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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Reconstruction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_myth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_myth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Creation myth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_myth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Interpretations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmic_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Cosmic order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Otherworld" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Otherworld"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Otherworld </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Otherworld-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eschatology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eschatology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Eschatology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eschatology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_propositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_propositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Other propositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_propositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pantheon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pantheon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Pantheon </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pantheon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pantheon subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pantheon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genealogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genealogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Genealogy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genealogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heavenly_deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heavenly_deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Heavenly deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heavenly_deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sky_Father" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sky_Father"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Sky Father </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sky_Father-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dawn_Goddess" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dawn_Goddess"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Dawn Goddess </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dawn_Goddess-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sun_and_Moon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sun_and_Moon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Sun and Moon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sun_and_Moon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Divine_Twins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Divine_Twins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.4 Divine Twins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Divine_Twins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitra-Varuna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitra-Varuna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.5 Mitra-Varuna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mitra-Varuna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_propositions_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_propositions_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.6 Other propositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_propositions_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nature_deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nature_deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Nature deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nature_deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earth_Mother" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth_Mother"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Earth Mother </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth_Mother-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weather_deity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weather_deity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Weather deity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weather_deity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire_deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Fire deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.4 Water deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wind_deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wind_deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.5 Wind deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wind_deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guardian_deity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guardian_deity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.6 Guardian deity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guardian_deity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cattle_deity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cattle_deity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.7 Cattle deity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cattle_deity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_propositions_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_propositions_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.8 Other propositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_propositions_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal_deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal_deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Societal deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Societal_deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fate_goddesses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fate_goddesses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Fate goddesses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fate_goddesses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Welfare_god" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Welfare_god"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.2 Welfare god </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Welfare_god-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smith_god" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smith_god"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.3 Smith god </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smith_god-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Love_goddess" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Love_goddess"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.4 Love goddess </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Love_goddess-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_propositions_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_propositions_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.5 Other propositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_propositions_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Myths </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Myths-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Myths subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Myths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Serpent-slaying_myth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serpent-slaying_myth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Serpent-slaying myth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serpent-slaying_myth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire_in_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_in_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Fire in water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_in_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-King_and_Virgin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King_and_Virgin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 King and Virgin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King_and_Virgin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_of_the_Foundation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_of_the_Foundation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 War of the Foundation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_of_the_Foundation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Binding_of_evil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Binding_of_evil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Binding of evil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Binding_of_evil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_propositions_5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_propositions_5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Other propositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_propositions_5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Death_of_a_son" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_of_a_son"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.1 Death of a son </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_of_a_son-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Mead_cycle"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Mead_cycle""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.2 "Mead cycle" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Mead_cycle"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rituals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rituals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Rituals </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rituals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Rituals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Rituals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Priesthood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Priesthood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Priesthood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Priesthood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sacrifices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sacrifices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Sacrifices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sacrifices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cults" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cults"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Cults </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cults-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Proto-Indo-European mythology</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" > 28 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indogermanische_Religion" title="Indogermanische Religion – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Indogermanische Religion" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الأساطير الهندية الأوروبية البدائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأساطير الهندية الأوروبية البدائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relix%C3%B3n_protoindoeuropea" title="Relixón protoindoeuropea – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Relixón protoindoeuropea" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="প্রোটো-ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় কল্পতত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রোটো-ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় কল্পতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A2n-ch%C3%B3%CD%98_%C3%8Cn-Au_chong-k%C3%A0u" title="Goân-chó͘ Ìn-Au chong-kàu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goân-chó͘ Ìn-Au chong-kàu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religi%C3%B3_protoindoeuropea" title="Religió protoindoeuropea – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Religió protoindoeuropea" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoevropsk%C3%A9_n%C3%A1bo%C5%BEenstv%C3%AD" title="Indoevropské náboženství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Indoevropské náboženství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indogermanische_Religion" title="Indogermanische Religion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Indogermanische Religion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religi%C3%B3n_protoindoeuropea" title="Religión protoindoeuropea – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Religión protoindoeuropea" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitzinindoeuropar_mitologia" title="Aitzinindoeuropar mitologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aitzinindoeuropar mitologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="افسانه‌های نیاهندواروپایی – Persian" lang="fa" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:rgb(220,245,220);"><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">Indo-European topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.gif" title="File:Indo-European migrations.gif"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/140px-Indo-European_migrations.gif" decoding="async" width="140" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/210px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/280px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="598" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">List of Indo-European languages</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Extant</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>Extinct</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysian_language" title="Mysian language">Mysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paeonian_language" title="Paeonian language">Paeonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Reconstructed</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Hypothetical</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Balkanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Albanian" title="Graeco-Albanian">Graeco-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Illyrian" title="Thraco-Illyrian">Thraco-Illyrian</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Grammar</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Other</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italo-Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italo-Celtic language">Proto-Italo-Celtic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Philology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_inscriptions" title="Greek inscriptions">Greek epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language#Inscriptions" title="Messapic language">Messapic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin#Corpus" title="Old Latin">Latin epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish#Corpus" title="Gaulish">Gaulish epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">Runic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Armenian" title="Bible translations into Armenian">Bible translations into Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish#Sources" title="Old Irish">Old Irish glosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanun_(Albania)" title="Kanun (Albania)">Albanian Kanun</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Society</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Mainstream </dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Alternative and fringe </dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland#Baltic_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Baltic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity theory">Paleolithic continuity theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Archaeology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic (Copper Age)</a> </dt></dl> Pontic Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">Kurgan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">Kurgan stelae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">Steppe cultures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Dniester_culture" title="Bug–Dniester culture">Bug–Dniester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dnieper–Donets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhaylovka_culture" title="Mikhaylovka culture">Mikhaylovka culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novotitarovskaya_culture" title="Novotitarovskaya culture">Novotitarovskaya culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> Caucasus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop</a></li></ul> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li></ul> Eastern Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Usatovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatovo culture">Usatovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_culture" title="Cernavodă culture">Cernavodă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni</a></li></ul> Northern Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dnieper_culture" title="Middle Dnieper culture">Middle Dnieper</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> </dt></dl> Pontic Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-cordoned_ware_culture" title="Multi-cordoned ware culture">Multi-cordoned ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srubnaya_culture" title="Srubnaya culture">Srubnaya</a></li></ul> Northern/Eastern Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trzciniec_culture" title="Trzciniec culture">Trzciniec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_culture" title="Lusatian culture">Lusatian</a></li></ul> South Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernoles_culture" title="Chernoles culture">Chernoles</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Cimmerian" title="Thraco-Cimmerian">Thraco-Cimmerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf</a></li></ul> Caucasus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colchian_culture" title="Colchian culture">Colchian</a></li></ul> India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Peoples and societies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_peoples" title="Anatolian peoples">Anatolian peoples</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>) </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> Indo-Aryans <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a></li></ul> Iranians <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a></li></ul> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Hellenic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Anatolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></dt></dl> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Albanians" title="Origin of the Albanians">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>/<a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">Medieval Scandinavians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul> Indo-Aryan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li></ul> Iranian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion and mythology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt>Reconstructed</dt></dl> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_paganism" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism">Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Ancient Iranian religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Historical</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Aryan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_mythology" title="Kurdish mythology">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></li></ul></li></ul> Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/European_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="European paganism">European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albanian_paganism" title="Albanian paganism">Albanian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Practices</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship#Indo-European_religions" title="Fire worship">Fire rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">Winter solstice</a>/<a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt>Scholars</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Institutes</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Studies_in_Indo-European" title="Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European">Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Publications</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">The Horse, the Wheel, and Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Indo-European_Studies" title="Journal of Indo-European Studies">Journal of Indo-European Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output 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class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/40px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/60px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/80px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains characters used to write reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> words (for an explanation of the notation, see <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European phonology</a>). Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> combining characters and <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> characters.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Mythology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythologies" title="List of mythologies">Mythologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian mythology">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian mythology">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Prussian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_mythology" title="Brazilian mythology">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_mythology" title="Buddhist mythology">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalan mythology">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_mythology" title="Cantabrian mythology">Cantabrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_mythology" title="English mythology">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_mythology" title="Estonian mythology">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_in_France" title="Mythology in France">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#Religion_and_mythology" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Indonesia" title="Mythology of Indonesia">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_mythology" title="Japanese mythology">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_mythology" title="Korean mythology">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_mythology" title="Lusitanian mythology">Lusitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_mythology" title="Malagasy mythology">Malagasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_mythology" title="Māori mythology">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_mythology" title="Meitei mythology">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_mythology" title="Mesopotamian mythology">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_mythology" title="Mongol mythology">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American mythology">Native American</a> <ul><li>Algonquian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_mythology" title="Aztec mythology">Aztec</a></li> <li>Californian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan%C3%A1_mythology" title="Chaná mythology">Chaná</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inuit mythology">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li>Pacific Northwest <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plains Indians <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_mythology" title="Lakota mythology">Lakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li></ul></li> <li>Puebloan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talamancan_mythology" title="Talamancan mythology">Talamancan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_mythology" title="Philippine mythology">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic_religion" title="Proto-Uralic religion">Proto-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian mythology">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic mythology">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talysh_mythology" title="Talysh mythology">Talysh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Tai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thai_folklore" title="Thai folklore">Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_mythology" title="Tibetan mythology">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_mythology" title="Vietnamese mythology">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_African_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="West African religion">West African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">Creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_myth" title="Flood myth">Flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">Origin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creation_myths" title="List of creation myths">Creations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_legendary_creatures" title="Lists of legendary creatures">Creatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_feral_children" title="List of fictional feral children">Feral children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Floods</a></li> <li>Heroes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_culture_heroes" title="List of culture heroes">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_folk_heroes" title="List of folk heroes">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_objects" title="List of mythological objects">Objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_pairs" title="List of mythological pairs">Pairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_places" title="List of mythological places">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythology_books_and_sources" title="List of mythology books and sources">Sources</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_creature" title="Legendary creature">Legendary creature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_creatures_by_type" title="List of legendary creatures by type">Type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_progenitor" title="Legendary progenitor">Legendary progenitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twins_in_mythology" title="Twins in mythology">Twins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_hero" title="Culture hero">Culture hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_hero" title="Folk hero">Folk hero</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative mythology">Comparative mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euhemerism" title="Euhemerism">Euhemerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_world_folk-epics" title="List of world folk-epics">Epics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_mythology" title="Lower mythology">Lower mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-mythology" title="Pseudo-mythology">Pseudo-mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Religion and mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mythology" title="Template:Mythology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mythology" title="Template talk:Mythology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mythology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mythology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Proto-Indo-European mythology is the body of <a href="/wiki/Myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Myths">myths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deities">deities</a> associated with the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a>, speakers of the hypothesized <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a>. Although the mythological motifs are not directly attested – since Proto-Indo-European speakers lived in preliterate societies – scholars of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative mythology">comparative mythology</a> have reconstructed details from inherited similarities found among <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, based on the assumption that parts of the Proto-Indo-Europeans' original belief systems survived in the daughter traditions.<a href="#cite_note-1">[note 1]</a> The Proto-Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(religion)" title="Pantheon (religion)">pantheon</a> includes a number of securely reconstructed deities, since they are both <a href="/wiki/Cognates" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognates">cognates</a>—linguistic siblings from a common origin—and associated with similar attributes and body of myths: such as *<a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sky_deity" title="Sky deity">daylight-sky god</a>; his consort *<a href="/wiki/Dh%C3%A9%C7%B5h%C5%8Dm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhéǵhōm">Dʰéǵʰōm</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">earth mother</a>; his daughter *<a href="/wiki/Hausos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausos">H₂éwsōs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dawn_goddess" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawn goddess">dawn goddess</a>; his sons the <a href="/wiki/Divine_twins" title="Divine twins">Divine Twins</a>; and *<a href="/wiki/Seh%E2%82%82ul" class="mw-redirect" title="Seh₂ul">Seh₂ul</a> and *<a href="/wiki/Meh%E2%82%81not" class="mw-redirect" title="Meh₁not">Meh₁not</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Solar_deity" title="Solar deity">solar deity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moon_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Moon deity">moon deity</a>, respectively. Some deities, like the <a href="/wiki/Weather_god" title="Weather god">weather god</a> *<a href="/wiki/Perkwunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkwunos">Perkʷunos</a> or the herding-god *<a href="/wiki/P%C3%A9h%E2%82%82us%C5%8Dn" class="mw-redirect" title="Péh₂usōn">Péh₂usōn</a>,<a href="#cite_note-3">[note 2]</a> are only attested in a limited number of traditions—Western (i.e. European) and <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a>, respectively—and could therefore represent late additions that did not spread throughout the various Indo-European dialects. Some myths are also securely dated to Proto-Indo-European times, since they feature both linguistic and thematic evidence of an inherited motif: a story portraying a <a href="/wiki/Trito_(Proto-Indo-European_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trito (Proto-Indo-European mythology)">mythical figure</a> associated with thunder and slaying a multi-headed serpent to release torrents of water that had previously been pent up; a <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> involving <a href="/wiki/Manu_and_Yemo" class="mw-redirect" title="Manu and Yemo">two brothers</a>, one of whom sacrifices the other in order to create the world; and probably the belief that the <a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">Otherworld</a> was guarded by a <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%B0%C3%A9rberos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ḱérberos">watchdog</a> and could only be reached by crossing a river. Various schools of thought exist regarding possible interpretations of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology. The main mythologies used in comparative reconstruction are <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Iranian mythology">Indo-Iranian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic mythology">Slavic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite mythology">Hittite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Albanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian mythology">Albanian</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_reconstruction">Methods of reconstruction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Methods of reconstruction">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schools_of_thought">Schools of thought</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Schools of thought">edit</a>]</div> The mythology of the Proto-Indo-Europeans is not directly attested and it is difficult to match their language to archaeological findings related to any specific culture from the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006-4">[2]</a> Nonetheless, scholars of comparative mythology have attempted to reconstruct aspects of Proto-Indo-European mythology based on the existence of linguistic and thematic similarities among the <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deities</a>, religious practices, and myths of various Indo-European peoples. This method is known as the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparative method</a>. Different schools of thought have approached the subject of Proto-Indo-European mythology from different angles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427–431-5">[3]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Muller.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Max_Muller.jpg/220px-Max_Muller.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Max_Muller.jpg/330px-Max_Muller.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Max_Muller.jpg/440px-Max_Muller.jpg 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="874" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Friedrich Max Müller</a>, a prominent early scholar on the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European religion and a proponent of the Meteorological School.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198713–15-6">[4]</a></figcaption></figure> The Meteorological or Naturist School holds that Proto-Indo-European myths initially emerged as explanations for natural phenomena, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sky" title="Sky">Sky</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dawn" title="Dawn">Dawn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116-7">[5]</a> Rituals were therefore centered around the worship of those elemental deities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428-8">[6]</a> This interpretation was popular among early scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Friedrich Max Müller</a>, who saw all myths as fundamentally solar allegories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198713–15-6">[4]</a> Although recently revived by some scholars like <a href="/wiki/Jean_Haudry" title="Jean Haudry">Jean Haudry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">Martin L. West</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997117-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007141-10">[8]</a> this school lost most of its scholarly support in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714–15-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428-8">[6]</a> The Ritual School, which first became prominent in the late nineteenth century, holds that Proto-Indo-European myths are best understood as stories invented to explain various rituals and religious practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428–429-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714–15-11">[9]</a> Scholars of the Ritual School argue that those rituals should be interpreted as attempts to manipulate the universe in order to obtain its favours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116-7">[5]</a> This interpretation reached the height of its popularity during the early twentieth century,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198715–18-13">[11]</a> and many of its most prominent early proponents, such as <a href="/wiki/James_George_Frazer" title="James George Frazer">James George Frazer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jane_Ellen_Harrison" title="Jane Ellen Harrison">Jane Ellen Harrison</a>, were classical scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198715-14">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lincoln" title="Bruce Lincoln">Bruce Lincoln</a>, a contemporary member of the Ritual School, argues for instance that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed that every sacrifice was a reenactment of the original sacrifice performed by the founder of the human race on his twin brother.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428–429-12">[10]</a> The Functionalist School, by contrast, holds that myths served as stories reinforcing social behaviours through the <a href="/wiki/Metanarrative" title="Metanarrative">meta-narrative</a> justification of a traditional order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116-7">[5]</a> Scholars of the Functionalist School were greatly influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis" title="Trifunctional hypothesis">trifunctional system</a> proposed by <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Georges Dumézil</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116-7">[5]</a> which postulates a tripartite ideology reflected in a threefold division between a <a href="/wiki/Cleric" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleric">clerical</a> class (encompassing both the religious and social functions of the priests and rulers), a <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">warrior</a> class (connected with the concepts of violence and bravery), and a class of <a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">farmers</a> or husbandmen (associated with fertility and craftsmanship), on the basis that many historically known groups speaking Indo-European languages show such a division.<a href="#cite_note-Flamen-Brahman-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumézil1986-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006429–430-17">[15]</a> Dumézil's theory had a major influence on Indo-European studies from the mid-20th century onwards, and some scholars continue to operate under its framework,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest20074-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Theorizing_myth-19">[17]</a> although it has also been criticized as aprioristic and too inclusive, and thus impossible to be proved or disproved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest20074-18">[16]</a> The Structuralist School argues that Proto-Indo-European mythology was largely centered around the concept of <a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">dualistic</a> opposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431-20">[18]</a> They generally hold that the mental structure of all human beings is designed to set up opposing patterns in order to resolve conflicting elements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997118-21">[19]</a> This approach tends to focus on cultural universals within the realm of mythology rather than the genetic origins of those myths,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431-20">[18]</a> such as the fundamental and binary opposition rooted in the nature of marriage proposed by <a href="/wiki/Tamaz_V._Gamkrelidze" title="Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze">Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Ivanov_(philologist)" title="Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)">Vyacheslav Ivanov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997118-21">[19]</a> It also offers refinements of the trifunctional system by highlighting the oppositional elements present within each function, such as the creative and destructive elements both found within the role of the warrior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431-20">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Source_mythologies">Source mythologies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Source mythologies">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_expansions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Indo-European_expansions.jpg/300px-Indo-European_expansions.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Indo-European_expansions.jpg/450px-Indo-European_expansions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Indo-European_expansions.jpg/600px-Indo-European_expansions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2094" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption> Scheme of Indo-European language dispersals from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the widely held <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Center: Steppe cultures</li><li>1 (black): Anatolian languages (archaic PIE)</li><li>2 (black): Afanasievo culture (early PIE)</li><li>3 (black) Yamnaya culture expansion (Pontic-Caspian steppe, Danube Valley) (late PIE)</li><li>4A (black): Western Corded Ware</li><li>4B-C (blue & dark blue): Bell Beaker; adopted by Indo-European speakers</li><li>5A-B (red): Eastern Corded ware</li><li>5C (red): Sintashta (proto-Indo-Iranian)</li><li>6 (magenta): Andronovo</li><li>7A (purple): Indo-Aryans (Mittani)</li><li>7B (purple): Indo-Aryans (India)</li><li>[NN] (dark yellow): proto-Balto-Slavic</li><li>8 (grey): Greek</li><li>9 (yellow): Iranian</li><li>[not drawn]: Armenian, expanding from western steppe</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> One of the earliest attested and thus one of the most important of all Indo-European mythologies is <a href="/wiki/Vedic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic mythology">Vedic mythology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440-22">[20]</a> especially the mythology of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, the oldest of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>. Early scholars of comparative mythology such as Friedrich Max Müller stressed the importance of Vedic mythology to such an extent that they practically equated it with Proto-Indo-European myths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714-23">[21]</a> Modern researchers have been much more cautious, recognizing that, although Vedic mythology is still central, other mythologies must also be taken into account.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714-23">[21]</a> Another of the most important source mythologies for comparative research is <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987191-24">[22]</a> The Romans possessed a very complex mythological system, parts of which have been preserved through the characteristic Roman tendency to rationalize their myths into historical accounts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987146–147-25">[23]</a> Despite its relatively late attestation, <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a> is still considered one of the three most important of the Indo-European mythologies for comparative research,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440-22">[20]</a> due to the vast bulk of surviving Icelandic material.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987191-24">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic mythology</a> has also received a great deal of scholarly attention, as it is linguistically the most conservative and archaic of all surviving branches, but has so far remained frustrating to researchers because the sources are so comparatively late.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987223–228-26">[24]</a> Nonetheless, Latvian folk songs are seen as a major source of information in the process of reconstructing Proto-Indo-European myth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987228–229-27">[25]</a> Despite the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a> in western culture,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987126–127-28">[26]</a> Greek mythology is generally seen as having little importance in comparative mythology due to the heavy influence of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate" title="Pre-Greek substrate">Pre-Greek</a> and Near Eastern cultures, which overwhelms what little Indo-European material can be extracted from it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987138,_143-29">[27]</a> Consequently, Greek mythology received minimal scholarly attention until the first decade of the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440-22">[20]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> are considered relatively conservative in regards to Proto-Indo-European cultures, retaining a similar lifestyle and culture,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-30">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">their mythology</a> has very rarely been examined in an Indo-European context and infrequently discussed in regards to the nature of the ancestral Indo-European mythology. At least three deities, <a href="/wiki/Tabiti" title="Tabiti">Tabiti</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Papaios&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Papaios (page does not exist)">Papaios</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Api_(mythology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Api (mythology) (page does not exist)">Api</a>, are generally interpreted as having Indo-European origins,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007266-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> while the remaining have seen more disparate interpretations. Influence from Siberian, Turkic and even Near Eastern beliefs, on the other hand, are more widely discussed in literature.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cosmology">edit</a>]</div> There was a fundamental opposition between the never-aging gods dwelling above in the skies and the mortal humans living beneath on the earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007340-36">[34]</a> Earth (*<a href="/wiki/Dh%C3%A9%C7%B5h%C5%8Dm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhéǵhōm">dʰéǵʰōm</a>) was perceived as a vast, flat and circular continent surrounded by waters ("the Ocean").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelamarre2003204–205-37">[35]</a> Although they may sometimes be identified with mythical figures or stories, the stars (*h₂stḗr) were not bound to any particular cosmic significance and were perceived as ornamental more than anything else.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007354-38">[36]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">Martin L. West</a>, the idea of the <a href="/wiki/World-tree" class="mw-redirect" title="World-tree">world-tree</a> (L. axis mundi) is probably a later import from North Asiatic cosmologies: "The Greek myth might be derived from the Near East, and the Indic and Germanic ideas of a pillar from the shamanistic cosmologies of the <a href="/wiki/Finno-Ugric_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Finno-Ugric peoples">Finno-Ugric</a> and other peoples of central and northern Asia."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007346-39">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cosmogony">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_cosmogony" title="Indo-European cosmogony">Indo-European cosmogony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manu_and_Yemo" class="mw-redirect" title="Manu and Yemo">Manu and Yemo</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reconstruction">Reconstruction</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reconstruction">edit</a>]</div> There is no scholarly consensus as to which of the variants is the most accurate reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cosmogonic myth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolomé1986-40">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lincoln" title="Bruce Lincoln">Bruce Lincoln</a>'s reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European motif known as "Twin and Man" is supported by a number of scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Jaan_Puhvel" title="Jaan Puhvel">Jaan Puhvel</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Q._Adams" title="Douglas Q. Adams">Douglas Q. Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_W._Anthony" title="David W. Anthony">David W. Anthony</a>, and, in part, <a href="/wiki/Martin_L._West" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin L. West">Martin L. West</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> Although some thematic parallels can be made with traditions of the Ancient Near East, and even Polynesian or South American legends, Lincoln argues that the linguistic correspondences found in descendant <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> of *Manu and *Yemo make it very likely that the myth has a Proto-Indo-European origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975124-42">[40]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Edgar_C._Polom%C3%A9" title="Edgar C. Polomé">Edgar C. Polomé</a>, "some elements of the [Scandinavian myth of Ymir] are distinctively Indo-European", but the reconstruction proposed by Lincoln "makes too [many] unprovable assumptions to account for the fundamental changes implied by the Scandinavian version".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolomé1986-40">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Adams_Leeming" title="David Adams Leeming">David A. Leeming</a> also notes that the concept of the <a href="/wiki/World_egg" class="mw-redirect" title="World egg">Cosmic Egg</a>, symbolizing the primordial state from which the universe arises, is found in many Indo-European creation myths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeming2009144-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Creation_myth">Creation myth</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Creation myth">edit</a>]</div> Lincoln reconstructs a <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> involving twin brothers, *Manu ("Man") and *Yemo ("Twin"), as the progenitors of the world and humankind, and a hero named *Trito ("Third") who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197642–43-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436-46">[44]</a> Regarding the primordial state that may have preceded the creation process, West notes that the Vedic, Norse and, at least partially, the Greek traditions give evidence of an era when the cosmological elements were absent, with similar formulae insisting on their non-existence: "neither non-being was nor being was at that time; there was not the air, nor the heaven beyond it" (<a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>), "there was not sand nor sea nor the cool waves; earth was nowhere nor heaven above; <a href="/wiki/Ginnungagap" title="Ginnungagap">Ginnungagap</a> there was, but grass nowhere" (<a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1" title="Völuspá">Völuspá</a>), "there was <a href="/wiki/Chaos_(cosmogony)" title="Chaos (cosmogony)">Chasm</a> and Night and dark <a href="/wiki/Erebus" title="Erebus">Erebos</a> at first, and broad <a href="/wiki/Tartarus" title="Tartarus">Tartarus</a>, but earth nor air nor heaven there was" (<a href="/wiki/The_Birds_(play)" title="The Birds (play)">The Birds</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolomé1986473-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007355–356-48">[46]</a> In the creation myth, the first man Manu and his giant twin Yemo are crossing the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a>, accompanied by the primordial cow. To create the world, Manu <a href="/wiki/Fratricide" title="Fratricide">sacrifices his brother</a> and, with the help of heavenly deities (the <a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Sky-Father</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Perkwunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkwunos">Storm-God</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Divine_twins" title="Divine twins">Divine Twins</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007357-49">[47]</a> forges both the natural elements and <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human beings</a> from his remains. Manu thus becomes the first priest after initiating sacrifice as the primordial condition for the world order, and his deceased brother Yemo the first king as social classes emerge from his anatomy (priesthood from his head, the warrior class from his breast and arms, and the commoners from his sexual organs and legs).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975139-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436-46">[44]</a> Although the European and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> versions differ on this matter, Lincoln argues that the primeval cow was most likely sacrificed in the original myth, giving birth to the other animals and vegetables, since the <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoral</a> way of life of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> speakers was closer to that of Proto-Indo-European speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975144-51">[49]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamantaka,_Fear-Striking_Vajra,_Lord_of_Death_on_a_water_buffalo,_Vajrayana_Buddhism.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Yamantaka%2C_Fear-Striking_Vajra%2C_Lord_of_Death_on_a_water_buffalo%2C_Vajrayana_Buddhism.jpg/220px-Yamantaka%2C_Fear-Striking_Vajra%2C_Lord_of_Death_on_a_water_buffalo%2C_Vajrayana_Buddhism.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Yamantaka%2C_Fear-Striking_Vajra%2C_Lord_of_Death_on_a_water_buffalo%2C_Vajrayana_Buddhism.jpg/330px-Yamantaka%2C_Fear-Striking_Vajra%2C_Lord_of_Death_on_a_water_buffalo%2C_Vajrayana_Buddhism.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Yamantaka%2C_Fear-Striking_Vajra%2C_Lord_of_Death_on_a_water_buffalo%2C_Vajrayana_Buddhism.jpg/440px-Yamantaka%2C_Fear-Striking_Vajra%2C_Lord_of_Death_on_a_water_buffalo%2C_Vajrayana_Buddhism.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2619" data-file-height="3319" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yama" title="Yama">Yama</a>, an Indic reflex of *Yemo, sitting on a <a href="/wiki/Water_buffalo" title="Water buffalo">water buffalo</a>.</figcaption></figure> To the third man Trito, the celestial gods then offer cattle as a divine gift, which is stolen by a three-headed <a href="#Serpent-slaying_myth">serpent</a> named *Ngʷhi ("serpent").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134-52">[50]</a> Trito first suffers at his hands, but the hero eventually manages to overcome the monster, fortified by an intoxicating drink and aided by the Sky-Father. He eventually gives the recovered cattle back to a priest for it to be properly sacrificed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197658-53">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">[43]</a> Trito is now the first warrior, maintaining through his heroic actions the cycle of mutual giving between gods and mortals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197663–64-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interpretations">Interpretations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Interpretations">edit</a>]</div> According to Lincoln, Manu and Yemo seem to be the protagonists of "a myth of the sovereign function, establishing the model for later priests and kings", while the legend of Trito should be interpreted as "a myth of the warrior function, establishing the model for all later men of arms".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197663–64-54">[52]</a> The myth indeed recalls the <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Dumézilian</a> <a href="/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis" title="Trifunctional hypothesis">tripartition</a> of the cosmos between the priest (in both his magical and legal aspects), the warrior (the Third Man), and the herder (the cow).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">[43]</a> The story of Trito served as a model for later <a href="/wiki/Cattle_raiding" title="Cattle raiding">cattle raiding</a> epic myths and most likely as a moral justification for the practice of raiding among Indo-European peoples. In the original legend, Trito is only taking back what rightfully belongs to his people, those who sacrifice properly to the gods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197663–64-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997138-55">[53]</a> The myth has been interpreted either as a cosmic conflict between the heavenly hero and the earthly serpent, or as an Indo-European victory over non-Indo-European people, the monster symbolizing the aboriginal thief or usurper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197658,_62-56">[54]</a> Some scholars have proposed that the primeval being *Yemo was depicted as a two-fold <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodite</a> rather than a twin brother of *Manu, both forming indeed a pair of complementary beings entwined together.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007358-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-dandekar-1979a-58">[56]</a> The Germanic names <a href="/wiki/Ymir" title="Ymir">Ymir</a> and Tuisto were understood as twin, bisexual or hermaphrodite, and some myths give a sister to the Vedic Yama, also called Twin and with whom <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a> is discussed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997129-59">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007356–357-60">[58]</a> In this interpretation, the primordial being may have self-sacrificed,<a href="#cite_note-dandekar-1979a-58">[56]</a> or have been divided in two, a male half and a female half, embodying a prototypal separation of the sexes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007358-57">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legacy">Legacy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maria_Saal_Dom_Grabrelief_Romulus_und_Remus_27122013_774.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Maria_Saal_Dom_Grabrelief_Romulus_und_Remus_27122013_774.jpg/220px-Maria_Saal_Dom_Grabrelief_Romulus_und_Remus_27122013_774.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Maria_Saal_Dom_Grabrelief_Romulus_und_Remus_27122013_774.jpg/330px-Maria_Saal_Dom_Grabrelief_Romulus_und_Remus_27122013_774.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Maria_Saal_Dom_Grabrelief_Romulus_und_Remus_27122013_774.jpg/440px-Maria_Saal_Dom_Grabrelief_Romulus_und_Remus_27122013_774.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4195" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Ancient Roman relief from the <a href="/wiki/Maria_Saal#Cathedral" title="Maria Saal">Cathedral of Maria Saal</a> showing the infant twins <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a> being suckled by a she-wolf.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">Cognates</a> deriving from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest *Manu ("<a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Man</a>", "ancestor of mankind") include the Indic <a href="/wiki/Manu_(Hinduism)" title="Manu (Hinduism)">Manu</a>, legendary first man in <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife; the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Mannus" title="Mannus">Mannus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a>: *Mannaz), mythical ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic tribes</a>; and the Persian Manūščihr (from <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Aves.</a> Manūš.čiθra), a <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> high priest of the 9th century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997367-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975134–136-62">[60]</a> From the name of the sacrificed First King *Yemo ("Twin") derive the Indic <a href="/wiki/Yama" title="Yama">Yama</a>, god of death and the underworld; the <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamshid" title="Jamshid">Yima</a>, king of the golden age and guardian of hell; the <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse</a> <a href="/wiki/Ymir" title="Ymir">Ymir</a> (from PGmc. *Jumijaz), ancestor of the giants (<a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">jötnar</a>); and, most likely, <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Remus</a> (from Proto-Latin *Yemos or *Yemonos, with the initial y- shifting to r- under the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic contamination">influence</a> of Rōmulus), killed in the <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Roman foundation myth</a> by his twin brother <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975129-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997129–130-64">[62]</a> Cognates stemming from the First Warrior *Trito ("Third") include the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Trita" title="Trita">Trita</a>, the Avestan <a href="/wiki/Fereydun" title="Fereydun">Thrita</a>, and the Norse <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eri%C3%B0i" class="mw-redirect" title="Þriði">þriði</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197647-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007260-66">[64]</a> Many Indo-European beliefs explain the origin of natural elements as the result of the original dismemberment of Yemo: his flesh usually becomes the earth, his hair grass, his bone yields stone, his blood water, his eyes the sun, his mind the moon, his brain the clouds, his breath the wind, and his head the heavens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436-46">[44]</a> The traditions of sacrificing an animal to disperse its parts according to socially established patterns, a custom found in Ancient Rome and India, has been interpreted as an attempt to restore the balance of the cosmos ruled by the original sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436-46">[44]</a> The motif of Manu and Yemo has been influential throughout Eurasia following the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a>. The Greek, Old Russian (Poem on the Dove King) and Jewish versions depend on the Iranian, and a Chinese version of the myth has been introduced from Ancient India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975125-67">[65]</a> The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito depends on the Iranian, and the Roman reflexes were influenced by earlier Greek versions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197646-68">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_order">Cosmic order</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cosmic order">edit</a>]</div> Linguistic evidence has led scholars to reconstruct the concept of *h₂értus, denoting 'what is fitting, rightly ordered', and ultimately deriving from the verbal root *h₂er-, 'to fit'. Descendant cognates include <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a> āra ('right, proper');<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">ṛta</a> ('divine/cosmic law, force of truth, or order');<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> <a href="/wiki/Asha" title="Asha">arəta-</a> ('order'); <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> artús ('arrangement'), possibly <a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">arete</a> ('excellence') via the root *h₂erh₁ ('please, satisfy');<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009128-72">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> artus ('joint'); <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian A</a> ārtt- ('to praise, be pleased with'); <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> ard ('ornament, shape'); <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a> art ('innate feature, nature, fashion').<a href="#cite_note-mallory-2006a-73">[71]</a> Interwoven with the root *h₂er- ('to fit') is the verbal root *dʰeh₁-, which means 'to put, lay down, establish', but also 'speak, say; bring back'.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007354-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-mallory-2006a-73">[71]</a> The Greek thémis and the Sanskrit dhāman both derive from the PIE noun for the 'Law', *dʰeh₁-men-, literally 'that which is established'.<a href="#cite_note-mallory-2006a-73">[71]</a> This notion of 'Law' includes an active principle, denoting an activity in obedience to the cosmic order *h₂értus, which in a social context is interpreted as a lawful conduct: in the Greek daughter culture, the titaness <a href="/wiki/Themis" title="Themis">Themis</a> personifies the cosmic order and the rules of lawful conduct which derived from it,<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> and the Vedic code of lawful conduct, the <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>, can also be traced back to the PIE root *dʰeh₁-.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">Martin L. West</a>, the root *dʰeh₁- also denotes a divine or cosmic creation, as attested by the Hittite expression nēbis dēgan dāir ("established heaven (and) earth"), the <a href="/wiki/Young_Avestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Avestan">Young Avestan</a> formula kə huvāpå raocåscā dāt təmåscā? ("What skilful artificer made the regions of light and dark?"), the name of the Vedic creator god <a href="/wiki/Dhatri" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhatri">Dhātr</a>, and possibly by the Greek nymph <a href="/wiki/Thetis" title="Thetis">Thetis</a>, presented as a <a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">demiurgical</a> goddess in <a href="/wiki/Alcman" title="Alcman">Alcman</a>'s poetry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007354-38">[36]</a> Another root *yew(e)s- appears to be connected with ritualistic laws, as suggested by the Latin iūs ('law, right, justice, duty'), Avestan yaož-dā- ('make ritually pure'), and Sanskrit śáṃca yóśca ('health and happiness'), with a derived adjective *yusi(iy)os seen in <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> uisse ('just right, fitting') and possibly <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a> istǔ ('actual, true').<a href="#cite_note-mallory-2006a-73">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Otherworld">Otherworld</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Otherworld">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">Otherworld</a> and <a href="/wiki/*%E1%B8%B0%C3%A9rberos" title="*Ḱérberos">*Ḱérberos</a></div> The realm of death was generally depicted as the Lower Darkness and the land of no return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007388-77">[75]</a> Many Indo-European myths relate a journey across a river, guided by an old man (*<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/%C7%B5%C3%A9rh%E2%82%82onts" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵérh₂onts">ǵerh₂ont-</a>), in order to reach the <a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">Otherworld</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439-78">[76]</a> The Greek tradition of the dead being ferried across the river <a href="/wiki/Styx" title="Styx">Styx</a> by <a href="/wiki/Charon_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charon (mythology)">Charon</a> is probably a reflex of this belief, and the idea of crossing a river to reach the Underworld is also present throughout Celtic mythologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439-78">[76]</a> Several Vedic texts contain references to crossing a river (the <a href="/wiki/Vaitarna_River_(mythological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaitarna River (mythological)">Vaitarna</a>) in order to reach the land of the dead,<a href="#cite_note-Abel,_Ernest_L._2009._p._144-79">[77]</a> and the Latin word tarentum ("tomb") originally meant "crossing point".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007389–390-80">[78]</a> In Norse mythology, <a href="/wiki/Herm%C3%B3%C3%B0r" title="Hermóðr">Hermóðr</a> must cross a bridge over the river Giöll in order to reach <a href="/wiki/Hel_(being)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hel (being)">Hel</a> and, in Latvian folk songs, the dead must cross a marsh rather than a river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007390–391-81">[79]</a> Traditions of placing coins on the bodies of the deceased in order to pay the ferryman are attested in both ancient Greek and early modern Slavic funerary practices; although the earliest coins date to the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, this may provide evidence of an ancient tradition of giving offerings to the ferryman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007390-82">[80]</a> In a recurrent motif, the <a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">Otherworld</a> contains a gate, generally guarded by a multi-headed (sometimes multi-eyed) dog who could also serve as a guide and ensured that the ones who entered could not get out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007391–392-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyBrown2019104-84">[82]</a> The Greek <a href="/wiki/Cerberus" title="Cerberus">Cerberus</a> and the Hindu <a href="/wiki/Sharvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharvara">Śárvara</a> most likely derive from the common noun *kérberos ("spotted").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyBrown2019104-84">[82]</a> Bruce Lincoln has proposed a third cognate in the Norse <a href="/wiki/Garmr" title="Garmr">Garmr</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1991289-85">[83]</a> although this has been debated as linguistically untenable.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[note 3]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attic_Red_Figure_(White_Ground)_Lekythos_with_Charon,_attributed_to_the_Tymbos_painter,_ca_500_-_450_BC,_Ashmolean_Museum,_Oxford,_UK_(22681344331).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Attic_Red_Figure_%28White_Ground%29_Lekythos_with_Charon%2C_attributed_to_the_Tymbos_painter%2C_ca_500_-_450_BC%2C_Ashmolean_Museum%2C_Oxford%2C_UK_%2822681344331%29.jpg/170px-Attic_Red_Figure_%28White_Ground%29_Lekythos_with_Charon%2C_attributed_to_the_Tymbos_painter%2C_ca_500_-_450_BC%2C_Ashmolean_Museum%2C_Oxford%2C_UK_%2822681344331%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Attic_Red_Figure_%28White_Ground%29_Lekythos_with_Charon%2C_attributed_to_the_Tymbos_painter%2C_ca_500_-_450_BC%2C_Ashmolean_Museum%2C_Oxford%2C_UK_%2822681344331%29.jpg/255px-Attic_Red_Figure_%28White_Ground%29_Lekythos_with_Charon%2C_attributed_to_the_Tymbos_painter%2C_ca_500_-_450_BC%2C_Ashmolean_Museum%2C_Oxford%2C_UK_%2822681344331%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Attic_Red_Figure_%28White_Ground%29_Lekythos_with_Charon%2C_attributed_to_the_Tymbos_painter%2C_ca_500_-_450_BC%2C_Ashmolean_Museum%2C_Oxford%2C_UK_%2822681344331%29.jpg/340px-Attic_Red_Figure_%28White_Ground%29_Lekythos_with_Charon%2C_attributed_to_the_Tymbos_painter%2C_ca_500_-_450_BC%2C_Ashmolean_Museum%2C_Oxford%2C_UK_%2822681344331%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2808" data-file-height="4854" /></a><figcaption>Attic <a href="/wiki/Red-figure" class="mw-redirect" title="Red-figure">red-figure</a> <a href="/wiki/Lekythos" title="Lekythos">lekythos</a> attributed to the Tymbos painter showing <a href="/wiki/Charon_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charon (mythology)">Charon</a> welcoming a soul into his boat, c. 500–450 BC.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eschatology">Eschatology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Eschatology">edit</a>]</div> Several traditions reveal traces of a Proto-Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">eschatological myth</a> that describes the end of the world following a cataclysmic battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439–440-89">[86]</a> The story begins when an <a href="/wiki/Archdemon" title="Archdemon">archdemon</a>, usually coming from a different and inimical paternal line, assumes the position of authority among the community of the gods or heroes (Norse <a href="/wiki/Loki" title="Loki">Loki</a>, Roman <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Tarquin</a>, Irish <a href="/wiki/Bres" title="Bres">Bres</a>). The subjects are treated unjustly by the new ruler, forced to erect fortifications while the archdemon instead favors outsiders, on whom his support relies. After a particularly heinous act, the archdemon is exiled by his subjects and takes refuge among his foreign relatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997180-90">[87]</a> A new leader (Norse <a href="/wiki/V%C3%AD%C3%B0arr" title="Víðarr">Víðarr</a>, Roman Lucius Brutus, Irish <a href="/wiki/Lugh" title="Lugh">Lug</a>), known as the "silent one" and usually the nephew or grandson (*népōt) of the exiled archdemon, then springs up, and the two forces come together to annihilate each other in a cataclysmic battle. The myth ends with the interruption of the cosmic order and the conclusion of a temporal cyclic era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997180–181-91">[88]</a> In the Norse and Iranian traditions, a cataclysmic "cosmic winter" precedes the final battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987285-92">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997180–181-91">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_propositions">Other propositions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other propositions">edit</a>]</div> In the cosmological model proposed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Haudry" title="Jean Haudry">Jean Haudry</a>, the Proto-Indo-European sky is composed of three "heavens" (diurnal, nocturnal and liminal) rotating around an <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a>, each having its own deities, social associations and colors (white, dark and red, respectively). Deities of the diurnal sky could not transgress the domain of the nocturnal sky, inhabited by its own sets of gods and by the spirits of the dead. For instance, Zeus cannot extend his power to the nightly sky in the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>. In this vision, the <a href="/wiki/Liminal_deity" title="Liminal deity">liminal</a> or transitional sky embodies the gate or frontier (<a href="/wiki/Dawn" title="Dawn">dawn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twilight" title="Twilight">twilight</a>) binding the two other heavens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997131-93">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaudry1987-94">[91]</a> Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed that the peripheral part of the Earth was inhabited by a people exempt from the hardships and pains that arise from the <a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">human condition</a>. The common motif is suggested by the legends of the Indic <a href="/wiki/Kshir_Sagar" class="mw-redirect" title="Kshir Sagar">Śvetadvīpam</a> ("White Island"), whose inhabitants shine white like the Moon and need no food; the Greek <a href="/wiki/Hyperborea" title="Hyperborea">Hyperborea</a> ("Beyond the North Wind"), where the Sun shines all the time and the men know "neither disease nor bitter old age"; the Irish <a href="/wiki/T%C3%ADr_na_n%C3%93g" title="Tír na nÓg">Tír na nÓg</a> ("Land of the Young"), a mythical region located in the western sea where "happiness lasts forever and there is no satiety";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007349-95">[92]</a> or the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Gl%C3%A6sisvellir" title="Glæsisvellir">Ódáinsakr</a> ("Glittering Plains"), a land situated beyond the Ocean where "no one is permitted to die".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln199136-96">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deities">Deities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Deities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/220px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/330px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/440px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> deities Mithra (left) and Ahura Mazda (right) with king <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a>.</figcaption></figure> The archaic <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> (4500–4000)<a href="#cite_note-97">[note 4]</a> had a two-gender system which originally distinguished words between animate and inanimate, a system used to separate a common term from its deified synonym. For instance, fire as an active principle was *h₁n̥gʷnis (Latin ignis; Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agní</a>), while the inanimate, physical entity was *péh₂ur (Greek pyr; English fire).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007135–136-98">[94]</a> During this period, Proto-Indo-European beliefs were still <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animistic</a> and their language did not yet make formal distinctions between masculine and feminine, although it is likely that each deity was already conceived as either male or female.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007138–139-99">[95]</a> Most of the goddesses attested in later Indo-European mythologies come from pre-Indo-European deities eventually assimilated into the various pantheons following the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">migrations</a>, like the Greek <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>, the Roman <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a>, the Irish <a href="/wiki/Medb" title="Medb">Medb</a>, or the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Anahita" title="Anahita">Anahita</a>. Diversely personified, they were frequently seen as fulfilling multiple functions, while Proto-Indo-European goddesses shared a lack of personification and narrow functionalities as a general characteristic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997232-100">[96]</a> The most well-attested female Indo-European deities include *<a href="/wiki/Hausos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausos">H₂éwsōs</a>, the Dawn, *<a href="/wiki/Dh%C3%A9%C7%B5h%C5%8Dm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhéǵhōm">Dʰéǵʰōm</a>, the Earth, and *<a href="/wiki/Sun_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun deity">Seh₂ul</a>, the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007141-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427-101">[97]</a> It is not probable that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a fixed canon of deities or assigned a specific number to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007121–122-102">[98]</a> The term for "a god" was *<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/deyw%C3%B3s" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/deywós">*deywós</a> ("celestial"), derived from the root *dyew, which denoted the bright sky or the light of day. It has numerous reflexes in Latin <a href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">deus</a>, Old Norse <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BDr" title="Týr">Týr</a> (< <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">PGmc.</a> *tīwaz), Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">devá</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> <a href="/wiki/Daeva" title="Daeva">daeva</a>, Irish día, or Lithuanian <a href="/wiki/Dievas" title="Dievas">Dievas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007120-103">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a> In contrast, human beings were synonymous of "mortals" and associated with the "earthly" (*<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/d%CA%B0%C3%A9%C7%B5%CA%B0%C5%8Dm" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dʰéǵʰōm">dʰéǵʰōm</a>), likewise the source of words for "man, human being" in various languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007124-105">[101]</a> Proto-Indo-Europeans believed the gods to be exempt from death and disease because they were nourished by special aliments, usually not available to mortals: in the <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chāndogya Upaniṣad</a>, "the gods, of course, neither eat nor drink. They become sated by just looking at this nectar", while the <a href="/wiki/Edda" title="Edda">Edda</a> states that "on wine alone the weapon-lord <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a> ever lives ... he needs no food; wine is to him both drink and meat".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007157-106">[102]</a> Sometimes concepts could also be deified, such as the <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> mazdā ("wisdom"), worshipped as <a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazdā</a> ("Lord Wisdom"); the Greek god of war <a href="/wiki/Ares" title="Ares">Ares</a> (connected with ἀρή, "ruin, destruction"); or the Vedic protector of treaties <a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra (Vedic)">Mitráh</a> (from mitrám, "contract").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007135–136,_138–139-107">[103]</a> Gods had several titles, typically "the celebrated", "the highest", "king", or "shepherd", with the notion that deities had their own idiom and true names which might be kept secret from mortals in some circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007129,_162-108">[104]</a> In Indo-European traditions, gods were seen as the "dispensers" or the "givers of good things" (*déh₃tōr h₁uesuom).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes201141-109">[105]</a> Although certain individual deities were charged with the supervision of justice or contracts, in general the Indo-European gods did not have an ethical character. Their immense power, which they could exercise at their pleasure, necessitated rituals, sacrifices and praise songs from worshipers to ensure they would in return bestow prosperity to the community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007130-110">[106]</a> The idea that gods were in control of the nature was translated in the suffix *-nos (feminine *-nā), which signified "lord of".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007137-111">[107]</a> According to West, it is attested in Greek <a href="/wiki/Uranus_(mythology)" title="Uranus (mythology)">Ouranos</a> ("lord of rain") and <a href="/wiki/Helen_of_Troy" title="Helen of Troy">Helena</a> ("mistress of sunlight"), Germanic *<a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Wōðanaz</a> ("lord of frenzy"), Gaulish <a href="/wiki/Epona" title="Epona">Epona</a> ("goddess of horses"), Lithuanian <a href="/wiki/Perk%C5%ABnas" title="Perkūnas">Perkūnas</a> ("lord of oaks"), and in Roman <a href="/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)" title="Neptune (mythology)">Neptunus</a> ("lord of waters"), <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Volcanus</a> ("lord of fire-glare") and <a href="/wiki/Silvanus_(mythology)" title="Silvanus (mythology)">Silvanus</a> ("lord of woods").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007137-111">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pantheon">Pantheon</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Pantheon">edit</a>]</div> Linguists have been able to reconstruct the names of some deities in the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> (PIE) from many types of sources. Some of the proposed deity names are more readily accepted among scholars than others. According to philologist <a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">Martin L. West</a>, "the clearest cases are the cosmic and elemental deities: the <a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Sky-god</a>, his partner <a href="/wiki/Dh%C3%A9%C7%B5h%C5%8Dm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhéǵhōm">Earth</a>, and his <a href="/wiki/Divine_twins" title="Divine twins">twin sons</a>; the Sun, the Sun Maiden, and the <a href="/wiki/Hausos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausos">Dawn</a>; gods of <a href="/wiki/Perkwunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkwunos">storm</a>, wind, water, fire; and terrestrial presences such as the Rivers, spring and forest nymphs, and a god of the wild who guards roads and herds".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007141-10">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genealogy">Genealogy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Genealogy">edit</a>]</div> The most securely reconstructed genealogy of the Proto-Indo-European gods (Götterfamilie) is given as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2004-112">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006-4">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007-113">[109]</a> <table style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate; margin: 0 auto;"> <tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Dy%C4%93us" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyēus">Dyēws</a> Daylight-Sky</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Dh%C3%A9%C7%B5h%C5%8Dm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhéǵhōm">Dhéǵhōm</a> Earth</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">The <a href="/wiki/Divine_Twins" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Twins">Divine Twins</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">The Sun Maiden</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Haus%C5%8Ds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausōs">Hausōs</a> Dawn</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td></tr> </tbody></table> <table class="collapsible collapsed" style="margin: 0.3em auto auto; clear:none; min-width:60em; width:auto; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #aaa"> <tbody><tr> <th style="padding:0.2em 0.3em 0.2em 4.3em;background:none; color: inherit; width:auto">An alternative genealogy has been proposed by P. Jackson (2002):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200266–67-114">[110]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"> <table style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate;"> <tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Dy%C4%93us" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyēus">Dyēws</a> Daylight-Sky</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Diuōneh₂</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">The <a href="/wiki/Divine_Twins" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Twins">Divine Twins</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">The Sun Maiden</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Perkwunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkwunos">Perkwunos</a> The Oak-God</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Dh%C3%A9%C7%B5h%C5%8Dm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhéǵhōm">Dhéǵhōm</a> Earth</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Haus%C5%8Ds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausōs">Hausōs</a> Dawn</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heavenly_deities">Heavenly deities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Heavenly deities">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sky_Father">Sky Father</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sky Father">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/*Dy%C4%93us" title="*Dyēus">*Dyēus</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stater_Zeus_Lampsacus_CdM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Stater_Zeus_Lampsacus_CdM.jpg/183px-Stater_Zeus_Lampsacus_CdM.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Stater_Zeus_Lampsacus_CdM.jpg/275px-Stater_Zeus_Lampsacus_CdM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Stater_Zeus_Lampsacus_CdM.jpg/366px-Stater_Zeus_Lampsacus_CdM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Laurel_wreath" title="Laurel wreath">Laurel-wreathed</a> head of <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> on a gold <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a> from the Greek city of <a href="/wiki/Lampsacus" title="Lampsacus">Lampsacus</a>, c 360–340 BC.</figcaption></figure> The head deity of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon was the god *<a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006409,_431–432-115">[111]</a> whose name literally means "Sky Father".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006409,_431–432-115">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007171-116">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurkert198517-117">[113]</a> Regarded as the Sky or Day conceived as a divine entity, and thus the dwelling of the gods, the Heaven,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007168-118">[114]</a> Dyēws is, by far, the most well-attested of all the Proto-Indo-European deities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007166-119">[115]</a> As the gateway to the gods and the father of both the <a href="/wiki/Divine_twins" title="Divine twins">Divine Twins</a> and the goddess of the dawn (<a href="/wiki/Hausos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausos">Hausos</a>), Dyēws was a prominent deity in the pantheon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997230–231-120">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432-121">[117]</a> He was however likely not their ruler, or the holder of the supreme power like <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007166–168-122">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[119]</a> Due to his celestial nature, Dyēus is often described as "all-seeing", or "with wide vision" in Indo-European myths. It is unlikely however that he was in charge of the supervision of justice and righteousness, as it was the case for the Zeus or the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a>–<a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a> duo; but he was suited to serve at least as a witness to oaths and treaties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007171–175-124">[120]</a> The Greek god Zeus and the Roman god Jupiter both appear as the head gods of their respective pantheons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987198–200-125">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurkert198517-117">[113]</a> *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr is also attested in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> as <a href="/wiki/Dyaus_Pita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyaus Pita">Dyáus Pitā</a>, a minor ancestor figure mentioned in only a few hymns, and in the Illyrian god <a href="/wiki/Deipaturos" title="Deipaturos">Dei-Pátrous</a>, attested once by <a href="/wiki/Hesychius_of_Alexandria" title="Hesychius of Alexandria">Hesychius of Alexandria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006409_and_431-126">[122]</a> The ritual expressions Debess tēvs in Latvian and attas Isanus in Hittite are not exact descendants of the formula *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, but they do preserve its original structure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431-20">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dawn_Goddess">Dawn Goddess</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Dawn Goddess">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/*H%E2%82%82%C3%A9ws%C5%8Ds" title="*H₂éwsōs">*H₂éwsōs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eos_chariot_430-420_BC_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Eos_chariot_430-420_BC_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen.jpg/220px-Eos_chariot_430-420_BC_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Eos_chariot_430-420_BC_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen.jpg/330px-Eos_chariot_430-420_BC_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Eos_chariot_430-420_BC_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen.jpg/440px-Eos_chariot_430-420_BC_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2637" data-file-height="1921" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eos" title="Eos">Eos</a> in her chariot flying over the sea, red-figure <a href="/wiki/Krater" title="Krater">krater</a> from South <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, 430–420 BC, <a href="/wiki/Staatliche_Antikensammlungen" title="Staatliche Antikensammlungen">Staatliche Antikensammlungen</a>, Munich.</figcaption></figure> *<a href="/wiki/Hausos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausos">H₂éusōs</a> has been reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006410,_432-127">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007217–227-128">[124]</a> In three traditions (Indic, Greek, Baltic), the Dawn is the "daughter of heaven", *<a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Dyḗws</a>. In these three branches plus a fourth (Italic), the reluctant dawn-goddess is chased or beaten from the scene for tarrying.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200423-129">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997230–231-120">[116]</a> An ancient epithet designating the Dawn appears to have been *Dʰuǵh₂tḗr Diwós, "Sky Daughter".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427-101">[97]</a> Depicted as opening the gates of Heaven when she appears at the beginning of the day,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007222-130">[126]</a> Hausōs is generally seen as never-ageing or born again each morning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007219-131">[127]</a> Associated with red or golden cloths, she is often portrayed as dancing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007221-132">[128]</a> Twenty-one hymns in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> are dedicated to the dawn goddess <a href="/wiki/Ushas" title="Ushas">Uṣás</a> and a single passage from the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> honors the dawn goddess Ušå. The dawn goddess <a href="/wiki/Eos" title="Eos">Eos</a> appears prominently in early Greek poetry and mythology. The Roman dawn goddess <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(mythology)" title="Aurora (mythology)">Aurora</a> is a reflection of the Greek Eos, but the original Roman dawn goddess may have continued to be worshipped under the cultic title <a href="/wiki/Mater_Matuta" title="Mater Matuta">Mater Matuta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007217–218-133">[129]</a> The Anglo-Saxons worshipped the goddess <a href="/wiki/%C4%92ostre" title="Ēostre">Ēostre</a>, who was associated with a festival in spring which later gave its name to a month, which gave its name to the Christian holiday of <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> in English. The name Ôstarmânôth in <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> has been taken as an indication that a similar goddess was also worshipped in southern Germany. The Lithuanian dawn goddess <a href="/wiki/Austrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrine">Aušra</a> was still acknowledged in the sixteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007217–218-133">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sun_and_Moon">Sun and Moon</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sun and Moon">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/*Seh%E2%82%82ul_and_*Meh%E2%82%81not" title="*Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not">*Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HittiteGoddessAndChildAnatolia15th-13thCenturyBCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/HittiteGoddessAndChildAnatolia15th-13thCenturyBCE.jpg/220px-HittiteGoddessAndChildAnatolia15th-13thCenturyBCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/HittiteGoddessAndChildAnatolia15th-13thCenturyBCE.jpg/330px-HittiteGoddessAndChildAnatolia15th-13thCenturyBCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/HittiteGoddessAndChildAnatolia15th-13thCenturyBCE.jpg/440px-HittiteGoddessAndChildAnatolia15th-13thCenturyBCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="1150" /></a><figcaption>Possible depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Sun_goddess_of_Arinna" title="Sun goddess of Arinna">Hittite Sun goddess</a> holding a child in her arms from between 1400 and 1200 BC.</figcaption></figure> *<a href="/wiki/Sun_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun deity">Seh₂ul</a> and *<a href="/wiki/Moon_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Moon deity">Meh₁not</a> are reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European deity of the Sun and deity of the Moon respectively. Their gender varies according to the different mythologies of the Indo-European peoples.<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> The daily course of *Seh₂ul across the sky on a horse-driven chariot is a common motif among Indo-European myths.<a href="#cite_note-137">[note 5]</a> While it is probably inherited, the motif certainly appeared after the introduction of the wheel in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> about 3500 BC, and is therefore a late addition to Proto-Indo-European culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200423-129">[125]</a> Although the sun was personified as an independent deity,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427-101">[97]</a> the Proto-Indo-Europeans also visualized the sun as the "lamp of Dyēws" or the "eye of Dyēws";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007195-138">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Divine_Twins">Divine Twins</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Divine Twins">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Divine_Twins" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Twins">Divine Twins</a></div>The <a href="/wiki/Divine_twins" title="Divine twins">Horse Twins</a> are a set of twin brothers found throughout nearly every Indo-European pantheon who usually have a name that means 'horse', *h₁éḱwos,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432-121">[117]</a> although the names are not always cognate, and no Proto-Indo-European name for them can be reconstructed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432-121">[117]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg/220px-Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg/330px-Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg/440px-Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3266" data-file-height="2450" /></a><figcaption>Pair of Roman statuettes from the third century AD depicting the Dioscuri as horsemen, with their characteristic skullcaps (<a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, New York).</figcaption></figure> In most traditions, the Horse Twins are brothers of the Sun Maiden or Dawn goddess, and the sons of the sky god, *<a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997230–231-120">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007185–191-139">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek</a> Dioscuri (<a href="/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux" title="Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollux</a>) are the "sons of <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>"; the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> Divó nápātā (<a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvins" class="mw-redirect" title="Aśvins">Aśvins</a>) are the "sons of <a href="/wiki/Dyaus" title="Dyaus">Dyaús</a>", the sky-god; the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a> Dievo sūneliai (<a href="/wiki/A%C5%A1vieniai" title="Ašvieniai">Ašvieniai</a>) are the "sons of the God" (<a href="/wiki/Dievas" title="Dievas">Dievas</a>); and the <a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a> <a href="/wiki/Dieva_d%C4%93li" class="mw-redirect" title="Dieva dēli">Dieva dēli</a> are likewise the "sons of the God" (Dievs).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007187,_189-140">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola2015109-141">[136]</a> Represented as young men and the steeds who pull the sun across the sky, the Divine Twins rode horses (sometimes they were depicted as horses themselves) and rescued men from mortal peril in battle or at sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007187-191-142">[137]</a> The Divine Twins are often differentiated: one is represented as a young warrior while the other is seen as a healer or concerned with domestic duties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432-121">[117]</a> In most tales where they appear, the Divine Twins rescue the Dawn from a watery peril, a theme that emerged from their role as the solar steeds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007189-143">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997161-144">[139]</a> At night, the horses of the sun returned to the east in a golden boat, where they traversed the sea<a href="#cite_note-146">[note 6]</a> to bring back the Sun each morning. During the day, they crossed the sky in pursuit of their consort, the morning star.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997161-144">[139]</a> Other reflexes may be found in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a> <a href="/wiki/Hengist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hengist">Hengist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Horsa">Horsa</a> (whose names mean "stallion" and "horse"), the Celtic "Dioskouroi" said by <a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(historian)" title="Timaeus (historian)">Timaeus</a> to be venerated by Atlantic Celts as a set of horse twins, the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Germanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Alcis_(gods)" title="Alcis (gods)">Alcis</a>, a pair of young male brothers worshipped by the <a href="/wiki/Naharvali" class="mw-redirect" title="Naharvali">Naharvali</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007190-147">[141]</a> or the Welsh <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%A2n_the_Blessed" title="Brân the Blessed">Brân</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manawydan" title="Manawydan">Manawydan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432-121">[117]</a> The horse twins could have been based on the morning and evening star (the planet <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>) and they often have stories about them in which they "accompany" the Sun goddess, because of the close orbit of the planet Venus to the sun.<a href="#cite_note-148">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mitra-Varuna">Mitra-Varuna</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mitra-Varuna">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mitra-Varuna_(Indo_European)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra-Varuna (Indo European)">Mitra-Varuna (Indo European)</a></div> Although the etymological association is often deemed untenable,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes20091128–1129-149">[143]</a> some scholars (such as <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Georges Dumézil</a><a href="#cite_note-Dumézil-150">[144]</a> and S. K. Sen) have proposed *Worunos or *Werunos (also the eponymous god in the reconstructed dialogue <a href="/wiki/The_king_and_the_god" title="The king and the god">The king and the god</a>) as the nocturnal sky and benevolent counterpart of Dyēws, with possible cognates in Greek <a href="/wiki/Uranus_(mythology)" title="Uranus (mythology)">Ouranos</a> and Vedic <a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a>, from the PIE root *woru- ("to encompass, cover"). Worunos may have personified the firmament, or dwelled in the night sky. In both Greek and Vedic poetry, Ouranos and Varuna are portrayed as "wide-looking", bounding or seizing their victims, and having or being a heavenly "seat".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200272–74-151">[145]</a> In the three-sky cosmological model, the celestial phenomena linking the nightly and daily skies is embodied by a "Binder-god": the Greek <a href="/wiki/Cronus" title="Cronus">Kronos</a>, a transitional deity between Ouranos and Zeus in <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theogony" title="Theogony">Theogony</a>, the Indic <a href="/wiki/Savitr" title="Savitr">Savitṛ</a>, associated with the rising and setting of the sun in the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, and the Roman <a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturnus</a>, whose feast marked the period immediately preceding the <a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">winter solstice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997290-152">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaudry198772-153">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_propositions_2">Other propositions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other propositions">edit</a>]</div> Some scholars have proposed a consort goddess named *Diwōnā or *Diuōneh₂,<a href="#cite_note-154">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200272–74-151">[145]</a> a spouse of <a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Dyēws</a> with a possible descendant in the Greek goddess <a href="/wiki/Dione_(Titaness)" title="Dione (Titaness)">Dione</a>. A thematic echo may also occur in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic India</a>, as both <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>'s wife <a href="/wiki/Shachi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shachi">Indrānī</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>'s consort Dione display a jealous and quarrelsome disposition under provocation. A second descendant may be found in Dia, a mortal said to unite with Zeus in a Greek myth. The story leads ultimately to the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Centaur" title="Centaur">Centaurs</a> after the mating of Dia's husband <a href="/wiki/Ixion" title="Ixion">Ixion</a> with the phantom of <a href="/wiki/Hera" title="Hera">Hera</a>, the spouse of Zeus. The reconstruction is however only attested in those two traditions and therefore not secured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007192–193-155">[149]</a> The Greek <a href="/wiki/Hera" title="Hera">Hera</a>, the Roman <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a>, the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Frigg" title="Frigg">Frigg</a> and the Indic <a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a> are often depicted as the protectress of marriage and fertility, or as the bestowal of the gift of prophecy. <a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">James P. Mallory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Q._Adams" title="Douglas Q. Adams">Douglas Q. Adams</a> note however that "these functions are much too generic to support the supposition of a distinct PIE 'consort goddess' and many of the 'consorts' probably represent assimilations of earlier goddesses who may have had nothing to do with marriage."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997124-156">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nature_deities">Nature deities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Nature deities">edit</a>]</div> The substratum of Proto-Indo-European mythology is <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animistic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007135–136,_138–139-107">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[151]</a> This native animism is still reflected in the Indo-European daughter cultures.<a href="#cite_note-158">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArvidsson2006136-160">[154]</a> In Norse mythology the <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A6ttir" class="mw-redirect" title="Vættir">Vættir</a> are for instance reflexes of the native animistic <a href="/wiki/List_of_nature_deities" title="List of nature deities">nature spirits and deities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[155]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Trees have a central position in Indo-European daughter cultures, and are thought to be the abode of <a href="/wiki/List_of_tree_deities" title="List of tree deities">tree spirits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArvidsson2006136-160">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[156]</a> In Indo-European tradition, the <a href="/wiki/Perkwunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkwunos">storm</a> is deified as a highly active, assertive, and sometimes aggressive element; the fire and water are deified as cosmic elements that are also necessary for the functioning of the household;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln19916-163">[157]</a> the deified <a href="/wiki/Dh%C3%A9%C7%B5h%C5%8Dm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhéǵhōm">earth</a> is associated with fertility and growth on the one hand, and with death and the underworld on the other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007180–181-164">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Earth_Mother">Earth Mother</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Earth Mother">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/*D%CA%B0%C3%A9%C7%B5%CA%B0%C5%8Dm" title="*Dʰéǵʰōm">*Dʰéǵʰōm</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Earth_goddess" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth goddess">earth goddess</a>, *<a href="/wiki/Dh%C3%A9%C7%B5h%C5%8Dm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhéǵhōm">Dʰéǵʰōm</a>, is portrayed as the vast and dark house of mortals, in contrast with Dyēws, the bright sky and seat of the immortal gods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007178–179-165">[159]</a> She is associated with fertility and growth, but also with death as the final dwelling of the deceased.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007180–181-164">[158]</a> She was likely the consort of the sky father, *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007181-166">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997174-167">[161]</a> The duality is associated with fertility, as the crop grows from her moist soil, nourished by the rain of Dyēws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007180–181,_191-168">[162]</a> The Earth is thus portrayed as the giver of good things: she is exhorted to become pregnant in an <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> prayer; and Slavic peasants described Zemlja-matushka, Mother Earth, as a prophetess that shall offer favorable harvest to the community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997174-167">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007182–183-169">[163]</a> The unions of Zeus with Semele and Demeter is likewise associated with fertility and growth in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007182–183-169">[163]</a> This pairing is further attested in the Vedic pairing of Dyáus Pitā and <a href="/wiki/Prithvi" title="Prithvi">Prithvi Mater</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007181-166">[160]</a> the Greek pairing of <a href="/wiki/Ouranos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouranos">Ouranos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaia_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaia (mythology)">Gaia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007181–183-170">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997174-167">[161]</a> the Roman pairing of Jupiter and <a href="/wiki/Tellus_Mater" class="mw-redirect" title="Tellus Mater">Tellus Mater</a> from <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Saturnalia_(Macrobius)" title="Saturnalia (Macrobius)">Saturnalia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007181-166">[160]</a> and the Norse pairing of <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6r%C3%B0" title="Jörð">Jörð</a>. Although Odin is not a reflex of *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, his cult may have subsumed aspects of an earlier chief deity who was.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007183-171">[165]</a> The Earth and Heaven couple is however not at the origin of the other gods, as the <a href="/wiki/Divine_twins" title="Divine twins">Divine Twins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hausos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausos">Hausos</a> were probably conceived by <a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Dyēws</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007191-145">[140]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">Cognates</a> include the Albanian <a href="/wiki/Zonja_e_Dheut" class="mw-redirect" title="Zonja e Dheut">Dheu and Zonja e Dheut</a>, Great Mother Earth and Earth Goddess, respectively; <a href="/wiki/%C5%BDemyna" title="Žemyna">Žemyna</a>, a Lithuanian goddess of earth celebrated as the bringer of flowers; the Avestan <a href="/wiki/Zam" title="Zam">Zām</a>, the Zoroastrian concept of 'earth'; Zemes Māte ("Mother Earth"), one of the goddesses of death in <a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian mythology</a>; the Hittite Dagan-zipas ("Genius of the Earth"); the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a> Mati Syra Zemlya ("Mother Moist Earth"); the Greek Chthôn (Χθών), the partner of <a href="/wiki/Uranus_(mythology)" title="Uranus (mythology)">Ouranos</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>' Danaids, and the <a href="/wiki/Chthonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chthonic">chthonic</a> deities of the underworld. The possibilities of a <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> goddess Zemelā (*gʰem-elā) and a <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Illyrian mythology">Messapic</a> goddess Damatura (*dʰǵʰem-māter), at the origin of the Greek <a href="/wiki/Semele" title="Semele">Semele</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demeter" title="Demeter">Demeter</a> respectively, are less secured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997174-167">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007174–176-172">[166]</a> The commonest epithets attached to the Earth goddess are *Pleth₂-wih₁ (the "Broad One"), attested in the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Prithvi" title="Prithvi">Pṛthvī</a>, the Greek Plataia and Gaulish <a href="/wiki/Litavis" title="Litavis">Litavis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelamarre2003204–205-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007174–175,_178–179-173">[167]</a> and *Pleth₂-wih₁ Méh₂tēr ("Mother Broad One"), attested in the Vedic and Old English formulas Pṛthvī Mātā and Fīra Mōdor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007174–175,_178–179-173">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997174-167">[161]</a> Other frequent epithets include the "All-Bearing One", the one who bears all things or creatures, and the "mush-nourishing" or the "rich-pastured".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200280–81-174">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007178–179-165">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weather_deity">Weather deity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Weather deity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/*Perk%CA%B7%C5%ABnos" title="*Perkʷūnos">*Perkʷūnos</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Perkwunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkwunos">*Perkʷunos</a> has been reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European god of lightning and storms. It either meant "the Striker" or "the Lord of Oaks",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200275–76-175">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007137-111">[107]</a> and he was probably represented as holding a hammer or a similar weapon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200423-129">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007251-176">[170]</a> Thunder and lightning had both a destructive and regenerative connotation: a lightning bolt can cleave a stone or a tree, but is often accompanied with fructifying rain. This likely explains the strong association between the thunder-god and <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oaks</a> in some traditions (oak being among the densest of trees is most prone to lightning strikes).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200423-129">[125]</a> He is often portrayed in connection with stone and (wooded) mountains, probably because the mountainous forests were his realm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007241-177">[171]</a> The striking of devils, demons or evildoers by Perkʷunos is a motif encountered in the myths surrounding the Lithuanian <a href="/wiki/Perk%C5%ABnas" title="Perkūnas">Perkūnas</a> and the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Parjanya" title="Parjanya">Parjanya</a>, a possible cognate, but also in the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>, a thematic echo of Perkʷunos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007240,_244–245-178">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997582–583-179">[173]</a> The deities generally agreed to be <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> stemming from *Perkʷunos are confined to the European continent, and he could have been a motif developed later in Western Indo-European traditions. The evidence include the Norse goddess <a href="/wiki/Fj%C3%B6rgyn_and_Fj%C3%B6rgynn" title="Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn">Fjǫrgyn</a> (the mother of <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>), the Lithuanian god <a href="/wiki/Perk%C5%ABnas" title="Perkūnas">Perkūnas</a>, the Slavic god <a href="/wiki/Perun" title="Perun">Perúnú</a>, and the Celtic <a href="/wiki/Hercynian_Forest" title="Hercynian Forest">Hercynian</a> (Herkynío) mountains or forests.<a href="#cite_note-180">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Per%C3%ABndi" title="Perëndi">Perëndi</a>, an Albanian thunder-god (from the stem per-en-, "to strike", attached to -di, "sky", from *<a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">dyews-</a>) is also a probable cognate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakobson19856,_19–21-181">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007243-182">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997582–583-179">[173]</a> The evidence could extend to the Vedic tradition if one adds the god of rain, thunder and lightning <a href="/wiki/Parjanya" title="Parjanya">Parjánya</a>, although Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound laws</a> rather predict a *⁠*parkūn(y)a form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006410,_433-183">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007245-184">[178]</a> From another root *(s)tenh₂ ("thunder") stems a group of cognates found in the Germanic, Celtic and Roman thunder-gods <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taranis" title="Taranis">Taranis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Tonans" title="Jupiter Tonans">(Jupiter) Tonans</a> and (Zeus) Keraunos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatasović2009384-185">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelamarre2003290-186">[180]</a> According to Jackson, "they may have arisen as the result of fossilisation of an original epithet or <a href="/wiki/Epiclesis" title="Epiclesis">epiclesis</a>", as the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Parjanya" title="Parjanya">Parjanya</a> is also called stanayitnú- ("Thunderer").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200277-187">[181]</a> The Roman god <a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a> may be a thematic echo of Perkʷunos, since he originally had thunderer characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYork1988-188">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fire_deities">Fire deities</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Fire deities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/H%E2%82%81n%CC%A5g%CA%B7nis" class="mw-redirect" title="H₁n̥gʷnis">H₁n̥gʷnis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agni_-_Kushan_Period_-_ACCN_40-2880_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5714.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Agni_-_Kushan_Period_-_ACCN_40-2880_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5714.JPG/170px-Agni_-_Kushan_Period_-_ACCN_40-2880_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5714.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Agni_-_Kushan_Period_-_ACCN_40-2880_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5714.JPG/255px-Agni_-_Kushan_Period_-_ACCN_40-2880_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5714.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Agni_-_Kushan_Period_-_ACCN_40-2880_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5714.JPG/340px-Agni_-_Kushan_Period_-_ACCN_40-2880_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5714.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2717" data-file-height="3843" /></a><figcaption>A pre-3rd century CE, <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> statue of <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>, the Vedic god of fire.</figcaption></figure> Although the linguistic evidence is restricted to the Vedic and Balto-Slavic traditions, scholars have proposed that Proto-Indo-Europeans conceived the fire as a divine entity called *<a href="/wiki/H1n%CC%A5g%CA%B7nis" class="mw-redirect" title="H1n̥gʷnis">h₁n̥gʷnis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007266-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997203-189">[183]</a> "Seen from afar" and "untiring", the Indic deity <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a> is pictured in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> as the god of both terrestrial and celestial fires. He embodied the flames of the sun and the lightning, as well as the forest fire, the domestic hearth fire and the sacrificial altar, linking heaven and earth in a ritual dimension.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007266-31">[29]</a> Another group of cognates deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Balto-Slavic</a> *ungnis ("fire") is also attested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerksen2008364-190">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a> sources report that Lithuanian priests worshipped a "holy Fire" named Ugnis (szwenta), which they tried to maintain in perpetual life, while Uguns (māte) was revered as the "Mother of Fire" by the Latvians. Tenth-century Persian sources give evidence of the veneration of fire among the <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a>, and later sources in <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a> attest the <a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">worship of fire</a> (ogonĭ), occurring under the divine name <a href="/wiki/Svarozhits" title="Svarozhits">Svarožič</a>, who has been interpreted as the son of <a href="/wiki/Svarog" title="Svarog">Svarog</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakobson198526-191">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007269-192">[186]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:111px;max-width:111px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:183px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_daunienne_mariemont.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Stele_daunienne_mariemont.JPG/109px-Stele_daunienne_mariemont.JPG" decoding="async" width="109" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Stele_daunienne_mariemont.JPG/164px-Stele_daunienne_mariemont.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Stele_daunienne_mariemont.JPG/218px-Stele_daunienne_mariemont.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1569" data-file-height="2647" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:277px;max-width:277px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:183px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Albanian_tattoo_patterns_%E2%80%93_Sun_and_Fire_symbols.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Albanian_tattoo_patterns_%E2%80%93_Sun_and_Fire_symbols.png/275px-Albanian_tattoo_patterns_%E2%80%93_Sun_and_Fire_symbols.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Albanian_tattoo_patterns_%E2%80%93_Sun_and_Fire_symbols.png/413px-Albanian_tattoo_patterns_%E2%80%93_Sun_and_Fire_symbols.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Albanian_tattoo_patterns_%E2%80%93_Sun_and_Fire_symbols.png/550px-Albanian_tattoo_patterns_%E2%80%93_Sun_and_Fire_symbols.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="870" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">610-550 BC <a href="/wiki/Daunians" title="Daunians">Daunian</a> stelae from <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a> (left); Sun (<a href="/wiki/Dielli_(Albanian_paganism)" title="Dielli (Albanian paganism)">Dielli</a>) and Fire (<a href="/wiki/Zjarri_(Albanian_paganism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zjarri (Albanian paganism)">Zjarri</a>) symbols in <a href="/wiki/Albanian_traditional_tattoo" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian traditional tattoo">Albanian traditional tattoo</a> patterns (19th century).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurray-Aynsley189129,_31-193">[187]</a> The cross (also <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastika</a> in some tattoos) is the Albanian traditional way to represent the deified Fire, evidently also called with the theonym <a href="/wiki/Enji_(deity)" title="Enji (deity)">Enji</a>.<a href="#cite_note-194">[188]</a></div></div></div></div> The name of the fire god in the <a href="/wiki/Albanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian mythology">Albanian pagan mythology</a> – <a href="/wiki/Enji_(deity)" title="Enji (deity)">Enji</a>, from PIE *h₁n̥gʷnis – is evidently contained in the week day name that was dedicated to him – e enjte – the <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> word for <a href="/wiki/Thursday" title="Thursday">Thursday</a>. He is thought to have been worshiped by the <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a> in antiquity, being the most prominent god of the pantheon when week day names were formed in the Albanian language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreimer197132-195">[189]</a> In Albanian tradition, the fire – <a href="/wiki/Zjarri_(Albanian_paganism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zjarri (Albanian paganism)">zjarri</a> – is <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deified</a>, with the power to <a href="/wiki/Apotropaic_magic" title="Apotropaic magic">ward off evil and darkness</a>, give strength to the Sun (<a href="/wiki/Dielli_(Albanian_paganism)" title="Dielli (Albanian paganism)">Dielli</a>, who is worshiped as the <a href="/wiki/God_of_light" class="mw-redirect" title="God of light">god of light</a> and giver of life), sustain the continuity between life and afterlife and between the generations. The divine power of fire is used by Albanians for the <a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">hearth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rituals" class="mw-redirect" title="Rituals">rituals</a>, including calendar fires, <a href="/wiki/Sacrifices" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrifices">sacrificial offerings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">purification</a>, and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events. The Albanian fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun, the cult of the hearth (<a href="/wiki/Vat%C3%ABr" title="Vatër">vatër</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestor</a>, and the cult of fertility in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETirta200468–69,_135,_176–181,_249–261,_274–282,_327-196">[190]</a> In other traditions, as the sacral name of the dangerous fire may have become a <a href="/wiki/Word_taboo" title="Word taboo">word taboo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007266-31">[29]</a> the reflexes of the Indo-European root *h₁n̥gʷnis served instead as an ordinary term for fire, as in the Latin ignis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006122-197">[191]</a> Scholars generally agree that the cult of the hearth dates back to Proto-Indo-European times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007269-192">[186]</a> The domestic fire had to be tended with care and given offerings, and if one moved house, one carried fire from the old to the new home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007269-192">[186]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> <a href="/wiki/Atar" title="Atar">Ātar</a> was the sacral and hearth fire, often personified and honored as a god.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007266-31">[29]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian beliefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C3%ABna_e_Vatr%C3%ABs" title="Nëna e Vatrës">Nëna e Vatrës</a> ("the Hearth Mother") is the goddess protector of the domestic hearth (<a href="/wiki/Vat%C3%ABr" title="Vatër">vatër</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETirta2004410-198">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997263-199">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> reported a <a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a> goddess of hearth named Tabiti, a term likely given under a slightly distorted guise, as she might represent a feminine participial form corresponding to an <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> god named *Tapatī, "the Burning one". The sacral or domestic hearth can likewise be found in the Greek and Roman hearth goddesses <a href="/wiki/Hestia" title="Hestia">Hestia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vesta_(mythology)" title="Vesta (mythology)">Vesta</a>, two names that may derive from the PIE root *h₁w-es- ("burning").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007266-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997203-189">[183]</a> Both the ritual fires set in the temples of Vesta and the domestic fires of ancient India were circular, rather than the square form reserved for public worship in India and for the other gods in Roman antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200424-200">[194]</a> Additionally, the custom that the bride circles the hearth three times is common to Indian, Ossetian, Slavic, Baltic, and German traditions, while a newly born child was welcomed into a Greek household when the father circled the hearth carrying it in the <a href="/wiki/Amphidromia" title="Amphidromia">Amphidromia</a> ceremony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007269-192">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water_deities">Water deities</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Water deities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/*H%E2%82%82epom_Nep%C5%8Dts" title="*H₂epom Nepōts">*H₂epom Nepōts</a> and <a href="/wiki/*Deh%E2%82%82nu" class="mw-redirect" title="*Deh₂nu">*Deh₂nu</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apsara.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Apsara.JPG/220px-Apsara.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Apsara.JPG/330px-Apsara.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Apsara.JPG/440px-Apsara.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>A stone sculpture of an <a href="/wiki/Apsara" title="Apsara">Apsara</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Padmanabhapuram_Palace" title="Padmanabhapuram Palace">Padmanabhapuran Palace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>.</figcaption></figure> Based on the similarity of motifs attested over a wide geographical extent, it is very likely that Proto-Indo-European beliefs featured some sorts of beautiful and sometimes dangerous water goddesses who seduced mortal men, akin to the Greek <a href="/wiki/Naiad" title="Naiad">naiads</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nymph" title="Nymph">nymphs</a> of fresh waters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007285-201">[195]</a> The Vedic <a href="/wiki/Apsara" title="Apsara">Apsarás</a> are said to frequent forest lakes, rivers, trees, and mountains. They are of outstanding beauty, and <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> sends them to lure men. In <a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetic mythology</a>, the waters are ruled by <a href="/wiki/Donbettyr" title="Donbettyr">Donbettyr</a> ("Water-Peter"), who has daughters of extraordinary beauty and with golden hair. In <a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian folklore</a>, the Parik take the form of beautiful women who dance amid nature. The Slavonic water nymphs <a href="/wiki/Vila_(fairy)" title="Vila (fairy)">víly</a> are also depicted as alluring maidens with long golden or green hair who like young men and can do harm if they feel offended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007291-202">[196]</a> The Albanian mountain nymphs, <a href="/wiki/Perit" class="mw-redirect" title="Perit">Perit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zana_e_malit" class="mw-redirect" title="Zana e malit">Zana</a>, are portrayed as beautiful but also dangerous creatures. Similar to the Baltic nymph-like Laumes, they have the habit of abducting children. The beautiful and long-haired Laumes also have sexual relations and short-lived marriages with men. The <a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a> <a href="/wiki/Korrigan" title="Korrigan">Korrigans</a> are irresistible creatures with golden hair wooing mortal men and causing them to perish for love.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007290-203">[197]</a> The Norse <a href="/wiki/Hulder" title="Hulder">Huldra</a>, Iranian <a href="/wiki/Ahurani" title="Ahurani">Ahuraīnīs</a> and Lycian Eliyãna can likewise be regarded as reflexes of the water nymphs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007285–288-204">[198]</a> A wide range of linguistic and cultural evidence attest the holy status of the terrestrial (potable) waters *h₂ep-, venerated collectively as "the Waters" or divided into "Rivers and Springs".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007274-205">[199]</a> The cults of fountains and rivers, which may have preceded Proto-Indo-European beliefs by tens of thousands of years, was also prevalent in their tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007279-206">[200]</a> Some authors have proposed *Neptonos or *H₂epom Nepōts as the Proto-Indo-European god of the waters. The name literally means "Grandson [or Nephew] of the Waters".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumézil1966-207">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006410-208">[202]</a> Linguists reconstruct his name from that of the Vedic god <a href="/wiki/Apam_Napat" title="Apam Napat">Apám Nápát</a>, the Roman god <a href="/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)" title="Neptune (mythology)">Neptūnus</a>, and the Old Irish god <a href="/wiki/Nechtan_(mythology)" title="Nechtan (mythology)">Nechtain</a>. Although such a god has been solidly reconstructed in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian religion</a>, Mallory and Adams nonetheless still reject him as a Proto-Indo-European deity on linguistic grounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006410-208">[202]</a> A river goddess *<a href="/wiki/Deh%E2%82%82nu" class="mw-redirect" title="Deh₂nu">Deh₂nu-</a> has been proposed based on the Vedic goddess <a href="/wiki/Danu_(Asura)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danu (Asura)">Dānu</a>, the Irish goddess <a href="/wiki/Danu_(Irish_goddess)" title="Danu (Irish goddess)">Danu</a>, the Welsh goddess <a href="/wiki/D%C3%B4n" title="Dôn">Dôn</a> and the names of the rivers <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, <a href="/wiki/Don_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Don River">Don</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dniester" title="Dniester">Dniester</a>. Mallory and Adams however note that while the lexical correspondence is probable, "there is really no evidence for a specific river goddess" in Proto-Indo-European mythology "other than the deification of the concept of 'river' in Indic tradition".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006434-209">[203]</a> Some have also proposed the reconstruction of a sea god named *Trih₂tōn based on the Greek god <a href="/wiki/Triton_(mythology)" title="Triton (mythology)">Triton</a> and the Old Irish word trïath, meaning "sea". Mallory and Adams also reject this reconstruction as having no basis, asserting that the "lexical correspondence is only just possible and with no evidence of a cognate sea god in Irish."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006434-209">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wind_deities">Wind deities</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Wind deities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vayu_Deva.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Vayu_Deva.jpg/220px-Vayu_Deva.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Vayu_Deva.jpg/330px-Vayu_Deva.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Vayu_Deva.jpg/440px-Vayu_Deva.jpg 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="685" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a>, Vedic god of the wind, shown upon his antelope <a href="/wiki/Vahana" title="Vahana">vahana</a>.</figcaption></figure> Evidence for the deification of the wind is found in most Indo-European traditions. The root *h₂weh₁ ("to blow") is at the origin of the two words for the wind: *H₂weh₁-yú- and *H₂w(e)h₁-nt-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006129-210">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007263–264-211">[205]</a> The deity is indeed often depicted as a couple in the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> tradition. <a href="/wiki/Vayu-Vata" title="Vayu-Vata">Vayu-Vāta</a> is a dual divinity in the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a>, Vāta being associated with the stormy winds and described as coming from everywhere ("from below, from above, from in front, from behind"). Similarly, the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vāyu</a>, the lord of the winds, is connected in the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> with <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>—the king of <a href="/wiki/Svarga" title="Svarga">Svarga</a> Loka (also called Indraloka)—while the other deity Vāta represents a more violent sort of wind and is instead associated with <a href="/wiki/Parjanya" title="Parjanya">Parjanya</a>—the god of rain and thunder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007263–264-211">[205]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> include Hitt. huwant-, Lith. vėjas, <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Toch. B</a> yente, Lat. uentus, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">PGmc.</a> *windaz, or Welsh gwynt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007263–264-211">[205]</a> The Slavic <a href="/wiki/Viy_(story)#Viy" title="Viy (story)">Viy</a> is another possible equivalent entity.<a href="#cite_note-Vassilkov2001-212">[206]</a> Based on these different traditions, Yaroslav Vassilkov postulated a proto-Indo-European wind deity which "was probably marked by ambivalence, and combined in itself both positive and negative characteristics". This god is hypothesized to have been linked to life and death through adding and taking breath from people.<a href="#cite_note-Vassilkov2001-212">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Guardian_deity">Guardian deity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Guardian deity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/*P%C3%A9h%E2%82%82us%C5%8Dn" title="*Péh₂usōn">*Péh₂usōn</a></div> The association between the Greek god <a href="/wiki/Pan_(god)" title="Pan (god)">Pan</a> and the Vedic god <a href="/wiki/Pushan" title="Pushan">Pūshan</a> was first identified in 1924 by German linguist <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Collitz" title="Hermann Collitz">Hermann Collitz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes20091149-214">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[209]</a> Both were worshipped as pastoral deities, which led scholars to reconstruct *Péh₂usōn ("Protector") as a pastoral god guarding roads and herds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198763-216">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006411_and_434-217">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007282-218">[212]</a> He may have had an unfortunate appearance, a bushy beard and a keen sight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200284-219">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007282-218">[212]</a> He was also closely affiliated with goats or bucks: Pan has goat's legs while goats are said to pull the car of Pūshān (the animal was also sacrificed to him on occasion).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007282-218">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200285-220">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cattle_deity">Cattle deity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Cattle deity">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Jaan_Puhvel" title="Jaan Puhvel">Jaan Puhvel</a> has proposed a cattle god called *<a href="/wiki/Welnos" class="mw-redirect" title="Welnos">Welnos</a> which he links to the Slavic god <a href="/wiki/Veles_(god)" title="Veles (god)">Veles</a>, the Lithuanian god <a href="/wiki/Velnias" class="mw-redirect" title="Velnias">Velnias</a>, and less certainly to Old Norse <a href="/wiki/Ullr" title="Ullr">Ullr</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_propositions_3">Other propositions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Other propositions">edit</a>]</div> In 1855, <a href="/wiki/Adalbert_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Adalbert Kuhn">Adalbert Kuhn</a> suggested that the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed in a set of helper deities, whom he reconstructed based on the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Elves" class="mw-redirect" title="Elves">elves</a> and the Hindu <a href="/wiki/Ribhus" title="Ribhus">ribhus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kuhn1855-p110-222">[216]</a> Although this proposal is often mentioned in academic writings, very few scholars actually accept it since the <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> relationship is linguistically difficult to justify.<a href="#cite_note-223">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007297-224">[218]</a> While stories of elves, satyrs, goblins and giants show recurrent traits in Indo-European traditions, West notes that "it is difficult to see so coherent an overall pattern as with the nymphs. It is unlikely that the Indo-Europeans had no concept of such creatures, but we cannot define with any sharpness of outline what their conceptions were."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007303-225">[219]</a> A wild god named *Rudlos has also been proposed, based on the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudrá</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Old Russian</a> Rŭglŭ. Problematic is whether the name derives from *rewd- ("rend, tear apart"; akin to Lat. rullus, "rustic"), or rather from *rew- ("howl").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006434-209">[203]</a> Although the name of the divinities are not cognates, a horse goddess portrayed as bearing twins and in connection with fertility and marriage has been proposed based on the Gaulish <a href="/wiki/Epona" title="Epona">Epona</a>, Irish <a href="/wiki/Macha" title="Macha">Macha</a> and Welsh <a href="/wiki/Rhiannon" title="Rhiannon">Rhiannon</a>, with other thematic echos in the Greek and Indic traditions.<a href="#cite_note-226">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997279-227">[221]</a> <a href="/wiki/Demeter" title="Demeter">Demeter</a> transformed herself into a mare when she was raped by <a href="/wiki/Poseidon" title="Poseidon">Poseidon</a> appearing as a stallion, and she gave birth to a daughter and a horse, <a href="/wiki/Arion_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arion (mythology)">Areion</a>. Similarly, the Indic tradition tells of <a href="/wiki/Saranyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Saranyu">Saranyu</a> fleeing from her husband Vivásvat when she assumed the form of a mare. Vivásvat metamorphosed into a stallion and of their intercourse were born the twin horses, the <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvins" class="mw-redirect" title="Aśvins">Aśvins</a>. The Irish goddess Macha gave birth to twins, a mare and a boy, and the Welsh figure Rhiannon bore a child who was reared along with a horse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997280-228">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Societal_deities">Societal deities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Societal deities">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fate_goddesses">Fate goddesses</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Fate goddesses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fates_(Indo_European)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fates (Indo European)">Fates (Indo European)</a></div> It is highly probable that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed in <a href="/wiki/Triple_goddesses" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple goddesses">three fate goddesses</a> who <a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">spun</a> the destinies of mankind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007380–385-229">[223]</a> Although such fate goddesses are not directly attested in the Indo-Aryan tradition, the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a> does contain an allusion comparing fate to a <a href="/wiki/Warp_and_woof" class="mw-redirect" title="Warp and woof">warp</a>. Furthermore, the three Fates appear in nearly every other Indo-European mythology. The earliest attested set of fate goddesses are the <a href="/wiki/Gulses" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulses">Gulses</a> in Hittite mythology, who were said to preside over the individual destinies of human beings. They often appear in mythical narratives alongside the goddesses Papaya and Istustaya, who, in a ritual text for the foundation of a new temple, are described sitting holding mirrors and spindles, spinning the king's thread of life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007380-230">[224]</a> In the Greek tradition, the <a href="/wiki/Moirai" title="Moirai">Moirai</a> ("Apportioners") are mentioned dispensing destiny in both the Iliad and the Odyssey, in which they are given the epithet Κλῶθες (Klothes, meaning "Spinners").<a href="#cite_note-231">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007380–381-232">[226]</a> In Hesiod's Theogony, the Moirai are said to "give mortal men both good and ill" and their names are listed as <a href="/wiki/Clotho" title="Clotho">Klotho</a> ("Spinner"), <a href="/wiki/Lachesis" title="Lachesis">Lachesis</a> ("Apportioner"), and <a href="/wiki/Atropos" title="Atropos">Atropos</a> ("Inflexible").<a href="#cite_note-233">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007381-234">[228]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> records that Klotho sings of the past, Lachesis of the present, and Atropos of the future.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007383-235">[229]</a> In Roman legend, the <a href="/wiki/Parcae" title="Parcae">Parcae</a> were three goddesses who presided over the births of children and whose names were Nona ("Ninth"), Decuma ("Tenth"), and Morta ("Death"). They too were said to spin destinies, although this may have been due to influence from Greek literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007381-234">[228]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paphos_Haus_des_Theseus_-_Mosaik_Achilles_3_Moiren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Paphos_Haus_des_Theseus_-_Mosaik_Achilles_3_Moiren.jpg/290px-Paphos_Haus_des_Theseus_-_Mosaik_Achilles_3_Moiren.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Paphos_Haus_des_Theseus_-_Mosaik_Achilles_3_Moiren.jpg/435px-Paphos_Haus_des_Theseus_-_Mosaik_Achilles_3_Moiren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Paphos_Haus_des_Theseus_-_Mosaik_Achilles_3_Moiren.jpg/580px-Paphos_Haus_des_Theseus_-_Mosaik_Achilles_3_Moiren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2524" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Late second-century AD Greek mosaic from the <a href="/wiki/Paphos_Archaeological_Park#House_of_Theseus" title="Paphos Archaeological Park">House of Theseus</a> at <a href="/wiki/Paphos_Archaeological_Park" title="Paphos Archaeological Park">Paphos Archaeological Park</a> on <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> showing the three Moirai: <a href="/wiki/Clotho" title="Clotho">Klotho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lachesis" title="Lachesis">Lachesis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atropos" title="Atropos">Atropos</a>, standing behind <a href="/wiki/Peleus" title="Peleus">Peleus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thetis" title="Thetis">Thetis</a>, the parents of <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a>.</figcaption></figure> In the Old Norse <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1" title="Völuspá">Völuspá</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gylfaginning" title="Gylfaginning">Gylfaginning</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Norns" title="Norns">Norns</a> are three cosmic goddesses of fate who are described sitting by the well of <a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0r" title="Urðr">Urðr</a> at the foot of the world tree <a href="/wiki/Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Yggdrasil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007382-237">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[note 7]</a> In Old Norse texts, the Norns are frequently conflated with <a href="/wiki/Valkyrie" title="Valkyrie">Valkyries</a>, who are sometimes also described as spinning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007382-237">[231]</a> Old English texts, such as <a href="/wiki/The_Rhyming_Poem" title="The Rhyming Poem">Rhyme Poem</a> 70, and <a href="/wiki/Guthlac_of_Crowland" title="Guthlac of Crowland">Guthlac</a> 1350 f., reference <a href="/wiki/Wyrd" title="Wyrd">Wyrd</a> as a singular power that "weaves" destinies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007382–383-239">[232]</a> Later texts mention the Wyrds as a group, with <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a> referring to them as "the Werdys that we clepyn Destiné" in <a href="/wiki/The_Legend_of_Good_Women" title="The Legend of Good Women">The Legend of Good Women</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007383-235">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[note 8]</a> A goddess spinning appears in a <a href="/wiki/Bracteate" title="Bracteate">bracteate</a> from southwest Germany and a relief from <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> shows three mother goddesses, with two of them holding distaffs. Tenth-century German ecclesiastical writings denounce the popular belief in three sisters who determined the course of a man's life at his birth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007383-235">[229]</a> An Old Irish hymn attests to seven goddesses who were believed to weave the thread of destiny, which demonstrates that these spinster fate-goddesses were present in Celtic mythology as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007384-242">[234]</a> A Lithuanian folktale recorded in 1839 recounts that a man's fate is spun at his birth by seven goddesses known as the <a href="/wiki/Deives_Valdytojos" class="mw-redirect" title="Deives Valdytojos">deivės valdytojos</a> and used to hang a star in the sky; when he dies, his thread snaps and his star falls as a meteor. In Latvian folk songs, a goddess called the <a href="/wiki/Laima" title="Laima">Láima</a> is described as weaving a child's fate at its birth. Although she is usually only one goddess, the Láima sometimes appears as three.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007384-242">[234]</a> The three spinning fate goddesses appear in Slavic traditions in the forms of the Russian Rožanicy, the Czech and Slovak Sudičky, the Bulgarian Narenčnice or Urisnice, the Polish Rodzanice, the Croatian Rodjenice, the Serbian <a href="/wiki/Sudjenice" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudjenice">Sudjenice</a>, and the Slovene Rojenice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007384–385-243">[235]</a> Albanian folk tales speak of the <a href="/wiki/Fatit" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatit">Fatit</a>, three old women who appear three days after a child is born and determine its fate, using language reminiscent of spinning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007385-244">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Welfare_god">Welfare god</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Welfare god">edit</a>]</div> The god *h₂eryo-men has been reconstructed[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Proto-Indo-European_mythology#Dubious" title="Talk:Proto-Indo-European mythology">discuss</a>] as a deity in charge of welfare and the community,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Proto-Indo-European_mythology#Dubious" title="Talk:Proto-Indo-European mythology">discuss</a>] connected to the building and maintenance of roads or pathways, but also with healing and the institution of marriage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997375-245">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007142-246">[238]</a> It derives from the noun *h₂eryos (a "member of one's own group", "one who belongs to the community", in contrast to an outsider), also at the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Indo-Iranian</a> <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">*árya</a>, "noble, hospitable", and the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Celtic</a> *aryo-, "free man" (<a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a>: aire, "noble, chief"; <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a>: arios, "free man, lord").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2004209-247">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006266–269-248">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatasović200943-249">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelamarre200355-250">[242]</a> The Vedic god <a href="/wiki/Aryaman" title="Aryaman">Aryaman</a> is frequently mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, and associated with social and marital ties. In the <a href="/wiki/Gathas" class="mw-redirect" title="Gathas">Gāthās</a>, the Iranian god <a href="/wiki/Airyaman" title="Airyaman">Airyaman</a> seems to denote the wider tribal network or alliance, and is invoked in a prayer against illness, magic, and evil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007142-246">[238]</a> In the mythical stories of the founding of the Irish nation, the hero <a href="/wiki/%C3%89rim%C3%B3n" title="Érimón">Érimón</a> became the first king of the <a href="/wiki/Milesians_(Irish)" title="Milesians (Irish)">Milesians</a> (the mythical name of the Irish) after he helped conquer the island from the <a href="/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann" title="Tuatha Dé Danann">Tuatha Dé Danann</a>. He also provided wives to the <a href="/wiki/Cruthin" title="Cruthin">Cruithnig</a> (the mythical <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>), a reflex of the marital functions of *h₂eryo-men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007143-251">[243]</a> The Gaulish given name Ariomanus, possibly translated as "lord-spirited" and generally borne by Germanic chiefs, is also to be mentioned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelamarre200355-250">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Smith_god">Smith god</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Smith god">edit</a>]</div> Although the name of a particular smith god cannot be linguistically reconstructed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006410-208">[202]</a> smith gods of various names are found in most Proto-Indo-European daughter languages. There is not a strong argument for a single mythic prototype.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007154–156-252">[244]</a> Mallory notes that "deities specifically concerned with particular craft specializations may be expected in any ideological system whose people have achieved an appropriate level of social complexity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997139-253">[245]</a> Nonetheless, two motifs recur frequently in Indo-European traditions: the making of the chief god's distinctive weapon (<a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>' bolt; <a href="/wiki/Lugh" title="Lugh">Lugh</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a>'s spear and <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>'s hammer) by a special artificer, and the craftsman god's association with the immortals' drinking.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007157-106">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Love_goddess">Love goddess</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Love goddess">edit</a>]</div> Scholars have suggested a common root, PriHyéh₂[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>], *Prëwyâ/*Prëwyos<a href="#cite_note-witczak_&_kaczor_1995-254">[246]</a> or ?*PriHtu8, for the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Priya_(given_name)" title="Priya (given name)">priya</a>, Greek <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite" title="Aphrodite">Aphrodite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean Greek</a> theonym pe-re-wa₂, likely related <a href="/wiki/Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a> Πρεͷα (Prewa)<a href="#cite_note-witczak_&_kaczor_1995-254">[246]</a> and Common Germanic <a href="/wiki/Frijj%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Frijjō">Frijjō</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wodkto_et_al._2008-255">[247]</a>: 568–573  that would point to a Proto-Indo-European love god or goddess. *PriH- is a root for beloved/friend<a href="#cite_note-Wodkto_et_al._2008-255">[247]</a>: 268 , whereas *PriHyéh₂ means "wife" or "beloved wife"<a href="#cite_note-256">[note 9]</a> and has descendant forms in many Indo-European languages. It is ancestral to <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Priya_(given_name)" title="Priya (given name)">priya</a> "dear, beloved" and Common Germanic <a href="/wiki/Frijj%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Frijjō">Frijjō</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wodkto_et_al._2008-255">[247]</a> In Latin <a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a> takes her place. Her name is not cognate at all, but Norse descendants of *PriHyéh₂, <a href="/wiki/Freyr" title="Freyr">Freyr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freyja" title="Freyja">Freyja</a> belong to the race of so-called <a href="/wiki/Vanir" title="Vanir">Vanir</a>, which comes from the same Proto-Indo-European root *wenh₁-.<a href="#cite_note-257">[248]</a> Freyja is possibly worshipped under the name Perun in southern Slavic-speaking areas.<a href="#cite_note-oxford-introduction-to-proto-2006a-258">[249]</a> In Albanian she is Perendi, Christianized as St. Prendi. J. Grimm refers to an Old Bohemian form Příje, used as a gloss for Venus in <a href="/wiki/Mater_Verborum" title="Mater Verborum">Mater Verborum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-259">[250]</a> Many of these goddesses give their name to the fifth day of the week, Friday. They are also very well known in lesser form such as the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Elves" class="mw-redirect" title="Elves">Elves</a> and the Persian <a href="/wiki/Peri" class="mw-redirect" title="Peri">Peris</a>, charming and seductive beings in folklore.<a href="#cite_note-oxford-introduction-to-proto-2006a-258">[249]</a> There are also masculine forms of this deity, Greek Priapos, borrowed into Latin as <a href="/wiki/Priapus" title="Priapus">Priapus</a>;[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and Old Norse <a href="/wiki/Freyr" title="Freyr">Freyr</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford-introduction-to-proto-2006a-258">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_propositions_4">Other propositions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Other propositions">edit</a>]</div> The Proto-Indo-Europeans may also have had a goddess who presided over the <a href="/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis" title="Trifunctional hypothesis">trifunctional</a> organization of society. Various epithets of the Iranian goddess <a href="/wiki/Anahita" title="Anahita">Anahita</a> and the Roman goddess <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a> provide sufficient evidence to solidly attest that she was probably worshipped, but no specific name for her can be lexically reconstructed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006433-260">[251]</a> Vague remnants of this goddess may also be preserved in the Greek goddess <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987133–134-261">[252]</a> A decay goddess has also been proposed on the basis of the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Nir%E1%B9%9Bti_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nirṛti (goddess)">Nirṛti</a> and the Roman <a href="/wiki/Lua_(goddess)" title="Lua (goddess)">Lūa Mater</a>. Her names derive from the verbal roots "decay, rot", and they are both associated with the decomposition of human bodies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006434-209">[203]</a> Michael Estell has reconstructed a mythical craftsman named *H₃r̥bʰew based on the Greek <a href="/wiki/Orpheus" title="Orpheus">Orpheus</a> and the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Ribhus" title="Ribhus">Ribhus</a>. Both are the son of a cudgel-bearer or an archer, and both are known as "fashioners" (*tetḱ-).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200283-84-262">[253]</a> A mythical hero named *Promāth₂ew has also been proposed, from the Greek hero <a href="/wiki/Prometheus" title="Prometheus">Prometheus</a> ("the one who steals"), who took the heavenly fire away from the gods to bring it to mankind, and the Vedic <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81tari%C5%9Bvan" title="Mātariśvan">Mātariśvan</a>, the mythical bird who "robbed" (found in the myth as pra math-, "to steal") the hidden fire and gave it to the <a href="/wiki/Bhrigu" title="Bhrigu">Bhrigus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200285-220">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200427-263">[254]</a> A medical god has been reconstructed based on a thematic comparison between the Indic god <a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudra</a> and the Greek <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a>. Both inflict disease from afar thanks to their bows, both are known as healers, and both are specifically associated with rodents: Rudra's animal is the "rat mole" and Apollo was known as a "rat god".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006434-209">[203]</a> Some scholars have proposed a war god named *Māwort- based on the Roman god <a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a> and the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Maruts" title="Maruts">Marutás</a>, the companions of the war-god <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>. Mallory and Adams reject this reconstruction on linguistic grounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006410–411-264">[255]</a> Likewise, some researchers have found it more plausible that Mars was originally a storm deity, while the same cannot be said of Ares.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYork1988-188">[182]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chaoskampf" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaoskampf">Chaoskampf</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Myths">Myths</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Myths">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serpent-slaying_myth">Serpent-slaying myth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Serpent-slaying myth">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/*Trito" title="*Trito">*Trito</a> and <a href="/wiki/*H%E2%82%82n%CC%A5g%CA%B7%CA%B0is" title="*H₂n̥gʷʰis">*H₂n̥gʷʰis</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Mythology" title="Category:Mythology">a Mythology series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:100%;background:#BBBBDD;"><a href="/wiki/Chaoskampf" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaoskampf">Chaoskampf</a> or Drachenkampf</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/File:Destruction_of_Leviathan.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Destruction of Leviathan by Gustave Doré (1865)"><img alt="The Destruction of Leviathan by Gustave Doré (1865)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Destruction_of_Leviathan.png/200px-Destruction_of_Leviathan.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Destruction_of_Leviathan.png/300px-Destruction_of_Leviathan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Destruction_of_Leviathan.png/400px-Destruction_of_Leviathan.png 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="2890" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-style:italic;"> <a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative mythology">Comparative mythology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sea_serpent" title="Sea serpent">sea serpents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dragon" title="Dragon">dragons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dragonslayer" title="Dragonslayer">dragonslayers</a>.</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#BBBBDD;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Myths</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <dl><dt><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perkwunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkwunos">Perkwunos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trito_(Proto-Indo-European_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trito (Proto-Indo-European mythology)">Trito</a> vs. the <a href="/wiki/Sea_serpent" title="Sea serpent">Sea serpent</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Jewish mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/YHWH" class="mw-redirect" title="YHWH">YHWH</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Leviathan" title="Leviathan">Leviathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YHWH" class="mw-redirect" title="YHWH">YHWH</a> vs. the <a href="/wiki/Tannin_(monster)" title="Tannin (monster)">Tannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Rahab_(demon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahab (demon)">Rahab</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Christian mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George_and_the_Dragon" title="Saint George and the Dragon">Saint George vs. the Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Saint Michael</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Herensuge" title="Herensuge">Herensuge</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[nb 1]</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Albanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian mythology">Albanian mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drangue" title="Drangue">Drangue</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Kulshedra" title="Kulshedra">Kulshedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zojz_(deity)" title="Zojz (deity)">Zojz</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Talas_(deity)" title="Talas (deity)">Talas</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rmungandr" title="Jörmungandr">Jörmungandr</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic mythology">Slavic mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perun" title="Perun">Perun</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Veles_(god)" title="Veles (god)">Veles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobrynya_Nikitich" title="Dobrynya Nikitich">Dobrynya Nikitich</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Zmey_Gorynych" class="mw-redirect" title="Zmey Gorynych">Zmey Gorynych</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite mythology">Hittite mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tarhunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarhunt">Tarhunt</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Illuyanka" title="Illuyanka">Illuyanka</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrian mythology">Hurrian mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teshub" title="Teshub">Teshub</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Ullikummi" title="Ullikummi">Ullikummi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Typhon" title="Typhon">Typhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> vs. the <a href="/wiki/Lernaean_Hydra" title="Lernaean Hydra">Lernaean Hydra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Hindu mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Vritra" title="Vritra">Vritra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81liy%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Kāliyā">Kāliyā</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian mythology">Zoroastrian mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%98ra%C4%93taona" class="mw-redirect" title="Θraētaona">Θraētaona</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/A%C5%BEi_Dah%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="Aži Dahāka">Aži Dahāka</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garshasp" title="Garshasp">Garshasp</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Zahhak" title="Zahhak">Zahhak</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Romanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian mythology">Romanian mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C4%83t-Frumos" title="Făt-Frumos">Făt-Frumos</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Balaur" title="Balaur">Balaur</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite mythology">Canaanite mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadad" title="Hadad">Baʿal Hadad</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Yam_(god)" title="Yam (god)">Yam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadad" title="Hadad">Baʿal Hadad</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Lotan" title="Lotan">Lotan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadad" title="Hadad">Baʿal Hadad</a> vs. the <a href="/wiki/Tannin_(monster)" title="Tannin (monster)">Tannin</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu the Great</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Xiangliu" title="Xiangliu">Xiangliu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gonggong" title="Gonggong">Gong Gong</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian mythology">Babylonian mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Tiamat" title="Tiamat">Tiamat</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Egyptian mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Apep" title="Apep">Apep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atum" title="Atum">Atum</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Nehebkau" title="Nehebkau">Nehebkau</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Japanese_mythology" title="Japanese mythology">Japanese mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susanoo_no_Mikoto" class="mw-redirect" title="Susanoo no Mikoto">Susanoo no Mikoto</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Yamata_no_Orochi" title="Yamata no Orochi">Yamata no Orochi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Aztec_mythology" title="Aztec mythology">Aztec mythology</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tezcatlipoca" title="Tezcatlipoca">Tezcatlipoca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetzalcoatl">Quetzalcoatl</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Cipactli" title="Cipactli">Cipactli</a></li></ul> <div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> Christian-<a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a> mythology </li> </ol></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Draig.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/15px-Draig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/23px-Draig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/30px-Draig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="475" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Mythology">Mythology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chaoskampf_sidebar" title="Template:Chaoskampf sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chaoskampf_sidebar" title="Template talk:Chaoskampf sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chaoskampf_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chaoskampf sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> One common myth found in nearly all Indo-European mythologies is a battle ending with a <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">hero</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gods">god</a> slaying a <a href="/wiki/Serpent_(symbolism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpent (symbolism)">serpent</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dragon#Comparative_mythology" title="Dragon">dragon</a> of some sort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995297–301-266">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007255–259-267">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006436–437-268">[258]</a> Although the details of the story often vary widely, several features remain remarkably the same in all iterations. The protagonist of the story is usually a <a href="/wiki/Weather_god" title="Weather god">thunder-god</a>, or a hero somehow associated with thunder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007-113">[109]</a> His enemy the serpent is generally associated with water and depicted as multi-headed, or else "multiple" in some other way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006436–437-268">[258]</a> Indo-European myths often describe the creature as a "blocker of waters", and his many heads get eventually smashed by the thunder-god in an epic battle, releasing torrents of water that had previously been pent up.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007255–257-269">[259]</a> The original legend may have symbolized the <a href="/wiki/Chaos_(cosmogony)#Chaoskampf" title="Chaos (cosmogony)">Chaoskampf</a>, a clash between forces of order and chaos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995299–300-270">[260]</a> The dragon or serpent loses in every version of the story, although in some mythologies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse</a> <a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Ragnarök</a> myth, the hero or the god dies with his enemy during the confrontation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995324–330-271">[261]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lincoln" title="Bruce Lincoln">Bruce Lincoln</a> has proposed that the dragon-slaying tale and the creation myth of *Trito killing the serpent *Ngʷhi may actually belong to the same original story.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197676-272">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006437-273">[263]</a> Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth appear in most Indo-European poetic traditions, where the myth has left traces of the formulaic sentence *(h₁e) gʷʰent h₁ógʷʰim, meaning "[he] slew the serpent".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200426-274">[264]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragmentary_jar_with_scene_of_Herakles_slaying_the_Hydra_of_Lerna,_South_Italy,_375-340_BC,_ceramic_-_Fitchburg_Art_Museum_-_DSC08671_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Fragmentary_jar_with_scene_of_Herakles_slaying_the_Hydra_of_Lerna%2C_South_Italy%2C_375-340_BC%2C_ceramic_-_Fitchburg_Art_Museum_-_DSC08671_%28cropped%29.JPG/220px-Fragmentary_jar_with_scene_of_Herakles_slaying_the_Hydra_of_Lerna%2C_South_Italy%2C_375-340_BC%2C_ceramic_-_Fitchburg_Art_Museum_-_DSC08671_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Fragmentary_jar_with_scene_of_Herakles_slaying_the_Hydra_of_Lerna%2C_South_Italy%2C_375-340_BC%2C_ceramic_-_Fitchburg_Art_Museum_-_DSC08671_%28cropped%29.JPG/330px-Fragmentary_jar_with_scene_of_Herakles_slaying_the_Hydra_of_Lerna%2C_South_Italy%2C_375-340_BC%2C_ceramic_-_Fitchburg_Art_Museum_-_DSC08671_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Fragmentary_jar_with_scene_of_Herakles_slaying_the_Hydra_of_Lerna%2C_South_Italy%2C_375-340_BC%2C_ceramic_-_Fitchburg_Art_Museum_-_DSC08671_%28cropped%29.JPG/440px-Fragmentary_jar_with_scene_of_Herakles_slaying_the_Hydra_of_Lerna%2C_South_Italy%2C_375-340_BC%2C_ceramic_-_Fitchburg_Art_Museum_-_DSC08671_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3506" data-file-height="3339" /></a><figcaption>Greek red-figure vase painting depicting <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> slaying the <a href="/wiki/Lernaean_Hydra" title="Lernaean Hydra">Lernaean Hydra</a>, c. 375–340 BC.</figcaption></figure>In <a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite mythology">Hittite mythology</a>, the storm god <a href="/wiki/Tar%E1%B8%ABunz" title="Tarḫunz">Tarhunt</a> slays the giant serpent <a href="/wiki/Illuyanka" title="Illuyanka">Illuyanka</a>,<a href="#cite_note-275">[265]</a> as does the Vedic god <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> the multi-headed serpent <a href="/wiki/Vritra" title="Vritra">Vritra</a>, which has been causing a drought by trapping the waters in his mountain lair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007255–257-269">[259]</a> <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200426–27-276">[266]</a> Several variations of the story are also found in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007460-277">[267]</a> The original motif appears inherited in the legend of <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> slaying the hundred-headed <a href="/wiki/Typhon" title="Typhon">Typhon</a>, as related by <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Theogony" title="Theogony">Theogony</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007255–259-267">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995448–460-278">[268]</a> and possibly in the myth of <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> slaying the nine-headed <a href="/wiki/Lernaean_Hydra" title="Lernaean Hydra">Lernaean Hydra</a> and in the legend of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> slaying the earth-dragon <a href="/wiki/Python_(mythology)" title="Python (mythology)">Python</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007255–259-267">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995460–464-279">[269]</a> The story of <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>'s theft of the cattle of <a href="/wiki/Geryon" title="Geryon">Geryon</a> is probably also related.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007255–259-267">[257]</a> Although he is not usually thought of as a storm deity in the conventional sense, Heracles bears many attributes held by other Indo-European storm deities, including physical strength and a penchant for violence and gluttony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007255–259-267">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995374–383-280">[270]</a> The original motif is also reflected in <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995414–441-281">[271]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse</a> god of thunder <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a> slays the giant serpent <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rmungandr" title="Jörmungandr">Jörmungandr</a>, which lived in the waters surrounding the realm of <a href="/wiki/Midgard" title="Midgard">Midgard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007259-282">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995429–441-283">[273]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lsunga_saga" title="Völsunga saga">Völsunga saga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sigurd" title="Sigurd">Sigurd</a> slays the dragon <a href="/wiki/Fafnir" class="mw-redirect" title="Fafnir">Fafnir</a> and, in <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a>, the eponymous hero slays <a href="/wiki/The_dragon_(Beowulf)" title="The dragon (Beowulf)">a different dragon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-284">[274]</a> The depiction of dragons hoarding a treasure (symbolizing the wealth of the community) in Germanic legends may also be a reflex of the original myth of the serpent holding waters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200426-274">[264]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museum_of_Anatolian_Civilizations082_kopie1jpg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Museum_of_Anatolian_Civilizations082_kopie1jpg.jpg/450px-Museum_of_Anatolian_Civilizations082_kopie1jpg.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Museum_of_Anatolian_Civilizations082_kopie1jpg.jpg/675px-Museum_of_Anatolian_Civilizations082_kopie1jpg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Museum_of_Anatolian_Civilizations082_kopie1jpg.jpg/900px-Museum_of_Anatolian_Civilizations082_kopie1jpg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1279" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>The Hittite god <a href="/wiki/Tarhunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarhunt">Tarhunt</a>, followed by his son <a href="/wiki/Sarruma" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarruma">Sarruma</a>, kills the dragon <a href="/wiki/Illuyanka" title="Illuyanka">Illuyanka</a> (Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, <a href="/wiki/Ankara,_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Ankara, Turkey">Ankara, Turkey</a>).</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian mythology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fereydun" title="Fereydun">Fereydun</a> (and later <a href="/wiki/Garshasp" title="Garshasp">Garshasp</a>) slays the serpent <a href="/wiki/Zahhak" title="Zahhak">Zahhak</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Albanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian mythology">Albanian mythology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Drangue" title="Drangue">drangue</a>, semi-human divine figures associated with thunders, slay the <a href="/wiki/Kulshedra" title="Kulshedra">kulshedra</a>, huge multi-headed fire-spitting serpents associated with water and storms. The <a href="/wiki/Slavic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic mythology">Slavic</a> god of storms <a href="/wiki/Perun" title="Perun">Perun</a> slays his enemy the dragon-god <a href="/wiki/Veles_(god)" title="Veles (god)">Veles</a>, as does the <a href="/wiki/Bogatyr" title="Bogatyr">bogatyr</a> hero <a href="/wiki/Dobrynya_Nikitich" title="Dobrynya Nikitich">Dobrynya Nikitich</a> to the three-headed dragon <a href="/wiki/Zmey" class="mw-redirect" title="Zmey">Zmey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007259-282">[272]</a> A similar execution is performed by the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a> god of thunders <a href="/wiki/Vahagn" title="Vahagn">Vahagn</a> to the dragon <a href="/wiki/Vishap" title="Vishap">Vishap</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurkjian1958-285">[275]</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Romania" title="Folklore of Romania">Romanian</a> knight hero <a href="/wiki/F%C4%83t-Frumos" title="Făt-Frumos">Făt-Frumos</a> to the fire-spitting monster <a href="/wiki/Zmeu" title="Zmeu">Zmeu</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic</a> god of healing <a href="/wiki/Dian_Cecht" title="Dian Cecht">Dian Cecht</a> to the serpent Meichi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkins1995299–300-270">[260]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a>, where Indo-European influences through <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a> can be seen in mythology, the storm god <a href="/wiki/Susanoo-no-Mikoto" title="Susanoo-no-Mikoto">Susanoo</a> slays the eight-headed serpent <a href="/wiki/Yamata_no_Orochi" title="Yamata no Orochi">Yamata no Orochi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2012-286">[276]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L-oiseau-victorieux-du-serpent_medium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/L-oiseau-victorieux-du-serpent_medium.jpg/220px-L-oiseau-victorieux-du-serpent_medium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/L-oiseau-victorieux-du-serpent_medium.jpg/330px-L-oiseau-victorieux-du-serpent_medium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/L-oiseau-victorieux-du-serpent_medium.jpg/440px-L-oiseau-victorieux-du-serpent_medium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="858" data-file-height="1066" /></a><figcaption>Bird (Christ) victorious over the Serpent (Satan), <a href="/wiki/Saint-Sever_Beatus" title="Saint-Sever Beatus">Saint-Sever Beatus</a>, 11th C. </figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Genesis_Creation_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Genesis Creation narrative">Genesis</a> narrative of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, as well as the dragon appearing in <a href="/wiki/Revelation_12" title="Revelation 12">Revelation 12</a> can be interpreted[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] as a retelling of the serpent-slaying myth. The Deep or <a href="/wiki/Abyss_(religion)" title="Abyss (religion)">Abyss</a> from or on top of which <a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">God</a> is said to make the world is translated from the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> <a href="/wiki/Tehom" title="Tehom">Tehom</a> (Hebrew: תְּהוֹם). Tehom is a <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> word tamtu and <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugaritic</a> t-h-m which have similar meaning. As such it was equated with the earlier Babylonian serpent <a href="/wiki/Tiamat" title="Tiamat">Tiamat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-287">[277]</a> Folklorist <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lang" title="Andrew Lang">Andrew Lang</a> suggests that the serpent-slaying myth morphed into a folktale motif of a frog or toad blocking the flow of waters.<a href="#cite_note-288">[278]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fire_in_water">Fire in water</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Fire in water">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/*H%E2%82%82epom_Nep%C5%8Dts" title="*H₂epom Nepōts">*H₂epom Nepōts</a></div> Another reconstructed myth is the story of the fire in the waters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987277-289">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006438-290">[280]</a> It depicts a fiery divine being named *H₂epom Nepōts ('Descendant of the Waters') who dwells in waters, and whose powers must be ritually gained or controlled by a hero who is the only one able to approach it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997204-291">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987277–283-292">[282]</a> In the Rigveda, the god <a href="/wiki/Apam_Napat" title="Apam Napat">Apám Nápát</a> is envisioned as a form of fire residing in the waters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987277–279-293">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007270-294">[284]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a>, a well belonging to the god <a href="/wiki/Nechtan_(mythology)" title="Nechtan (mythology)">Nechtain</a> is said to blind all those who gaze into it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006438-290">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987279-295">[285]</a> In an old Armenian poem, a small reed in the middle of the sea spontaneously catches fire and the hero <a href="/wiki/Vahagn" title="Vahagn">Vahagn</a> springs forth from it with fiery hair and a fiery beard and eyes that blaze as suns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007271-296">[286]</a> In a ninth-century Norwegian poem by the poet Thiodolf, the name sǣvar niþr, meaning "grandson of the sea", is used as a <a href="/wiki/Kenning" title="Kenning">kenning</a> for fire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007272-297">[287]</a> Even the Greek tradition contains possible allusions to the myth of a fire-god dwelling deep beneath the sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007271-296">[286]</a> The phrase "νέποδες καλῆς Ἁλοσύδνης", meaning "descendants of the beautiful seas", is used in <a href="/wiki/The_Odyssey" class="mw-redirect" title="The Odyssey">The Odyssey</a> 4.404 as an epithet for the seals of <a href="/wiki/Proteus" title="Proteus">Proteus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007271-296">[286]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">why?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="King_and_Virgin">King and Virgin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: King and Virgin">edit</a>]</div> The legend of the King and Virgin involves a ruler saved by the offspring of his virgin daughter after seeing his future threatened by rebellious sons or male relatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987256-298">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006437-273">[263]</a> The virginity likely symbolizes in the myth the woman that has no loyalty to any man but her father, and the child is likewise faithful only to his royal grandfather.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997331–332-299">[289]</a> The legends of the Indic king <a href="/wiki/Yayati" title="Yayati">Yayāti</a>, saved by his virgin daughter Mādhāvi; the Roman king <a href="/wiki/Numitor" title="Numitor">Numitor</a>, rescued by his chaste daughter <a href="/wiki/Rhea_Silvia" title="Rhea Silvia">Rhea Silvia</a>; the Irish king <a href="/wiki/Eochu_Feidlech" title="Eochu Feidlech">Eochaid</a>, father of the legendary queen <a href="/wiki/Medb" title="Medb">Medb</a>, and threatened by his sons the <a href="/wiki/Findemna" title="Findemna">findemna</a>; as well as the myth of the Norse virgin goddess <a href="/wiki/Gefjon" title="Gefjon">Gefjun</a> offering lands to <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a>, are generally cited as possible reflexes of an inherited Proto-Indo-European motif.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997331–332-299">[289]</a> The Irish queen <a href="/wiki/Medb" title="Medb">Medb</a> could be <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> with the Indic Mādhāvi (whose name designates either a spring flower, rich in honey, or an intoxicating drink), both deriving from the root *medʰ- ("<a href="/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">mead</a>, intoxicating drink").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997313-300">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_of_the_Foundation">War of the Foundation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: War of the Foundation">edit</a>]</div> A myth of the War of the Foundation has also been proposed, involving a conflict between the first two functions (the priests and warriors) and the third function (fertility), which eventually make peace in order to form a fully integrated society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006436-301">[291]</a> The Norse <a href="/wiki/Ynglinga_saga" title="Ynglinga saga">Ynglingasaga</a> tells of a war between the <a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Oðinn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Vanir" title="Vanir">Vanir</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Freyr" title="Freyr">Freyr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freyja" title="Freyja">Freyja</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r" title="Njörðr">Njörðr</a>) that finally ends with the Vanir coming to live among the Æsir. Shortly after the mythical founding of Rome, <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a> fights his wealthy neighbours the <a href="/wiki/Sabines" title="Sabines">Sabines</a>, the Romans <a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rape of the Sabine Women">abducting their women</a> to eventually incorporate the Sabines into the founding tribes of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997631-302">[292]</a> In Vedic mythology, the <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvins" class="mw-redirect" title="Aśvins">Aśvins</a> (representing the third function as the <a href="/wiki/Divine_twins" title="Divine twins">Divine Twins</a>) are blocked from accessing the heavenly circle of power by <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> (the second function), who is eventually coerced into letting them in.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198761-303">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997631-302">[292]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a> has also been interpreted as a reflex of the myth, with the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a> as the third function and the conquering Greeks as the first two functions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997631-302">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Binding_of_evil">Binding of evil</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Binding of evil">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Binding_of_evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Binding of evil">Binding of evil</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Jaan_Puhvel" title="Jaan Puhvel">Jaan Puhvel</a> notes similarities between the Norse myth in which the god <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BDr" title="Týr">Týr</a> inserts his hand into the wolf <a href="/wiki/Fenrir" title="Fenrir">Fenrir</a>'s mouth while the other gods bind him with <a href="/wiki/Gleipnir" title="Gleipnir">Gleipnir</a>, only for Fenrir to bite off Týr's hand when he discovers he cannot break his bindings, and the Iranian myth in which <a href="/wiki/Jamshid" title="Jamshid">Jamshid</a> rescues his brother's corpse from <a href="/wiki/Ahriman" title="Ahriman">Ahriman</a>'s bowels by reaching his hand up Ahriman's anus and pulling out his brother's corpse, only for his hand to become infected with <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987119-304">[294]</a> In both accounts, an authority figure forces the evil entity into submission by inserting his hand into the being's orifice (in Fenrir's case the mouth, in Ahriman's the anus) and losing or impairing it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987119-304">[294]</a> Fenrir and Ahriman fulfill different roles in their own mythological traditions and are unlikely to be remnants of a Proto-Indo-European "evil god"; nonetheless, it is clear that the "binding myth" is of Proto-Indo-European origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987119–120-305">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_propositions_5">Other propositions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Other propositions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Death_of_a_son">Death of a son</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Death of a son">edit</a>]</div> The motif of the "death of a son", killed by his father who is unaware of the relationship, is so common among the attested traditions that some scholars have ascribed it to Proto-Indo-European times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997533-306">[296]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Ulster_Cycle" title="Ulster Cycle">Ulster Cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Connla" title="Connla">Connla</a>, son of the Irish hero <a href="/wiki/C%C3%BA_Chulainn" title="Cú Chulainn">Cú Chulainn</a>, who was raised abroad in Scotland, unknowingly confronts his father and is killed in the combat; <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Muromets" title="Ilya Muromets">Ilya Muromets</a> must kill his own son, who was also raised apart, in <a href="/wiki/Bylina" title="Bylina">Russian epic poems</a>; the Germanic hero Hildebrant inadvertently kills his son Hadubrant in the <a href="/wiki/Hildebrandslied" title="Hildebrandslied">Hildebrandslied</a>; and the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Rostam" title="Rostam">Rostam</a> unknowingly confronts his son <a href="/wiki/Sohrab" title="Sohrab">Sohrab</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Rostam_and_Sohrab" title="Rostam and Sohrab">eponymous epic</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shāhnāmeh</a>. <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a> is forced to kill his son <a href="/wiki/Mordred" title="Mordred">Mordred</a> in battle who was raised far away on the Orkney Islands; and in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, an intrigue leads the hero <a href="/wiki/Theseus" title="Theseus">Theseus</a> to kill his son <a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_(son_of_Theseus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippolytus (son of Theseus)">Hippolytus</a>; when the lie is finally exposed, Hippolytus is already dead. According to Mallory and Adams, the legend "places limitations on the achievement of warrior prowess, isolates the hero from time by cutting off his generational extension, and also re-establishes the hero's typical adolescence by depriving him of a role (as father) in an adult world".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997533-306">[296]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Mead_cycle"">"Mead cycle"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: "Mead cycle"">edit</a>]</div> Although the concept of elevation through intoxicating drink is a nearly universal motif, a Proto-Indo-European myth of the "cycle of the <a href="/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">mead</a>", originally proposed by <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Georges Dumézil</a> and further developed by Jarich G. Oosten (1985), is based on the comparison of Indic and Norse mythologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997494-307">[297]</a> In both traditions, gods and demons must cooperate to find a sacred drink providing immortal life. The magical beverage is prepared from the sea, and a serpent (<a href="/wiki/Vasuki" title="Vasuki">Vāsuki</a> or <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rmungandr" title="Jörmungandr">Jörmungandr</a>) is involved in the quest. The gods and demons eventually fight over the magical potion and the former, ultimately victorious, deprive their enemy of the <a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">elixir of life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997494-307">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rituals">Rituals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Rituals">edit</a>]</div> Proto-Indo-European religion was centered on sacrificial rites of cattle and horses, probably administered by a class of <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priests</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaman">shamans</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. Animals were slaughtered (*gʷʰn̥tós) and dedicated to the gods (*deywṓs) in the hope of winning their favour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997452–453-309">[299]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Proto-Indo-European_mythology#Priesthood" title="Talk:Proto-Indo-European mythology">see discussion</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk culture</a>, associated with the archaic Proto-Indo-European language, had already shown archeological evidence for the sacrifice of domesticated animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Priesthood">Priesthood</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Priesthood">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mithra-Varuna_(Indo_European)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithra-Varuna (Indo European)">Mithra-Varuna (Indo European)</a></div> The king as the high priest would have been the central figure in establishing favourable relations with the other world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997452–453-309">[299]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Proto-Indo-European_mythology#Priesthood" title="Talk:Proto-Indo-European mythology">see discussion</a>] <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Georges Dumézil</a> suggested that the religious function was represented by a duality, one reflecting the <a href="/wiki/Magico-religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Magico-religious">magico-religious</a> nature of priesthood, while the other is involved in religious sanction to human society (especially contracts), a theory supported by common features in Iranian, Roman, Scandinavian and Celtic traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997452–453-309">[299]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sacrifices">Sacrifices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Sacrifices">edit</a>]</div> The reconstructed cosmology of the Proto-Indo-Europeans shows that ritual sacrifice of cattle, the cow in particular, was at the root of their beliefs, as the primordial condition of the world order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997138-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">[43]</a> The myth of *Trito, the first warrior, involves the liberation of cattle stolen by a three-headed entity named *Ngʷʰi. After recovering the wealth of the people, Trito eventually offers the cattle to the priest in order to ensure the continuity of the cycle of giving between gods and humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1976-310">[300]</a> The word for "oath", *h₁óitos, derives from the verb *h₁ey- ("to go"), after the practice of walking between slaughtered animals as part of taking an oath.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006277-311">[301]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png/220px-%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="370" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png/330px-%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png/440px-%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1344" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">Kernosovskiy idol</a>, featuring a man with a belt, axes, and testicles to symbolize the warrior;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007364–365-312">[302]</a> dated to the middle of the third millennium BC and associated with the late <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelegrinMallory199454-313">[303]</a></figcaption></figure> Proto-Indo-Europeans likely had a sacred tradition of <a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">horse sacrifice</a> for the renewal of kingship involving the ritual mating of a queen or king with a horse, which was then sacrificed and cut up for distribution to the other participants in the ritual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200424–25-314">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006437-273">[263]</a> In both the Roman <a href="/wiki/October_Horse" title="October Horse">Equus October</a> and the Indic <a href="/wiki/Asvamedha" class="mw-redirect" title="Asvamedha">Aśvamedhá</a>, the horse sacrifice is performed on behalf of the warrior class or to a warrior deity, and the dismembered pieces of the animal eventually goes to different locations or deities. Another reflex may be found in a medieval Irish tradition involving a king-designate from <a href="/wiki/County_Donegal" title="County Donegal">County Donegal</a> copulating with a <a href="/wiki/Mare" title="Mare">mare</a> before bathing with the parts of the sacrificed animal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006437-273">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200424–25-314">[304]</a> The Indic ritual likewise involved the symbolic marriage of the queen to the dead <a href="/wiki/Stallion" title="Stallion">stallion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-315">[305]</a> Further, if <a href="/wiki/Hittite_laws" title="Hittite laws">Hittite laws</a> prohibited copulation with animals, they made an exception of horses or mules.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200424–25-314">[304]</a> In both the Celtic and Indic traditions, an intoxicating brewage played a part in the ritual, and the <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> in aśva-medhá could be related to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Old Indic</a> word mad- ("boil, rejoice, get drunk").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997313-300">[290]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jaan_Puhvel" title="Jaan Puhvel">Jaan Puhvel</a> has also compared the Vedic name of the tradition with the Gaulish god Epomeduos, the "master of horses".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200294-316">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[307]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cults">Cults</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Cults">edit</a>]</div> Scholars have reconstructed a Proto-Indo-European cult of the weapons, especially the <a href="/wiki/Dagger" title="Dagger">dagger</a>, which holds a central position in various customs and myths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007464-318">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleton1982-319">[309]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Nart_saga" title="Nart saga">Nart saga</a>, the sword of <a href="/wiki/Batraz" title="Batraz">Batradz</a> is dragged into the sea after his death, and the British <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a> throws his legendary sword <a href="/wiki/Excalibur" title="Excalibur">Excalibur</a> back into the lake from which it initially came. The Indic <a href="/wiki/Arjuna" title="Arjuna">Arjuna</a> is also instructed to throw his bow <a href="/wiki/Gandiva" title="Gandiva">Gandiva</a> into the sea at the end of his career, and weapons were frequently thrown into lakes, rivers or bogs as a form of prestige offering in <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007464-318">[308]</a> Reflexes of an ancestral cult of the magical sword have been proposed in the legends of Excalibur and <a href="/wiki/Durendal" title="Durendal">Durandal</a> (the weapon of <a href="/wiki/Roland" title="Roland">Roland</a>, said to have been forged by the mythical <a href="/wiki/Wayland_the_Smith" title="Wayland the Smith">Wayland the Smith</a>). Among North Iranians, <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> described the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian</a> practice of worshiping swords as manifestations of "Ares" in the 5th century BC, and <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> depicted the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alanic</a> custom of thrusting swords into the earth and worshiping them as "Mars" in the 4th century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleton1982-319">[309]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/32px-Draig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/48px-Draig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/64px-Draig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="475" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Mythology">Mythology portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca" title="Interpretatio graeca">Interpretatio graeca</a>, the comparison of Greek deities to Germanic, Roman, and Celtic deities</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic religion">Neolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Proto-Indo-European society</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 2: "If there was an Indo-European language, it follows that there was a people who spoke it: not a people in the sense of a nation, for they may never have formed a political unity, and not a people in any racial sense, for they may have been as genetically mixed as any modern population defined by language. If our language is a descendant of theirs, that does not make them 'our ancestors', any more than the ancient Romans are the ancestors of the French, the Romanians, and the Brazilians. The Indo-Europeans were a people in the sense of a linguistic community. We should probably think of them as a loose network of clans and tribes, inhabiting a coherent territory of limited size. ... A language embodies certain concepts and values, and a common language implies some degree of common intellectual heritage." </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Mallory and Adams saw a possible connection with Paoni, dative form of Pan in the Arcadian Greek dialect, and personal names Puso (<a href="/wiki/Venetic_language" title="Venetic language">Venetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a>) and Pauso (<a href="/wiki/Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997415-2">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> The name Garm also appears in the compound Managarmr ('Moon-Hound', 'Moon's dog'), another name for <a href="/wiki/Hati_Hr%C3%B3%C3%B0vitnisson" title="Hati Hróðvitnisson">Hati Hróðvitnisson</a>, the lupine pursuer of the moon in Scandinavian mythology.<a href="#cite_note-Bhattacharji_1970._p._71-87">[85]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> "Classic" is defined by David W. Anthony as the proto-language spoken after the Anatolian split, and "Archaic" as the common ancestor of all Indo-European languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-30">[28]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> On a related note, the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahlavi language">Pahlavi</a> <a href="/wiki/Bundahishn" title="Bundahishn">Bundahishn</a> narrates that creator Ohrmazd fashioned the sun "whose horses were swift".<a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Probably the northern <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Azov" title="Sea of Azov">Sea of Azov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007191-145">[140]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> The names of the individual Norns are given as <a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0r" title="Urðr">Urðr</a> ("Happened"), <a href="/wiki/Ver%C3%B0andi" title="Verðandi">Verðandi</a> ("Happening"), and <a href="/wiki/Skuld" title="Skuld">Skuld</a> ("Due"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007383-235">[229]</a> but M. L. West notes that these names may be the result of classical influence from Plato.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007383-235">[229]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> They also, most famously, appear as the <a href="/wiki/Three_Witches" title="Three Witches">Three Witches</a> in <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1606).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007383-235">[229]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> "The word *prihxeha- ‘wife’ is almost a term of endearment as it derives from *prihxós ‘be pleasing, one’s own’ (see above) and it provides the wife of the Germanic god Oðinn with a name, e.g. ON Frigg (cf. also ON frī ‘beloved, wife’; OE frēo ‘woman’; Skt priyā ‘wife’)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997415-2">[1]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997415-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997415_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997415_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 415. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427–431-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427–431_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, pp. 427–431. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198713–15-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198713–15_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198713–15_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, pp. 13–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997116_7-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 428. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997117-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997117_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007141-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007141_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007141_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007141_10-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714–15-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714–15_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714–15_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428–429-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428–429_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006428–429_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, pp. 428–429. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198715–18-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198715–18_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, pp. 15–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198715-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198715_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-Flamen-Brahman-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Flamen-Brahman_15-0">^</a> Dumézil, Georges (1929). Flamen-Brahman. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumézil1986-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDumézil1986_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDumézil1986">Dumézil 1986</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006429–430-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006429–430_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, pp. 429–430. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest20074-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest20074_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest20074_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Theorizing_myth-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Theorizing_myth_19-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lincoln" title="Bruce Lincoln">Lincoln, Bruce</a> (1999). Theorizing myth: Narrative, ideology, and scholarship, p. 260 n. 17. University of Chicago Press, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48202-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48202-6">978-0-226-48202-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431_20-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006431_20-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 431. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997118-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997118_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997118_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440_22-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006440_22-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 440. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel198714_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987191-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987191_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987191_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987146–147-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987146–147_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, pp. 146–147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987223–228-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987223–228_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, pp. 223–228. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987228–229-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987228–229_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, pp. 228–229. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987126–127-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987126–127_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, p. 126–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987138,_143-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987138,_143_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, p. 138, 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007266-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007266_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007266_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007266_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007266_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007266_31-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007266_31-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 266. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Macaulay, G. C. (1904). The History of Herodotus, Vol. I. London: Macmillan & Co. pp. 313–317. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobson1993" class="citation book cs1">Jacobson, Esther (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vnlRu7CW95gC">The Deer Goddess of Ancient Siberia: A Study in the Ecology of Belief</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09628-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09628-8"><bdi>978-90-04-09628-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Deer+Goddess+of+Ancient+Siberia%3A+A+Study+in+the+Ecology+of+Belief&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09628-8&rft.aulast=Jacobson&rft.aufirst=Esther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvnlRu7CW95gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Bessonova, S. S. 1983. Religioznïe predstavleniia skifov. Kiev: Naukova dumka </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasanov2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hasanov, Zaur (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34823985">"Argimpasa – Scythian goddess, patroness of shamans: a comparison of historical, archaeological, linguistic and ethnographic data"</a>. Bibliotheca Shamanistica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bibliotheca+Shamanistica&rft.atitle=Argimpasa+%E2%80%93+Scythian+goddess%2C+patroness+of+shamans%3A+a+comparison+of+historical%2C+archaeological%2C+linguistic+and+ethnographic+data&rft.date=2014-01&rft.aulast=Hasanov&rft.aufirst=Zaur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F34823985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007340-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007340_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 340. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelamarre2003204–205-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelamarre2003204–205_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelamarre2003204–205_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDelamarre2003">Delamarre 2003</a>, p. 204–205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007354-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007354_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007354_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007354_38-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 354. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007346-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007346_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 346. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolomé1986-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolomé1986_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolomé1986_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPolomé1986">Polomé 1986</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> See: <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, pp. 285–287; <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, pp. 435–436; <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, pp. 134–135. <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a> agrees with the reconstructed motif of Manu and Yemo, although he notes that interpretations of the myths of <a href="/wiki/Trita" title="Trita">Trita</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fereydun" title="Fereydun">Thraētona</a> are debated. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975124-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln1975124_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1975">Lincoln 1975</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeming2009144-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeming2009144_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeming2009">Leeming 2009</a>, p. 144: "The cosmic egg found here is also found in many Indo-European mythologies." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197642–43-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln197642–43_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1976">Lincoln 1976</a>, p. 42–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135_45-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135_45-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135_45-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135_45-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134–135_45-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, pp. 134–135. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006435–436_46-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 435–436. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolomé1986473-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolomé1986473_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPolomé1986">Polomé 1986</a>, p. 473. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007355–356-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007355–356_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 355–356. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007357-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007357_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 357. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975139-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln1975139_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1975">Lincoln 1975</a>, p. 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975144-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln1975144_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1975">Lincoln 1975</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007134_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197658-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln197658_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1976">Lincoln 1976</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197663–64-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln197663–64_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln197663–64_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln197663–64_54-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1976">Lincoln 1976</a>, p. 63–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997138-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997138_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997138_55-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197658,_62-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln197658,_62_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1976">Lincoln 1976</a>, pp. 58, 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007358-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007358_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007358_57-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 358. </li> <li id="cite_note-dandekar-1979a-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dandekar-1979a_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dandekar-1979a_58-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDandekar1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ramchandra_Narayan_Dandekar" title="Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar">Dandekar, Ramchandra N.</a> (1979). Vedic mythological tracts. Delhi: Ajanta Publications. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6917651">6917651</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vedic+mythological+tracts&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Ajanta+Publications&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6917651&rft.aulast=Dandekar&rft.aufirst=Ramchandra+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997129-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997129_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007356–357-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007356–357_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 356–357. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997367-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997367_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 367. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975134–136-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln1975134–136_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1975">Lincoln 1975</a>, pp. 134–136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975129-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln1975129_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1975">Lincoln 1975</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997129–130-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997129–130_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, pp. 129–130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197647-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln197647_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1976">Lincoln 1976</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007260-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007260_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 260. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1975125-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln1975125_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1975">Lincoln 1975</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln197646-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln197646_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1976">Lincoln 1976</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKloekhorst2008" class="citation book cs1">Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008). Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Brill. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16092-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16092-7"><bdi>978-90-04-16092-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+the+Hittite+Inherited+Lexicon&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16092-7&rft.aulast=Kloekhorst&rft.aufirst=Alwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2009" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, W. J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-2096">"Ṛta"</a>. A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-172670-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-172670-5"><bdi>978-0-19-172670-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B9%9Ata&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Hinduism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-172670-5&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=W.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198610250.001.0001%2Facref-9780198610250-e-2096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers2013" class="citation book cs1">Myers, Michael (2013). Brahman: A Comparative Theology. Routledge. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-83565-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-83565-0"><bdi>978-1-136-83565-0</bdi></a>. <q>Ṛta, for example, is impersonal. ... Pande defines Rta as 'the ideal principle in ordering, the paradigmatic principle of ultimate reality'. Rta is the great criterion of the Rgveda, the standard of truth both for individual instances of human morality and for cosmic order and truth. The god Varuna is the guardian and preserver of the Rta, although Varuna also must abide its rules. Rta is more passive than the active god of christianity, but nevertheless it encompasses the order of the sacrifice, the physical order of the universe and the moral law.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brahman%3A+A+Comparative+Theology&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-83565-0&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009128-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009128_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeekes2009">Beekes 2009</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-mallory-2006a-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mallory-2006a_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mallory-2006a_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mallory-2006a_73-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mallory-2006a_73-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 276: "17.4 Law and Order The vocabulary of law ... is not extensive in Proto-Indo-European and much of the concept 'law' derives from that of 'order' or 'what is fitting'. For example, we have *h₂értus from the root *h₂er- 'fit' which had already shifted to an association with cosmic order by the time of Indo-Iranians (e.g. Lat artus 'joint', MHG art 'innate feature, nature, fashion', dialectal Grk artús 'arranging, arrangement', Arm ard 'ornament, shape', Av arəta- 'order', Skt ṛtu- 'right time, order, rule', Toch B ārtt- 'love, praise'). More closely associated with ritual propriety is the Italic-Indo-Iranian isogloss that yields *yew(e)s- (Lat iūs 'law, right, justice, duty' "), Av yaož -dā- 'make ritually pure', Skt śáṃca yóśca 'health and happiness') with a derived adjective *yusi(iy)os seen certainly in OIr uisse 'just right, fitting' and possibly OCS istǔ 'actual, true'. 'Law' itself, *dhéh₁-men-/i-, is 'that which is established' and derives from *dhéh₁- 'put, establish' but occurs in that meaning only in Grk thémis 'law' and Skt dhāman- 'law' (we also have *dhéh₁tis [e.g. Lat conditiō 'basis', NE 'deed', Grk 'order', Skt -dhiti- 'position']) though the same kind of semantic development is seen in Germanic (e.g. NE law) and Italic (e.g. Lat lex 'law'), both from *legʰ- 'lie', i.e. 'that which is laid out', and thus the concept is pan-Indo-European. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoller2010" class="citation journal cs1">Zoller, Claus Peter (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5617%2Fao.5352">"Aspects of the Early History of Romani"</a>. Acta Orientalia. 71: 70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5617%2Fao.5352">10.5617/ao.5352</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Orientalia&rft.atitle=Aspects+of+the+Early+History+of+Romani&rft.volume=71&rft.pages=70&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5617%2Fao.5352&rft.aulast=Zoller&rft.aufirst=Claus+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5617%252Fao.5352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeels2015" class="citation book cs1">Peels, Saskia (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Kq8CgAAQBAJ">Hosios: A Semantic Study of Greek Piety</a>. Brill. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30427-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30427-7"><bdi>978-90-04-30427-7</bdi></a>. <q>Themis' children clearly show her to be a divine principle of natural and political order, a principle humans and gods alike need to obey.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hosios%3A+A+Semantic+Study+of+Greek+Piety&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-30427-7&rft.aulast=Peels&rft.aufirst=Saskia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Kq8CgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDay1982" class="citation book cs1">Day, Terence P. (1982). The conception of punishment in early Indian literature. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 42–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-919812-15-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-919812-15-5"><bdi>0-919812-15-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8900320">8900320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+conception+of+punishment+in+early+Indian+literature&rft.pages=42-45&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8900320&rft.isbn=0-919812-15-5&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=Terence+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007388-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007388_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 388. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439_78-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439_78-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 439. </li> <li id="cite_note-Abel,_Ernest_L._2009._p._144-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Abel,_Ernest_L._2009._p._144_79-0">^</a> Abel, Ernest L. Death Gods: An Encyclopedia of the Rulers, Evil Spirits, and Geographies of the Dead. Greenwood Press. 2009. p. 144. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35712-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35712-1">978-0-313-35712-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007389–390-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007389–390_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 389–390. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007390–391-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007390–391_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 390–391. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007390-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007390_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 390. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007391–392-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007391–392_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 391–392. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyBrown2019104-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthonyBrown2019104_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthonyBrown2019104_84-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthonyBrown2019">Anthony & Brown 2019</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln1991289-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln1991289_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1991">Lincoln 1991</a>, p. 289. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgden2013" class="citation book cs1">Ogden, Daniel (2013). Drakon: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955732-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955732-5"><bdi>978-0-19-955732-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drakon%3A+Dragon+Myth+and+Serpent+Cult+in+the+Greek+and+Roman+Worlds&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-955732-5&rft.aulast=Ogden&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bhattacharji_1970._p._71-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Bhattacharji_1970._p._71_87-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sukumari_Bhattacharji" title="Sukumari Bhattacharji">Bhattacharji, Sukumari</a>. The Indian Theogony: A Comparative Study of Indian Mythology from the Vedas to the Puranas. Cambridge at the University Press. 1970. p. 71. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05382-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05382-2">978-0-521-05382-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439–440-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006439–440_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 439–440. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997180-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997180_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997180–181-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997180–181_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997180–181_91-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 180–181. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987285-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987285_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997131-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997131_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaudry1987-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaudry1987_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaudry1987">Haudry 1987</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007349-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007349_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 349. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln199136-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln199136_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1991">Lincoln 1991</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007135–136-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007135–136_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 135–136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007138–139-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007138–139_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 138–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997232-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997232_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 232. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006427_101-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 427. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007121–122-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007121–122_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 121–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007120-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007120_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 408 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007124-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007124_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007157-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007157_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007157_106-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007135–136,_138–139-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007135–136,_138–139_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007135–136,_138–139_107-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 135–136, 138–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007129,_162-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007129,_162_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 129, 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes201141-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes201141_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeekes2011">Beekes 2011</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007130-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007130_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007137-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007137_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007137_111-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007137_111-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2004-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2004_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFortson2004">Fortson 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007_113-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson200266–67-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson200266–67_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJackson2002">Jackson 2002</a>, pp. 66–67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006409,_431–432-115">^ <a 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[...] The Greek Zeus is king of the gods and the supreme power in the world, his influence extending everywhere and into most spheres of life. There is little reason, however, to think that the Indo-European Dyeus had any such importance." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007166-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007166_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997230–231-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997230–231_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997230–231_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997230–231_120-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams 1997</a>, p. 230–231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432_121-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432_121-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006432_121-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, p. 432. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007166–168-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007166–168_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 166–168. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1990" class="citation journal cs1">Green, Miranda J. 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Transactions of the Honourable Society of the Cymmrodorion: 13–28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Honourable+Society+of+the+Cymmrodorion&rft.atitle=Pagan+Celtic+Religion%3A+Archaeology+and+Myth&rft.pages=13-28&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Miranda+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007171–175-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007171–175_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 171–175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987198–200-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuhvel1987198–200_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuhvel1987">Puhvel 1987</a>, pp. 198–200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006409_and_431-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006409_and_431_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, pp. 409 and 431. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006410,_432-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006410,_432_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, pp. 410, 432. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007217–227-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007217–227_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 217–227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson200423-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson200423_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson200423_129-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson200423_129-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson200423_129-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFortson2004">Fortson 2004</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007222-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007222_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007219-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007219_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007221-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007221_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007217–218-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007217–218_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest2007217–218_133-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWest2007">West 2007</a>, pp. 217–218. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> O'Brien, Steven. 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Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. pp. 46ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86516-510-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86516-510-6"><bdi>978-0-86516-510-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Helen%3A+In+Search+of+an+Ancient+Icon&rft.pages=46ff&rft.pub=Bolchazy-Carducci+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-86516-510-6&rft.aulast=Meagher&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmeaningofhelenin0000meag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Agostini, Domenico; Thrope, Samuel. The bundahišn: The Zoroastrian Book of Creation. 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Oxbow Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78925-273-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78925-273-6"><bdi>978-1-78925-273-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Late+Bronze+Age+midwinter+dog+sacrifices+and+warrior+initiations+at+Krasnosamarskoe%2C+Russia&rft.btitle=Tracing+the+Indo-Europeans%3A+New+evidence+from+archaeology+and+historical+linguistics&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-78925-273-6&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft.au=Brown%2C+Dorcas+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWXzKDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArvidsson2006" class="citation book cs1">Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idTPDI6l0mkC">Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-02860-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-02860-7"><bdi>0-226-02860-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aryan+Idols%3A+Indo-European+Mythology+as+Ideology+and+Science&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-226-02860-7&rft.aulast=Arvidsson&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DidTPDI6l0mkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeekes2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Beekes, Robert S. 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John Benjamins Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-1185-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-1185-9"><bdi>978-90-272-1185-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Indo-European+Linguistics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-272-1185-9&rft.aulast=Beekes&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di_JwBsKzgeAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenveniste1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emile_Benveniste" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile Benveniste">Benveniste, Emile</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kvawAAAAIAAJ">Indo-European Language and Society</a>. 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Errance. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-369-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-369-5"><bdi>978-2-87772-369-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+de+la+langue+gauloise%3A+Une+approche+linguistique+du+vieux-celtique+continental&rft.pub=Errance&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-2-87772-369-5&rft.aulast=Delamarre&rft.aufirst=Xavier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC3BKPgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerksen2008" class="citation book cs1">Derksen, Rick (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LJFiAAAAMAAJ">Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15504-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15504-6"><bdi>978-90-04-15504-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+the+Slavic+Inherited+Lexicon&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15504-6&rft.aulast=Derksen&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLJFiAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDumézil1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Dumézil, Georges</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WngbAQAAMAAJ">Archaic Roman Religion: With an Appendix on the Religion of the Etruscans</a> (1996 ed.). 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Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-085546-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-085546-3"><bdi>978-3-11-085546-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Linguistic+Evidence+in+Comparative+Mythology&rft.btitle=Roman+Jakobson%3A+Selected+Writings&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-3-11-085546-3&rft.aulast=Jakobson&rft.aufirst=Roman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgsucH7YYr7kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurkjian1958" class="citation web cs1">Kurkjian, Vahan M. 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ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-174-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-174-9"><bdi>978-1-59884-174-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creation+Myths+of+the+World%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-174-9&rft.aulast=Leeming&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9I62BcuPxfYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleton1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._Scott_Littleton" title="C. Scott Littleton">Littleton, C. Scott</a> (1982). 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Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48200-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48200-2"><bdi>978-0-226-48200-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death%2C+War%2C+and+Sacrifice%3A+Studies+in+Ideology+and+Practice&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48200-2&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1aVe-YRHs7UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallory1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. 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London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-27616-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-27616-7"><bdi>978-0-500-27616-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+the+Indo-Europeans&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-500-27616-7&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsearchofindoeu00jpma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalloryAdams1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">Mallory, James P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Q._Adams" title="Douglas Q. 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Petrit Bezhani (ed.). Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë (in Albanian). Tirana: Mësonjëtorja. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/99927-938-9-9" title="Special:BookSources/99927-938-9-9"><bdi>99927-938-9-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mitologjia+nd%C3%ABr+shqiptar%C3%AB&rft.place=Tirana&rft.pub=M%C3%ABsonj%C3%ABtorja&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=99927-938-9-9&rft.aulast=Tirta&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreimer1971" class="citation book cs1">Treimer, Karl (1971). "Zur Rückerschliessung der illyrischen Götterwelt und ihre Bedeutung für die südslawische Philologie". In Henrik Barić (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dTIBAAAAMAAJ">Arhiv za Arbanasku starinu, jezik i etnologiju</a>. Vol. I. R. Trofenik. pp. 27–33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zur+R%C3%BCckerschliessung+der+illyrischen+G%C3%B6tterwelt+und+ihre+Bedeutung+f%C3%BCr+die+s%C3%BCdslawische+Philologie&rft.btitle=Arhiv+za+Arbanasku+starinu%2C+jezik+i+etnologiju&rft.pages=27-33&rft.pub=R.+Trofenik&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Treimer&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdTIBAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkins1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Calvert_Watkins" title="Calvert Watkins">Watkins, Calvert</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BoF7PwAACAAJ">How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics</a>. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514413-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514413-0"><bdi>978-0-19-514413-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Kill+a+Dragon%3A+Aspects+of+Indo-European+Poetics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514413-0&rft.aulast=Watkins&rft.aufirst=Calvert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBoF7PwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">West, Martin L.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC">Indo-European Poetry and Myth</a>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928075-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928075-9"><bdi>978-0-19-928075-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Poetry+and+Myth&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-928075-9&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Martin+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZXrJA_5LKlYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinter2003" class="citation book cs1">Winter, Werner (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mox4cw6zY6kC&pg=PA134">Language in Time and Space</a>. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017648-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017648-3"><bdi>978-3-11-017648-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+in+Time+and+Space&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017648-3&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmox4cw6zY6kC%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UALji7FE-1UC">The Origins of the World's Mythologies</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981285-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981285-1"><bdi>978-0-19-981285-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+World%27s+Mythologies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-981285-1&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUALji7FE-1UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYork1988" class="citation journal cs1">York, Michael (1988). "Romulus and Remus, Mars and Quirinus". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 16 (1–2): 153–172. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0092-2323">0092-2323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=Romulus+and+Remus%2C+Mars+and+Quirinus&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=153-172&rft.date=1988&rft.issn=0092-2323&rft.aulast=York&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <dl><dt>General overview</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>Calin, D. "Dictionary of Indo-European Poetic and Religious Themes", Les Cent Chemins, Paris 2017.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalin1996" class="citation web cs1">Calin, Didier (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/48970984">"Indo-European Poetics and the Latvian Folk Songs"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Poetics+and+the+Latvian+Folk+Songs&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Calin&rft.aufirst=Didier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F48970984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincoln2020" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lincoln" title="Bruce Lincoln">Lincoln, Bruce</a> (January 18, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/indo-european-religions-overview">"Indo-European Religions: An Overview"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia.com" title="Encyclopedia.com">Encyclopedia.com</a>. Encyclopedia of Religion. <a href="/wiki/Gale_(publisher)" title="Gale (publisher)">Gale</a>. Retrieved February 9, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Indo-European+Religions%3A+An+Overview&rft.date=2020-01-18&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fenvironment%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Findo-european-religions-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatasović2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ranko_Matasovi%C4%87" title="Ranko Matasović">Matasović, Ranko</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mudrac.ffzg.unizg.hr/~rmatasov/PIE%20Religion.pdf">"A Reader in Comparative Indo-European Religion"</a> (PDF). University of Zagreb.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Zagreb&rft.atitle=A+Reader+in+Comparative+Indo-European+Religion&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Matasovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Ranko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmudrac.ffzg.unizg.hr%2F~rmatasov%2FPIE%2520Religion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Witczak, Krzysztof T. and Kaczor, Idaliana 1995. «Linguistic Evidence for the Indo-European Pantheon», in: J. Rybowska, K. T. Witczak (eds.), Collectanea Philologica II in honorem Annae Mariae Komornicka, Łódź, 1995. pp. 265–278.</li></ul> <dl><dt>On solar deities</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>Blažek, Václav. "The Indo-European motif of "Celestial wedding": the solar bride and lunar bridegroom". In: wékwos. 2022, vol. 6, No 1, p. 39-65. ISSN 2426-5349.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahill2015" class="citation journal cs1">Cahill, Mary (2015). "'Here Comes the Sun...'". Archaeology Ireland. 29 (1): 26–33. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43233814">43233814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology+Ireland&rft.atitle=%27Here+Comes+the+Sun...%27&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26-33&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43233814%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cahill&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dexter, Miriam Robbins. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/44664256/Dawn_and_Sun_in_Indo_European_Myth_Gender_and_Geography">Dawn and Sun in Indo-European Myth: Gender and Geography</a>". In: Studia Indogermanica Lodziensia II. Lodz: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, 1999. pp. 103–122.</li> <li>Gjerde, Jan Magne. "A Boat Journey in Rock Art 'from the Bronze Age to the Stone Age – from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age' in Northernmost Europe." In: North Meets South: Theoretical Aspects on the Northern and Southern Rock Art Traditions in Scandinavia. Edited by Skoglund Peter, Ling Johan, and Bertilsson Ulf. Oxford; Philadelphia: Oxbow Books, 2017. pp. 113-43. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dpgg.9.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuld1986" class="citation journal cs1">Huld, Martin E. (1986). "Proto- and post-Indo-European designations for 'sun'". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 99 (2): 194–202. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40848835">40848835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+vergleichende+Sprachforschung&rft.atitle=Proto-+and+post-Indo-European+designations+for+%27sun%27&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=194-202&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40848835%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Huld&rft.aufirst=Martin+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKristiansen2010" class="citation book cs1">Kristiansen, Kristian (2010). "Rock Art and Religion: The Sun Journey in Indo-European Mythology and Bronze Age Rock Art". Representations and Communications: Creating an Archaeological Matrix of Late Prehistoric Rock Art. Oxbow Books. pp. 93–115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-397-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-397-8"><bdi>978-1-84217-397-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1cd0nrz.10">j.ctt1cd0nrz.10</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rock+Art+and+Religion%3A+The+Sun+Journey+in+Indo-European+Mythology+and+Bronze+Age+Rock+Art&rft.btitle=Representations+and+Communications%3A+Creating+an+Archaeological+Matrix+of+Late+Prehistoric+Rock+Art&rft.pages=93-115&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1cd0nrz.10%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-84217-397-8&rft.aulast=Kristiansen&rft.aufirst=Kristian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lahelma, Antti. "The Circumpolar Context of the 'Sun Ship' Motif in South Scandinavian Rock Art". In: North Meets South: Theoretical Aspects on the Northern and Southern Rock Art Traditions in Scandinavia. Edited by Skoglund Peter, Ling Johan, and Bertilsson Ulf. Oxford; Philadelphia: Oxbow Books, 2017. pp. 144–71. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dpgg.10.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassetti2019" class="citation journal cs1">Massetti, Laura (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/40428177">"Antimachus's Enigma on Erytheia, the Latvian Sun-goddess and a Red Fish"</a>. The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 47 (1–2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=Antimachus%27s+Enigma+on+Erytheia%2C+the+Latvian+Sun-goddess+and+a+Red+Fish&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Massetti&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F40428177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Valent, Dušan; Jelinek, Pavol. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/45190566/_Slne%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_bohy%C5%88a_S%C3%A9hul_a_jej_podoby_v_hmotnej_kult%C3%BAre_doby_bronzovej_Solar_goddess_S%C3%A9hul_and_Her_Representations_in_the_Material_Culture_of_the_Bronze_Age">Séhul a jej podoby v hmotnej kultúre doby bronzovej</a>" [Séhul and Her Representations in the Material Culture of the Bronze Age]. In: Slovenská Archeológia – Supplementum 1. A. Kozubová – E. Makarová – M. Neumann (ed.): Ultra velum temporis. Venované Jozefovi Bátorovi k 70. narodeninám. Nitra: Archeologický ústav SAV, 2020. pp. 575–582. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2585-9145">2585-9145</a>. DOI: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.31577/slovarch.2020.suppl.1.49">https://doi.org/10.31577/slovarch.2020.suppl.1.49</a></li> <li>Valent, Dušan; Jelinek, Pavol; Lábaj, Ivan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/76988098/The_Death_Sun_and_the_Misidentified_Bird_Barge_A_Reappraisal_of_Bronze_Age_Solar_Iconography_and_Indo_European_Mythology">The Death-Sun and the Misidentified Bird-Barge: A Reappraisal of Bronze Age Solar Iconography and Indo-European Mythology</a>". In: Zborník Slovenského národného múzea [Annales Musei Nationalis Slovaci]: Rocník CXV. Archeológia 31. Bratislava, 2021. pp. 5–43. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-8060-515-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-80-8060-515-5">978-80-8060-515-5</a>. DOI: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.55015/PJRB2648">https://doi.org/10.55015/PJRB2648</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWachter1997" class="citation journal cs1">Wachter, Rudolf (1997). "Das indogermanische Wort für 'Sonne' und die angebliche Gruppe der l/n-Heteroklitika". Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics. 110 (1): 4–20. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41288919">41288919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historische+Sprachforschung+%2F+Historical+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Das+indogermanische+Wort+f%C3%BCr+%27Sonne%27+und+die+angebliche+Gruppe+der+l%2Fn-Heteroklitika&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-20&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41288919%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wachter&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>On storm deities and the dragon combat</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDandekar1950" class="citation journal cs1">Dandekar, R. N. (1950). "VṚTRAHĀ INDRA". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 31 (1/4): 1–55. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44028390">44028390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Bhandarkar+Oriental+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=V%E1%B9%9ATRAH%C4%80+INDRA&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1%2F4&rft.pages=1-55&rft.date=1950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44028390%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dandekar&rft.aufirst=R.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvanovToporov1970" class="citation book cs1">Ivanov, Viatcheslav; Toporov, Vladimir (1970). "Le Mythe Indo-Européen du Dieu de l'Orage Poursuivant le Serpent: Reconstruction du Schéma". Échanges et communications. pp. 1180–1206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783111698281-028">10.1515/9783111698281-028</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-169828-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-169828-1"><bdi>978-3-11-169828-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Le+Mythe+Indo-Europ%C3%A9en+du+Dieu+de+l%27Orage+Poursuivant+le+Serpent%3A+Reconstruction+du+Sch%C3%A9ma&rft.btitle=%C3%89changes+et+communications&rft.pages=1180-1206&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783111698281-028&rft.isbn=978-3-11-169828-1&rft.aulast=Ivanov&rft.aufirst=Viatcheslav&rft.au=Toporov%2C+Vladimir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_D._Miller_II2016" class="citation journal cs1">Robert D. Miller II (2016). "Iconographic Links between Indic and Ancient West Asian Storm Gods". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. 166 (1): 141–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141">10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141">10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+der+Deutschen+Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=Iconographic+Links+between+Indic+and+Ancient+West+Asian+Storm+Gods&rft.volume=166&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=141-151&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Robert+D.+Miller+II&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2021" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Robert D. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aror.orient.cas.cz/index.php/ArOr/article/view/291">"Tracking the Dragon across the Ancient Near East"</a>. Archiv Orientální. 82 (2): 437–458. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.47979%2Faror.j.82.2.437-458">10.47979/aror.j.82.2.437-458</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2263%2F58405">2263/58405</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:132645296">132645296</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1629401850">1629401850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archiv+Orient%C3%A1ln%C3%AD&rft.atitle=Tracking+the+Dragon+across+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=437-458&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2263%2F58405&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A132645296%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.47979%2Faror.j.82.2.437-458&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faror.orient.cas.cz%2Findex.php%2FArOr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>On the smith deity</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriquel1998" class="citation journal cs1">Briquel, Dominique (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/rhr_0035-1423_1998_num_215_3_1132.pdf">"Tarquins de Rome et idéologie indo-européenne: (I) Tarquin l'Ancien et le dieu Vulcain"</a> (PDF). Revue de l'histoire des religions. 215 (3): 369–395. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frhr.1998.1132">10.3406/rhr.1998.1132</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43998720">43998720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+de+l%27histoire+des+religions&rft.atitle=Tarquins+de+Rome+et+id%C3%A9ologie+indo-europ%C3%A9enne%3A+%28I%29+Tarquin+l%27Ancien+et+le+dieu+Vulcain&rft.volume=215&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=369-395&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frhr.1998.1132&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43998720%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Briquel&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2FdocAsPDF%2Frhr_0035-1423_1998_num_215_3_1132.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeroy1982" class="citation journal cs1">Leroy, Marie-Magdeleine (1982). "A propos de Pieds d'or: la claudication du forgeron indo-européen en Europe occidentale". Ethnologie française. 12 (3): 291–296. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40988730">40988730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnologie+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.atitle=A+propos+de+Pieds+d%27or%3A+la+claudication+du+forgeron+indo-europ%C3%A9en+en+Europe+occidentale&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=291-296&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40988730%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Leroy&rft.aufirst=Marie-Magdeleine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>On the "fire in waters" motif</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Sterckkx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claude Sterckkx (page does not exist)">Sterckx, Claude</a>; Oudaer, Guillaume. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nouvellemythologiecomparee.hautetfort.com/archive/2015/04/20/claude-sterckx-et-guillaume-oudaer-le-feu-dans-l-eau-son-bes-5607148.html">Le feu dans l'eau, son bestiaire et le serpent criocéphale</a>". In: Nouvelle Mythologie Comparée, 2, 2014: 9.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2017" class="citation journal cs1">White, David Gordon (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.4.0679">"Variations on the Indo-European 'Fire and Water' Mytheme in Three Alchemical Accounts"</a>. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 137 (4): 679–698. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.4.0679">10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.4.0679</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.4.0679">10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.4.0679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Variations+on+the+Indo-European+%27Fire+and+Water%27+Mytheme+in+Three+Alchemical+Accounts&rft.volume=137&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=679-698&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.4.0679&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.4.0679%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=David+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7817%252Fjameroriesoci.137.4.0679&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>On the canine guardian</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>Andrés-Toledo, M. Á. (2013). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/33077349/Andr%C3%A9s_Toledo_M_%C3%81_2013_The_Dog_s_of_the_Zoroastrian_Afterlife_">The Dog(s) of the Zoroastrian Afterlife</a>". E. Pirart (ed.). Le sort des Gâthâs. Études iraniennes in memoriam Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin. Acta Iranica 54, Peeters, Leuven – Paris – Walpole: 13-23. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-2733-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-2733-9">978-90-429-2733-9</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>On fire worship</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaliffOestigaard2023" class="citation book cs1">Kaliff, Anders; Oestigaard, Terje (2023). Indo-European Fire Rituals: Cattle and Cultivation, Cremation and Cosmogony. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781032292984" title="Special:BookSources/9781032292984"><bdi>9781032292984</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Fire+Rituals%3A+Cattle+and+Cultivation%2C+Cremation+and+Cosmogony&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781032292984&rft.aulast=Kaliff&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft.au=Oestigaard%2C+Terje&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShenkar2024" class="citation book cs1">Shenkar, Michael (2024). "The 'Eternal Fire', Achaemenid Zoroastrianism and the Origin of the Fire Temples". In Gad Barnea; Reinhard G. Kratz (eds.). Yahwism under the Achaemenid Empire: Professor Shaul Shaked in Memoriam. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 379–390. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783111018638-014">10.1515/9783111018638-014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%E2%80%98Eternal+Fire%E2%80%99%2C+Achaemenid+Zoroastrianism+and+the+Origin+of+the+Fire+Temples&rft.btitle=Yahwism+under+the+Achaemenid+Empire%3A+Professor+Shaul+Shaked+in+Memoriam&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Boston&rft.pages=379-390&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783111018638-014&rft.aulast=Shenkar&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Other themes</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonNorouzalibeik2008" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, R. T.; Norouzalibeik, Vahid (2008). "Father-Son Combat: An Indo-European Typescene and its Variations". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 36 (3–4): 269–332.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=Father-Son+Combat%3A+An+Indo-European+Typescene+and+its+Variations&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=269-332&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=R.+T.&rft.au=Norouzalibeik%2C+Vahid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerezkin2014" class="citation journal cs1">Berezkin, Yuri (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7592%2FFEJF2014.56.berezkin">"The Dog, the Horse and the Creation of Man"</a>. Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore. 56: 25–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7592%2FFEJF2014.56.berezkin">10.7592/FEJF2014.56.berezkin</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folklore%3A+Electronic+Journal+of+Folklore&rft.atitle=The+Dog%2C+the+Horse+and+the+Creation+of+Man&rft.volume=56&rft.pages=25-46&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7592%2FFEJF2014.56.berezkin&rft.aulast=Berezkin&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7592%252FFEJF2014.56.berezkin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDumézil1925" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Dumézil, Georges</a> (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/slave_0080-2557_1925_num_5_3_7342">"Les bylines de Michajlo Potyk et les légendes indo-européennes de l'ambroisie"</a>. Revue des Études Slaves. 5 (3): 205–237. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fslave.1925.7342">10.3406/slave.1925.7342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+des+%C3%89tudes+Slaves&rft.atitle=Les+bylines+de+Michajlo+Potyk+et+les+l%C3%A9gendes+indo-europ%C3%A9ennes+de+l%27ambroisie&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=205-237&rft.date=1925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fslave.1925.7342&rft.aulast=Dum%C3%A9zil&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fslave_0080-2557_1925_num_5_3_7342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanda2005" class="citation book cs1">Janda, Michael (2005). Elysion: Entstehung und Entwicklung der griechischen Religion. Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-85124-702-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-85124-702-2"><bdi>978-3-85124-702-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elysion%3A+Entstehung+und+Entwicklung+der+griechischen+Religion&rft.pub=Institut+f%C3%BCr+Sprachen+und+Literaturen+der+Universit%C3%A4t+Innsbruck&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-85124-702-2&rft.aulast=Janda&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanda2010" class="citation book cs1">Janda, Michael (2010). Die Musik nach dem Chaos: der Schöpfungsmythos der europäischen Vorzeit. Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-85124-227-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-85124-227-0"><bdi>978-3-85124-227-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Musik+nach+dem+Chaos%3A+der+Sch%C3%B6pfungsmythos+der+europ%C3%A4ischen+Vorzeit&rft.pub=Institut+f%C3%BCr+Sprachen+und+Literaturen+der+Universit%C3%A4t+Innsbruck&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-85124-227-0&rft.aulast=Janda&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimm1966" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Grimm, Jacob</a> (1966) [1835], <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mythologie" title="Deutsche Mythologie">Teutonic Mythology</a>, translated by Stallybrass, James Steven, London: Dover, (DM)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teutonic+Mythology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Grimm&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrazer1919" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_Frazer" class="mw-redirect" title="James Frazer">Frazer, James</a> (1919), <a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Bough" title="The Golden Bough">The Golden Bough</a>, London: MacMillan</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Bough&rft.place=London&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Frazer&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJendza2013" class="citation journal cs1">Jendza, Craig (2013). "Theseus the Ionian in Bacchylides 17 and Indo-Iranian Apam Napat". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 41 (3–4): 431–457. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1509068735">1509068735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=Theseus+the+Ionian+in+Bacchylides+17+and+Indo-Iranian+Apam+Napat&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=431-457&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Jendza&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2006" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Dean (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.54586%2FYJKV4327">"Cú Chulainn and Il'ya of Murom: Two Heroes, and Some Variations on a Theme"</a>. Studia Celto-Slavica. 1: 175–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.54586%2FYJKV4327">10.54586/YJKV4327</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Celto-Slavica&rft.atitle=C%C3%BA+Chulainn+and+Il%27ya+of+Murom%3A+Two+Heroes%2C+and+Some+Variations+on+a+Theme&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=175-184&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.54586%2FYJKV4327&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Dean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.54586%252FYJKV4327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanero1996" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ranero, Anna M. (1996). "'That Is What Scáthach Did Not Teach Me:' "Aided Óenfir aífe" and an Episode from the "Mahābhārata"". Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium. 16/17: 244–255. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20557325">20557325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Harvard+Celtic+Colloquium&rft.atitle=%27That+Is+What+Sc%C3%A1thach+Did+Not+Teach+Me%3A%27+%22Aided+%C3%93enfir+a%C3%ADfe%22+and+an+Episode+from+the+%22Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81rata%22&rft.volume=16%2F17&rft.pages=244-255&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20557325%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ranero&rft.aufirst=Anna+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShulman2014" class="citation book cs1">Shulman, David Dean (2014). Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5692-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5692-3"><bdi>978-1-4008-5692-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Temple+Myths%3A+Sacrifice+and+Divine+Marriage+in+the+South+Indian+Saiva+Tradition&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-5692-3&rft.aulast=Shulman&rft.aufirst=David+Dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarenne1977" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Varenne, Jean (1977). "Agni's Role in the Ṛgvedic Cosmogonic Myth". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 58/59: 375–386. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41691707">41691707</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6015346838">6015346838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Bhandarkar+Oriental+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=Agni%27s+Role+in+the+%E1%B9%9Agvedic+Cosmogonic+Myth&rft.volume=58%2F59&rft.pages=375-386&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6015346838&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41691707%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Varenne&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+mythology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_mythology&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Proto-Indo-European_mythology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template talk:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Proto-Indo-European_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centum_and_satem_languages" title="Centum and satem languages">Centum and satem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">Glottalic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">Laryngeal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_s-mobile" title="Indo-European s-mobile">s-mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouk%C3%B3los_rule" title="Boukólos rule">boukólos rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*k%CA%B7etw%C3%B3res_rule" title="*kʷetwóres rule">*kʷetwóres rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" title="Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages">Glossary of sound laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brugmann%27s_law" title="Brugmann's law">Brugmann's </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomae%27s_law" title="Bartholomae's law">Bartholomae's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortunatov%27s_law" title="Fortunatov's law">Fortunatov's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law" title="Grassmann's law">Grassmann's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osthoff%27s_law" title="Osthoff's law">Osthoff's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinault%27s_law" title="Pinault's law">Pinault's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebs%27s_law" title="Siebs's law">Siebs's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law#Edgerton" title="Sievers's law">Edgerton's converse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stang%27s_law" title="Stang's law">Stang's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szemer%C3%A9nyi%27s_law" title="Szemerényi's law">Szemerényi's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weise%27s_law" title="Weise's law">Weise's</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Morphology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caland_system" title="Caland system">Caland system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E2%82%82e-conjugation_theory" title="H₂e-conjugation theory">h₂e-conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narten_present" title="Narten present">Narten present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_infix" title="Nasal infix">Nasal infix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_vowel" title="Thematic vowel">Thematic vowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%E1%B9%9Bddhi" title="Vṛddhi">Vṛddhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Parts of speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nominals</a> (nouns and adjectives)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">copula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Main sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a> (IEW)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Verben" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben">Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben</a> (LIV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Partikeln_und_Pronominalst%C3%A4mme" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme">Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme</a> (LIPP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomina_im_Indogermanischen_Lexikon" title="Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon">Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon</a> (NIL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a> (IEED)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Artificial compositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher%27s_fable" title="Schleicher's fable">Schleicher's fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_king_and_the_god" title="The king and the god">The king and the god</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleicher theories">Schleicher theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li>Outdated theories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_European_hypothesis" title="North European hypothesis">North European hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Proto-Indo-European society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_problem" title="Salmon problem">Salmon problem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a> (EIE)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Paganism_(and_modern_paganism)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paganism" title="Template:Paganism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paganism" title="Template talk:Paganism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paganism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paganism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Paganism_(and_modern_paganism)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">modern paganism</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">ethnic religions</a> (existing and extinct)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asian" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asian</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ainu religion">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altaic_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Altaic religion (page does not exist)">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Austroasiatic_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Austroasiatic religion (page does not exist)">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Indonesia" title="Mythology of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Momolianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Momolianism">Momolianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sunda Wiwitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Hindu mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_mythology" title="Tamil mythology">Tamil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalash religion">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjabi folk religion">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tai_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tai religion (page does not exist)">Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibeto-Burman_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tibeto-Burman religion (page does not exist)">Tibeto-Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="European" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">European</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatolian_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anatolian religion (page does not exist)">Anatolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_religion" title="Lydian religion">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phrygian_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phrygian religion (page does not exist)">Phrygian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li>Caucasian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_paganism" title="Circassian paganism">Circassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_hero_cult" title="Greek hero cult">Hero cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Sacred mysteries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleusinian_Mysteries" title="Eleusinian Mysteries">Eleusinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothracian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iberian_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iberian religion (page does not exist)">Iberian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_mythology" title="Cantabrian mythology">Cantabrian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castro_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Castro religion (page does not exist)">Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallaecian_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gallaecian religion (page does not exist)">Gallaecian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_mythology" title="Lusitanian mythology">Lusitanian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Italic <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camunni_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Camunni religion (page does not exist)">Camunnian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ligures_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ligures religion (page does not exist)">Ligurian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umbri_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umbri religion (page does not exist)">Umbrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_religion" title="Minoan religion">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuragic_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuragic religion (page does not exist)">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Finnic_paganism" title="Baltic Finnic paganism">Baltic Finnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_Native_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mari Native Religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sami_shamanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sami shamanism">Sami</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Middle-Eastern_and_North_African" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Middle-Eastern and North African</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Ancient Near Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kushite_religion" title="Kushite religion">Nubian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Oceanian_and_Pacific_Islander" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Oceanian and Pacific Islander</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_indigenous_religion" title="Nauruan indigenous religion">Nauruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahiti_and_Society_Islands_mythology" title="Tahiti and Society Islands mythology">Tahitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sub-Saharan_African" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Sub-Saharan African</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Dahomean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_animism" title="Hausa animism">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_mythology" title="Malagasy mythology">Malagasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinani" class="mw-redirect" title="Odinani">Odinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">Modern pagan movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ethnic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausar_Auset_Society" title="Ausar Auset Society">Ausar Auset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li>American <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexicayotl" title="Mexicayotl">Mexicayotl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Native_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian Native Faith">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Habze" class="mw-redirect" title="Adyghe Habze">Adyghe Habze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uatsdin" class="mw-redirect" title="Uatsdin">Uatsdin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Reconstructionist_Paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Canarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Heathenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenism (religion)">Hellenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Polytheistic_Reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_folklore" title="Romani folklore">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_neopaganism" title="Semitic neopaganism">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a></li> <li>Turko-Mongolic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish neopaganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordvin_Native_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mordvin Native Religion">Mordvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt Vos</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neopagan_witchcraft" title="Neopagan witchcraft">Neopagan witchcraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochrane%27s_Craft" title="Cochrane's Craft">Cochrane's Craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feri_Tradition" title="Feri Tradition">Feri Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stregheria" title="Stregheria">Stregheria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Congress_of_Ethnic_Religions" title="European Congress of Ethnic Religions">European Congress of Ethnic Religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_paganism" title="Secular paganism">Secular paganism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Veneration of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_worship" title="Bear worship">Bear worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bl%C3%B3t" title="Blót">Blót</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying_and_rising_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dying and rising deity">Dying and rising deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">Idolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_and_religion" title="Magic and religion">Magic and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">Megalith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">Stone row</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Religion and mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Sacred grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_well" title="Holy well">Holy well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Supernatural magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trees_in_mythology" title="Trees in mythology">Trees in mythology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life" title="Tree of life">Tree of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_tree" title="World tree">World tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">Totem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">Witchcraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_worship" title="Animal worship">Animal worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_paganism" title="Christianity and paganism">Christianity and paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_saints_and_feasts" title="Christianization of saints and feasts">Christianization of saints and feasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religio_licita" title="Religio licita">Religio licita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtuous_pagan" title="Virtuous pagan">Virtuous pagan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Proto-Indo-European_mythology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Proto_Indo_European_mythology" title="Template:Proto Indo European mythology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Proto_Indo_European_mythology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Proto Indo European mythology (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Proto_Indo_European_mythology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Proto Indo European mythology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Proto-Indo-European_mythology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Proto-Indo-European_deities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Proto-Indo-European deities">Deities</a> [<a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Proto-Indo-European_deities" class="extiw" title="simple:List of Proto-Indo-European deities">simple</a>]</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/*Dy%C4%93us" title="*Dyēus">Dyēus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis" title="Trifunctional hypothesis">Trifunctions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_twins" title="Divine twins">Divine twins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitra-Varuna_(Indo-European)" title="Mitra-Varuna (Indo-European)">Mitra-Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*Perk%CA%B7%C5%ABnos" title="*Perkʷūnos">Perkwunos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*H%E2%82%82%C3%A9ws%C5%8Ds" title="*H₂éwsōs">H₂éwsōs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*Seh%E2%82%82ul_and_*Meh%E2%82%81not" title="*Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not">Seh₂ul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*Seh%E2%82%82ul_and_*Meh%E2%82%81not" title="*Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not">Meh₁not</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*D%CA%B0%C3%A9%C7%B5%CA%B0%C5%8Dm" title="*Dʰéǵʰōm">Dʰéǵʰōm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*H%E2%82%81n%CC%A5g%CA%B7nis" title="*H₁n̥gʷnis">H1n̥gʷnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*H%E2%82%82epom_Nep%C5%8Dts" title="*H₂epom Nepōts">H₂epom Nepōts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*P%C3%A9h%E2%82%82us%C5%8Dn" title="*Péh₂usōn">Pehuson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fates_(Indo_European)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fates (Indo European)">Fates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_smith_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European smith god">Smith God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*Deh%E2%82%82nu" class="mw-redirect" title="*Deh₂nu">Deh₂nu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*PriHy%C3%A9h%E2%82%82" class="mw-redirect" title="*PriHyéh₂">PriHyéh₂</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*Welnos" class="mw-redirect" title="*Welnos">Welnos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Characters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/*Manu_and_*Yemo" title="*Manu and *Yemo">Manu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*Manu_and_*Yemo" title="*Manu and *Yemo">Yemo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*Trito" title="*Trito">Trito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*%E1%B8%B0%C3%A9rberos" title="*Ḱérberos">Ḱérberos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*H%E2%82%82n%CC%A5g%CA%B7%CA%B0is" title="*H₂n̥gʷʰis">H₂n̥gʷʰis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motifs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">Otherworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_cosmogony" title="Indo-European cosmogony">Indo-European cosmogony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis" title="Trifunctional hypothesis">Trifunctional hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_death" title="Threefold death">Threefold death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo_European_Weapon_Cults" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo European Weapon Cults">Indo European Weapon Cults</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Sacrifices" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European Sacrifices">Sacrifices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_a_son" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of a son">Death of a son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_Mead" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycle of Mead">Cycle of Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_of_evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Binding of evil">Binding of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the foundation">War of the foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_and_virgin" class="mw-redirect" title="King and virgin">King and virgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ends_of_the_Earth_(Proto_Indo_European_Mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ends of the Earth (Proto Indo European Mythology)">Ends of the Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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