%29.svg/38px-POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_%28II_RP%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_%28II_RP%29.svg/50px-POL_Cz%C4%99stochowa_COA_%28II_RP%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa" title="Częstochowa">Częstochowa</a></td> <td align="center">138,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Kielce_Voivodeship" title="Kielce Voivodeship">Kielce Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">9</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:Katowice_Herb.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Katowic"><noscript><img alt="Herb Katowic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Katowice_Herb.svg/25px-Katowice_Herb.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="31" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="908"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 31px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Katowice_Herb.svg/25px-Katowice_Herb.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Katowic" data-width="25" data-height="31" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Katowice_Herb.svg/38px-Katowice_Herb.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Katowice_Herb.svg/50px-Katowice_Herb.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Katowice" title="Katowice">Katowice</a></td> <td align="center">134,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship" title="Silesian Voivodeship">Silesian Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">10</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Sosnowca"><noscript><img alt="Herb Sosnowca" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg/25px-POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 40px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg/25px-POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Sosnowca" data-width="25" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg/38px-POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg/50px-POL_Sosnowiec_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Sosnowiec" title="Sosnowiec">Sosnowiec</a></td> <td align="center">130,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Kielce_Voivodeship" title="Kielce Voivodeship">Kielce Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">11</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Chorzowa"><noscript><img alt="Herb Chorzowa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg/25px-POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="839"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 28px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg/25px-POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Chorzowa" data-width="25" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg/38px-POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg/50px-POL_Chorz%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Chorz%C3%B3w" title="Chorzów">Chorzów</a></td> <td align="center">128,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship" title="Silesian Voivodeship">Silesian Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">12</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Lublina"><noscript><img alt="Herb Lublina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg/25px-POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="31" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 31px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg/25px-POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Lublina" data-width="25" data-height="31" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg/38px-POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg/50px-POL_Lublin_COA_1.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a></td> <td align="center">122,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Voivodeship" title="Lublin Voivodeship">Lublin Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">13</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Gdynia_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Gdyni"><noscript><img alt="Herb Gdyni" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/POL_Gdynia_COA.svg/25px-POL_Gdynia_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="29" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="443" data-file-height="518"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 29px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/POL_Gdynia_COA.svg/25px-POL_Gdynia_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Gdyni" data-width="25" data-height="29" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/POL_Gdynia_COA.svg/38px-POL_Gdynia_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/POL_Gdynia_COA.svg/50px-POL_Gdynia_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a></td> <td align="center">120,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Pomeranian Voivodeship">Pomeranian Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">14</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Białegostoku"><noscript><img alt="Herb Białegostoku" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg/25px-POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="31" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 31px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg/25px-POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Białegostoku" data-width="25" data-height="31" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg/38px-POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg/50px-POL_Bia%C5%82ystok_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a></td> <td align="center">107,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="Białystok Voivodeship (1919–1939)">Białystok Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">15</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Kalisza"><noscript><img alt="Herb Kalisza" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg/25px-POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="31" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="871"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 31px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg/25px-POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Kalisza" data-width="25" data-height="31" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg/38px-POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg/50px-POL_Kalisz_COA_1.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Kalisz" title="Kalisz">Kalisz</a></td> <td align="center">81,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Voivodeship" title="Łódź Voivodeship">Łódź Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">16</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:Radom_coa_basic4.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Radomia"><noscript><img alt="Herb Radomia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Radom_coa_basic4.svg/25px-Radom_coa_basic4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="1201"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 40px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Radom_coa_basic4.svg/25px-Radom_coa_basic4.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Radomia" data-width="25" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Radom_coa_basic4.svg/38px-Radom_coa_basic4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Radom_coa_basic4.svg/50px-Radom_coa_basic4.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Radom" title="Radom">Radom</a></td> <td align="center">78,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Kielce_Voivodeship" title="Kielce Voivodeship">Kielce Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">17</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Torunia"><noscript><img alt="Herb Torunia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg/25px-POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="30" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="672"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 30px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg/25px-POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Torunia" data-width="25" data-height="30" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg/38px-POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg/50px-POL_Toru%C5%84_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Toru%C5%84" title="Toruń">Toruń</a></td> <td align="center">62,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Pomeranian Voivodeship">Pomeranian Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">18</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Stanisławowa"><noscript><img alt="Herb Stanisławowa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg/25px-POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="31" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="911"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 31px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg/25px-POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Stanisławowa" data-width="25" data-height="31" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg/38px-POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg/50px-POL_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Iwano-Frankiwsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Iwano-Frankiwsk">Stanisławów</a></td> <td align="center">60,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Stanisławów Voivodeship">Stanisławów Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">19</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Kielc"><noscript><img alt="Herb Kielc" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg/25px-Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="30" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="321" data-file-height="379"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 30px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg/25px-Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Kielc" data-width="25" data-height="30" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg/38px-Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg/50px-Herb_miasta_Kielce.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Kielce" title="Kielce">Kielce</a></td> <td align="center">58,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Kielce_Voivodeship" title="Kielce Voivodeship">Kielce Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">20</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Włocławka"><noscript><img alt="Herb Włocławka" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg/25px-POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="36" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1064"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 36px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg/25px-POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Włocławka" data-width="25" data-height="36" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg/38px-POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg/50px-POL_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek" title="Włocławek">Włocławek</a></td> <td align="center">56,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Pomeranian Voivodeship">Pomeranian Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">21</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Grudziądza"><noscript><img alt="Herb Grudziądza" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg/25px-POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="29" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="865"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 29px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg/25px-POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Grudziądza" data-width="25" data-height="29" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg/38px-POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg/50px-POL_Grudzi%C4%85dz_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Grudzi%C4%85dz" title="Grudziądz">Grudziądz</a></td> <td align="center">54,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Pomeranian Voivodeship">Pomeranian Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">22</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Brześcia nad Bugiem"><noscript><img alt="Herb Brześcia nad Bugiem" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg/25px-POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="30" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="601"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 30px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg/25px-POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Brześcia nad Bugiem" data-width="25" data-height="30" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg/38px-POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg/50px-POL_Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_nad_Bugiem_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Brze%C5%9B%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="Brześć">Brześć nad Bugiem</a></td> <td align="center">51,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Polesie_Voivodeship" title="Polesie Voivodeship">Polesie Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">23</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Piotrkowa Trybunalskiego"><noscript><img alt="Herb Piotrkowa Trybunalskiego" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg/25px-POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="560"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 28px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg/25px-POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Piotrkowa Trybunalskiego" data-width="25" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg/38px-POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg/50px-POL_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski" title="Piotrków Trybunalski">Piotrków Trybunalski</a></td> <td align="center">51,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Voivodeship" title="Łódź Voivodeship">Łódź Voivodeship</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">24</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herb Przemyśla"><noscript><img alt="Herb Przemyśla" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg/25px-POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="35" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="749" data-file-height="1042"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 25px;height: 35px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg/25px-POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg.png" data-alt="Herb Przemyśla" data-width="25" data-height="35" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg/38px-POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg/50px-POL_Przemy%C5%9Bl_COA.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Przemyśl">Przemyśl</a></td> <td align="center">51,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Lwów Voivodeship">Lwów Voivodeship</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prewar_population_density">Prewar population density</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Prewar population density" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <th>Date</th> <th>Population</th> <th>Percentage of rural population</th> <th>Population density (per km2)</th> <th>Ethnic minorities (total) </th></tr> <tr> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/1921_Polish_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="1921 Polish Census">30 September 1921 (census)</a> </td> <td align="center">27,177,000</td> <td align="center">75.4%</td> <td align="center">69.9</td> <td align="center">30,77%<a href="#cite_note-MJ-56">[49]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/1931_Polish_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="1931 Polish Census">9 December 1931 (census)</a> </td> <td align="center">32,348,000</td> <td align="center">72.6%</td> <td align="center">82.6</td> <td align="center">31.09% </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">31 December 1938 (estimate) </td> <td align="center">34,849,000</td> <td align="center">70.0%</td> <td align="center">89.7</td> <td align="center">Upward trend in immigration </td></tr></tbody></table> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Status_of_ethnic_minorities">Status of ethnic minorities</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Status of ethnic minorities" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PL_languages_1931.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/PL_languages_1931.png/220px-PL_languages_1931.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="4160"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 238px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/PL_languages_1931.png/220px-PL_languages_1931.png" data-width="220" data-height="238" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/PL_languages_1931.png/330px-PL_languages_1931.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/PL_languages_1931.png/440px-PL_languages_1931.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Majority language (mother tongue) in Poland in 1931 by county</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jews">Jews</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Jews" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> From the 1920s, the Polish government excluded Jews from receiving government bank loans, public sector employment, and obtaining business licenses. From the 1930s, measures were taken against Jewish shops, Jewish export firms, <a href="/wiki/Shechita" title="Shechita">Shechita</a> as well as limitations being placed on Jewish admission to the medical and legal professions, Jews in business associations and the enrollment of Jews into universities. The political movement <a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Poland)" title="National Democracy (Poland)">National Democracy</a> (Endecja, from the abbreviation "ND") often organised anti-Jewish business boycotts.<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-12">[5]</a> Following the death of <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_Poland" title="Marshal of Poland">Marshal</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a> in 1935, the Endecja intensified their efforts, which triggered violence in extreme cases in smaller towns across the country.<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-12">[5]</a> In 1937, the National Democracy movement passed resolutions that "its main aim and duty must be to remove the Jews from all spheres of social, economic, and cultural life in Poland".<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-12">[5]</a> The government in response organised the <a href="/wiki/Camp_of_National_Unity" title="Camp of National Unity">Camp of National Unity</a> (OZON), which in 1938 took control of the Polish Sejm and subsequently drafted anti-Semitic legislation similar to the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_laws" title="Anti-Jewish laws">Anti-Jewish laws</a> in Germany, Hungary, and Romania. OZON advocated mass emigration of Jews from Poland, <a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus#Poland" title="Numerus clausus">numerus clausus</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a>), and other limitations on Jewish rights. According to <a href="/wiki/William_W._Hagen" title="William W. Hagen">William W. Hagen</a>, by 1939, prior to the war, Polish Jews were threatened with conditions similar to those in Nazi Germany.<a href="#cite_note-journals.uchicago.edu-13">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ukrainians" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The pre-war government also restricted the rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality, belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> and inhabited the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Borderlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Borderlands">Eastern Borderlands</a> of the Second Polish Republic.<a href="#cite_note-60">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skalmowski-14">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Polish_Review-15">[8]</a> Poland refused to grant the Ukrainian minority a <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division" title="Autonomous administrative division">territorial autonomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Potocki-61">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> was restricted in every field possible, especially in governmental institutions, and the term "Ruthenian" was enforced in an attempt to ban the use of the term "Ukrainian".<a href="#cite_note-62">[55]</a> Ukrainians were categorised as uneducated second-class peasants or <a href="/wiki/Third_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Third world">third world</a> people, and rarely settled outside the Eastern Borderland region due to the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Ukrainophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainophobia">Ukrainophobia</a> and restrictions imposed. Numerous attempts at restoring the Ukrainian state were suppressed and any existent violence or terrorism initiated by the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Ukrainian_Nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists">Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists</a> was emphasised to create the image of a "brutal Eastern savage".<a href="#cite_note-63">[56]</a> After 1935, Polish policy towards Ukrainians shifted its focus from state consolidation to the ethnic assimilation of part of the Ukrainian population through <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a> and conversion to <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Roman Catholicism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Potocki-61">[54]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Geography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> The Second Polish Republic was mainly flat with an average elevation of 233 m (764 ft) <a href="/wiki/Above_sea_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Above sea level">above sea level</a>, except for the southernmost <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathian Mountains</a> (after the Second World War and its border changes, the average elevation of Poland decreased to 173 m (568 ft)). Only 13% of territory, along the southern border, was higher than 300 m (980 ft). The highest elevation in the country was <a href="/wiki/Mount_Rysy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Rysy">Mount Rysy</a>, which rises 2,499 m (8,199 ft) in the <a href="/wiki/Tatra_Mountains" title="Tatra Mountains">Tatra Range</a> of the Carpathians, approximately 95 km (59 mi) south of <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>. Between October 1938 and September 1939, the highest elevation was Lodowy Szczyt (known in <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a> as Ľadový štít), which rises 2,627 m (8,619 ft) above sea level. The largest lake was <a href="/wiki/Lake_Narach" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Narach">Lake Narach</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poland1939_physical.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Poland1939_physical.jpg/300px-Poland1939_physical.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="448"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 226px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Poland1939_physical.jpg/300px-Poland1939_physical.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Poland1939_physical.jpg/450px-Poland1939_physical.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Poland1939_physical.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Physical map of the Second Polish Republic</figcaption></figure> The country's total area, after the annexation of Trans-Olza, was 389,720 km2 (150,470 sq mi). It extended 903 km (561 mi) from north to south and 894 km (556 mi) from east to west. On 1 January 1938, total length of boundaries was 5,529 km (3,436 mi), including: 140 km (87 mi) of coastline (out of which 71 km (44 mi) were made by the <a href="/wiki/Hel_Peninsula" title="Hel Peninsula">Hel Peninsula</a>), the 1,412 km (877 mi) with Soviet Union, 948 kilometers with Czechoslovakia (until 1938), 1,912 km (1,188 mi) with Germany (together with <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>), and 1,081 km (672 mi) with other countries (Lithuania, Romania, Latvia, Danzig). The warmest yearly average temperature was in Kraków among major cities of the Second Polish Republic, at 9.1 °C (48.4 °F) in 1938; and the coldest in Wilno (7.6 °C or 45.7 °F in 1938). Extreme geographical points of Poland included Przeświata River in Somino to the north (located in the <a href="/wiki/Braslaw" title="Braslaw">Braslaw</a> county of the <a href="/wiki/Wilno_Voivodeship_(1926%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno Voivodeship (1926–39)">Wilno Voivodeship</a>); Manczin River to the south (located in the <a href="/wiki/Kosiv" title="Kosiv">Kosów</a> county of the <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Stanisławów Voivodeship">Stanisławów Voivodeship</a>); Spasibiorki near railway to Połock to the east (located in the <a href="/wiki/Dzisna" title="Dzisna">Dzisna</a> county of the <a href="/wiki/Wilno_Voivodeship_(1926%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno Voivodeship (1926–39)">Wilno Voivodeship</a>); and Mukocinek near Warta River and Meszyn Lake to the west (located in the <a href="/wiki/Mi%C4%99dzych%C3%B3d" title="Międzychód">Międzychód</a> county of the <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_Voivodeship" title="Poznań Voivodeship">Poznań Voivodeship</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waters">Waters</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Waters" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Almost 75% of the territory of interbellum Poland was drained northward into the Baltic Sea by the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> (total area of <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basin</a> of the Vistula within boundaries of the Second Polish Republic was 180,300 km2 (69,600 sq mi), the <a href="/wiki/Niemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Niemen">Niemen</a> (51,600 km2 or 19,900 sq mi), the <a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder</a> (46,700 km2 or 18,000 sq mi) and the <a href="/wiki/Daugava_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Daugava River">Daugava</a> (10,400 km2 or 4,000 sq mi). The remaining part of the country was drained southward, into the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, by the rivers that drain into the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pripyat_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Pripyat River">Pripyat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horyn" title="Horyn">Horyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Styr" title="Styr">Styr</a>, all together 61,500 km2 or 23,700 sq mi) as well as <a href="/wiki/Dniester" title="Dniester">Dniester</a> (41,400 km2 or 16,000 sq mi) </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Invasion_of_Poland_in_1939">Invasion of Poland in 1939</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Invasion of Poland in 1939" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg/220px-Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 286px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg/220px-Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="286" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg/330px-Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg/440px-Polish_infantry_marching_-2_1939.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Polish infantry marching, 1939</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Defenders_of_Warsaw_(1939).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Defenders_of_Warsaw_%281939%29.jpg/220px-Defenders_of_Warsaw_%281939%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2743"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 172px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Defenders_of_Warsaw_%281939%29.jpg/220px-Defenders_of_Warsaw_%281939%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="172" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Defenders_of_Warsaw_%281939%29.jpg/330px-Defenders_of_Warsaw_%281939%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Defenders_of_Warsaw_%281939%29.jpg/440px-Defenders_of_Warsaw_%281939%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Polish_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Army">Polish soldiers</a> with anti-aircraft artillery near <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Central_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw Central Station">Warsaw Central Station</a> during the first days of September 1939</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_equipment_of_Poland" title="List of World War II military equipment of Poland">List of World War II military equipment of Poland</a></div> The beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> in September 1939 ended the sovereign Second Polish Republic. The German <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invasion of Poland</a> began on 1 September 1939, one week after <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> signed the secret <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>. On that day, Germany and <a href="/wiki/Slovak_invasion_of_Poland" title="Slovak invasion of Poland">Slovakia</a> attacked Poland, and on 17 September the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviets</a> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">attacked</a> <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">eastern Poland</a>. <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_(1939)" title="Siege of Warsaw (1939)">Warsaw fell to the Nazis</a> on 28 September after a twenty-day siege. Open organised Polish resistance ended on 6 October 1939 after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kock_(1939)" title="Battle of Kock (1939)">Battle of Kock</a>, with Germany and the Soviet Union occupying most of the country. <a href="/wiki/State_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Lithuania">Lithuania</a> annexed <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_Region" title="Vilnius Region">the area of Wilno</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovak Republic (1939–45)">Slovakia</a> seized areas along Poland's southern border – including <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B3rna_Orawa" title="Górna Orawa">Górna Orawa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tatransk%C3%A1_Javorina" title="Tatranská Javorina">Tatranská Javorina</a> - which Poland had annexed from Czechoslovakia in October 1938. Poland did not surrender to the invaders, but continued fighting under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Polish government-in-exile</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Polish Underground State</a>. After the signing of the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Cooperation_and_Demarcation" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation">German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation</a> on 28 September 1939, Polish areas occupied by Nazi Germany either became directly incorporated into Nazi Germany, or became part of the <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a>. The Soviet Union, following <a href="/wiki/Elections_to_the_People%27s_Assemblies_of_Western_Ukraine_and_Western_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections to the People's Assemblies of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus">Elections to the People's Assemblies of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus</a> (22 October 1939), annexed eastern Poland partly to the <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>, and partly to the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic</a> (November 1939). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:7TP-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/7TP-2.jpg/170px-7TP-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 201px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/7TP-2.jpg/170px-7TP-2.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="201" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/7TP-2.jpg/255px-7TP-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/7TP-2.jpg/340px-7TP-2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Polish <a href="/wiki/7TP" title="7TP">7TP light tanks</a></figcaption></figure> Polish war plans (<a href="/wiki/Plan_West" title="Plan West">Plan West</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plan_East" title="Plan East">Plan East</a>) failed as soon as Germany invaded in 1939. The Polish losses in combat against Germans (killed and missing in action) amounted to ca. 70,000 men. Some 420,000 of them were taken prisoners. Losses against the Red Army (which invaded Poland on 17 September) added up to 6,000 to 7,000 of casualties and MIA, 250,000 were taken prisoners. Although the Polish Army – considering the inactivity of the Allies – was in an unfavourable position – it managed to inflict serious losses to the enemies: 20,000 German soldiers were killed or MIA, 674 tanks and 319 armored vehicles destroyed or badly damaged, 230 aircraft shot down; the Red Army lost (killed and MIA) about 2,500 soldiers, 150 combat vehicles and 20 aircraft. The Soviet invasion of Poland, and lack of promised aid from the Western Allies, contributed to the Polish forces defeat by 6 October 1939. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg/220px-ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2436"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 153px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg/220px-ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg/330px-ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg/440px-ORP_Orze%C5%82_w_Gdyni.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ORP_Orze%C5%82_(1938)" title="ORP Orzeł (1938)">ORP Orzeł</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Lead_ship" title="Lead ship">lead ship</a> of <a href="/wiki/Orze%C5%82-class_submarine" title="Orzeł-class submarine">her class</a> of <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a> serving in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Navy" title="Polish Navy">Polish Navy</a> during the Second World War.</figcaption></figure> A popular myth is that <a href="/wiki/Polish_cavalry" title="Polish cavalry">Polish cavalry</a> armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This often repeated account, first reported by Italian journalists as <a href="/wiki/Polish_cavalry#Cavalry_charges_and_propaganda" title="Polish cavalry">German propaganda</a>, concerned an action by the Polish 18th Lancer Regiment near Chojnice. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September 1939 near <a href="/wiki/Charge_at_Krojanty" title="Charge at Krojanty">Krojanty</a>, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabers surprised and wiped out a German infantry formation with a mounted saber charge. Shortly after midnight the 2nd (Motorized) Division was compelled to withdraw by Polish cavalry, before the Poles were caught in the open by German armored cars. The story arose because some German armored cars appeared and gunned down 20 troopers as the cavalry escaped. Even this failed to persuade everyone to reexamine their beliefs—there were some who thought Polish cavalry had been improperly employed in 1939. Between 1945 and 1990, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Polish government-in-exile</a> operated in London, presenting itself as the only legal and legitimate representative of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish nation">Polish nation</a> and challenging the legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">communist government</a> in Warsaw. In 1990, the last president in exile, <a href="/wiki/Ryszard_Kaczorowski" title="Ryszard Kaczorowski">Ryszard Kaczorowski</a>, handed the presidential insignia to the newly elected <a href="/wiki/President_of_Poland" title="President of Poland">President</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a>, signifying continuity between the Second and <a href="/wiki/Third_Polish_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Polish Republic">Third</a> republics. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Second_Polish_Republic" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_propaganda_in_the_Second_Polish_Republic_(1925%E2%80%941932)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar propaganda in the Second Polish Republic (1925—1932)">Sugar propaganda in the Second Polish Republic (1925—1932)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1918%E2%80%931939)" title="History of Poland (1918–1939)">History of Poland (1918–1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_in_Poland" title="1938 in Poland">1938 in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_in_Poland" title="1939 in Poland">1939 in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, also known as the "First Polish Republic" and described as a "republic under the presidency of the King"</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> In <a href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship_(1920%E2%80%931939)" title="Silesian Voivodeship (1920–1939)">Silesian Voivodeship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> In <a href="/wiki/Nowogr%C3%B3dek_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="Nowogródek Voivodeship (1919–1939)">Nowogródek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polesie_Voivodeship" title="Polesie Voivodeship">Polesie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wilno_Voivodeship_(1926%E2%80%931939)" title="Wilno Voivodeship (1926–1939)">Wilno Voivodeships</a> (until 1926 <a href="/wiki/Wilno_Land" title="Wilno Land">Wilno Land</a>) as well as in parts of the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="Białystok Voivodeship (1919–1939)">Białystok Voivodeship</a> (<a href="/wiki/Grodno_County_(1919%E2%80%931939)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grodno County (1919–1939)">Grodno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82kowysk_County" title="Wołkowysk County">Wołkowysk Counties</a>).<a href="#cite_note-reglang-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> In the part of <a href="/wiki/Wilno_Voivodeship_(1926%E2%80%931939)" title="Wilno Voivodeship (1926–1939)">Wilno Voivodeship</a> (until 1926 <a href="/wiki/Wilno_Land" title="Wilno Land">Wilno Land</a>), in <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C5%9Awi%C4%99ciany_County&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Święciany County (page does not exist)">Święciany County</a>, and several municipilaties of the <a href="/wiki/Wilno-Troki_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno-Troki County">Wilno-Troki County</a>.<a href="#cite_note-reglang-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> In <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Lwów Voivodeship">Lwów</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polesie_Voivodeship" title="Polesie Voivodeship">Polesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Stanisławów Voivodeship">Stanisławów</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarnopol_Voivodeship" title="Tarnopol Voivodeship">Tarnopol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1921%E2%80%931939)" title="Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939)">Volhynian Voivodeships</a>.<a href="#cite_note-reglang-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Naczelnik_Pa%C5%84stwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Naczelnik Państwa">Chief of State</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: II Rzeczpospolita, Druga Rzeczpospolita, <a href="/wiki/Abbreviation" title="Abbreviation">abbr.</a>: II RP </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Rzeczpospolita Polska, <abbr title="abbreviated">abbr.</abbr> RP</li><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>: Польская Рэспубліка, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Belarusian" title="Romanization of Belarusian">romanized</a>: Polskaja Respublika</li><li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Republik Polen</li><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Lenkijos Respublika</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>: Польська Республіка, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ukrainian" title="Romanization of Ukrainian">romanized</a>: Pol's'ka Respublika</li></ul></div> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19200730497">"Ustawa Konstytucyjna z dnia 15 lipca 1920 r. zawierająca statut organiczny Województwa Śląskiego (Dz.U. z 1920 r. nr 73, poz. 497)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211218225301/http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19200730497">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ustawa+Konstytucyjna+z+dnia+15+lipca+1920+r.+zawieraj%C4%85ca+statut+organiczny+Wojew%C3%B3dztwa+%C5%9Al%C4%85skiego+%28Dz.U.+z+1920+r.+nr+73%2C+poz.+497%29.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisap.sejm.gov.pl%2Fisap.nsf%2FDocDetails.xsp%3Fid%3DWDU19200730497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-reglang-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reglang_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reglang_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reglang_3-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19240730724">"Ustawa z dnia 31 lipca 1924 r. o języku państwowym i języku urzędowania rządowych i samorządowych władz administracyjnych (Dz.U. z 1924 r. nr 73, poz. 724)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211218225300/http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19240730724">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ustawa+z+dnia+31+lipca+1924+r.+o+j%C4%99zyku+pa%C5%84stwowym+i+j%C4%99zyku+urz%C4%99dowania+rz%C4%85dowych+i+samorz%C4%85dowych+w%C5%82adz+administracyjnych+%28Dz.U.+z+1924+r.+nr+73%2C+poz.+724%29.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisap.sejm.gov.pl%2Fisap.nsf%2FDocDetails.xsp%3Fid%3DWDU19240730724&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gus1921-8"><a href="#cite_ref-gus1921_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCentral_Statistical_Office_of_the_Polish_Republic1927" class="citation book cs1">Central Statistical Office of the Polish Republic (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/exlibris/aleph/a22_1/apache_media/81QB7CFELH8SBCE3HAX9HCEJA8X337.pdf">Population of Poland according to religious denominations and nationality</a> [Ludność według wyznania religijnego i narodowości] (PDF). Warszawa: GUS. page 80/109 in PDF, page 56 in census results: Table XI. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Population+of+Poland+according+to+religious+denominations+and+nationality&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.pages=page+80%2F109+in+PDF%2C+page+56+in+census+results%3A+Table+XI.&rft.pub=GUS&rft.date=1927&rft.au=Central+Statistical+Office+of+the+Polish+Republic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstatlibr.stat.gov.pl%2Fexlibris%2Faleph%2Fa22_1%2Fapache_media%2F81QB7CFELH8SBCE3HAX9HCEJA8X337.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Polish_Census_1931-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Polish_Census_1931_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140317212240/http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/exlibris/aleph/a18_1/apache_media/VUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf">"Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, drugi powszechny spis ludności z dn. 9.XII 1931 r. - Mieszkania i gospodarstwa domowe ludność"</a> [Central Statistical Office the Polish Republic, the second census dated 9.XII 1931 - Abodes and household populace] (PDF) (in Polish). Central Statistical office of the Polish Republic. 1938. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/exlibris/aleph/a18_1/apache_media/VUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf">the original</a> (PDF, direct download, table: page 30) on 17 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=G%C5%82%C3%B3wny+Urz%C4%85d+Statystyczny+Rzeczypospolitej+Polskiej%2C+drugi+powszechny+spis+ludno%C5%9Bci+z+dn.+9.XII+1931+r.+-+Mieszkania+i+gospodarstwa+domowe+ludno%C5%9B%C4%87&rft.pub=Central+Statistical+office+of+the+Polish+Republic&rft.date=1938&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstatlibr.stat.gov.pl%2Fexlibris%2Faleph%2Fa18_1%2Fapache_media%2FVUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Snyder-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_12-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a>, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999, Yale University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10586-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10586-X">0-300-10586-X</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC&pg=PA144">p. 144</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-journals.uchicago.edu-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-journals.uchicago.edu_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-journals.uchicago.edu_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagen1996" class="citation journal cs1">Hagen, William W. (June 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/600769?journalCode=jmh">"Hagen, William W. "Before the" final solution": Toward a comparative analysis of political anti-Semitism in interwar Germany and Poland." The Journal of Modern History 68.2 (1996): 351-381"</a>. The Journal of Modern History. 68 (2): 351–381. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F600769">10.1086/600769</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153790671">153790671</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200108090550/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/600769?journalCode=jmh">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Hagen%2C+William+W.+%22Before+the%22+final+solution%22%3A+Toward+a+comparative+analysis+of+political+anti-Semitism+in+interwar+Germany+and+Poland.%22+The+Journal+of+Modern+History+68.2+%281996%29%3A+351-381.&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E351-%3C%2Fspan%3E381&rft.date=1996-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F600769&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153790671%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hagen&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1086%2F600769%3FjournalCode%3Djmh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skalmowski-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skalmowski_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skalmowski_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkalmowski2003" class="citation book cs1">Skalmowski, Wojciech (8 July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wp1R2srxDGEC&q=ukrainophobia+poland&pg=PA54">For East is East: Liber Amicorum Wojciech Skalmowski</a>. Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1298-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1298-4"><bdi>978-90-429-1298-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729050712/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wp1R2srxDGEC&q=ukrainophobia+poland&pg=PA54">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+East+is+East%3A+Liber+Amicorum+Wojciech+Skalmowski&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2003-07-08&rft.isbn=978-90-429-1298-4&rft.aulast=Skalmowski&rft.aufirst=Wojciech&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWp1R2srxDGEC%26q%3Dukrainophobia%2Bpoland%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Polish_Review-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Polish_Review_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Polish_Review_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1XBpAAAAMAAJ&q=ukrainophobia+poland">"The Polish Review"</a>. Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America. 8 July 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729050713/https://books.google.com/books?id=1XBpAAAAMAAJ&q=ukrainophobia+poland">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2020 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Review&rft.pub=Polish+Institute+of+Arts+and+Sciences+in+America.&rft.date=2001-07-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1XBpAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dukrainophobia%2Bpoland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buwcd.buw.uw.edu.pl/e_zbiory/ckcp/monitor_pl/1918-11/11-203/imagepages/image1.htm">Monitor Polski, no. 203, 1918</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210917134246/http://buwcd.buw.uw.edu.pl/e_zbiory/ckcp/monitor_pl/1918-11/11-203/imagepages/image1.htm">Archived</a> 17 September 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buwcd.buw.uw.edu.pl/e_zbiory/ckcp/monitor_pl/1919-03/numer059/index.htm">Monitor Polski, no. 59, 1919</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180815013014/http://buwcd.buw.uw.edu.pl/e_zbiory/ckcp/monitor_pl/1919-03/numer059/index.htm">Archived</a> 15 August 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19190660400">Journal of Laws, no. 66, position 400</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210917134243/http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19190660400">Archived</a> 17 September 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 31 July 1919. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Mieczysław Biskupski. The history of Poland. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. 2000. p. 51. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313305714" title="Special:BookSources/0313305714">0313305714</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies100-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies100_20-0">^</a> Norman Davies. Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 2001. pp. 100-101. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192801260" title="Special:BookSources/0192801260">0192801260</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Piotr S. Wandycz. The Lands of Partitioned Poland 1795-1918. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington_Press" title="University of Washington Press">University of Washington Press</a>. 1974. p. 368. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0295953586" title="Special:BookSources/0295953586">0295953586</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacMillan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan" title="Margaret MacMillan">MacMillan, Margaret</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EHzgiYw0kegC">"17: Poland Reborn"</a>. Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World. New York: Random House. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-43296-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-43296-4"><bdi>978-0-307-43296-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414231459/https://books.google.com/books?id=EHzgiYw0kegC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2016. <q>The rebirth of Poland was one of the great stories of the Paris Peace Conference.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=17%3A+Poland+Reborn&rft.btitle=Paris+1919%3A+Six+Months+That+Changed+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-43296-4&rft.aulast=MacMillan&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEHzgiYw0kegC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_23-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a>, <a href="/wiki/God%27s_Playground" title="God's Playground">God's Playground</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-12819-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-12819-3">0-231-12819-3</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0/page/299">Google Print, p.299</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_B._Biskupski" title="Mieczysław B. Biskupski">Mieczysław B. Biskupski</a>. The origins of modern Polish democracy. <a href="/wiki/Ohio_University_Press" title="Ohio University Press">Ohio University Press</a>. 2010. p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Richard J. Crampton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=82VuBwAAQBAJ">Atlas of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191216220214/https://books.google.com/books?id=82VuBwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> 16 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Routledge. 1997. p. 101. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1317799518" title="Special:BookSources/1317799518">1317799518</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMutschlechner" class="citation web cs1">Mutschlechner, Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ww1.habsburger.net/en/chapters/poles-first-world-war-nation-football-great-powers">"The Poles in the First World War: a Nation as Football for the Great Powers"</a>. The World of the Habsburgs. Retrieved 15 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+of+the+Habsburgs&rft.atitle=The+Poles+in+the+First+World+War%3A+a+Nation+as+Football+for+the+Great+Powers&rft.aulast=Mutschlechner&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fww1.habsburger.net%2Fen%2Fchapters%2Fpoles-first-world-war-nation-football-great-powers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Richard M. Watt, Bitter Glory: Poland and Its Fate, 1918–1939 (1998) </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Rady-Delegatow-Robotniczych-w-Polsce;3965576.html">"Rady Delegatów Robotniczych w Polsce"</a>. Internetowa encyklopedia PWN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181005112619/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Rady-Delegatow-Robotniczych-w-Polsce;3965576.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rady+Delegat%C3%B3w+Robotniczych+w+Polsce&rft.pub=Internetowa+encyklopedia+PWN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyklopedia.pwn.pl%2Fhaslo%2FRady-Delegatow-Robotniczych-w-Polsce%3B3965576.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Andrzej Garlicki (1995), Józef Piłsudski, 1867–1935. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Norman Richard Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: the Polish-Soviet War, 1919–20 (2nd ed. 2003) </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921–1939: The Crisis of Constitutional Government (1972) </li> <li id="cite_note-new_sources-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-new_sources_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-new_sources_32-1">b</a> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuchalski2019" class="citation book cs1">Puchalski, Piotr (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/bfe22980348fd04646924c8349f0eb72">Beyond Empire: Interwar Poland and the Colonial Question, 1918–1939</a>. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a> Press. Retrieved 19 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Empire%3A+Interwar+Poland+and+the+Colonial+Question%2C+1918%E2%80%931939&rft.pub=The+University+of+Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Puchalski&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2Fbfe22980348fd04646924c8349f0eb72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKowalski2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kowalski, Wawrzyniec (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=985623">"From May to Bereza: A Legal Nihilism in the Political and Legal Practice of the Sanation Camp 1926–1935"</a>. Studia Iuridica Lublinensia (5). Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Sklodowskiej: 133–147. Retrieved 19 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Iuridica+Lublinensia&rft.atitle=From+May+to+Bereza%3A+A+Legal+Nihilism+in+the+Political+and+Legal+Practice+of+the+Sanation+Camp+1926%E2%80%931935&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E147&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Kowalski&rft.aufirst=Wawrzyniec&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D985623&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlstowski2024" class="citation journal cs1">Olstowski, Przemysław (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1256530">"The Formation of Authoritarian Rule in Poland between 1926 and 1939 as a Research Problem"</a>. Zapiski Historyczne (2). Towarzystwo Naukowe w Toruniu: 27–60. Retrieved 19 October 2024. <q>The case of authoritarian rule in Poland [...] following the <a href="/wiki/May_Coup_(Poland)" title="May Coup (Poland)">May Coup of 1926</a>, is notable for its unique origins [...] Rooted in a period when Poland lacked statehood [...] Polish authoritarianism evolved [...] Central to this phenomenon was Marshal <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a>, the ideological leader of Poland's ruling camp after the May Coup of 1926</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zapiski+Historyczne&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+Authoritarian+Rule+in+Poland+between+1926+and+1939+as+a+Research+Problem&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.date=2024&rft.aulast=Olstowski&rft.aufirst=Przemys%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D1256530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Peter Hetherington, Unvanquished: Joseph Piłsudski, Resurrected Poland, and the Struggle for Eastern Europe (2012); W. Jędrzejewicz, Piłsudski. A Life for Poland (1982) </li> <li id="cite_note-Williamson2011-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Williamson2011_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_G._Williamson2011" class="citation book cs1">David G. Williamson (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wtg8a-0ggkEC&pg=PA21">Poland Betrayed: The Nazi-Soviet Invasions of 1939</a>. Stackpole Books. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-0828-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-0828-9"><bdi>978-0-8117-0828-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160501200550/https://books.google.com/books?id=wtg8a-0ggkEC&pg=PA21">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland+Betrayed%3A+The+Nazi-Soviet+Invasions+of+1939&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8117-0828-9&rft.au=David+G.+Williamson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwtg8a-0ggkEC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Walter M. Drzewieniecki, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25777834">The Polish Army on the Eve of World War II</a>", Polish Review (1981) 26#3 pp 54–64. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170204113132/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25777834">Archived</a> 4 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-wolf-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wolf_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wolf_36-1">b</a> Nikolaus Wolf, "Path dependent border effects: the case of Poland's reunification (1918–1939)", <a href="/wiki/Explorations_in_Economic_History" title="Explorations in Economic History">Explorations in Economic History</a>, 42, 2005, pp. 414–438. </li> <li id="cite_note-onet-37"><a href="#cite_ref-onet_37-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tygodnik.onet.pl/1,16768,druk.html">Godzina zero. Interview with professor Wojciech Roszkowski, Tygodnik Powszechny, 04.11.2008</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120512015340/http://tygodnik.onet.pl/1,16768,druk.html">Archived</a> 12 May 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>"Także reformę Grabskiego przeprowadziliśmy sami, kosztem społeczeństwa, choć tym razem zapłacili obywatele z wyższych sfer, głównie posiadacze ziemscy." </li> <li id="cite_note-Broadberry-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Broadberry_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Broadberry_38-1">b</a> Stephen Broadberry, Kevin H. O'Rourke. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. 2010. pp. 188, 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-Maddison-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Maddison_39-0">^</a> (1929-1930) Angus Maddison. The World Economy Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective Volume 2: Historical Statistics. Academic Foundation. 2007. p. 478. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/456125276116">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220521073928/https://statlinks.oecdcode.org/4103063.XLS">Archived</a> 21 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDadak2012" class="citation journal cs1">Dadak, Casimir (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/contemporary-european-history/article/abs/national-heritage-and-economic-policies-in-free-and-sovereign-poland-after-1918/B65FA110EF9020504F284BB52EB5B907">"National Heritage and Economic Policies in Free and Sovereign Poland after 1918"</a>. Contemporary European History. 21 (2): 193–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0960777312000112">10.1017/S0960777312000112</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-2171">1469-2171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+European+History&rft.atitle=National+Heritage+and+Economic+Policies+in+Free+and+Sovereign+Poland+after+1918&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E214&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0960777312000112&rft.issn=1469-2171&rft.aulast=Dadak&rft.aufirst=Casimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fcontemporary-european-history%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fnational-heritage-and-economic-policies-in-free-and-sovereign-poland-after-1918%2FB65FA110EF9020504F284BB52EB5B907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHP-41"><a href="#cite_ref-AHP_41-0">^</a> Atlas Historii Polski, Demart Sp, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-89239-89-2" title="Special:BookSources/83-89239-89-2">83-89239-89-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100616033659/http://www.tvp.info/informacje/nauka/70-lat-telewizji-w-polsce/862059">"70 years of television in Poland, TVP INFO, 26.08.2009"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tvp.info/informacje/nauka/70-lat-telewizji-w-polsce/862059">the original</a> on 16 June 2010. Retrieved 3 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=70+years+of+television+in+Poland%2C+TVP+INFO%2C+26.08.2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftvp.info%2Finformacje%2Fnauka%2F70-lat-telewizji-w-polsce%2F862059&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Oto 10 największych elektrowni w Polsce 13 February 2014 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://forsal.pl/galeria/777419,oto-10-najwiekszych-elektrowni-w-polsce.html">https://forsal.pl/galeria/777419,oto-10-najwiekszych-elektrowni-w-polsce.html</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Portal "Historia:Poszukaj" NIMOZ 2022 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.historiaposzukaj.pl/wiedza,obiekty,1883,obiekt_fotografia_z_okolic_lazisk_gornych_autorstwa_henryka_poddebskiego_ze_zbiorow_muzeum_historii_polski.html">https://www.historiaposzukaj.pl/wiedza,obiekty,1883,obiekt_fotografia_z_okolic_lazisk_gornych_autorstwa_henryka_poddebskiego_ze_zbiorow_muzeum_historii_polski.html</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-liberte.pl-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-liberte.pl_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-liberte.pl_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-liberte.pl_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-liberte.pl_45-3">d</a> Witold Gadomski, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091117131412/http://www.liberte.pl/gospodarka/656-spata-dugu-po-ii-rp.html">Spłata długu po II RP.</a> Liberte.pl (in Polish). </li> <li id="cite_note-polityka-46"><a href="#cite_ref-polityka_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polityka.pl/historia/1517566,1,w-ii-rp-tez-mielismy-problem-z-drogami.read">"Piotr Osęka, Znoje na wybojach. Polityka weekly, 21 July 2011"</a>. 21 July 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120105020619/http://www.polityka.pl/historia/1517566,1,w-ii-rp-tez-mielismy-problem-z-drogami.read">Archived</a> from the original on 5 January 2012. Retrieved 24 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Piotr+Os%C4%99ka%2C+Znoje+na+wybojach.+Polityka+weekly%2C+21+July+2011&rft.date=2011-07-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polityka.pl%2Fhistoria%2F1517566%2C1%2Cw-ii-rp-tez-mielismy-problem-z-drogami.read&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ministerstwa-47"><a href="#cite_ref-ministerstwa_47-0">^</a> Urzędowy Rozkład Jazy i Lotów, Lato 1939. Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Komunikacji, Warszawa 1939 </li> <li id="cite_note-lex-48"><a href="#cite_ref-lex_48-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lex.pl/czasopisma/cph/sprawyrl.html">Sprawa reformy rolnej w I Sejmie Âlàskim (1922–1929) by Andrzej Drogon</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-onet1-49"><a href="#cite_ref-onet1_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tygodnik.onet.pl/1,16768,druk.html">"Godzina zero, interview with Wojciech Roszkowski. 04.11.2008"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120512015340/http://tygodnik.onet.pl/1,16768,druk.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 24 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Godzina+zero%2C+interview+with+Wojciech+Roszkowski.+04.11.2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftygodnik.onet.pl%2F1%2C16768%2Cdruk.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-przeglad-tygodnik-50"><a href="#cite_ref-przeglad-tygodnik_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.przeglad-tygodnik.pl/pl/artykul/biale-plamy-ii-rp">"Białe plamy II RP, interview with professor Andrzej Garlicki, 5 December 2011"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120313171433/http://przeglad-tygodnik.pl/pl/artykul/biale-plamy-ii-rp">Archived</a> from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bia%C5%82e+plamy+II+RP%2C+interview+with+professor+Andrzej+Garlicki%2C+5+December+2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.przeglad-tygodnik.pl%2Fpl%2Fartykul%2Fbiale-plamy-ii-rp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-biznes-51"><a href="#cite_ref-biznes_51-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140729024023/http://biznes.pwn.pl/haslo/3883929/celna-wojna.html">Wojna celna (German–Polish customs' war)</a> (Internet Archive), Encyklopedia PWN, Biznes. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Keesing's Contemporary Archives Volume 3, (October 1938) p. 3283. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies175-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies175_53-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> (2005), God's Playground A History of Poland: Volume II: 1795 to the Present. Oxford University Press, p. 175. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199253390" title="Special:BookSources/0199253390">0199253390</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2008" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Bonnie G. (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 470. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514890-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514890-9"><bdi>978-0-19-514890-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Women+in+World+History.+Vol.+1&rft.pages=470&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514890-9&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Bonnie+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GaNeSt-55"><a href="#cite_ref-GaNeSt_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalavottiNemethStadler2013" class="citation book cs1">Galavotti, Maria Carla; Nemeth, Elisabeth; Stadler, Friedrich, eds. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UE_CBAAAQBAJ&q=Lvov-Warsaw+School">European Philosophy of Science - Philosophy of Science in Europe and the Viennese Heritage</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 408, 175–176, 180–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-01899-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-01899-7"><bdi>978-3-319-01899-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819235506/https://books.google.com/books?id=UE_CBAAAQBAJ&q=Lvov-Warsaw+School">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 11 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Philosophy+of+Science+-+Philosophy+of+Science+in+Europe+and+the+Viennese+Heritage&rft.pages=408%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E175-%3C%2Fspan%3E176%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E180-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-319-01899-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUE_CBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DLvov-Warsaw%2BSchool&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> Also in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandra_LapointeJan_WolenskiMathieu_MarionWioletta_Miskiewicz2009" class="citation book cs1">Sandra Lapointe; Jan Wolenski; Mathieu Marion; Wioletta Miskiewicz (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5u84tl5ux0gC&q=Tarski%27s+role+enormous">The Golden Age of Polish Philosophy: Kazimierz Twardowski's Philosophical Legacy</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 127, 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-2401-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-2401-5"><bdi>978-90-481-2401-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200818182818/https://books.google.com/books?id=5u84tl5ux0gC&q=Tarski%27s+role+enormous">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 11 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Polish+Philosophy%3A+Kazimierz+Twardowski%27s+Philosophical+Legacy&rft.pages=127%2C+56&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-481-2401-5&rft.au=Sandra+Lapointe&rft.au=Jan+Wolenski&rft.au=Mathieu+Marion&rft.au=Wioletta+Miskiewicz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5u84tl5ux0gC%26q%3DTarski%2527s%2Brole%2Benormous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MJ-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MJ_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MJ_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MJ_56-2">c</a> Joseph Marcus, Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland, 1919–1939, Mouton Publishing, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-279-3239-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-279-3239-5">90-279-3239-5</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=82ncGA4GuN4C&q=Pilsudski&pg=PA15">Google Books, p. 17</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-stat-57"><a href="#cite_ref-stat_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/Przynaleznosc_narodowo-etniczna_w_2011_NSP.pdf">"Przynależność narodowo-etniczna ludności – wyniki spisu ludności i mieszkań 2011"</a> [Ethnic makeup of Polish citizenry according to census of 2011] (PDF). Materiał Na Konferencję Prasową W Dniu 2013-01-29: 3, 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200515165423/https://stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/Przynaleznosc_narodowo-etniczna_w_2011_NSP.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 May 2020. Retrieved 20 July 2016 – via PDF file, direct download 192 KB.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Materia%C5%82+Na+Konferencj%C4%99+Prasow%C4%85+W+Dniu+2013-01-29&rft.atitle=Przynale%C5%BCno%C5%9B%C4%87+narodowo-etniczna+ludno%C5%9Bci+%E2%80%93+wyniki+spisu+ludno%C5%9Bci+i+mieszka%C5%84+2011&rft.pages=3%2C+4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stat.gov.pl%2Fcps%2Frde%2Fxbcr%2Fgus%2FPrzynaleznosc_narodowo-etniczna_w_2011_NSP.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ePWN-58"><a href="#cite_ref-ePWN_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPWN2016" class="citation book cs1">PWN (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Rosja-Polonia-i-Polacy;4575227.html">"Rosja. Polonia i Polacy"</a>. Encyklopedia PWN. Stanisław Gregorowicz. <a href="/wiki/Polish_Scientific_Publishers_PWN" title="Polish Scientific Publishers PWN">Polish Scientific Publishers PWN</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160406045946/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Rosja-Polonia-i-Polacy;4575227.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rosja.+Polonia+i+Polacy&rft.btitle=Encyklopedia+PWN&rft.pub=Polish+Scientific+Publishers+PWN&rft.date=2016&rft.au=PWN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyklopedia.pwn.pl%2Fhaslo%2FRosja-Polonia-i-Polacy%3B4575227.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PSL-59"><a href="#cite_ref-PSL_59-0">^</a> Powszechny Spis Ludnosci r. 1921 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRevyuk1931" class="citation web cs1">Revyuk, Emil (8 July 1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=imswAAAAIAAJ&q=ukrainophobia+poland">"Polish Atrocities in Ukraine"</a>. Svoboda Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210215014222/https://books.google.com/books?id=imswAAAAIAAJ&q=ukrainophobia+poland">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2020 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Polish+Atrocities+in+Ukraine&rft.pub=Svoboda+Press&rft.date=1931-07-08&rft.aulast=Revyuk&rft.aufirst=Emil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DimswAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dukrainophobia%2Bpoland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Potocki-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Potocki_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Potocki_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotocki2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Potocki, Robert (2003). "Rozdział 3: Od konsolidacji państwowej do homogenizacji etnicznej". Polityka państwa polskiego wobec zagadnienia ukraińskiego w latach 1930–1939 (in Polish). Instytut Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej w Lublinie. pp. 199–227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-917615-4-1" title="Special:BookSources/83-917615-4-1"><bdi>83-917615-4-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rozdzia%C5%82+3%3A+Od+konsolidacji+pa%C5%84stwowej+do+homogenizacji+etnicznej&rft.btitle=Polityka+pa%C5%84stwa+polskiego+wobec+zagadnienia+ukrai%C5%84skiego+w+latach+1930%E2%80%931939&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E227&rft.pub=Instytut+Europy+%C5%9Arodkowo-Wschodniej+w+Lublinie&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=83-917615-4-1&rft.aulast=Potocki&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadziejowskiStudies1983" class="citation book cs1">Radziejowski, Janusz; Studies, University of Alberta Canadian Institute of Ukrainian (8 July 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communistpartyof00radz">The Communist Party of Western Ukraine, 1919-1929</a>. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, University of Alberta. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-920862-25-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-920862-25-4"><bdi>978-0-920862-25-4</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive. <q>ukrainophobia poland rights.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Communist+Party+of+Western+Ukraine%2C+1919-1929&rft.pub=Canadian+Institute+of+Ukrainian+Studies%2C+University+of+Alberta&rft.date=1983-07-08&rft.isbn=978-0-920862-25-4&rft.aulast=Radziejowski&rft.aufirst=Janusz&rft.au=Studies%2C+University+of+Alberta+Canadian+Institute+of+Ukrainian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommunistpartyof00radz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://klubjagiellonski.pl/2016/10/10/ii-rp-nie-lubila-ukraincow/">"II RP nie lubiła Ukraińców?"</a>. klubjagiellonski.pl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190708160652/https://klubjagiellonski.pl/2016/10/10/ii-rp-nie-lubila-ukraincow/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 8 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=klubjagiellonski.pl&rft.atitle=II+RP+nie+lubi%C5%82a+Ukrai%C5%84c%C3%B3w%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fklubjagiellonski.pl%2F2016%2F10%2F10%2Fii-rp-nie-lubila-ukraincow%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Polish+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a>. <a href="/wiki/God%27s_Playground" title="God's Playground">God's Playground</a>. A History of Poland. Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981. pp 393–434</li> <li>Latawaski, Paul. Reconstruction of Poland 1914–23 (1992)</li> <li>Leslie, R. F. et al. The History of Poland since 1863. Cambridge U. Press, 1980. 494 pp.</li> <li>Lukowski, Jerzy and Zawadzki, Hubert. A Concise History of Poland. Cambridge U. Press, 2nd ed 2006. 408pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/052185332X">excerpts and search</a></li> <li>Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian. Poland: A Historical Atlas. Hippocrene, 1987. 321 pp. new designed maps</li> <li>Stachura, Peter D. Poland, 1918–1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/108250289/poland-1918-1945-an-interpretive-and-documentary">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190526025131/https://www.questia.com/read/108250289/poland-1918-1945-an-interpretive-and-documentary">Archived</a> 26 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Stachura, Peter D. ed. Poland Between the Wars, 1918–1939 (1998) essays by scholars</li> <li>Watt, Richard M. Bitter Glory: Poland and Its Fate, 1918–1939 (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Bitter-Glory-Poland-Fate-1918-1939/dp/0781806739/">excerpt and text search</a>, comprehensive survey</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics_and_diplomacy">Politics and diplomacy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Politics and diplomacy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li>Cienciala, Anna M. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41549951">The Foreign Policy of Józef Pi£sudski and Józef Beck, 1926–1939: Misconceptions and Interpretations</a>", The Polish Review (2011) 56#1 pp. 111–151; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/10043/1/AMC_2011_The%20Foreign%20Policy%20of%20Pilsudski%20and%20Beck_Offprint%20Version_PR%20Vol.%20LVI%2c%20Nos.%201-2.pdf">earlier version</a>.</li> <li>Cienciala, Anna M. (1968), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/7462/1/Cienciala_Poland%20and%20Western%20Powers_1968.pdf">Poland the Western Powers, 1938–1939. A Study in the Interdependence of Eastern and Western Europe</a>. PDF, Kansas U. Press.</li> <li>Cienciala, Anna M., and Titus Komarnicki (1984), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/7463/1/Cienciala_From%20Versailles%20to%20Locarno_1984.pdf">From Versailles to Locarno, Keys to Polish Foreign Policy, 1919–1925</a> PDF, Kansas U. Press.</li> <li>Drzewieniecki, Walter M. "The Polish Army on the Eve of World War II", Polish Review (1981) 26#3 pp 54–64.</li> <li>Garlicki, Andrzej. Józef Piłsudski, 1867–1935 (New York: Scolar Press 1995), scholarly biography; one-vol version of 4 vol Polish edition</li> <li>Hetherington, Peter. Unvanquished: Joseph Pilsudski, Resurrected Poland, and the Struggle for Eastern Europe (2012) 752pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Unvanquished-Pilsudski-Resurrected-Struggle-Eastern/dp/0983656312/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Jędrzejewicz, W. Piłsudski. A Life for Poland (1982), scholarly biography</li> <li>Kantorosinski, Zbigniew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/european/egw/polishex.html">Emblem of Good Will: a Polish Declaration of Admiration and Friendship for the United States of America</a>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> (1997)</li> <li>Polonsky, A. Politics in Independent Poland, 1921–1939: The Crisis of Constitutional Government (1972)</li> <li>Riekhoff, H. von. German-Polish Relations, 1918–1933 (Johns Hopkins University Press 1971)</li> <li>Rothschild, J. Piłsudski's Coup d'État (New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a> 1966)</li> <li>Wandycz, P. S. Polish Diplomacy 1914–1945: Aims and Achievements (1988)</li> <li>Wandycz, P. S. Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917–1921 (Harvard University Press 1969)</li> <li>Wandycz, P. S. The United States and Poland (1980)</li> <li>Zamoyski, Adam. Warsaw 1920: Lenin's Failed Conquest of Europe (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Warsaw-1920-Lenins-Failed-Conquest/dp/0007225520/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Zimmerman, Joshua D. Jozef Pilsudski: Founding Father of Modern Poland (Harvard University Press, 2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59107">online review</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_economic_topics">Social and economic topics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Social and economic topics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li>Abramsky, C. et al. eds. The Jews in Poland (Oxford: Blackwell 1986)</li> <li>Blanke, R. Orphans of Versailles. The Germans in Western Poland, 1918–1939 (1993)</li> <li>Gutman, Y. et al. eds. The Jews of Poland Between Two World Wars (1989).</li> <li>Landau, Z. and Tomaszewski, J. The Polish Economy in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, 1985)</li> <li>Moklak, Jaroslaw. The Lemko Region in the Second Polish Republic: Political and Interdenominational Issues 1918–1939 (2013); covers Old Rusyns, Moscophiles and National Movement Activists, & the political role of the Greek Catholic and Orthodox Churches</li> <li>Olszewski, A. K. An Outline of Polish Art and Architecture, 1890–1980 (Warsaw: Interpress 1989.)</li> <li>Roszkowski, W. Landowners in Poland, 1918–1939 (Cambridge University Press, 1991)</li> <li>Staniewicz, Witold. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205606">The Agrarian Problem in Poland between the Two World Wars</a>", Slavonic and East European Review (1964) 43#100 pp. 23–33.</li> <li>Taylor, J. J. The Economic Development of Poland, 1919–1950 (Cornell University Press 1952)</li> <li>Wynot, E. D. Warsaw Between the Wars. Profile of the Capital City in a Developing Land, 1918–1939 (1983)</li> <li>Żółtowski, A. Border of Europe. A Study of the Polish Eastern Provinces (London: Hollis & Carter 1950)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00085006.2018.1490125">Eva Plach, "Dogs and dog breeding in interwar Poland"</a>, Canadian Slavonic Papers 60. no 3–4</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Primary sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/F/1NQPQD53XD384SAKG68P3TNP2L4KPDSVHGVYBC2KCBPGLCUBRX-06099?func=full-set-set&set_number=268421&set_entry=000040&format=999">Small Statistical Yearbook, 1932 (Mały rocznik statystyczny 1932)</a> complete text (in Polish)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/F/1NQPQD53XD384SAKG68P3TNP2L4KPDSVHGVYBC2KCBPGLCUBRX-07341?func=full-set-set&set_number=268421&set_entry=000053&format=999">Small Statistical Yearbook, 1939 (Mały rocznik statystyczny 1939) </a> complete text (in Polish)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Historiography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li>Kenney, Padraic. "After the Blank Spots Are Filled: Recent Perspectives on Modern Poland", Journal of Modern History (2007) 79#1 pp. 134–61, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/517546">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Polonsky, Antony. "The History of Inter-War Poland Today", Survey (1970) pp. 143–159.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(15)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://culture.pl/en/article/polish-tangos-the-unique-inter-war-soundtrack-to-polands-independence">Polish Tangos: The Unique Inter-War Soundtrack to Poland's Independence</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culture.pl/en/article/polish-cinema-interwar-period-film">Polish Cinema's Golden Age: The Glamour & Progress Of Poland's Inter-War Films</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culture.pl/en/article/pakty-i-fakty-the-last-ever-polish-interwar-cabaret-revue">'Pakty i Fakty': The Last-Ever Polish Interwar Cabaret Revue</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.leventhalmap.org/search/commonwealth:x633fb66g">Map of Poland (March 1920)</a> from the Leventhal Map & Education Center at the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Public_Library" title="Boston Public Library">Boston Public Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WJwUpSSYOPQ">Poland in 1938 just before WW2</a> early color movie summary by <a href="/wiki/Eve_Curie" class="mw-redirect" title="Eve Curie">Eve Curie</a> the daughter <a href="/wiki/Marie_Sklodowska-Curie" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Sklodowska-Curie">Marie Sklodowska-Curie</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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</main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Polish_Republic&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 6 February 2025, at 18:44 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweede_Poolse_Republiek" title="Tweede Poolse Republiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tweede Poolse Republiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الجمهورية البولندية الثانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الجمهورية البولندية الثانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Rep%C3%BAblica_Polaca" title="Segunda República Polaca – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Segunda República Polaca" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C5%9Fa_Respublikas%C4%B1_(1918-1939)" title="Polşa Respublikası (1918-1939) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Polşa Respublikası (1918-1939)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C_(%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B1%DB%B8-%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B3%DB%B9)" title="لهیستان جومهوریتی (۱۹۱۸-۱۹۳۹) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="لهیستان جومهوریتی (۱۹۱۸-۱۹۳۹)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="দ্বিতীয় পোলিশ প্রজাতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দ্বিতীয় পোলিশ প্রজাতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_(1918%E2%80%941939)" title="Польская Рэспубліка (1918—1939) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Польская Рэспубліка (1918—1939)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_(1918%E2%80%941939)" title="Польская Рэспубліка (1918—1939) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Польская Рэспубліка (1918—1939)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Втора полска република – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Втора полска република" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eil_Republik_Polonia" title="Eil Republik Polonia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Eil Republik Polonia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segona_Rep%C3%BAblica_Polonesa" title="Segona República Polonesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Segona República Polonesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh%C3%A1_Polsk%C3%A1_republika" title="Druhá Polská republika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Druhá Polská republika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anden_polske_republik" title="Anden polske republik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Anden polske republik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweite_Polnische_Republik" title="Zweite Polnische Republik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zweite Polnische Republik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Rzeczpospolita" title="II Rzeczpospolita – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="II Rzeczpospolita" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Δεύτερη Πολωνική Δημοκρατία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δεύτερη Πολωνική Δημοκρατία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Rep%C3%BAblica_polaca" title="Segunda República polaca – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Segunda República polaca" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dua_Pola_Respubliko" title="Dua Pola Respubliko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dua Pola Respubliko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poloniako_Bigarren_Errepublika" title="Poloniako Bigarren Errepublika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Poloniako Bigarren Errepublika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جمهوری دوم لهستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جمهوری دوم لهستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuxi%C3%A8me_R%C3%A9publique_(Pologne)" title="Deuxième République (Pologne) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Deuxième République (Pologne)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobblaght_y_Pholynn_(1918%E2%80%931939)" title="Pobblaght y Pholynn (1918–1939) – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Pobblaght y Pholynn (1918–1939)" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%B4%EB%9E%80%EB%93%9C_%EC%A0%9C2%EA%B3%B5%ED%99%94%EA%B5%AD" title="폴란드 제2공화국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="폴란드 제2공화국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Լեհաստանի երկրորդ հանրապետություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեհաստանի երկրորդ հանրապետություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druga_Poljska_Republika" title="Druga Poljska Republika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Druga Poljska Republika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Polandia_Kedua" title="Republik Polandia Kedua – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Republik Polandia Kedua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconda_Repubblica_di_Polonia" title="Seconda Repubblica di Polonia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Seconda Repubblica di Polonia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="הרפובליקה הפולנית השנייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הרפובליקה הפולנית השנייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="პოლონეთის მეორე რესპუბლიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პოლონეთის მეორე რესპუბლიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polijas_Otr%C4%81_republika" title="Polijas Otrā republika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Polijas Otrā republika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antroji_Lenkijos_Respublika" title="Antroji Lenkijos Respublika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Antroji Lenkijos Respublika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1sodik_Lengyel_K%C3%B6zt%C3%A1rsas%C3%A1g" title="Második Lengyel Köztársaság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Második Lengyel Köztársaság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Втора Полска Република – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Втора Полска Република" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Poland_Kedua" title="Republik Poland Kedua – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Republik Poland Kedua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweede_Poolse_Republiek" title="Tweede Poolse Republiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tweede Poolse Republiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD" title="ポーランド第二共和国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポーランド第二共和国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_polske_republikk" title="Andre polske republikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Andre polske republikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_andre_polske_republikken" title="Den andre polske republikken – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den andre polske republikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%DA%89_%D8%AF%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="د پولنډ دویم جمهوریت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د پولنډ دویم جمهوریت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Rzeczpospolita" title="II Rzeczpospolita – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="II Rzeczpospolita" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Rep%C3%BAblica_Polonesa" title="Segunda República Polonesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Segunda República Polonesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Doua_Republic%C4%83_Polonez%C4%83" title="A Doua Republică Poloneză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="A Doua Republică Poloneză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%A3%D1%87%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0_II." title="Рѣчь Посполита II. – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Рѣчь Посполита II." data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(1918%E2%80%941939)" title="Польская Республика (1918—1939) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Польская Республика (1918—1939)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Rep%C3%B9blica_de_Pol%C3%B2nia" title="Segunda Repùblica de Polònia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Segunda Repùblica de Polònia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Second Polish Republic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh%C3%A1_po%C4%BEsk%C3%A1_republika" title="Druhá poľská republika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Druhá poľská republika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%99%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Друга пољска република – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Друга пољска република" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druga_Poljska_Republika" title="Druga Poljska Republika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Druga Poljska Republika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puolan_toinen_tasavalta" title="Puolan toinen tasavalta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Puolan toinen tasavalta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andra_polska_republiken" title="Andra polska republiken – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Andra polska republiken" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%B0_%D2%96%D3%A9%D0%BC%D2%BB%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5_(1918%E2%80%941939)" title="Польша Җөмһүрияте (1918—1939) – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Польша Җөмһүрияте (1918—1939)" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88_2" title="สาธารณรัฐโปแลนด์ที่ 2 – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สาธารณรัฐโปแลนด์ที่ 2" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0kinci_Polonya_Cumhuriyeti" title="İkinci Polonya Cumhuriyeti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İkinci Polonya Cumhuriyeti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_(1918%E2%80%941939)" title="Польська Республіка (1918—1939) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Польська Республіка (1918—1939)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconda_Rep%C3%B9blega_de_Po%C5%82%C3%B2nia" title="Seconda Repùblega de Połònia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Seconda Repùblega de Połònia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%87_Nh%E1%BB%8B_C%E1%BB%99ng_h%C3%B2a_Ba_Lan" title="Đệ Nhị Cộng hòa Ba Lan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đệ Nhị Cộng hòa Ba Lan" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E8%98%AD%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B" title="波蘭第二共和國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="波蘭第二共和國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%85%B0%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD" title="波兰第二共和国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="波兰第二共和国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li 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