Antimicrobial Resistance | List of High Impact Articles

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title="Zika Virus">Zika Virus</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-lg-9"> <h2 class="mt-3">Antimicrobial Resistance</h2> <p><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Antimicrobial resistance occurs when microbes evolve and develop mechanisms to evade the action of antimicrobial drugs. As a result, standard treatments become less effective or ineffective, leading to persistent infections.</span></span></p> <h3><span style="font-size:13.5pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><span style="font-weight:bold"><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt">Causes of Antimicrobial Resistance</span></strong></span></span></span></h3> <ol> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Overuse of Antimicrobials:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt">In Humans:</span></strong><br /> <span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Excessive prescription and use of antibiotics for viral infections, which do not respond to antibiotics, contribute to resistance.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt">In Animals:</span></strong><br /> <span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">The use of antibiotics in livestock for growth promotion and disease prevention can lead to resistant bacteria that may be transmitted to humans through food.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Inappropriate Prescribing:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Prescribing antibiotics without proper diagnosis, or for conditions where they are not indicated, fosters resistance.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Incomplete Treatment Courses:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Patients not completing their prescribed antimicrobial regimen can lead to suboptimal drug exposure, allowing resistant strains to survive and propagate.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Poor Infection Prevention and Control:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices in healthcare settings can facilitate the spread of resistant pathogens.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Lack of New Antibiotics:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Insufficient research and development of new antimicrobial agents contribute to the stagnation of effective treatment options.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Global Travel and Trade:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Increased movement of people and goods can facilitate the rapid spread of resistant strains across regions and countries.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Environmental Factors:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Contamination of water and soil with antimicrobial residues from pharmaceuticals and agricultural runoff can contribute to resistance development.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> </ol> <h3><span style="font-size:13.5pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><span style="font-weight:bold"><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt">Impacts of Antimicrobial Resistance</span></strong></span></span></span></h3> <ol> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Increased Morbidity and Mortality:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">AMR can lead to higher rates of treatment failure, prolonged hospital stays, and increased risk of death from formerly treatable infections.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Economic Burden:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Increased healthcare costs due to longer hospitalizations, more intensive care, and the need for alternative treatments strain healthcare systems and economies.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Public Health Threat:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">The emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant organisms pose a significant threat to effective disease management and control.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Surgical and Medical Procedure Risks:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Procedures like surgeries, chemotherapy, and organ transplants become riskier without effective antimicrobials to prevent or treat infections.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Impacts on Veterinary and Agricultural Practices:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Resistance in veterinary medicine can lead to treatment failures in livestock, affecting food security and safety.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> </ol> <h3><span style="font-size:13.5pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><span style="font-weight:bold"><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt">Key Multidrug-Resistant Organisms</span></strong></span></span></span></h3> <ol> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA):</strong><br /> A type of bacteria resistant to many antibiotics, causing skin infections, pneumonia, and bloodstream infections.</span></span></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE):</strong><br /> Enterococci that have developed resistance to vancomycin, making infections difficult to treat.</span></span></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE):</strong><br /> Bacteria resistant to carbapenems, a last-resort class of antibiotics, leading to severe infections.</span></span></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL)-Producing Bacteria:</strong><br /> Bacteria that produce enzymes that break down commonly used antibiotics, limiting treatment options.</span></span></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB):</strong><br /> Tuberculosis strains resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the two most effective first-line treatments.</span></span></span></li> </ol> <h3><span style="font-size:13.5pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><span style="font-weight:bold"><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt">Strategies for Combating Antimicrobial Resistance</span></strong></span></span></span></h3> <ol> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Stewardship Programs:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt">Antimicrobial Stewardship:</span></strong><br /> <span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Implementing programs in healthcare settings to promote the appropriate use of antimicrobials, optimize treatment regimens, and minimize the development of resistance.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Education and Awareness:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Increasing awareness among healthcare providers and the public about the dangers of AMR, appropriate use of antibiotics, and infection prevention practices.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Infection Prevention and Control:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Improving hygiene and sanitation practices in healthcare settings, promoting hand hygiene, and ensuring the proper use of personal protective equipment (PPE).</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Surveillance Systems:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Establishing robust surveillance systems to monitor antibiotic resistance patterns, track outbreaks, and inform public health responses.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Research and Development:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Encouraging investment in research for new antibiotics, alternative therapies (such as bacteriophages), and rapid diagnostic tools to detect resistant strains.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Regulation of Antibiotic Use in Agriculture:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Implementing regulations to limit the use of antibiotics in livestock and promoting responsible practices in veterinary medicine.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Global Collaboration:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Engaging in international cooperation to address AMR as a global health threat, sharing data, resources, and best practices.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 36.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><strong>Vaccination:</strong></span></span></span> <ul style="list-style-type:circle"> <li style="margin-bottom:13px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="tab-stops:list 72.0pt"><span style="font-family:Calibri,"sans-serif""><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Promoting vaccination programs to prevent infections, thereby reducing the need for antibiotics and the opportunity for resistance development.</span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ul> </li> </ol> <h3><span style="font-size:13.5pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif""><span style="font-weight:bold"><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt">Conclusion</span></strong></span></span></span></h3> <p><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Antimicrobial resistance poses a significant challenge to global health, threatening to undermine decades of medical advances. Collaborative efforts involving healthcare providers, policymakers, researchers, and the public are essential to effectively combat AMR. 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