Smart Cities | An Open Access Journal from MDPI

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value="ijpb" > International Journal of Plant Biology (IJPB) </option> <option value="ijt" > International Journal of Topology </option> <option value="ijtm" > International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM) </option> <option value="ijtpp" > International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power (IJTPP) </option> <option value="ime" > International Medical Education (IME) </option> <option value="inventions" > Inventions </option> <option value="IoT" > IoT </option> <option value="ijgi" > ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information (IJGI) </option> <option value="J" > J </option> <option value="jal" > Journal of Ageing and Longevity (JAL) </option> <option value="jcdd" > Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD) </option> <option value="jcto" > Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology (JCTO) </option> <option value="jcm" > Journal of Clinical Medicine (JCM) </option> <option value="jcs" > Journal of Composites Science (J. 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Management (JRFM) </option> <option value="jsan" > Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks (JSAN) </option> <option value="joma" > Journal of the Oman Medical Association (JOMA) </option> <option value="jtaer" > Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER) </option> <option value="jvd" > Journal of Vascular Diseases (JVD) </option> <option value="jox" > Journal of Xenobiotics (JoX) </option> <option value="jzbg" > Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens (JZBG) </option> <option value="journalmedia" > Journalism and Media </option> <option value="kidneydial" > Kidney and Dialysis </option> <option value="kinasesphosphatases" > Kinases and Phosphatases </option> <option value="knowledge" > Knowledge </option> <option value="labmed" > LabMed </option> <option value="laboratories" > Laboratories </option> <option value="land" > Land </option> <option value="languages" > Languages </option> <option value="laws" > Laws </option> <option value="life" > Life 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Mathematics </option> <option value="medsci" > Medical Sciences </option> <option value="msf" > Medical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="medicina" > Medicina </option> <option value="medicines" > Medicines </option> <option value="membranes" > Membranes </option> <option value="merits" > Merits </option> <option value="metabolites" > Metabolites </option> <option value="metals" > Metals </option> <option value="meteorology" > Meteorology </option> <option value="methane" > Methane </option> <option value="mps" > Methods and Protocols (MPs) </option> <option value="metrics" > Metrics </option> <option value="metrology" > Metrology </option> <option value="micro" > Micro </option> <option value="microbiolres" > Microbiology Research </option> <option value="micromachines" > Micromachines </option> <option value="microorganisms" > Microorganisms </option> <option value="microplastics" > Microplastics </option> <option value="minerals" > Minerals </option> <option value="mining" > Mining </option> <option value="modelling" > Modelling </option> <option value="mmphys" > Modern Mathematical Physics </option> <option value="molbank" > Molbank </option> <option value="molecules" > Molecules </option> <option value="mti" > Multimodal Technologies and Interaction (MTI) </option> <option value="muscles" > Muscles </option> <option value="nanoenergyadv" > Nanoenergy Advances </option> <option value="nanomanufacturing" > Nanomanufacturing </option> <option value="nanomaterials" > Nanomaterials </option> <option value="ndt" > NDT </option> <option value="network" > Network </option> <option value="neuroglia" > Neuroglia </option> <option value="neurolint" > Neurology International </option> <option value="neurosci" > NeuroSci </option> <option value="nitrogen" > Nitrogen </option> <option value="ncrna" > Non-Coding RNA (ncRNA) </option> <option value="nursrep" > Nursing Reports </option> <option value="nutraceuticals" > Nutraceuticals </option> <option value="nutrients" > Nutrients </option> <option value="obesities" > Obesities </option> <option value="oceans" > Oceans </option> <option value="onco" > Onco </option> <option value="optics" > Optics </option> <option value="oral" > Oral </option> <option value="organics" > Organics </option> <option value="organoids" > Organoids </option> <option value="osteology" > Osteology </option> <option value="oxygen" > Oxygen </option> <option value="parasitologia" > Parasitologia </option> <option value="particles" > Particles </option> <option value="pathogens" > Pathogens </option> <option value="pathophysiology" > Pathophysiology </option> <option value="pediatrrep" > Pediatric Reports </option> <option value="pets" > Pets </option> <option value="pharmaceuticals" > Pharmaceuticals </option> <option value="pharmaceutics" > Pharmaceutics </option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology" > Pharmacoepidemiology </option> <option value="pharmacy" > Pharmacy </option> <option value="philosophies" > Philosophies 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Toxics </option> <option value="toxins" > Toxins </option> <option value="transplantology" > Transplantology </option> <option value="traumacare" > Trauma Care </option> <option value="higheredu" > Trends in Higher Education </option> <option value="tropicalmed" > Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed) </option> <option value="universe" > Universe </option> <option value="urbansci" > Urban Science </option> <option value="uro" > Uro </option> <option value="vaccines" > Vaccines </option> <option value="vehicles" > Vehicles </option> <option value="venereology" > Venereology </option> <option value="vetsci" > Veterinary Sciences </option> <option value="vibration" > Vibration </option> <option value="virtualworlds" > Virtual Worlds </option> <option value="viruses" > Viruses </option> <option value="vision" > Vision </option> <option value="waste" > Waste </option> <option value="water" > Water </option> <option value="wild" > Wild </option> <option value="wind" > Wind 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access journal on the science and technology of smart cities, published bimonthly online by MDPI. <ul> <li><span class="label openaccess"><a title="Open Access" href="https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess">Open Access</a></span>— free for readers, with <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/smartcities/apc">article processing charges (APC)</a> paid by authors or their institutions.</li> <li><strong>High Visibility:</strong> indexed within <a href="https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/21101068929">Scopus</a>, <a href="https://mjl.clarivate.com/search-results?issn=2624-6511&hide_exact_match_fl=true&utm_source=mjl&utm_medium=share-by-link&utm_campaign=search-results-share-this-journal">ESCI (Web of Science)</a>, <a href="https://inspec-direct.theiet.org/">Inspec</a>, <a href="https://agris.fao.org/">AGRIS</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/smartcities/indexing">other databases</a>.</li> <li><strong>Journal Rank:</strong> JCR - Q1 (Engineering, Electrical and Electronic) / CiteScore - Q1 (Urban Studies)</li> <li><strong>Rapid Publication:</strong> manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 25.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).</li> <li><strong>Recognition of Reviewers:</strong> reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.</li> </ul> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 15px;"> <strong>Impact Factor:</strong> 7.0 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 5.8 (2023) </div> <div> <a href="/journal/smartcities/imprint" class="UI_JournalImprintsInfoButton"> <i class="material-icons spaced-link">subject</i> Imprint Information </a>    <a href="/journal/smartcities/smartcities_flyer.pdf" class="UD_JournalFlyer"> <i class="material-icons spaced-link">get_app</i> Journal Flyer </a>     <a class="oa-link" href="https://www.mdpi.com/about/openaccess"> <i class="material icons spaced-link"></i> Open Access </a>     <strong> ISSN: 2624-6511 </strong> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container content__container--overflow-initial"> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link active"> <h2 class="no-padding-left">Latest Articles</h2> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content"> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item no-border"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 29 pages, 1973 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/139/pdf?version=1732626849" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Stochastic Scheduling of Grid-Connected Smart Energy Hubs Participating in the Day-Ahead Energy, Reactive Power and Reserve Markets" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/139">Stochastic Scheduling of Grid-Connected Smart Energy Hubs Participating in the Day-Ahead Energy, Reactive Power and Reserve Markets</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Sina Parhoudeh</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Pablo Eguía López</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Abdollah Kavousi Fard</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3587-3615; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060139">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060139</a> - 25 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> An Energy Hub (EH) is able to manage several types of energy at the same time by aggregating resources, storage devices, and responsive loads. Therefore, it is expected that energy efficiency is high. Hence, the optimal operation for smart EHs in energy (gas, <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/139/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> An Energy Hub (EH) is able to manage several types of energy at the same time by aggregating resources, storage devices, and responsive loads. Therefore, it is expected that energy efficiency is high. Hence, the optimal operation for smart EHs in energy (gas, electrical, and thermal) networks is discussed in this study based on their contribution to reactive power, the energy market, and day-ahead reservations. This scheme is presented in a smart bi-level optimization. In the upper level, the equations of linearized optimal power flow are used to minimize energy losses in the presented energy networks. The lower level considers the maximization of profits of smart EHs in the mentioned markets; it is based on the EH operational model of resource, responsive load, and storage devices, as well as the formulation of the reserve and flexible constraints. This paper uses the “Karush–Kuhn–Tucker” method for single-level model extraction. An “unscented transformation technique” is then applied in order to model the uncertainties associated with energy price, renewable energy, load, and energy consumed in mobile storage. The participation of hubs in the mentioned markets to improve their economic status and the technical status of the networks, modeling of the flexibility of the hubs, and using the unscented transformation method to model uncertainties are the innovations of this article. Finally, the extracted numerical results indicate the proposed model’s potential to improve EHs’ economic and flexibility status and the energy network’s performance compared to their load flow studies. As a result, energy loss, voltage, and temperature drop as operation indices are improved by 14.5%, 48.2%, and 46.2% compared to the load flow studies, in the case of 100% EH flexibility and their optimal economic situation extraction. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/139">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/139/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1528989"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1528989"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1528989" data-cycle-prev="#prev1528989" data-cycle-progressive="#images1528989" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1528989-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g001-550.jpg?1732626928" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1528989" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1528989-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g002a-550.jpg?1732626931'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1528989-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g002b-550.jpg?1732626932'><p>Figure 2 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1528989-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g003-550.jpg?1732626934'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1528989-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g004a-550.jpg?1732626936'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1528989-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g004b-550.jpg?1732626939'><p>Figure 4 Cont.</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1528989-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g001-550.jpg?1732626928" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The framework of the proposed scheme.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/139'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g002a-550.jpg?1732626931" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Studied test networks: (<b>a</b>) IEEE 69-bus network [<a href="#B4-smartcities-07-00139" class="html-bibr">4</a>], (<b>b</b>) 42-node thermal network [<a href="#B70-smartcities-07-00139" class="html-bibr">70</a>], (<b>c</b>) 4-node gas network [<a href="#B15-smartcities-07-00139" class="html-bibr">15</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/139'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g002b-550.jpg?1732626932" title=" <strong>Figure 2 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Studied test networks: (<b>a</b>) IEEE 69-bus network [<a href="#B4-smartcities-07-00139" class="html-bibr">4</a>], (<b>b</b>) 42-node thermal network [<a href="#B70-smartcities-07-00139" class="html-bibr">70</a>], (<b>c</b>) 4-node gas network [<a href="#B15-smartcities-07-00139" class="html-bibr">15</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/139'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g003-550.jpg?1732626934" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Active power, (<b>b</b>) reactive power, (<b>c</b>) thermal power, (<b>d</b>) gas power expected daily curve of sources, storage, and DRPs in ΔF = 0.05 p.u.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/139'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g004a-550.jpg?1732626936" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Expected daily curve of (<b>a</b>) active power, (<b>b</b>) reactive power, (<b>c</b>) thermal power, (<b>d</b>) gas power, (<b>e</b>) reserve power of EHs in ΔF = 0.05 p.u.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/139'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00139/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00139-g004b-550.jpg?1732626939" title=" <strong>Figure 4 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Expected daily curve of (<b>a</b>) active power, (<b>b</b>) reactive power, (<b>c</b>) thermal power, (<b>d</b>) gas power, (<b>e</b>) reserve power of EHs in ΔF = 0.05 p.u.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/139'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="extending-content content-ready"> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 40 pages, 15461 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/138/pdf?version=1732538697" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Enhancing Smart City Energy Efficiency with Ground Source Heat Pump Systems and Integrated Energy Piles" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/138">Enhancing Smart City Energy Efficiency with Ground Source Heat Pump Systems and Integrated Energy Piles</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Thiti Chanchayanon</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Susit Chaiprakaikeow</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Apiniti Jotisankasa</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Shinya Inazumi</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3547-3586; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060138">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060138</a> - 25 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This review examines the integration of ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems with energy piles as a sustainable approach to improving energy efficiency in smart cities. Energy piles, which combine structural support with geothermal heat exchange, offer significant advantages over conventional air source <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/138/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This review examines the integration of ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems with energy piles as a sustainable approach to improving energy efficiency in smart cities. Energy piles, which combine structural support with geothermal heat exchange, offer significant advantages over conventional air source heat pumps (ASHPs) by using stable ground temperatures for more efficient heating and cooling. System efficiency can be improved by integrating hybrid systems, cooling towers, and solar thermal systems. While the initial investment for GSHP systems is higher, their integration with energy piles significantly reduces electricity consumption and operating costs, providing a compelling solution for regions with high energy demand and escalating energy prices. Government financial incentives, including subsidies, loans, and tax rebates, can reduce payback periods to less than 10 years, encouraging the adoption of energy piles and GSHP systems. The paper analyzes heat transfer mechanisms in energy piles, particularly the role of groundwater circulation in improving heat dissipation and overall system performance. It also discusses optimized design considerations, performance metrics, and economics, highlighting the critical role of site-specific conditions from thorough site surveys and strategic planning of adaptive management to adjust system operations based on real-time demand in optimizing the benefits of geothermal energy systems. This review serves as a comprehensive guide for engineers and researchers in the effective application of energy piles within urban infrastructure, thereby supporting sustainable urban development and mitigating the urban heat island effect. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/138">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/138/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1528958"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1528958"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1528958" data-cycle-prev="#prev1528958" data-cycle-progressive="#images1528958" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g001-550.jpg?1732538848" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1528958" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g002-550.jpg?1732538849'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g003-550.jpg?1732538850'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g004-550.jpg?1732538851'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g005-550.jpg?1732538851'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g006-550.jpg?1732538852'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g007-550.jpg?1732538855'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g008-550.jpg?1732538857'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g009-550.jpg?1732538858'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g010-550.jpg?1732538859'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g011-550.jpg?1732538861'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g012-550.jpg?1732538862'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g013-550.jpg?1732538863'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g014-550.jpg?1732538864'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g015-550.jpg?1732538866'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g016-550.jpg?1732538866'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g017-550.jpg?1732538867'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g018-550.jpg?1732538869'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g019-550.jpg?1732538871'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g020-550.jpg?1732538873'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g021-550.jpg?1732538874'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g022-550.jpg?1732538875'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g023-550.jpg?1732538876'><p>Figure 23</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g024-550.jpg?1732538877'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g025-550.jpg?1732538878'><p>Figure 25</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='25' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g026-550.jpg?1732538879'><p>Figure 26</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='26' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g027-550.jpg?1732538880'><p>Figure 27</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='27' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g028-550.jpg?1732538881'><p>Figure 28</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='28' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g029-550.jpg?1732538882'><p>Figure 29</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='29' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g030-550.jpg?1732538885'><p>Figure 30</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='30' data-target='article-1528958-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g031-550.jpg?1732538886'><p>Figure 31</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1528958-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g001-550.jpg?1732538848" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Schematic of the components of an energy pile for small-to-medium residential units, consisting of four main elements: the geo-structure, the embedded heat exchanger, the heat pump unit, and the distribution system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g002-550.jpg?1732538849" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Sinusoidal pattern of ambient soil temperature, peaking in summer and bottoming out in winter [<a href="#B17-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g003-550.jpg?1732538850" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Heat transfer pathways in geomaterials, showing two primary mechanisms: heat convection (solid white arrows) through pore water movement and heat conduction (dashed white arrows) through solid soil particles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g004-550.jpg?1732538851" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Schematic of the Infinite Line Source (ILS) heat transfer model. The infinite line heat source dissipates heat into the surrounding soil mass.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g005-550.jpg?1732538851" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Schematic of the Cylindrical Source (CS) heat transfer model. The infinitely long cylindrical heat source transfers heat to the surrounding soil mass.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g006-550.jpg?1732538852" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Schematic of the finite line source (FLS) heat transfer model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g007-550.jpg?1732538855" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Summary of roles, responsibilities, and key considerations for HVAC, GSHP, and foundation designers in energy pile projects.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g008-550.jpg?1732538857" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Summary of engineering factors affecting the thermal performance of energy piles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g009-550.jpg?1732538858" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of flow characteristics in heat exchangers: (<b>A</b>) Laminar flow, characterized by smooth, orderly flow with parallel layers, (<b>B</b>) transitional flow, showing a combination of laminar and turbulent patterns with moderate fluctuations, and (<b>C</b>) turbulent flow, characterized by chaotic, irregular motion with eddies and swirls. These flow regimes are distinguished by their Reynolds numbers, which affect the heat transfer efficiency of the system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g010-550.jpg?1732538859" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Schematic representation of commonly used heat exchanger configurations in energy piles: (<b>A</b>) multiple bends for large bore piles, (<b>B</b>) single U-tube, (<b>C</b>) double U-tube, (<b>D</b>) parallel double U-tube, and (<b>E</b>) spiral heat exchanger. Each configuration provides different heat transfer characteristics and efficiencies to suit different soil conditions and thermal requirements in geothermal heat pump systems.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g011-550.jpg?1732538861" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Photographs of cylindrical (<b>a</b>) and multiple U-tube (<b>b</b>) assemblies integrated with rebar of an energy bore pile at a construction site. The images show the practical implementation of these configurations, highlighting the arrangement of the heat exchanger tubes within the rebar cage [<a href="#B16-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">16</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g012-550.jpg?1732538862" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of energy pile interconnection configurations: a series configuration allows heat transfer fluid to flow from one pile to the next, accommodating a wide range of temperature differences, while a parallel configuration interconnects multiple energy piles, allowing simultaneous higher fluid flow through each pile.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g013-550.jpg?1732538863" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of shank spacing between heat exchanger tubes embedded in energy piles, showing thermal short-circuiting as the direct transfer of heat between closely spaced tubes that reduces the effectiveness of heat dissipation into the ground. Adequate spacing is essential to prevent thermal shorts.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g014-550.jpg?1732538864" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Thermally induced strain of energy piles under free expansion: (<b>a</b>) expansion due to heating, (<b>b</b>) contraction due to cooling; and thermally induced stress of fully restrained energy piles: (<b>c</b>) stress due to heating, (<b>d</b>) stress due to cooling.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g015-550.jpg?1732538866" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Energy pile arrangements: (<b>a</b>) 4-pile configuration and (<b>b</b>) 9-pile group with a spacing factor of 4, used in the simulation to study the thermal penalty effect [<a href="#B56-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">56</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g016-550.jpg?1732538866" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Time evolution of (<b>a</b>) power per unit pile length and (<b>b</b>) power reduction coefficient for 0.9 m diameter piles in a 2 × 2 group configuration [<a href="#B56-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">56</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g017-550.jpg?1732538867" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Time evolution of (<b>a</b>) power per unit pile length and (<b>b</b>) power reduction coefficient for 0.9 m diameter piles in a 3 × 3 group configuration [<a href="#B56-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">56</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g018-550.jpg?1732538869" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Diagram showing the installation process of energy pile heat exchangers: (<b>a</b>) install the pressure gauge for initial pressurization and (<b>b</b>) connect the compressor to the HDPE pipe. These images capture critical steps to ensure proper setup and functionality of the heat exchanger system prior to full operational testing.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g019-550.jpg?1732538871" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Photographs showing (<b>a</b>) the stable pressure achieved after the second pressurization prior to concreting and (<b>b</b>) the installation of a temperature sensor for long-term monitoring of the energy pile. These images illustrate critical steps in ensuring accurate temperature measurements and verifying the integrity of the heat exchange system prior to pouring concrete.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g020-550.jpg?1732538873" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Diagram showing the energy pile concrete pour and (<b>b</b>) photographs showing the solidified concrete 24 h after pouring.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g021-550.jpg?1732538874" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Relationship between shear strength and normal stress under thermal loads of 10 °C, 24 °C, and 60 °C for (<b>a</b>) sand–concrete interface, showing minimal effect of thermal change on skin friction and friction angle, and (<b>b</b>) clay–concrete interface, showing a 63% increase in skin friction strength [<a href="#B71-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">71</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g022-550.jpg?1732538875" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Results of the undrained compression triaxial test on (<b>a</b>) normally consolidated and (<b>b</b>) over-consolidated soft Bangkok clay specimens (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>′</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 300 kPa) at different temperatures [<a href="#B72-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">72</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g023-550.jpg?1732538876" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Results of undrained compression triaxial tests on soft clay specimens subjected to different cyclic temperature levels [<a href="#B72-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">72</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g024-550.jpg?1732538877" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>Results of undrained compression triaxial tests on normally consolidated soil tested under static temperatures and thermal heating/cooling cycles [<a href="#B72-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">72</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g025-550.jpg?1732538878" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>Thermally induced volume changes at different stress levels and OCR, showing the irreversible contraction of normally consolidated clay and the reversible expansion of over-consolidated clay [<a href="#B72-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">72</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g026-550.jpg?1732538879" title=" <strong>Figure 26</strong><br/> <p>Trends in measured and calculated hydraulic permeability of Bangkok clay specimens at different temperatures [<a href="#B79-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">79</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g027-550.jpg?1732538880" title=" <strong>Figure 27</strong><br/> <p>Excess pore water pressure from undrained compression triaxial tests on (<b>a</b>) normally consolidated and (<b>b</b>) over-consolidated soft Bangkok clay specimens (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>′</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 300 kPa) at different temperatures [<a href="#B72-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">72</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g028-550.jpg?1732538881" title=" <strong>Figure 28</strong><br/> <p>Excess pore water pressure from undrained compression triaxial tests under thermal cyclic loading [<a href="#B72-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">72</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g029-550.jpg?1732538882" title=" <strong>Figure 29</strong><br/> <p>Thermally induced groundwater circulation pattern around a single ground heat exchanger [<a href="#B80-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">80</a>,<a href="#B81-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">81</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g030-550.jpg?1732538885" title=" <strong>Figure 30</strong><br/> <p>The life cycle stages of the project and the costs associated with each stage.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00138/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00138-g031-550.jpg?1732538886" title=" <strong>Figure 31</strong><br/> <p>Cumulative cost and cost payback time (CPT) for each scenario [<a href="#B84-smartcities-07-00138" class="html-bibr">84</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/138'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 36 pages, 11665 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/137/pdf?version=1732095887" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Community Twin Ecosystem for Disaster Resilient Communities" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/137">Community Twin Ecosystem for Disaster Resilient Communities</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Furkan Luleci</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Alican Sevim</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Eren Erman Ozguven</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>F. Necati Catbas</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3511-3546; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060137">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060137</a> - 20 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This paper presents COWIN<sup>E</sup> (Community Twin Ecosystem), an ecosystem that harnesses Digital Twin (DT) to elevate and transform community resilience strategies. COWIN<sup>E</sup> aims to enhance the disaster resilience of communities by fostering collaborative participation in the use of its DT among the <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/137/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This paper presents COWIN<sup>E</sup> (Community Twin Ecosystem), an ecosystem that harnesses Digital Twin (DT) to elevate and transform community resilience strategies. COWIN<sup>E</sup> aims to enhance the disaster resilience of communities by fostering collaborative participation in the use of its DT among the decision-makers, the general public, and other involved stakeholders. COWIN<sup>E</sup> leverages Cities:Skylines as its base simulation engine integrated with real-world data for community DT development. It is capable of capturing the dynamic, intricate, and interconnected structures of communities to provide actionable insights into disaster resilience planning. Through demonstrative, simulation-based case studies on Brevard County, Florida, the paper illustrates COWIN<sup>E</sup>’s collaborative use with the involved parties in managing tornado scenarios. This study demonstrates how COWIN<sup>E</sup> supports the identification of vulnerable areas, the execution of adaptive strategies, and the efficient allocation of resources before, during, and after a disaster. This paper further explores potential research directions using COWIN<sup>E</sup>. The findings show COWIN<sup>E</sup>’s potential to be utilized as a collaborative tool for community disaster resilience management. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/137">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Topic <a href="/topics/B7RTHB9527">Digital and Intelligent Technologies and Application in Urban Construction, Operation, Maintenance, and Renewal</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/137/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1525000"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1525000"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1525000" data-cycle-prev="#prev1525000" data-cycle-progressive="#images1525000" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g001-550.jpg?1732096025" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1525000" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g002-550.jpg?1732096027'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g003-550.jpg?1732096029'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g004-550.jpg?1732096031'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g005-550.jpg?1732096033'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g006-550.jpg?1732096034'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g007-550.jpg?1732096036'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g008-550.jpg?1732096037'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g009-550.jpg?1732096039'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g010-550.jpg?1732096040'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g011-550.jpg?1732096042'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g012-550.jpg?1732096044'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g013-550.jpg?1732096046'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g014-550.jpg?1732096048'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1525000-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g015-550.jpg?1732096051'><p>Figure 15</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1525000-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g001-550.jpg?1732096025" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Graphical abstract: Community Twin Ecosystem (COWIN<sup>E</sup>) showcasing its components with interactions. For the observed data and action items lines, the dashed line represents the interaction of decision-makers &amp; stakeholders, and the public with the DT’s user interface; the solid line represents the interaction with the physical entity.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g002-550.jpg?1732096027" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Five-dimensional DT structure: <span class="html-italic">DD</span> is the DT Data, <span class="html-italic">PE</span> is the Physical Entity, <span class="html-italic">VE</span> is the Virtual Entity, <span class="html-italic">Ss</span> is the Services, and <span class="html-italic">CN<sub>PE-Ss/PE-DD/PE-VE/Ss-DD/VE-DD/Ss-VE</sub></span> is the Connection dimensions.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g003-550.jpg?1732096029" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Schematic structure of COWIN<sup>E</sup>. See <a href="#smartcities-07-00137-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a> and <a href="#smartcities-07-00137-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a> for additional information about five-dimensional DT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g004-550.jpg?1732096031" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Position of COWINE’s DT in the five-dimensional DT concept.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g005-550.jpg?1732096033" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>COWINE’s pilot region in Brevard County, Florida: Broader area of Merritt Island and Cocoa.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g006-550.jpg?1732096034" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Data sources utilized in developing the DT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g007-550.jpg?1732096036" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Some of the real-world commercial places included in DT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g008-550.jpg?1732096037" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Process of importing the topographic map of the pilot region into the base simulation engine.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g009-550.jpg?1732096039" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Some example illustrations of the Image Overlay Renewal mod “ON” (<b>top left</b>) vs. “OFF” (<b>top right</b>) and views of the Route 528 bridge in Google Earth and COWIN<sup>E</sup>’s DT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g010-550.jpg?1732096040" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Hypothetical resilience curve illustrating the core resilience properties.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g011-550.jpg?1732096042" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Collaborative use of DT before the tornado.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g012-550.jpg?1732096044" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Collaborative use of DT during the tornado.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g013-550.jpg?1732096046" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Collaborative use of DT after the tornado.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g014-550.jpg?1732096048" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Wildfires caused by lightning strikes during the tornado in the pilot region: (<b>a</b>) Fire at the intersection of Eyster and Rockledge Boulevard during the strike of the tornado at the bridge; (<b>b</b>) Fire near SpaceX Rocket Assembly Site; (<b>c</b>) Before the fire map view in Google Earth; (<b>d</b>) After the fire map view in COWIN<sup>E</sup>’s DT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00137/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00137-g015-550.jpg?1732096051" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Future research subjects on community dimensions via COWIN<sup>E</sup> (only two related community dimensions are shown in the research subjects).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/137'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 3279 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/136/pdf?version=1731997964" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Peer-to-Peer Transactive Energy Trading of Smart Homes/Buildings Contributed by A Cloud Energy Storage System" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/136">Peer-to-Peer Transactive Energy Trading of Smart Homes/Buildings Contributed by A Cloud Energy Storage System</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Shalau Farhad Hussein</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Sajjad Golshannavaz</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zhiyi Li</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3489-3510; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060136">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060136</a> - 18 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This paper presents a model for transactive energy management within microgrids (MGs) that include smart homes and buildings. The model focuses on peer-to-peer (P2P) transactive energy management among these homes, establishing a collaborative use of a cloud energy storage system (CESS) to reduce <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/136/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This paper presents a model for transactive energy management within microgrids (MGs) that include smart homes and buildings. The model focuses on peer-to-peer (P2P) transactive energy management among these homes, establishing a collaborative use of a cloud energy storage system (CESS) to reduce daily energy costs for both smart homes and MGs. This research assesses how smart homes and buildings can effectively utilize CESS while implementing P2P transactive energy management. Additionally, it explores the potential of a solar rooftop parking lot facility that offers charging and discharging services for plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) within the MG. Controllable and non-controllable appliances, along with air conditioning (AC) systems, are managed by a home energy management (HEM) system to optimize energy interactions within daily scheduling. A linear mathematical framework is developed across three scenarios and solved using General Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS 24.1.2) software for optimization. The developed model investigates the operational impacts and optimization opportunities of CESS within smart homes and MGs. It also develops a transactive energy framework in a P2P energy trading market embedded with CESS and analyzes the cost-effectiveness and arbitrage driven by CESS integration. The results of the comparative analysis reveal that integrating CESS within the P2P transactive framework not only opens up further technical opportunities but also significantly reduces MG energy costs from $55.01 to $48.64, achieving an 11.57% improvement. Results are further discussed. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/136">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/smartcities/sections/Smart_Grids">Smart Grids</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/136/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1523636"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1523636"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1523636" data-cycle-prev="#prev1523636" data-cycle-progressive="#images1523636" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g001-550.jpg?1731998030" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1523636" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g002-550.jpg?1731998032'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g003-550.jpg?1731998033'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g004-550.jpg?1731998034'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g005-550.jpg?1731998035'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g006-550.jpg?1731998036'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g007-550.jpg?1731998037'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g008-550.jpg?1731998038'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g009-550.jpg?1731998040'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g010-550.jpg?1731998041'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g011a-550.jpg?1731998044'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g011b-550.jpg?1731998045'><p>Figure 11 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1523636-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g012-550.jpg?1731998047'><p>Figure 12</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1523636-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g001-550.jpg?1731998030" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The proposed four-level P2P transactive energy management framework.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g002-550.jpg?1731998032" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Schematic of the MG, smart home/building, and CESS interactions.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g003-550.jpg?1731998033" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Number of residents in smart homes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g004-550.jpg?1731998034" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Generated power of PV.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g005-550.jpg?1731998035" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Load profile of smart home non-controllable appliances.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g006-550.jpg?1731998036" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>CESS investment pay-back period and cash-flow analysis in the MG.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g007-550.jpg?1731998037" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>P2P transactive energy between smart homes in scenario 3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g008-550.jpg?1731998038" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Power flow of smart homes in scenario 3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g009-550.jpg?1731998040" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>MG energy consumption in scenarios 2 and 3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g010-550.jpg?1731998041" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Optimal use of CESS in scenario 3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g011a-550.jpg?1731998044" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Participation of smart homes in optimal utilization of CESS in scenario 3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g011b-550.jpg?1731998045" title=" <strong>Figure 11 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Participation of smart homes in optimal utilization of CESS in scenario 3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00136/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00136-g012-550.jpg?1731998047" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Optimal operation of parking lot in scenario 3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/136'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 31 pages, 3497 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/135/pdf?version=1731410774" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="How 3D Printing Technology Makes Cities Smarter: A Review, Thematic Analysis, and Perspectives" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/135">How 3D Printing Technology Makes Cities Smarter: A Review, Thematic Analysis, and Perspectives</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Lapyote Prasittisopin</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3458-3488; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060135">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060135</a> - 12 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This paper presents a comprehensive review of the transformative impacts of 3D printing technology on smart cities. As cities face rapid urbanization, resource shortages, and environmental degradation, innovative solutions such as additive manufacturing (AM) offer potential pathways for sustainable urban development. By synthesizing <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/135/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This paper presents a comprehensive review of the transformative impacts of 3D printing technology on smart cities. As cities face rapid urbanization, resource shortages, and environmental degradation, innovative solutions such as additive manufacturing (AM) offer potential pathways for sustainable urban development. By synthesizing 66 publications from 2015 to 2024, the study examines how 3D printing improves urban infrastructure, enhances sustainability, and fosters community engagement in city planning. Key benefits of 3D printing include reducing construction time and material waste, lowering costs, and enabling the creation of scalable, affordable housing solutions. The paper also addresses emerging areas such as the integration of 3D printing with digital twins (DTs), machine learning (ML), and AI to optimize urban infrastructure and predictive maintenance. It highlights the use of smart materials and soft robotics for structural health monitoring (SHM) and repairs. Despite the promising advancements, challenges remain in terms of cost, scalability, and the need for interdisciplinary collaboration among engineers, designers, urban planners, and policymakers. The findings suggest a roadmap for future research and practical applications of 3D printing in smart cities, contributing to the ongoing discourse on sustainable and technologically advanced urban development. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/135">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Topic <a href="/topics/1QQN8GMG0O">Smart Cities: Infrastructure, Innovation, Technology, Governance and Citizenship</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/135/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1519192"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1519192"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1519192" data-cycle-prev="#prev1519192" data-cycle-progressive="#images1519192" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g001-550.jpg?1731410857" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1519192" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g002-550.jpg?1731410859'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g003-550.jpg?1731410860'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g004-550.jpg?1731410861'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g005-550.jpg?1731410862'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g006-550.jpg?1731410864'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g007-550.jpg?1731410865'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g008-550.jpg?1731410866'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1519192-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g009-550.jpg?1731410867'><p>Figure 9</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1519192-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g001-550.jpg?1731410857" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Cost reduction of using 3D printing for construction (source: by author).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g002-550.jpg?1731410859" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>The review approach obtained using the PRISMA guidelines (source: by author). * sources from Scopus, Google scholar, and Pubmed databases.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g003-550.jpg?1731410860" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Number of publications published and keywords used each year from 2015–2024 (SM = smart manufacturing; Mat = smart material, SHM = structural health monitoring, Al = artificial intelligence, IND = Industry 4.0, DT = digital twin, RP = repair, ML = machine learning, and WR = wire-arc additive manufacturing) (source: by author).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g004-550.jpg?1731410861" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Count of keywords used in this literature review (source: by author).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g005-550.jpg?1731410862" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Current technological aspects related to 3D printing for smart city context (source: by author).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g006-550.jpg?1731410864" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Three-dimensional printing process with DTs, where the DTs can be implemented in the renovation and interior of existing buildings (source: by author).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g007-550.jpg?1731410865" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Outline of 3D printing in smart city in Industry 4.0, where mass customization is the key for the future of digital construction cities (source: by author).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g008-550.jpg?1731410866" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>The 3D printed plantoid robot and its systems (source: by author).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00135/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00135-g009-550.jpg?1731410867" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Generic smart wire-arc systems using 3D printing process (source: by author).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/135'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 21 pages, 3077 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/134/pdf?version=1731241425" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Drone-Assisted Last-Mile Delivery Under Windy Conditions: Zero Pollution Solutions" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/134">Drone-Assisted Last-Mile Delivery Under Windy Conditions: Zero Pollution Solutions</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Özlem Gürel</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Seyda Serdarasan</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3437-3457; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060134">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060134</a> - 10 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> As cities expand and the global push for zero pollution intensifies, sustainable last-mile delivery (LMD) systems are essential to minimizing environmental and health impacts. This study addresses the need for more sustainable LMD by examining the integration of wind conditions into drone-assisted deliveries, <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/134/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> As cities expand and the global push for zero pollution intensifies, sustainable last-mile delivery (LMD) systems are essential to minimizing environmental and health impacts. This study addresses the need for more sustainable LMD by examining the integration of wind conditions into drone-assisted deliveries, focusing on their effects on air and noise pollution in urban areas. We extend the flying sidekick traveling salesman problem (FSTSP) by incorporating meteorological factors, specifically wind, to assess drone delivery efficiency in varying conditions. Our results show that while drones significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to traditional delivery vehicles, their contribution to noise pollution remains a concern. This research highlights the environmental advantages of using drones, particularly in reducing CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, while also emphasizing the need for further investigation into mitigating their noise impact. By evaluating the trade-offs between air and noise pollution, this study provides insights into developing more sustainable, health-conscious delivery models that contribute to smart city initiatives. The findings inform policy, urban planning, and logistics strategies aimed at achieving zero pollution goals and improving urban livability. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/134">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/smartcities/special_issues/4L1G3BU80W ">City Logistics and Smart Cities: Models, Approaches and Planning</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/134/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1517987"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1517987"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1517987" data-cycle-prev="#prev1517987" data-cycle-progressive="#images1517987" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g001-550.jpg?1731241490" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1517987" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g002-550.jpg?1731241495'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g003-550.jpg?1731241497'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g004-550.jpg?1731241498'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g005a-550.jpg?1731241500'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g005b-550.jpg?1731241501'><p>Figure 5 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g006a-550.jpg?1731241502'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g006b-550.jpg?1731241503'><p>Figure 6 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1517987-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g007-550.jpg?1731241505'><p>Figure 7</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1517987-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g001-550.jpg?1731241490" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The relationship between air speed, ground speed, and wind speed while the drone travels to the arc (<span class="html-italic">i</span>, <span class="html-italic">j</span>) and the wind blowing from the north.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g002-550.jpg?1731241495" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Locations of the warehouse (in blue) and sample pharmacies (in red).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g003-550.jpg?1731241497" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Delivery time comparison across delivery scenarios: under northerly (N), northwesterly (NW), southwesterly (SW), and southerly (S) wind across Beaufort scales 2 to 5.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g004-550.jpg?1731241498" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of cumulative energy consumption for diesel and electric vehicles across delivery scenarios.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g005a-550.jpg?1731241500" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of route cost for diesel and electric vehicles across delivery scenarios.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g005b-550.jpg?1731241501" title=" <strong>Figure 5 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of route cost for diesel and electric vehicles across delivery scenarios.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g006a-550.jpg?1731241502" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions for diesel and electric vehicles across delivery scenarios.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g006b-550.jpg?1731241503" title=" <strong>Figure 6 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions for diesel and electric vehicles across delivery scenarios.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00134/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00134-g007-550.jpg?1731241505" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of noise levels (dBs) across delivery scenarios.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/134'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 25 pages, 3169 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/133/pdf?version=1731059514" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Radian Scaling and Its Application to Enhance Electricity Load Forecasting in Smart Cities Against Concept Drift" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/133">Radian Scaling and Its Application to Enhance Electricity Load Forecasting in Smart Cities Against Concept Drift</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mohd Hafizuddin Bin Kamilin</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Shingo Yamaguchi</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mohd Anuaruddin Bin Ahmadon</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3412-3436; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060133">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060133</a> - 8 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> In a real-world implementation, machine learning models frequently experience concept drift when forecasting the electricity load. This is due to seasonal changes influencing the scale, mean, and median values found in the input data, changing their distribution. Several methods have been proposed to <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/133/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> In a real-world implementation, machine learning models frequently experience concept drift when forecasting the electricity load. This is due to seasonal changes influencing the scale, mean, and median values found in the input data, changing their distribution. Several methods have been proposed to solve this, such as implementing automated model retraining, feature engineering, and ensemble learning. The biggest drawback, however, is that they are too complex for simple implementation in existing projects. Since the drifted data follow the same pattern as the training dataset in terms of having different scale, mean, and median values, radian scaling was proposed as a new way to scale without relying on these values. It works by converting the difference between the two sequential values into a radian for the model to compute, removing the bounding, and allowing the model to forecast beyond the training dataset scale. In the experiment, not only does the constrained gated recurrent unit model with radian scaling have shorter average training epochs, but it also lowers the average root mean square error from 158.63 to 43.375, outperforming the best existing normalization method by 72.657%. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/133">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/133/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1516842"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1516842"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1516842" data-cycle-prev="#prev1516842" data-cycle-progressive="#images1516842" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g001-550.jpg?1731059703" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1516842" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g002-550.jpg?1731059704'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g003-550.jpg?1731059706'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g004-550.jpg?1731059707'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g005-550.jpg?1731059710'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g006-550.jpg?1731059711'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g007-550.jpg?1731059712'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g008-550.jpg?1731059712'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g009-550.jpg?1731059713'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g010-550.jpg?1731059715'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g011-550.jpg?1731059716'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g012-550.jpg?1731059717'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g013-550.jpg?1731059718'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g014-550.jpg?1731059719'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g015-550.jpg?1731059720'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g016-550.jpg?1731059722'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g017-550.jpg?1731059724'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g018-550.jpg?1731059726'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g019-550.jpg?1731059726'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g020-550.jpg?1731059727'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g021-550.jpg?1731059729'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g022-550.jpg?1731059730'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1516842-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g023-550.jpg?1731059731'><p>Figure 23</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1516842-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g001-550.jpg?1731059703" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>A concept drift example illustrates the gradual drift in electricity load forecasting due to the seasonal changes with a similar midday-to-midnight pattern.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g002-550.jpg?1731059704" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Comparison between the previous normalization methods and radian scaling. (<b>a</b>) Previous methods rely on either scale, mean, or median for normalization. (<b>b</b>) Radian scaling relies on the radian from the current to the next value for normalization.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g003-550.jpg?1731059706" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>The electricity load dataset for the Long Island zone managed by the New York Independent System Operator shows a noticeable seasonal drift during the summer season.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g004-550.jpg?1731059707" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Although the electricity load dataset exhibits sporadic missing values, it contains many outliers found using the interquartile range.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g005-550.jpg?1731059710" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Recurrent Neural Network model and its variants for many-to-many forecasting scenarios. (<b>a</b>) Recurrent Neural Network model implementation. (<b>b</b>) Long Short-Term Memory model implementation. (<b>c</b>) Gated Recurrent Unit model implementation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g006-550.jpg?1731059711" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Temporal Convolutional Network model for many-to-many forecasting scenarios.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g007-550.jpg?1731059712" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Transformer model for many-to-many forecasting scenarios.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g008-550.jpg?1731059712" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>The linear time constraint ensures the radian value <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>θ</mi> </semantics></math> will never exceed the straight angle on the y-axis.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g009-550.jpg?1731059713" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>The radian value <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> was calculated from the difference of two consecutive values, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>, with <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> as the time step difference.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g010-550.jpg?1731059715" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>The frequency of radian <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>θ</mi> </semantics></math> obtained from the Long Island’s electricity load dataset exhibits bimodal distribution when calculated with Equation (<a href="#FD5-smartcities-07-00133" class="html-disp-formula">5</a>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g011-550.jpg?1731059716" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>The quantile–quantile plot on the radian <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>θ</mi> </semantics></math> calculated with Equation (<a href="#FD5-smartcities-07-00133" class="html-disp-formula">5</a>) supports the Shapiro–Wilk test rejection on the null hypothesis (<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <msub> <mn>0</mn> <mn>1</mn> </msub> </msub> </semantics></math>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g012-550.jpg?1731059717" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>As the difference between two consecutive values, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>, increases, the effective constant <span class="html-italic">k</span> to allow more radian <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>θ</mi> </semantics></math> to fall before the knee of a curve will increase.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g013-550.jpg?1731059718" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>The frequency of radian <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> exhibits unimodal distribution when calculated with Equation (<a href="#FD7-smartcities-07-00133" class="html-disp-formula">7</a>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g014-550.jpg?1731059719" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Quantile–quantile plot shows less deviation with radian <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> calculated with Equation (<a href="#FD7-smartcities-07-00133" class="html-disp-formula">7</a>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g015-550.jpg?1731059720" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Two samples were taken from the Long Island dataset, representing the training dataset and one of the concept drift occurrences in the evaluation dataset.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g016-550.jpg?1731059722" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>The distribution of the normalized values, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>, using min–max normalization, z-score normalization, robust scaling, and radian scaling on the training dataset.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g017-550.jpg?1731059724" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>The distribution of the normalized values, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>, using min–max normalization, z-score normalization, robust scaling, and radian scaling on the concept drift sample.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g018-550.jpg?1731059726" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>The normalized values, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>, using radian scaling on the training dataset and the concept drift sample exhibits similar distribution shapes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g019-550.jpg?1731059726" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Radian scaling application in “Transform” and “Inverse Transform” modules with a mandatory imputation mechanism.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g020-550.jpg?1731059727" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Fourth Gated Recurrent Unit model with Z-score normalization represents the worst average forecasting accuracy on the evaluation dataset, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g021-550.jpg?1731059729" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Second Gated Recurrent Unit model with min–max normalization represents the best average forecasting accuracy using the previous method on the evaluation dataset, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g022-550.jpg?1731059730" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>First Gated Recurrent Unit model with the proposed radian scaling represents the best average forecasting accuracy on the evaluation dataset, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00133/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00133-g023-550.jpg?1731059731" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>The critical difference diagram computed on <a href="#smartcities-07-00133-t0A2" class="html-table">Table A2</a> shows that ANN models that use radian scaling significantly perform better.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/133'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 24 pages, 4449 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/132/pdf?version=1730963221" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Solar Power Generation Forecasting in Smart Cities and Explanation Based on Explainable AI" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/132">Solar Power Generation Forecasting in Smart Cities and Explanation Based on Explainable AI</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ovanes Petrosian</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yuyi Zhang</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3388-3411; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060132">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060132</a> - 7 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The application of black-box models, namely ensemble and deep learning, has significantly advanced the effectiveness of solar power generation forecasting. However, these models lack explainability, which hinders comprehensive investigations into environmental influences. To address this limitation, we employ explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) techniques <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/132/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The application of black-box models, namely ensemble and deep learning, has significantly advanced the effectiveness of solar power generation forecasting. However, these models lack explainability, which hinders comprehensive investigations into environmental influences. To address this limitation, we employ explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) techniques to enhance the interpretability of these black-box models, while ensuring their predictive accuracy. We carefully selected 10 prominent black-box models and deployed them using real solar power datasets. Within the field of artificial intelligence, it is crucial to adhere to standardized usage procedures to guarantee unbiased performance evaluations. Consequently, our investigation identifies LightGBM as the model that requires explanation. In a practical engineering context, we utilize XAI methods to extract understandable insights from the selected model, shedding light on the varying degrees of impact exerted by diverse environmental factors on solar power generation. This approach facilitates a nuanced analysis of the influence of the environment. Our findings underscore the significance of “Distance from the Noon” as the primary factor influencing solar power generation, which exhibits a clear interaction with “Sky Cover.” By leveraging the outcomes of our analyses, we propose optimal locations for solar power stations, thereby offering a tangible pathway for the practical. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/132">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/132/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1515702"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1515702"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1515702" data-cycle-prev="#prev1515702" data-cycle-progressive="#images1515702" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g001-550.jpg?1730963327" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1515702" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g002-550.jpg?1730963328'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g003-550.jpg?1730963328'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g004-550.jpg?1730963329'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g005-550.jpg?1730963330'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g006-550.jpg?1730963331'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g007-550.jpg?1730963331'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g008-550.jpg?1730963333'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g009-550.jpg?1730963334'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g010-550.jpg?1730963335'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g011-550.jpg?1730963337'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g012-550.jpg?1730963338'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g013-550.jpg?1730963338'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g014-550.jpg?1730963340'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g015-550.jpg?1730963341'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1515702-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g016-550.jpg?1730963343'><p>Figure 16</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1515702-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g001-550.jpg?1730963327" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Components of machine learning and their constituent relationships.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g002-550.jpg?1730963328" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>The modeling process of statistical and machine learning.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g003-550.jpg?1730963328" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Example of growing Boosting trees. CatBoost (<b>left</b>); XGBoost (<b>middle</b>); LightGBM (<b>right</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g004-550.jpg?1730963329" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Network structure of an ANN.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g005-550.jpg?1730963330" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Network structure of a traditional RNN.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g006-550.jpg?1730963331" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Neuron structure of LSTM (<b>left</b>) and GRU (<b>right</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g007-550.jpg?1730963331" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Network structure of a Bi-RNN-based model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g008-550.jpg?1730963333" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Visualization of variable information. The blue area is the histogram of the data and the orange represents the kernel density curve. (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Categorical variables; (<b>c</b>–<b>h</b>) numeric variables. The “Hour” variable represents time and has a fixed pattern, so it is not shown here; it is recorded every 3 h. It should be noted that the value of “Distance to Solar Noon” is normalized to [0,1] in order to make the training process of the neural network converge faster. Classification of Sky Cover in (<b>b</b>) 0–10%: sunny (0); 10–30%: mostly sunny (1); 30–60%: partly cloudy (2); 60–90%: mostly cloudy (3); 90–100%: overcast (4).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g009-550.jpg?1730963334" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Correlation between variables.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g010-550.jpg?1730963335" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Visualization of the forecast results of LightGBM and RNN. The red area shows the fit performance of these models for nighttime generation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g011-550.jpg?1730963337" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Example of local explanation results. Red represents positive impacts and blue represents negative impacts. The horizontal axis represents the SHAP values, while the vertical axis displays the names and values of each variable. The numerical value of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> represents the forecasting of LightGBM at that moment. In practice, it is not possible to enumerate all the factors that affect solar power generation. Therefore, a concept of BASELINE is assumed in SHAP, represented by <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>E</mi> <mfenced separators="" open="[" close="]"> <mi>f</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math>, with which those influences that are not taken into account are represented. Here, it is represented by the average of all forecast values.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g012-550.jpg?1730963338" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Example of global explanation results.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g013-550.jpg?1730963338" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Global dynamic explanation. The left vertical axis shows the name of the variable and the right color bar from blue to red represents the variable’s value from small to large. The horizontal axis represents the SHAP value, indicating the importance or contribution of the variable to the forecasting results.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g014-550.jpg?1730963340" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Interaction effects of continuous variables on forecasting results. Red represents positive impacts and blue represents negative impacts. The gray shading demonstrates the distribution of the corresponding variables, details of which can be viewed in <a href="#smartcities-07-00132-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g015-550.jpg?1730963341" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Interaction effects of discrete variables on forecasting results. Red represents positive impacts and blue represents negative impacts.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00132/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00132-g016-550.jpg?1730963343" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Suggested locations (point 1 and point 2) for power plant siting.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/132'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 17 pages, 1199 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/131/pdf?version=1730958436" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Hypervector Approximation of Complex Manifolds for Artificial Intelligence Digital Twins in Smart Cities" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/131">Hypervector Approximation of Complex Manifolds for Artificial Intelligence Digital Twins in Smart Cities</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Sachin Kahawala</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Nuwan Madhusanka</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Daswin De Silva</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Evgeny Osipov</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Nishan Mills</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Milos Manic</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Andrew Jennings</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3371-3387; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060131">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060131</a> - 7 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 aims to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Smart cities have been studied extensively as an overarching framework to address the needs of increasing urbanisation and the targets of SDG 11. Digital <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/131/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 aims to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Smart cities have been studied extensively as an overarching framework to address the needs of increasing urbanisation and the targets of SDG 11. Digital twins and artificial intelligence are foundational technologies that enable the rapid prototyping, development and deployment of systems and solutions within this overarching framework of smart cities. In this paper, we present a novel AI approach for hypervector approximation of complex manifolds in high-dimensional datasets and data streams such as those encountered in smart city settings. This approach is based on hypervectors, few-shot learning and a learning rule based on single-vector operation that collectively maintain low computational complexity. Starting with high-level clusters generated by the K-means algorithm, the approach interrogates these clusters with the Hyperseed algorithm that approximates the complex manifold into fine-grained local variations that can be tracked for anomalies and temporal changes. The approach is empirically evaluated in the smart city setting of a multi-campus tertiary education institution where diverse sensors, buildings and people movement data streams are collected, analysed and processed for insights and decisions. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/131">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/131/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1515623"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1515623"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1515623" data-cycle-prev="#prev1515623" data-cycle-progressive="#images1515623" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1515623-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g001-550.jpg?1730958645" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1515623" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1515623-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g002-550.jpg?1730958645'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1515623-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g003-550.jpg?1730958647'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1515623-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g004-550.jpg?1730958647'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1515623-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g005-550.jpg?1730958649'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1515623-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g006-550.jpg?1730958651'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1515623-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g007-550.jpg?1730958653'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1515623-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g008-550.jpg?1730958654'><p>Figure 8</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1515623-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g001-550.jpg?1730958645" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Similarity distribution in a VFA vector space. The FPE bandwidth <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>β</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.05</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/131'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g002-550.jpg?1730958645" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>An example of a resonator network with three arguments, which is factoring a compound hypervector <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold">s</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> <mo>⊙</mo> <mi mathvariant="bold">b</mi> <mo>⊙</mo> <mi mathvariant="bold">c</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>; <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi> </semantics></math>, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">C</mi> </semantics></math> denote the corresponding item memories containing atomic hypervectors for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> </semantics></math>, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">b</mi> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">c</mi> </semantics></math> arguments, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/131'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g003-550.jpg?1730958647" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Architecture diagram of the proposed approach. The colour is demonstrative of diversity of data points.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/131'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g004-550.jpg?1730958647" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Transformation of domain <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="script">D</mi> </semantics></math> to <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="script">P</mi> </semantics></math> with binding operation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/131'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g005-550.jpg?1730958649" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Baseline t-SNE visualisation of the initial dataset with predefined profile vectors.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/131'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g006-550.jpg?1730958651" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Visualisation of local clusters using the Hyperseed algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/131'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g007-550.jpg?1730958653" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Temporal evolution of different regions between Hyperseed HD planes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/131'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00131/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00131-g008-550.jpg?1730958654" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Incremental learning and adaptation between Hyperseed HD planes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/131'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 16 pages, 331 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/130/pdf?version=1730785292" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Smart Cities, Digital Inequalities, and the Challenge of Inclusion" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/130">Smart Cities, Digital Inequalities, and the Challenge of Inclusion</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Olga Kolotouchkina</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Laura Ripoll González</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Warda Belabas</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3355-3370; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060130">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060130</a> - 4 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> While cities on a global scale embrace smartness as a roadmap for efficient urban governance, disparities persist in the domain of digital accessibility, literacy, and skills, with manifestations of digital exclusion, ageism, and ableism prevalent in most digital urban experiences. Despite their commitment <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/130/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> While cities on a global scale embrace smartness as a roadmap for efficient urban governance, disparities persist in the domain of digital accessibility, literacy, and skills, with manifestations of digital exclusion, ageism, and ableism prevalent in most digital urban experiences. Despite their commitment to bridging the digital divide, governments lack comprehensive frameworks to inform policymaking and action for inclusion in smart cities. This review paper aims to deepen the understanding of the multifaceted challenges confronting the governance of inclusion in smart cities. Drawing from a review of research encompassing digital inclusion, digital transitions, smart cities, and urban governance, we discuss who is included and excluded in the governance of smart cities; what are the necessary conditions to be met for smart cities to be considered inclusive; and how can smart city governance deliver public value and equal benefits for all. As a novel contribution, this paper outlines a reflective framework to inform citizen inclusion in the governance of smart cities. This framework is meant to act as a starting point in the design of inclusive digital urban policies, and can also be employed to assess the directions taken to date in public organizations towards more inclusive urban practices. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/130">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/smartcities/special_issues/NF3QDR1HRP ">Inclusive Smart Cities</a>)<br/> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 21 pages, 3008 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/129/pdf?version=1730710672" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Accessibility Measures to Evaluate Public Transport Competitiveness: The Case of Rome and Turin" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/129">Accessibility Measures to Evaluate Public Transport Competitiveness: The Case of Rome and Turin</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Alessandro Zini</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Roberta Roberto</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Patrizia Corrias</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Bruna Felici</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Michel Noussan</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3334-3354; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060129">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060129</a> - 2 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The transport sector worldwide relies heavily on oil products, and private cars account for the largest share of passenger mobility in several countries. Public transport could represent an interesting alternative under many perspectives, including a decrease in traffic, pollutants, and climate emissions. However, <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/129/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The transport sector worldwide relies heavily on oil products, and private cars account for the largest share of passenger mobility in several countries. Public transport could represent an interesting alternative under many perspectives, including a decrease in traffic, pollutants, and climate emissions. However, for public transport to succeed, it should be attractive for final users, representing a viable alternative to private mobility. In this work, we analyse the spatial distribution of public transport service provision within two metropolitan cities, considering the three key dimensions of mobility, competitiveness, and accessibility of public transport. The results show that private car performs better than public transport in all scopes considered, and that performance indicators are highly variable among city areas, indicating inequalities in social and environmental sustainability in urban systems. The outcomes of the analysis provide interesting insights for policy makers and researchers that deal with similar topics, and can also be extended to other cities and countries. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/129">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/smartcities/special_issues/F1G3D78C8Q ">Paving the Future: Sustainable Road Design and Urban Mobility in Smart Cities</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/129/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1512935"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1512935"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1512935" data-cycle-prev="#prev1512935" data-cycle-progressive="#images1512935" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g001-550.jpg?1730710768" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1512935" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g002-550.jpg?1730710769'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g003-550.jpg?1730710770'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g004-550.jpg?1730710771'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g005-550.jpg?1730710772'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A1-550.jpg?1730710773'><p>Figure A1</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A2-550.jpg?1730710775'><p>Figure A2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A3-550.jpg?1730710776'><p>Figure A3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A4-550.jpg?1730710778'><p>Figure A4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A5-550.jpg?1730710780'><p>Figure A5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A6-550.jpg?1730710781'><p>Figure A6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A7-550.jpg?1730710783'><p>Figure A7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1512935-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A8-550.jpg?1730710784'><p>Figure A8</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1512935-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g001-550.jpg?1730710768" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Urban areas in Turin (<b>case a, left</b>) and Rome (<b>case b, right</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g002-550.jpg?1730710769" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Mobility index (km<sup>2</sup>) of (<b>a</b>) car and (<b>b</b>) PT trips in the city of Turin—average isochrone area (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g003-550.jpg?1730710770" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Mobility index (km<sup>2</sup>) of (<b>a</b>) car and (<b>b</b>) PT trips by (<b>a</b>) car and (<b>b</b>) PT in the city of Rome (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g004-550.jpg?1730710771" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Competitiveness index of public versus car transport in (<b>a</b>) Turin and (<b>b</b>) Rome.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g005-550.jpg?1730710772" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Accessibility index of public transport in (<b>a</b>) Turin and (<b>b</b>) Rome.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A1-550.jpg?1730710773" title=" <strong>Figure A1</strong><br/> <p>Mobility index (km<sup>2</sup>) of car trips in the city of Turin (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A2-550.jpg?1730710775" title=" <strong>Figure A2</strong><br/> <p>Mobility index (km<sup>2</sup>) of TP trips in the city of Turin (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A3-550.jpg?1730710776" title=" <strong>Figure A3</strong><br/> <p>Competitiveness index in the city of Turin (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A4-550.jpg?1730710778" title=" <strong>Figure A4</strong><br/> <p>Accessibility index in the city of Turin (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A5-550.jpg?1730710780" title=" <strong>Figure A5</strong><br/> <p>Mobility index of car trips in the city of Rome (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A6-550.jpg?1730710781" title=" <strong>Figure A6</strong><br/> <p>Mobility index of TP trips in the city of Rome (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A7-550.jpg?1730710783" title=" <strong>Figure A7</strong><br/> <p>Competitiveness index in the city of Rome (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00129/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00129-g0A8-550.jpg?1730710784" title=" <strong>Figure A8</strong><br/> <p>Accessibility index in the city of Rome (at 07:00 on weekdays).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/129'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 19 pages, 1846 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/128/pdf?version=1730690798" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="LEAF: A Lifestyle Approximation Framework Based on Analysis of Mobile Network Data in Smart Cities" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/128">LEAF: A Lifestyle Approximation Framework Based on Analysis of Mobile Network Data in Smart Cities</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Somaye Moghari</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mohammad K. Fallah</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Saeid Gorgin</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Seokjoo Shin</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3315-3333; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060128">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060128</a> - 2 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The increasing use of mobile networks is an opportunity to collect and model users’ movement data for extracting knowledge about life and health while considering privacy leakage risk. This study aims to approximate the lifestyles of urban residents, employing statistical information derived from <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/128/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The increasing use of mobile networks is an opportunity to collect and model users’ movement data for extracting knowledge about life and health while considering privacy leakage risk. This study aims to approximate the lifestyles of urban residents, employing statistical information derived from their movements among various Points of Interest (PoI). Our investigations comprehend a multidimensional analysis of key urban factors to provide insights into the population’s daily routines, preferences, and characteristics. To this end, we developed a framework called LEAF that models lifestyles by interpreting anonymized cell phone mobility data and integrating it with information from other sources, such as geographical layers of land use and sets of PoI. LEAF presents the information in a vector space model capable of responding to spatial queries about lifestyle. We also developed a consolidated lifestyle pattern framework to systematically identify and analyze the dominant activity patterns in different urban areas. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed framework, we tested it on movement data from individuals in a medium-sized city and compared the results with information collected through surveys. The RMSE of <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>5.167</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula> between the proposed framework’s results and survey-based data indicates that the framework provides a reliable estimation of lifestyle patterns across diverse urban areas. Additionally, summarized patterns of criteria ordering were created, offering a concise and intuitive representation of lifestyles. The analysis revealed high consistency between the two methods in the derived patterns, underscoring the framework’s robustness and accuracy in modeling urban lifestyle dynamics. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/128">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/128/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1512847"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1512847"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1512847" data-cycle-prev="#prev1512847" data-cycle-progressive="#images1512847" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g001-550.jpg?1730690872" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1512847" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g002-550.jpg?1730690874'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g003-550.jpg?1730690876'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g004-550.jpg?1730690880'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g005-550.jpg?1730690882'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g006-550.jpg?1730690882'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g007-550.jpg?1730690884'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g008-550.jpg?1730690886'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g009-550.jpg?1730690887'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g010-550.jpg?1730690889'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g011-550.jpg?1730690891'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g012-550.jpg?1730690892'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g013-550.jpg?1730690894'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1512847-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g014-550.jpg?1730690896'><p>Figure 14</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1512847-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g001-550.jpg?1730690872" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Collection of mobile phone signaling data and user trajectories by BTS.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g002-550.jpg?1730690874" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Specifying population visitation to POIs to characterize lifestyle patterns [<a href="#B44-smartcities-07-00128" class="html-bibr">44</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g003-550.jpg?1730690876" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>The proposed architecture of LEAF.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g004-550.jpg?1730690880" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>An overview map of Shahrood.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g005-550.jpg?1730690882" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Criteria and location types used in the case study and their interrelations.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g006-550.jpg?1730690882" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>The data and procedures employed in this study.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g007-550.jpg?1730690884" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the proposed framework and field data for area N1.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g008-550.jpg?1730690886" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the proposed framework and field data for area N2.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g009-550.jpg?1730690887" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the proposed framework and field data for area N3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g010-550.jpg?1730690889" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the proposed framework and field data for area N4.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g011-550.jpg?1730690891" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the proposed framework and field data for area N5.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g012-550.jpg?1730690892" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the proposed framework and field data for area N6.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g013-550.jpg?1730690894" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the proposed framework and field data for area N7.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00128/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00128-g014-550.jpg?1730690896" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the proposed framework and field data for area N8.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/128'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 26 pages, 2380 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/127/pdf?version=1730712657" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="A Novel Light-Weight Machine Learning Classifier for Intrusion Detection in Controller Area Network in Smart Cars" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/127">A Novel Light-Weight Machine Learning Classifier for Intrusion Detection in Controller Area Network in Smart Cars</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Anila Kousar</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Saeed Ahmed</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Abdullah Altamimi</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zafar A. Khan</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3289-3314; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060127">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060127</a> - 2 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The automotive industry has evolved enormously in recent years, marked by the proliferation of smart vehicles furnished with avant-garde technologies. These intelligent automobiles leverage cutting-edge innovations to deliver enhanced connectivity, automation, and convenience to drivers and passengers. Despite the myriad benefits of smart <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/127/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The automotive industry has evolved enormously in recent years, marked by the proliferation of smart vehicles furnished with avant-garde technologies. These intelligent automobiles leverage cutting-edge innovations to deliver enhanced connectivity, automation, and convenience to drivers and passengers. Despite the myriad benefits of smart vehicles, their integration of digital systems has raised concerns regarding cybersecurity vulnerabilities. The primary components of smart cars within smart vehicles encompass in-vehicle communication and intricate computation, in addition to conventional control circuitry. In-vehicle communication is facilitated through a controller area network (CAN), whereby electronic control units communicate via message transmission across the CAN-bus, omitting explicit destination specifications. This broadcasting and non-delineating nature of CAN makes it susceptible to cyber attacks and intrusions, posing high-security risks to the passengers, ultimately prompting the requirement of an intrusion detection system (IDS) accepted for a wide range of cyber-attacks in CAN. To this end, this paper proposed a novel machine learning (ML)-based scheme employing a Pythagorean distance-based algorithm for IDS. This paper employs six real-time collected CAN datasets while studying several cyber attacks to simulate the IDS. The resilience of the proposed scheme is evaluated while comparing the results with the existing ML-based IDS schemes. The simulation results showed that the proposed scheme outperformed the existing studies and achieved 99.92% accuracy and 0.999 F1-score. The precision of the proposed scheme is 99.9%, while the area under the curve (AUC) is 0.9997. Additionally, the computational complexity of the proposed scheme is very low compared to the existing schemes, making it more suitable for the fast decision-making required for smart vehicles. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/127">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/smartcities/sections/Smart_Transportation">Smart Transportation</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/127/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1512812"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1512812"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1512812" data-cycle-prev="#prev1512812" data-cycle-progressive="#images1512812" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g001-550.jpg?1730712771" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1512812" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g002-550.jpg?1730712772'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g003-550.jpg?1730712773'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g004-550.jpg?1730712775'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g005-550.jpg?1730712776'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g006-550.jpg?1730712778'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g007-550.jpg?1730712780'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g008-550.jpg?1730712782'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g009-550.jpg?1730712783'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g010-550.jpg?1730712784'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g011-550.jpg?1730712785'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g012-550.jpg?1730712786'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1512812-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g013-550.jpg?1730712787'><p>Figure 13</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1512812-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g001-550.jpg?1730712771" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>An overview of key features in a smart car. Various electronic control units communicate with each other using CAN-bus, connected in bus topology. Cyber attack injection can be wired through OBD-II port to CAN-bus or wireless by means of sensors.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g002-550.jpg?1730712772" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Representation of wiring in a car [<a href="#B47-smartcities-07-00127" class="html-bibr">47</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g003-550.jpg?1730712773" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Representation of a typical CAN frame.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g004-550.jpg?1730712775" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>An overview of various cyber attacks and their impact on vehicle safety and passenger security.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g005-550.jpg?1730712776" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Representation of the proposed scheme.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g006-550.jpg?1730712778" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>ROC curves for the proposed ML classifier for different cyber attacks in (<b>a</b>) car hacking and (<b>b</b>) car-hacking challenge datasets.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g007-550.jpg?1730712780" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>ROC curves generated using the outcome of the proposed ML classifier for different cyber attacks in (<b>a</b>) IVN Intrusion and (<b>b</b>) CAN Intrusion datasets.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g008-550.jpg?1730712782" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>ROC curves generated using the outcome of the proposed ML classifier for different cyber attacks in (<b>a</b>) M-CAN and (<b>b</b>) CAN-FD datasets.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g009-550.jpg?1730712783" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>General representation of a confusion matrix of an ML classifier.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g010-550.jpg?1730712784" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Confusion matrix of the proposed ML classifier for different cyber attacks in the car hacking dataset.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g011-550.jpg?1730712785" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Confusion matrices of the proposed ML classifier for different cyber attacks in (<b>a</b>) challenging and (<b>b</b>) IVN Intrusion detection challenge datasets.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g012-550.jpg?1730712786" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Confusion matrix of the proposed ML classifier for different cyber attacks in the CAN-Intrusion dataset.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00127/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00127-g013-550.jpg?1730712787" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Confusion matrices of the proposed ML classifier for different cyber attacks in M-CAN and FD-CAN datasets.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/127'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 48 pages, 11010 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/126/pdf?version=1730376106" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Performance Evaluation of Small Wind Turbines Under Variable Winds of Cities: Case Study Applied to an Ayanz Wind Turbine with Screw Blades" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/126">Performance Evaluation of Small Wind Turbines Under Variable Winds of Cities: Case Study Applied to an Ayanz Wind Turbine with Screw Blades</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Gonzalo Abad</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ander Plaza</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Gorka Kerejeta</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3241-3288; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060126">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060126</a> - 30 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Small wind turbines placed at city locations are affected by variable-speed winds that frequently change direction. Architectural constructions, buildings of different heights and abrupt orography of Cities make the winds that occur at City locations more variable than in flat lands or at <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/126/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Small wind turbines placed at city locations are affected by variable-speed winds that frequently change direction. Architectural constructions, buildings of different heights and abrupt orography of Cities make the winds that occur at City locations more variable than in flat lands or at sea. However, the performance of Small-wind turbines under this type of variable wind has not been deeply studied in the specialised literature. Therefore, this article analyses the behaviour of small wind turbines under variable and gusty winds of cities, also considering three types of power electronics conversion configurations: the generally used Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) configuration, the simple only-rectifier configuration and an intermediate configuration in terms of complexity called pseudo-MPPT. This general-purpose analysis is applied to a specific type of wind turbine, i.e., the Ayanz wind turbine with screw blades, which presents adequate characteristics for city locations such as; safety, reduced visual and acoustic impacts and bird casualties avoidance. Thus, a wide simulation and experimental tests-based analysis are carried out, identifying the main factors affecting the maximisation of energy production of small wind turbines in general and the Ayanz turbine in particular. It is concluded that the mechanical inertia of the wind turbine, often not even considered in the energy production analysis, is a key factor that can produce decrements of up to 25% in energy production. Then, it was also found that electric factors related to the power electronics conversion system can strongly influence energy production. Thus, it is found that an adequate design of a simple pseudo-MPPT power conversion system could extract even 5% more energy than more complex MPPT configurations, especially in quickly varying winds of cities. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/126">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Topic <a href="/topics/smart">Smart Electric Energy in Buildings</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/126/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1510492"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1510492"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1510492" data-cycle-prev="#prev1510492" 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src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g003-550.jpg?1730376238'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g004-550.jpg?1730376240'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g005-550.jpg?1730376240'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g006-550.jpg?1730376241'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- 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src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g010-550.jpg?1730376245'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g011-550.jpg?1730376247'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g012-550.jpg?1730376248'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g013-550.jpg?1730376250'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g014a-550.jpg?1730376251'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g014b-550.jpg?1730376253'><p>Figure 14 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g015a-550.jpg?1730376254'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g015b-550.jpg?1730376256'><p>Figure 15 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g016a-550.jpg?1730376257'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g016b-550.jpg?1730376259'><p>Figure 16 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g017-550.jpg?1730376262'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g018-550.jpg?1730376264'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g019-550.jpg?1730376265'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g020-550.jpg?1730376267'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g021-550.jpg?1730376268'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g022-550.jpg?1730376269'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='25' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g023-550.jpg?1730376270'><p>Figure 23</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='26' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g024-550.jpg?1730376271'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='27' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g025-550.jpg?1730376273'><p>Figure 25</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='28' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g026-550.jpg?1730376274'><p>Figure 26</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='29' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g027-550.jpg?1730376275'><p>Figure 27</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='30' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g028-550.jpg?1730376277'><p>Figure 28</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='31' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g029-550.jpg?1730376278'><p>Figure 29</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='32' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g030-550.jpg?1730376278'><p>Figure 30</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='33' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g031-550.jpg?1730376279'><p>Figure 31</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='34' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g032-550.jpg?1730376281'><p>Figure 32</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='35' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g033-550.jpg?1730376282'><p>Figure 33</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='36' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g034-550.jpg?1730376283'><p>Figure 34</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='37' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g035-550.jpg?1730376287'><p>Figure 35</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='38' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g036-550.jpg?1730376288'><p>Figure 36</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='39' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g037-550.jpg?1730376288'><p>Figure 37</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='40' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g038-550.jpg?1730376289'><p>Figure 38</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='41' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g039-550.jpg?1730376290'><p>Figure 39</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='42' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g040-550.jpg?1730376291'><p>Figure 40</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='43' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g041-550.jpg?1730376292'><p>Figure 41</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='44' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g042-550.jpg?1730376294'><p>Figure 42</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='45' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g043-550.jpg?1730376297'><p>Figure 43</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='46' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g044-550.jpg?1730376300'><p>Figure 44</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='47' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g045-550.jpg?1730376301'><p>Figure 45</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='48' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g046-550.jpg?1730376303'><p>Figure 46</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='49' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g047a-550.jpg?1730376304'><p>Figure 47</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='50' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g047b-550.jpg?1730376305'><p>Figure 47 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='51' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g048-550.jpg?1730376306'><p>Figure 48</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='52' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g049-550.jpg?1730376307'><p>Figure 49</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='53' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g050-550.jpg?1730376307'><p>Figure 50</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='54' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g051-550.jpg?1730376308'><p>Figure 51</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='55' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g052-550.jpg?1730376309'><p>Figure 52</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='56' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g053-550.jpg?1730376310'><p>Figure 53</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='57' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g054-550.jpg?1730376310'><p>Figure 54</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='58' data-target='article-1510492-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g055-550.jpg?1730376311'><p>Figure 55</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1510492-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g001-550.jpg?1730376235" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The Ayanz Wind Turbine with Screw Blades. (<b>a</b>) Graphical scheme showing its main parts, (<b>b</b>) Prototype developed at Mondragon University, based on the commercially available Liam F1 AMW-750D-150W wind turbine and a cylindrical enclosure made of aluminium [<a href="#B20-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">20</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g002-550.jpg?1730376237" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Most common power conversion configurations for small wind turbines [<a href="#B26-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g003-550.jpg?1730376238" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Power generated with the same wind turbine using the three power conversion configurations studied in this paper. The left situation shows a ‘low voltage’ battery chosen (‘low’ speed) for pseudo-MPPT and Only Rectifier. The right situation shows a ‘high voltage’ battery chosen (‘high’ speed) for pseudo-MPPT and Only Rectifier. Curves in blue, represent power at different wind speeds.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g004-550.jpg?1730376240" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Indirect Speed Control based MPPT [<a href="#B32-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">33</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g005-550.jpg?1730376240" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Synchronous generator’s single phase equivalent circuit.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g006-550.jpg?1730376241" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>AC-DC conversion stage.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g007-550.jpg?1730376243" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Indirect speed control of the wind turbine by imposing an electromagnetic torque <span class="html-italic">T<sub>em</sub></span>, which follows the maximum power points curve [<a href="#B32-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">33</a>]. <span class="html-italic">T<sub>t</sub></span> follows a trajectory that goes through points A, B and C.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g008-550.jpg?1730376244" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Controlling the power, the electromagnetic torque <span class="html-italic">T<sub>em</sub></span> is controlled.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g009-550.jpg?1730376245" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>MPPT with power reference generation without using a speed sensor.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g010-550.jpg?1730376245" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Generation power curve obtained with only-rectifiier configuration, achieving nearly constant rotational speed, and a nearly perpendicular curve. Note that in this graphical example, by choosing an appropriate DC voltage battery, a rotational speed was chosen that nearly obtained 1 p.u. power at 1 p.u. speed. This adequation is not always possible since it depends on the system elements available, such as the generator’s characteristics, turbine, batteries, etc.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g011-550.jpg?1730376247" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Simplified single-phase equivalent electric circuit with inductive impedance in pseudo-MPPT concept. (<b>b</b>) Space vector diagram of the fundamental components of the voltage and currents and how the pseudo-MPPT power curve is moved with different <span class="html-italic">L</span> values.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g012-550.jpg?1730376248" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Simplified single-phase equivalent electric circuit with capacitive impedance in pseudo-MPPT concept. (<b>b</b>) Space vector diagram of the fundamental components of the voltage and currents and how the pseudo-MPPT power curve is moved with different C values.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g013-550.jpg?1730376250" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) WMS-21 Wind Station of Omega manufacturer (sample time = 1 s) located at the terrace of Mondragon University in the urban area of the City, (<b>b</b>) Google Maps photo showing where the anemometer has been placed for the study (place where the wind turbine can be located) at the 11th building of Mondragon University at Mondragon City.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g014a-550.jpg?1730376251" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Wind speed measured with WMS-21 Wind Station (sample time = 1 s) at a low wind day (4th of October) in Mondragon University at the urban area of the City, (<b>a</b>) wind speed measurement during 12 h and averaged every 10 min, (<b>b</b>) wind speed measurement between 9:00 and 10:00 h, (<b>c</b>) wind speed measurement between 10:00 and 11:00 h, (<b>d</b>) wind speed measurement between 11:00 and 12:00 h, (<b>e</b>) wind speed measurement between 12:00 and 13:00 h, (<b>f</b>) wind speed measurement of 20 min showing the highest wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g014b-550.jpg?1730376253" title=" <strong>Figure 14 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Wind speed measured with WMS-21 Wind Station (sample time = 1 s) at a low wind day (4th of October) in Mondragon University at the urban area of the City, (<b>a</b>) wind speed measurement during 12 h and averaged every 10 min, (<b>b</b>) wind speed measurement between 9:00 and 10:00 h, (<b>c</b>) wind speed measurement between 10:00 and 11:00 h, (<b>d</b>) wind speed measurement between 11:00 and 12:00 h, (<b>e</b>) wind speed measurement between 12:00 and 13:00 h, (<b>f</b>) wind speed measurement of 20 min showing the highest wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g015a-550.jpg?1730376254" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Wind speed measured with WMS-21 Wind Station (sample time = 1 s) at a moderate wind day (15th of October) in Mondragon University in the urban area of the City, (<b>a</b>) wind speed measurement during 12 h and averaged every 10 min, (<b>b</b>) wind speed measurement between 9:00 and 10:00 h, (<b>c</b>) wind speed measurement between 10:00 and 11:00 h, (<b>d</b>) wind speed measurement between 11:00 and 12:00 h, (<b>e</b>) wind speed measurement between 12:00 and 13:00 h, (<b>f</b>) wind speed measurement of 20 min showing the highest wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g015b-550.jpg?1730376256" title=" <strong>Figure 15 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Wind speed measured with WMS-21 Wind Station (sample time = 1 s) at a moderate wind day (15th of October) in Mondragon University in the urban area of the City, (<b>a</b>) wind speed measurement during 12 h and averaged every 10 min, (<b>b</b>) wind speed measurement between 9:00 and 10:00 h, (<b>c</b>) wind speed measurement between 10:00 and 11:00 h, (<b>d</b>) wind speed measurement between 11:00 and 12:00 h, (<b>e</b>) wind speed measurement between 12:00 and 13:00 h, (<b>f</b>) wind speed measurement of 20 min showing the highest wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g016a-550.jpg?1730376257" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Wind speed measured with WMS-21 Wind Station (sample time = 1 s) at a very strong wind day (‘Kirk’ Storm on 9th of October) in Mondragon University at the urban area of the City, (<b>a</b>) wind speed measurement during 12 h and averaged every 10 min, (<b>b</b>) wind speed measurement between 12:00 and 13:00 h, (<b>c</b>) wind speed measurement between 13:00 and 14:00 h, (<b>d</b>) wind speed measurement between 14:00 and 15:00 h, (<b>e</b>) wind speed measurement between 15:00 and 16:00 h, (<b>f</b>) wind speed measurement of 20 min showing the highest wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g016b-550.jpg?1730376259" title=" <strong>Figure 16 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Wind speed measured with WMS-21 Wind Station (sample time = 1 s) at a very strong wind day (‘Kirk’ Storm on 9th of October) in Mondragon University at the urban area of the City, (<b>a</b>) wind speed measurement during 12 h and averaged every 10 min, (<b>b</b>) wind speed measurement between 12:00 and 13:00 h, (<b>c</b>) wind speed measurement between 13:00 and 14:00 h, (<b>d</b>) wind speed measurement between 14:00 and 15:00 h, (<b>e</b>) wind speed measurement between 15:00 and 16:00 h, (<b>f</b>) wind speed measurement of 20 min showing the highest wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g017-550.jpg?1730376262" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) The probability density function of wind measurements (averaged every 10 min and quantified every 0.5 m/s) between the 26th of September and the 10th of October. The approximated Weibull distribution function <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mi>v</mi> <mo>)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">k</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">c</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mfenced> <msup> <mrow> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">v</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">c</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">p</mi> <mo>[</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">v</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">c</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mfenced> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">k</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> can be defined by k = 1.15, c = 1.1, and the average speed is 1.2 m/s. (<b>b</b>) Probability density function of the same wind measurements, after correction by the factor: <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">v</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mrow> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>m</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>0.3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 1.4, which is an estimation of the wind measurement corrected to a 4 m higher location in an urban site [<a href="#B27-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. The resulting parameters are k = 1.28 and c = 1.34, and the average speed is 1.68 m/s.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g018-550.jpg?1730376264" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Cp(λ) curve of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades used for the first set of simulations analyses. (<b>b</b>) Block diagram of the Matlab-Simulink R2023b model to perform an idealised MPPT operation of wind turbine with different inertias.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g019-550.jpg?1730376265" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with idealised Indirect MPPT control and inertia of J = 0.03 kgm<sup>2</sup>. (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behaviour of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 420 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g020-550.jpg?1730376267" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with idealised Indirect MPPT control and inertia of J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>. (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behavior of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 420 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g021-550.jpg?1730376268" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with idealised Indirect MPPT control and inertia of J = 0.75 kgm<sup>2</sup>. (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behaviour of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 420 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g022-550.jpg?1730376269" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Indirect Speed Control MPPT that includes a low pass filter to ensure the stability of the system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g023-550.jpg?1730376270" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with Indirect MPPT control and τ = 1 s at low pass filter for smoothing <span class="html-italic">V<sub>dc</sub></span><sub>1</sub> oscillations (J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 48 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behavior of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g024-550.jpg?1730376271" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with Indirect MPPT control and τ = 6 s at low pass filter for smoothing <span class="html-italic">V<sub>dc</sub></span><sub>1</sub> oscillations (J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 48 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behavior of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g025-550.jpg?1730376273" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>Indirect Speed Control MPPT includes a low pass filter to ensure the stability of the system and also uncertainties at the MPPT curve and current and voltage sensors.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g026-550.jpg?1730376274" title=" <strong>Figure 26</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with Indirect MPPT control and uncertainty at the MPPT curve of 20% (optimum constant k with an error of 20%) and error at the current and voltage sensors of 5% (τ = 1 s at low pass filter, J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 48 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behavior of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g027-550.jpg?1730376275" title=" <strong>Figure 27</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with Only-rectifier power conversion system (J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 36 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behaviour of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g028-550.jpg?1730376277" title=" <strong>Figure 28</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with pseudo-MPPT power conversion system and external L = 30 mH (J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 36 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behavior of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g029-550.jpg?1730376278" title=" <strong>Figure 29</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with Only-rectifier power conversion system and generator’s inductance of Ls divided by 3 (J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 36 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behavior of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g030-550.jpg?1730376278" title=" <strong>Figure 30</strong><br/> <p>Cp(λ) curve of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades used for the second set of simulations analyses (Blue: new Cp curve, Yellow: previous tests’ Cp curve) with a shorter range of values with Cpmax.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g031-550.jpg?1730376279" title=" <strong>Figure 31</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with Indirect MPPT control and second more peaked curve of Cp = f(λ) (uncertainty at the MPPT curve of 20%, error at the current and voltage sensors of 5%, τ = 1 s at low pass filter, J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 48 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealised MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behavior of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g032-550.jpg?1730376281" title=" <strong>Figure 32</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with Only-Rectifier power conversion system and second more peaked curve of Cp = f(λ) (J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 36 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealized MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behavior of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g033-550.jpg?1730376282" title=" <strong>Figure 33</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades with pseudo-MPPT power conversion system (series external C = 0.1 mF at three phases) and second more peaked curve of Cp = f(λ) (J = 0.15 kgm<sup>2</sup>, V<sub>battery</sub> = 36 V). (<b>a</b>) Wind speed pattern, (<b>b</b>) Tt and Tem performances, (<b>c</b>) achieved rotational speed by the idealized MPPT control, (<b>d</b>) Optimal power with a fictitious turbine with zero inertia (Popt) and actual power generated, (<b>e</b>) Behaviour of Cp during the test, (<b>f</b>) energy generated at the 125 s test.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g034-550.jpg?1730376283" title=" <strong>Figure 34</strong><br/> <p>The flowchart shows the optimization-based method that can be applied to evaluate which electric power configuration is the most appropriate for a site with given representative wind patterns.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g035-550.jpg?1730376287" title=" <strong>Figure 35</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Photo of the Wind maker used for the experimental validation at laboratories of Mondragon University, (<b>b</b>) characteristics of the wind maker [<a href="#B26-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g036-550.jpg?1730376288" title=" <strong>Figure 36</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Wind measurement points (in red) are taken just in the front area of the turbine, and (b) wind measurements are taken at the wind turbine’s input with the tube (obtained and first published in [<a href="#B26-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">26</a>]).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g037-550.jpg?1730376288" title=" <strong>Figure 37</strong><br/> <p>Power curves of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades (obtained and first published in [<a href="#B26-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">26</a>]).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g038-550.jpg?1730376289" title=" <strong>Figure 38</strong><br/> <p>Power curves of the Ayanz Wind Turbine based on Screw Blades at constant wind speeds (obtained and first published in [<a href="#B26-smartcities-07-00126" class="html-bibr">26</a>]). (<b>a</b>) Ideal MPPT and Only-Rectifier configurations at different battery voltages (24 V are 2 batteries in series while 40 V are 3 batteries in series). (<b>b</b>) Ideal MPPT, Only-Rectifier and pseudo-MPPT configurations at 40 V of battery voltage.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g039-550.jpg?1730376290" title=" <strong>Figure 39</strong><br/> <p>Simplified pattern identification of wind speed measured with XA1000 Lufft anemometer (sample time = 1 s) at a moderately windy day in Mondragon University in the urban area of the city (same wind pattern used in previous simulation-based analysis section).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g040-550.jpg?1730376291" title=" <strong>Figure 40</strong><br/> <p>Simplified wind gust pattern used at laboratory tests in subsequent sections.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g041-550.jpg?1730376292" title=" <strong>Figure 41</strong><br/> <p>Simplified wind gust pattern used for the experimental tests, and power and energy obtained with the wind turbine.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g042-550.jpg?1730376294" title=" <strong>Figure 42</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine with screw blades at variable wind speed tests, with only rectifier power conversion system. (<b>a</b>) 10 s + 10 s wind gust, (<b>b</b>) 20 s + 20 s wind gust, (<b>c</b>) 30 s + 30 s wind gust, (<b>d</b>) 40 s + 40 s wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g043-550.jpg?1730376297" title=" <strong>Figure 43</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine with screw blades at variable wind speed tests, with pseudo-MPPT power conversion system with L = 38 mH. (<b>a</b>) 10 s + 10 s wind gust, (<b>b</b>) 20 s + 20 s wind gust, (<b>c</b>) 30 s + 30 s wind gust, (<b>d</b>) 40 s + 40 s wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g044-550.jpg?1730376300" title=" <strong>Figure 44</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine with screw blades at variable wind speed tests with MPPT. (<b>a</b>) 10 s + 10 s wind gust, (<b>b</b>) 20 s + 20 s wind gust, (<b>c</b>) 30 s + 30 s wind gust, (<b>d</b>) 40 s + 40 s wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g045-550.jpg?1730376301" title=" <strong>Figure 45</strong><br/> <p>Wind speed and wind speed direction on a low-moderate windy day (Anemometer: WMS-21 Wind Station of Omega manufacturer, with sample time = 0.5 s). During the measurements, the wind’s direction is dominantly around 300° (coming from North-West), but during some second intervals, the direction changes quickly dozens of degrees repeatedly.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g046-550.jpg?1730376303" title=" <strong>Figure 46</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine with screw blades at variable wind speed tests, with MPPT power conversion system and turbine, initially wrongly oriented. (<b>a</b>) 10 s + 10 s wind gust and turbine initially 15° wrongly oriented, (<b>b</b>) 10 s + 10 s wind gust and turbine initially 45° wrongly oriented, (<b>c</b>) 50 s + 50 s wind gust and turbine initially 15° wrongly oriented, (<b>d</b>) 50 s + 0 s wind gust and turbine initially 45° wrongly oriented.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g047a-550.jpg?1730376304" title=" <strong>Figure 47</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine with screw blades at repetitive wind gusts tests, with pseudo-MPPT power conversion system with L = 38 mH. (<b>a</b>) 10 s + 10 s repetitive wind gust, (<b>b</b>) 5 s + 5 s repetitive wind gust, (<b>c</b>) 2.5 s + 2.5 s repetitive wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g047b-550.jpg?1730376305" title=" <strong>Figure 47 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Performance of the Ayanz Wind Turbine with screw blades at repetitive wind gusts tests, with pseudo-MPPT power conversion system with L = 38 mH. (<b>a</b>) 10 s + 10 s repetitive wind gust, (<b>b</b>) 5 s + 5 s repetitive wind gust, (<b>c</b>) 2.5 s + 2.5 s repetitive wind gust.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g048-550.jpg?1730376306" title=" <strong>Figure 48</strong><br/> <p>Wind patterns in which constant wind speed is maintained at steady-state and consequent wind-power curves provided by wind turbine manufacturers. Note that these types of wind patterns are not typical at city locations.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g049-550.jpg?1730376307" title=" <strong>Figure 49</strong><br/> <p>Three possible examples of the power-energy generation situations that can occur with typical simplified ‘ramp-based’ wind patterns. (There may be many other power-energy generation situations since performances like delay, peak power, time at which the peak power occurs, energy area, and so on, can be different depending on the specific MPPT, pseudo-MPPT and Only-Rectifier analysed).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g050-550.jpg?1730376307" title=" <strong>Figure 50</strong><br/> <p>Additional information that could be provided by small wind turbines (normally present much smaller inertia than high-power three-bladed wind turbines) should be placed at city locations with varying wind speeds.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g051-550.jpg?1730376308" title=" <strong>Figure 51</strong><br/> <p>Simplified representation of a Spiral Archimedes blade in a 3-Bladed Horizontal axis Ayanz Wind Turbine with screw blades.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g052-550.jpg?1730376309" title=" <strong>Figure 52</strong><br/> <p>Simplified representation of a horizontal axis 3-bladed wind turbine.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g053-550.jpg?1730376310" title=" <strong>Figure 53</strong><br/> <p>Simplified representation of a vertical axis 3-bladed Darrieus type wind turbine.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g054-550.jpg?1730376310" title=" <strong>Figure 54</strong><br/> <p>Simplified representation of a Vertical Axis Ayanz-Savonious 3-Bladed wind turbine (* Note that the Savonious patent and Ayanz patent present differences, but the most relevant one is that the Savonious patent considers an embrace of the blades to the central shaft, while in Ayanz patent, the blades are fixed with rods to a distance of the shaft).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00126/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00126-g055-550.jpg?1730376311" title=" <strong>Figure 55</strong><br/> <p>Inertias were evaluated according to the simplified expressions provided, considering equal wind incident areas in four wind turbines. Areas (m<sup>2</sup>): [0.24,0.44,0.69,0.99].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/126'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 31 pages, 4629 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/125/pdf?version=1730288477" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="An Adaptive Energy Orchestrator for Cyberphysical Systems Using Multiagent Reinforcement Learning" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/125">An Adaptive Energy Orchestrator for Cyberphysical Systems Using Multiagent Reinforcement Learning</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Alberto Robles-Enciso</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ricardo Robles-Enciso</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Antonio F. Skarmeta Gómez</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3210-3240; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060125">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060125</a> - 29 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Reducing carbon emissions is a critical issue for the near future as climate change is an imminent reality. To reduce our carbon footprint, society must change its habits and behaviours to optimise energy consumption, and the current progress in embedded systems and artificial <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/125/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Reducing carbon emissions is a critical issue for the near future as climate change is an imminent reality. To reduce our carbon footprint, society must change its habits and behaviours to optimise energy consumption, and the current progress in embedded systems and artificial intelligence has the potential to make this easier. The smart building concept and intelligent energy management are key points to increase the use of renewable sources of energy as opposed to fossil fuels. In addition, cyber-physical systems (CPSs) provide an abstraction of the management of services that allows the integration of both virtual and physical systems in a seamless control architecture. In this paper, we propose to use multiagent reinforcement learning (MARL) to model the CPS services control plane in a smart house, with the purpose of minimising, by shifting or shutdown services, the use of non-renewable energy (fuel generator) by exploiting solar production and batteries. Furthermore, our proposal dynamically adapts its behaviour in real time according to current and historic energy production, thus being able to handle occasional changes in energy production due to meteorological phenomena or unexpected energy consumption. In order to evaluate our proposal, we have developed an open-source smart building energy simulator and deployed our use case. Finally, several simulations with different configurations are evaluated to verify the performance. The simulation results show that the reinforcement learning solution outperformed the priority-based and the heuristic-based solutions in both power consumption and adaptability in all configurations. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/125">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/smartcities/special_issues/7O6U75RFY7 ">Breaking Down Silos in Urban Services</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/125/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1509496"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1509496"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1509496" 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13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1509496-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g014-550.jpg?1730288646'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1509496-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g015-550.jpg?1730288647'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1509496-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g016-550.jpg?1730288648'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1509496-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g017-550.jpg?1730288649'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1509496-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g018-550.jpg?1730288650'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1509496-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g019-550.jpg?1730288651'><p>Figure 19</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1509496-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g001-550.jpg?1730288637" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Energy supply system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g002-550.jpg?1730288638" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Proposed system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g003-550.jpg?1730288638" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Orchestrator architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g004-550.jpg?1730288639" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Example of priority-based algorithm states (parameters <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mo>|</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>B</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>45</mn> <mo>%</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>l</mi> <mi>B</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>20</mn> <mo>%</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>m</mi> <mi>B</mi> <mi>L</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>15</mn> <mo>%</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>), when turning off or turning on lower priority services (upper and lower arrows).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g005-550.jpg?1730288639" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Example of heuristic values in the simulator.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g006-550.jpg?1730288640" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Multiagent reinforcement learning.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g007-550.jpg?1730288640" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>CPS Q-Learning agent.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g008-550.jpg?1730288641" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Discretisation of state parameters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g009-550.jpg?1730288641" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Timeslot structure of the RL control process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g010-550.jpg?1730288642" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Solar energy production model with confidence interval (<b>left</b>) and procedural energy generation example (<b>right</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g011-550.jpg?1730288642" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of generator usage of each method.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g012-550.jpg?1730288644" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Three days simulation of each method.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g013-550.jpg?1730288645" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Twenty-five-day simulation of each method.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g014-550.jpg?1730288646" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Evolution of reward per episode for different values of alpha.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g015-550.jpg?1730288647" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of generator usage of each method (configuration 2).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g016-550.jpg?1730288648" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Three-day simulation of each method (configuration 2).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g017-550.jpg?1730288649" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Twenty-five-day simulation of each method (configuration 2).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g018-550.jpg?1730288650" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of generator usage of each method (configuration 3).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00125/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00125-g019-550.jpg?1730288651" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Twenty-five-day simulation of each method (configuration 3).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/125'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 836 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/124/pdf?version=1730098442" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Insights from Smart City Initiatives for Urban Sustainability and Contemporary Urbanism" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/124">Insights from Smart City Initiatives for Urban Sustainability and Contemporary Urbanism</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Águeda Veloso</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Fernando Fonseca</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Rui Ramos</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3188-3209; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060124">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060124</a> - 28 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Urbanization growth poses various challenges, such as congestion, pollution, and resource consumption, prompting city planners and governments to adopt smart systems to manage these issues more efficiently. Despite widespread adoption, there is no consensus on the defining attributes of smart cities, particularly regarding <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/124/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Urbanization growth poses various challenges, such as congestion, pollution, and resource consumption, prompting city planners and governments to adopt smart systems to manage these issues more efficiently. Despite widespread adoption, there is no consensus on the defining attributes of smart cities, particularly regarding their role in urban sustainability and contemporary urbanism. This paper provides a literature review to understand the implications of smart city initiatives for sustainable urban planning, focusing on practices in Singapore, Helsinki, Barcelona, and Medellin. Based on 71 publications surveyed from Scopus and Web of Science, this paper evaluates smart, sustainable initiatives undertaken in these four cities across six smart domains: mobility, governance, environment, people, living, and economy. This review shows that most studies focus on Barcelona and Singapore, particularly in the domains of smart environment and governance. Despite differing urban contexts, the notion of “smart” is closely tied to using information and communication technologies to drive urban operations. This analysis identifies a lack of assessment studies on the benefits of smart cities in terms of urban sustainability and a lack of holistic approaches to address the complex challenges cities face in achieving sustainable development. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/124">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/smartcities/special_issues/NF3QDR1HRP ">Inclusive Smart Cities</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/124/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1507961"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1507961"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1507961" data-cycle-prev="#prev1507961" data-cycle-progressive="#images1507961" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1507961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00124/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00124-g001-550.jpg?1730098524" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1507961" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1507961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00124/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00124-g002-550.jpg?1730098525'><p>Figure 2</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1507961-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00124/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00124-g001-550.jpg?1730098524" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Flow diagram of literature review.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/124'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00124/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00124-g002-550.jpg?1730098525" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Number of papers (accumulated) published by year.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/124'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 23 pages, 4319 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/123/pdf?version=1729845649" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Agent-Based Evacuation Modeling: Enhancing Building Safety in Emergency Scenarios" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/123">Agent-Based Evacuation Modeling: Enhancing Building Safety in Emergency Scenarios</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Miguel Islas-Toski</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Erik Cuevas</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Marco Pérez-Cisneros</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Héctor Escobar</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3165-3187; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060123">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060123</a> - 25 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Buildings and their supporting infrastructure are vulnerable to both natural and human-made disasters, which pose significant risks to the safety of the occupants. Evacuation models are essential tools for assessing these risks and for ensuring the safety of individuals during emergencies. The primary <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/123/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Buildings and their supporting infrastructure are vulnerable to both natural and human-made disasters, which pose significant risks to the safety of the occupants. Evacuation models are essential tools for assessing these risks and for ensuring the safety of individuals during emergencies. The primary objective of an evacuation model is to realistically simulate the process by which a large group of people can reach available exits efficiently. This paper introduces an agent-based evacuation model that represents the environment as a rectangular grid, where individuals, obstacles, and exits interact dynamically. The model employs only five rules to simulate evacuation dynamics while also accounting for complex factors such as movement and stagnation. Different from many evacuation models, this approach includes rules that account for common behaviors exhibited in stressful evacuation situations such as accidents, hysteria, and disorientation. By incorporating these behavioral conditions, the model more accurately reflects the real-life reactions of individuals during evacuation, leading to more realistic and applicable results. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed model, comprehensive experiments and case studies are conducted in diverse urban settings. The results of these experiments demonstrate that the model offers valuable insights into the evacuation process and provides a more precise assessment of its behavior in emergency scenarios. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/123">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/123/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1506384"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1506384"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1506384" data-cycle-prev="#prev1506384" data-cycle-progressive="#images1506384" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g001-550.jpg?1729845743" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1506384" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g002-550.jpg?1729845744'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g003-550.jpg?1729845745'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g004-550.jpg?1729845748'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g005-550.jpg?1729845752'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g006a-550.jpg?1729845755'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g006b-550.jpg?1729845756'><p>Figure 6 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g007a-550.jpg?1729845758'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1506384-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g007b-550.jpg?1729845759'><p>Figure 7 Cont.</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1506384-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g001-550.jpg?1729845743" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Evolution of the process performed by the Chamfer algorithm to generate the distance map <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>M</mi> <mi>P</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) Original grid <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>, (<b>b</b>) masks, and (<b>c</b>) produced map <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>M</mi> <mi>P</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g002-550.jpg?1729845744" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Process of the movement rule. (<b>a</b>) Moore neighborhood and (<b>b</b>) process of application of the rule.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g003-550.jpg?1729845745" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Example of the effect of the stagnation rule. (<b>a</b>) Original environment and (<b>b</b>) effect of the rule.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g004-550.jpg?1729845748" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Flowchart of the proposed model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g005-550.jpg?1729845752" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Fray Antonio Alcalde Hospital environment with 1500 agents.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g006a-550.jpg?1729845755" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Maze environment with 1000 agents.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g006b-550.jpg?1729845756" title=" <strong>Figure 6 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Maze environment with 1000 agents.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g007a-550.jpg?1729845758" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Train station environment with 1500 agents.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00123/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00123-g007b-550.jpg?1729845759" title=" <strong>Figure 7 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Train station environment with 1500 agents.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/123'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 44 pages, 5949 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/122/pdf?version=1729859372" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Review of Authentication, Blockchain, Driver ID Systems, Economic Aspects, and Communication Technologies in DWC for EVs in Smart Cities Applications" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/122">Review of Authentication, Blockchain, Driver ID Systems, Economic Aspects, and Communication Technologies in DWC for EVs in Smart Cities Applications</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Narayanamoorthi Rajamanickam</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Pradeep Vishnuram</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Dominic Savio Abraham</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Miroslava Gono</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Petr Kacor</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Tomas Mlcak</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3121-3164; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060122">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060122</a> - 24 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The rapid advancement and adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) necessitate innovative solutions to address integration challenges in modern charging infrastructure. Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) is an innovative solution for powering electric vehicles (EVs) using multiple magnetic transmitters installed beneath the road and a <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/122/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The rapid advancement and adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) necessitate innovative solutions to address integration challenges in modern charging infrastructure. Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) is an innovative solution for powering electric vehicles (EVs) using multiple magnetic transmitters installed beneath the road and a receiver located on the underside of the EV. Dynamic charging offers a solution to the issue of range anxiety by allowing EVs to charge while in motion, thereby reducing the need for frequent stops. This manuscript reviews several pivotal areas critical to the future of EV DWC technology such as authentication techniques, blockchain applications, driver identification systems, economic aspects, and emerging communication technologies. Ensuring secure access to this charging infrastructure requires fast, lightweight authentication systems. Similarly, blockchain technology plays a critical role in enhancing the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) architecture by decentralizing and securing vehicular networks, thus improving privacy, security, and efficiency. Driver identification systems, crucial for EV safety and comfort, are analyzed. Additionally, the economic feasibility and impact of DWC are evaluated, providing essential insights into its potential effects on the EV ecosystem. The paper also emphasizes the need for quick and lightweight authentication systems to ensure secure access to DWC infrastructure and discusses how blockchain technology enhances the efficiency, security, and privacy of IoV networks. The importance of driver identification systems for comfort and safety is evaluated, and an economic study confirms the viability and potential benefits of DWC for the EV ecosystem. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/122">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Topic <a href="/topics/8H1IIK3U00">Electric Vehicles Smart Charging: Strategies, Technologies, and Challenges</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/122/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1505974"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1505974"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1505974" data-cycle-prev="#prev1505974" data-cycle-progressive="#images1505974" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g001-550.jpg?1729859436" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1505974" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g002-550.jpg?1729859439'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g003a-550.jpg?1729859441'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g003b-550.jpg?1729859442'><p>Figure 3 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g004-550.jpg?1729859443'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g005-550.jpg?1729859444'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g006-550.jpg?1729859445'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g007-550.jpg?1729859446'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g008-550.jpg?1729859448'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g009-550.jpg?1729859449'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g010-550.jpg?1729859452'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g011-550.jpg?1729859454'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g012-550.jpg?1729859456'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g013-550.jpg?1729859458'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g014-550.jpg?1729859462'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g015-550.jpg?1729859463'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g016-550.jpg?1729859464'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g017-550.jpg?1729859465'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g018-550.jpg?1729859467'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g019-550.jpg?1729859469'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g020-550.jpg?1729859471'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1505974-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g021-550.jpg?1729859472'><p>Figure 21</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1505974-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g001-550.jpg?1729859436" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Sectional-wise structure of the manuscript.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g002-550.jpg?1729859439" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>DWC system: (<b>a</b>) Elongated rails; (<b>b</b>) Lumped pads; (<b>c</b>) Elongated pads.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g003a-550.jpg?1729859441" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) DWC schematic; (<b>b</b>) Top view expressway.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g003b-550.jpg?1729859442" title=" <strong>Figure 3 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) DWC schematic; (<b>b</b>) Top view expressway.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g004-550.jpg?1729859443" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Process of symmetric encryption.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g005-550.jpg?1729859444" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Sample four-key hash chain.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g006-550.jpg?1729859445" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Architecture model of FLPA (A-Auth: anonymous authentication, PAT: payment authorization token, RTA: registration trusted authority).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g007-550.jpg?1729859446" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Blockchain and IoV architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g008-550.jpg?1729859448" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Applications of blockchain in IoV.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g009-550.jpg?1729859449" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Blockchain applications in IoV—grouping according to their areas of application.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g010-550.jpg?1729859452" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Blockchain application areas in the IoV.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g011-550.jpg?1729859454" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Restrictions of using blockchain in IoV-assisted smart grids.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g012-550.jpg?1729859456" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Data classifications for driver identification.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g013-550.jpg?1729859458" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Categorization of driver identification techniques.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g014-550.jpg?1729859462" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>The RF model’s guiding principle.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g015-550.jpg?1729859463" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Structure of RNN.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g016-550.jpg?1729859464" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>The hybrid model used by Hammann et al. [<a href="#B126-smartcities-07-00122" class="html-bibr">126</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g017-550.jpg?1729859465" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>The hybrid model pre-processing and model introduction.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g018-550.jpg?1729859467" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>V2X communication of EVs.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g019-550.jpg?1729859469" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Implementing ML algorithms for forecasting EV.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g020-550.jpg?1729859471" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Publications on blockchain for EVs.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00122/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00122-g021-550.jpg?1729859472" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Blockchain network of EV transportation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/122'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 26 pages, 2755 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/121/pdf?version=1729779281" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="A Retrieval-Augmented Generation Approach for Data-Driven Energy Infrastructure Digital Twins" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/121">A Retrieval-Augmented Generation Approach for Data-Driven Energy Infrastructure Digital Twins</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Saverio Ieva</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Davide Loconte</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Giuseppe Loseto</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Michele Ruta</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Floriano Scioscia</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Davide Marche</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Marianna Notarnicola</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3095-3120; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060121">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060121</a> - 24 Oct 2024 </div> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/121#metrics">Cited by 1</a> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Digital-twin platforms are increasingly adopted in energy infrastructure management for smart grids. Novel opportunities arise from emerging artificial intelligence technologies to increase user trust by enhancing predictive and prescriptive analytics capabilities and by improving user interaction paradigms. This paper presents a novel data-driven <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/121/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Digital-twin platforms are increasingly adopted in energy infrastructure management for smart grids. Novel opportunities arise from emerging artificial intelligence technologies to increase user trust by enhancing predictive and prescriptive analytics capabilities and by improving user interaction paradigms. This paper presents a novel data-driven and knowledge-based energy digital-twin framework and architecture. Data integration and mining based on machine learning are integrated into a knowledge graph annotating asset status data, prediction outcomes, and background domain knowledge in order to support a retrieval-augmented generation approach, which enhances a conversational virtual assistant based on a large language model to provide user decision support in asset management and maintenance. Components of the proposed architecture have been mapped to commercial-off-the-shelf tools to implement a prototype framework, exploited in a case study on the management of a section of the high-voltage energy infrastructure in central Italy. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/121">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/smartcities/special_issues/O6YK6414BO ">Next Generation of Smart Grid Technologies</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/121/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1505952"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1505952"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1505952" data-cycle-prev="#prev1505952" data-cycle-progressive="#images1505952" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g001-550.jpg?1729779477" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1505952" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g002-550.jpg?1729779479'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g003-550.jpg?1729779482'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g004-550.jpg?1729779483'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g005-550.jpg?1729779484'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g006-550.jpg?1729779486'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g007-550.jpg?1729779487'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g008-550.jpg?1729779488'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1505952-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g009-550.jpg?1729779491'><p>Figure 9</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1505952-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g001-550.jpg?1729779477" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Smart-grid architecture model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g002-550.jpg?1729779479" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Reference architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g003-550.jpg?1729779482" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Reference graph-based data model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g004-550.jpg?1729779483" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>User Interface paradigms.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g005-550.jpg?1729779484" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Prototype architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g006-550.jpg?1729779486" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Retrieval augmented generation architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g007-550.jpg?1729779487" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Digital representation of the energy grid.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g008-550.jpg?1729779488" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Digital-twin assets of the energy plant.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00121/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00121-g009-550.jpg?1729779491" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Screenshots of the mobile application.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/121'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <a data-dropdown="drop-supplementary-1505442" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-1505442" aria-expanded="false" title="Supplementary Material"> <i class="material-icons">attachment</i> </a> <div id="drop-supplementary-1505442" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--wide" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> Supplementary material: <br/> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/120/s1?version=1729757367"> Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 2361 KiB) </a><br/> </div> </div> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 24 pages, 7990 KiB   </span> <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/120/pdf?version=1729757367" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Assessing the Impact of Calendar Events upon Urban Vehicle Behaviour and Emissions Using Telematics Data" data-journal="smartcities"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2624-6511/7/6/120">Assessing the Impact of Calendar Events upon Urban Vehicle Behaviour and Emissions Using Telematics Data</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Junjun Xiang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Omid Ghaffarpasand</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Francis D. Pope</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Smart Cities</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>7</em>(6), 3071-3094; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060120">https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7060120</a> - 24 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Employing vehicle telematics data, this study investigates the transport environment across urban and major road networks during a two-week period encompassing the Easter holidays, considered as a case study. The analysis spans four distinct years: 2016, 2018, 2021, and 2022. Geospatial and Temporal <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/120/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Employing vehicle telematics data, this study investigates the transport environment across urban and major road networks during a two-week period encompassing the Easter holidays, considered as a case study. The analysis spans four distinct years: 2016, 2018, 2021, and 2022. Geospatial and Temporal Mapping captured the dependencies of vehicle speed, acceleration, vehicle-specific power (VSP), and emission factors (EFs) for air pollutants (CO<sub>2</sub> and NO<sub>x</sub>) on the studied calendar period. The results showed that during the Easter holiday, the median vehicle speeds exceeded annual averages by roughly 5%, indicating a clear deviation from regular traffic patterns. This deviation was particularly stark during the 2021 lockdown, with a significant drop in vehicle presence, leading to less congestion and thus higher speeds and vehicle acceleration. The emissions analyses revealed that individual cars emit higher levels of CO<sub>2</sub> and NO<sub>x</sub> during Easter. Specifically, the median values of CO<sub>2</sub> EF and NO<sub>x</sub> EF were 9% and 11% higher than the annual norm. When combined with road occupancy data, the results demonstrate that the Easter holidays in 2022 had a variable impact on NO<sub>x</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, with significant reductions on major roads during weekday rush hours (15–25%) but slight increases on urban roads during weekend periods. <a href="/2624-6511/7/6/120">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/smartcities/sections/Smart_Transportation">Smart Transportation</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/7/6/120/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1505442"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1505442"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1505442" data-cycle-prev="#prev1505442" data-cycle-progressive="#images1505442" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g001a-550.jpg?1729757436" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1505442" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g001b-550.jpg?1729757437'><p>Figure 1 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g002-550.jpg?1729757438'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g003-550.jpg?1729757442'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g004-550.jpg?1729757445'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g005-550.jpg?1729757449'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g006-550.jpg?1729757453'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g007-550.jpg?1729757457'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g008a-550.jpg?1729757458'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g008b-550.jpg?1729757460'><p>Figure 8 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1505442-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g009-550.jpg?1729757461'><p>Figure 9</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1505442-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g001a-550.jpg?1729757436" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) An example of a GeoST-segment as polyline entities assigned to time-specific markers; (<b>b</b>) the major road network and road type distribution in the city of Birmingham, UK; (<b>c</b>) the fleet composition in the city, while 2022_CAZ stands for fleet composition in areas located inside the clean air zone (CAZ). Details of the figure are reported in <a href="#app1-smartcities-07-00120" class="html-app">Table S1</a>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g001b-550.jpg?1729757437" title=" <strong>Figure 1 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) An example of a GeoST-segment as polyline entities assigned to time-specific markers; (<b>b</b>) the major road network and road type distribution in the city of Birmingham, UK; (<b>c</b>) the fleet composition in the city, while 2022_CAZ stands for fleet composition in areas located inside the clean air zone (CAZ). Details of the figure are reported in <a href="#app1-smartcities-07-00120" class="html-app">Table S1</a>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g002-550.jpg?1729757438" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) The example probability distribution function (PDF) of vehicle speed on major roads in 2016. The PDF profile over the year and during the Easter holidays is shown by solid and dotted lines, respectively. (<b>b</b>) The relative difference box plots of vehicle speed between the annual and Easter variations for 2016, 2018, 2021, and 2022 on major roads.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g003-550.jpg?1729757442" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Relative differences in passenger cars’ speed between Easter and annual averages for major roads. The data are segmented by morning rush hour, non-rush hour, evening rush hour, and the weekend/weekday distinction; (<b>b</b>) the probability distribution function (PDF) of passenger car speeds is presented for both the two-week Easter period and the entire year over the studied years. Morning rush, evening rush, and non-rush refer to 19:00–23:00, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g004-550.jpg?1729757445" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Relative differences in passenger car acceleration between Easter and annual averages for major roads. The data are segmented by morning rush hour, non-rush hour, evening rush hour, and the weekend/weekday distinction; (<b>b</b>) the probability distribution function (PDF) of passenger car accelerations is presented for both the two-week Easter period and the entire year over the studied years. Morning rush, evening rush, and non-rush refer to 19:00–23:00, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g005-550.jpg?1729757449" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Relative differences in passenger car vehicle-specific power (VSP) between Easter and annual averages for major roads. The data are segmented by morning rush hour, non-rush hour, evening rush hour, and the weekend/weekday distinction; (<b>b</b>) the probability distribution function (PDF) of passenger car VSP is presented for both the two-week Easter period and the entire year over the studied years. Morning rush, evening rush, and non-rush refer to 19:00–23:00, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g006-550.jpg?1729757453" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Relative differences in passenger car CO<sub>2</sub> emission factors (EFs) between Easter and annual averages for major roads. The data are segmented by morning rush hour, non-rush hour, evening rush hour, and the weekend/weekday distinction; (<b>b</b>) the probability distribution function (PDF) of passenger car CO<sub>2</sub> EFs is presented for both the two-week Easter period and the entire year over the studied years. Morning rush, evening rush, and non-rush refer to 19:00–23:00, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g007-550.jpg?1729757457" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Relative differences in passenger cars NO<sub>x</sub> emission factors (EFs) between Easter and annual averages for major roads. The data are segmented by morning rush hour, non-rush hour, evening rush hour, and the weekend/weekday distinction; (<b>b</b>) the probability distribution function (PDF) of passenger car NO<sub>x</sub> EFs is presented for both the two-week Easter period and the entire year across the studied years. Morning rush, evening rush, and non-rush refer to 19:00–23:00, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g008a-550.jpg?1729757458" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>The box-violin-scatter plots for the relative difference of (<b>a</b>) vehicle speed, (<b>b</b>) acceleration, (<b>c</b>) VSP, (<b>d</b>) CO<sub>2</sub> EF, and (<b>e</b>) NO<sub>x</sub> EF for the studied years of 2016, 2018, 2021, and 2022 on both major and urban roads. Each scatter point represents one of the 35 distinct measurements for the time of the day and day of the week.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g008b-550.jpg?1729757460" title=" <strong>Figure 8 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>The box-violin-scatter plots for the relative difference of (<b>a</b>) vehicle speed, (<b>b</b>) acceleration, (<b>c</b>) VSP, (<b>d</b>) CO<sub>2</sub> EF, and (<b>e</b>) NO<sub>x</sub> EF for the studied years of 2016, 2018, 2021, and 2022 on both major and urban roads. Each scatter point represents one of the 35 distinct measurements for the time of the day and day of the week.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/smartcities/smartcities-07-00120/article_deploy/html/images/smartcities-07-00120-g009-550.jpg?1729757461" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>The average number of cars during Easter, compared to the annual averages, segmented into morning rush hours, evening rush hours, and non-rush hours for both weekdays and weekends on major roads. The yellow bars represent the annual averages, while the green bars represent the Easter period. The red points and lines indicate the relative differences in car numbers between the two periods.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2624-6511/7/6/120'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="generic-item last-item"> <a class="bold" href="/search?q=&journal=smartcities&sort=pubdate&page_count=50">More Articles...</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="left-column" class="content__column large-3 large-pull-6 medium-3 medium-pull-6 small-12 columns"> <div id="js-large-main-top-container"> <div id="js-main-top-container" class="content__container"> <a href="/journal/smartcities"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/smartcities-logo.png?c176f6199a2d215e" alt="smartcities-logo" title="Smart Cities" style="max-height: 60px; margin: 0 0 0 0;"> </a> <div class="generic-item no-border" style="position: relative;"> <div class=""> <a class="button button--color button--color-journal button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link js-journal-active-only-submit-link UC_JournalSubmitButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?form[journal_id]=337" data-disabledmessage="creating new submissions is not possible."> Submit to <i>Smart Cities</i> </a> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link UC_JournalReviewButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/volunteer/journals/review" data-disabledmessage="volunteering as journal reviewer is not possible."> Review for <em>Smart Cities</em> </a> </div> <div class="journal-share-links"> <div class="journal-share-links-social"> <a class="button button--color UA_JournalShareButtons" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" href="https://twitter.com/MDPISmartCities"> <svg width="25" height="26" viewBox="0 0 1200 1227" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" style="padding: 6px;"> <path d="M714.163 519.284L1160.89 0H1055.03L667.137 450.887L357.328 0H0L468.492 681.821L0 1226.37H105.866L515.491 750.218L842.672 1226.37H1200L714.137 519.284H714.163ZM569.165 687.828L521.697 619.934L144.011 79.6944H306.615L611.412 515.685L658.88 583.579L1055.08 1150.3H892.476L569.165 687.854V687.828Z" fill="black" /> </svg> </a> <a class="button button--color UA_JournalShareButtons" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" href="https://www.facebook.com/MDPIOpenAccessPublishing"> <svg width="26" height="26" viewBox="0 0 26 26" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" style="margin-top: 1px; 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function() { $(document).foundation('equalizer', 'reflow'); }); // fix the images that have tag height / width defined // otherwise the default foundation styles overwrite the tag definitions $("img").each(function() { if ($(this).attr('width') != undefined || $(this).attr('height') != undefined) { $(this).addClass("img-fixed"); } }); $("#basic_search, #advanced_search").submit(function(e) { var searchArguments = false; $(this).find("input,select").not("#search,.search-button").each(function() { if (undefined === $(this).val() || "" === $(this).val()) { $(this).attr('name', null); } else { $(this).attr('name'); searchArguments = true; } }); if (!searchArguments) { window.location = $(this).attr('action'); return false; } }); $(".hide-show-desktop-option").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var parentDiv = $(this).closest("div"); $.ajax({ url: $(this).attr('href'), success: function(msg) { parentDiv.removeClass().hide(); } }); }); $(".generic-toggleable-header").click(function(e) { 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"https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"}).appendTo("head"); } }); function recalculate_main_browser_position() { if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { if ($("#js-main-top-container").parent("#js-large-main-top-container").length > 0) { $("#js-main-top-container").appendTo($("#js-small-main-top-container")); } } else { if ($("#js-main-top-container").parent("#js-small-main-top-container").length > 0) { $("#js-main-top-container").appendTo($("#js-large-main-top-container")); } } } function recalculate_responsive_moving_containers() { $(".responsive-moving-container.large").each(function() { var previousParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.active[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); var movingContent = previousParent.html(); if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.small[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } else if (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only()) { var currentParent = 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