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id="toc-Military_matters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Honors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Isidor Isaac Rabi</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%AD%D9%82_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="أيزيدور إسحق رابي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أيزيدور إسحق رابي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0sidor_Ayzek_Rabi" title="İsidor Ayzek Rabi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İsidor Ayzek Rabi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ایزیدور ایزاک رابی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایزیدور ایزاک رابی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF" title="ইজিডোর ইজাক রাবি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইজিডোর ইজাক রাবি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%96" title="Ісідар Айзек Рабі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ісідар Айзек Рабі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Изидор Раби – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Изидор Раби" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Rabi" title="Isidor Rabi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Isidor Rabi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8A%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81_%CE%99%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%AC%CE%BA_%CE%A1%CE%AC%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B9" title="Ίσιντορ Ισαάκ Ράμπι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ίσιντορ Ισαάκ Ράμπι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ایزیدور ایزاک رابی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایزیدور ایزاک رابی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80" title="इझिडॉर इझाक राबी – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="इझिडॉर इझाक राबी" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%80%EB%8F%84%EC%96%B4_%EC%95%84%EC%9D%B4%EC%9E%91_%EB%9D%BC%EB%B9%84" title="이지도어 아이작 라비 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이지도어 아이작 라비" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%80_%D4%B1%D5%B5%D5%A6%D5%A5%D5%AF_%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%AB" title="Իսիդոր Այզեկ Ռաբի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսիդոր Այզեկ Ռաբի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF" title="इसिडोर ऐज़क रबि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इसिडोर ऐज़क रबि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A7_%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99" title="איזידור אייזק רבי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איזידור אייזק רבי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%99_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ისიდორ ისააკ რაბი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ისიდორ ისააკ რაბი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Исидор Айзек Раби – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Исидор Айзек Раби" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidorus_Isaacus_Rabi" title="Isidorus Isaacus Rabi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Isidorus Isaacus Rabi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izidors_Rabi" title="Izidors Rabi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Izidors Rabi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D1%98%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Исидор Ајзек Раби – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Исидор Ајзек Раби" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9D%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80" title="इसिदोर आयझॅक राबी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="इसिदोर आयझॅक राबी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%99_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ისიდორ ისააკ რაბი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ისიდორ ისააკ რაბი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AD%D9%82_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%89" title="ايزيدور اسحق رابى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ايزيدور اسحق رابى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ایزیدور ایزاک رابی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ایزیدور ایزاک رابی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Исидор Айзек Раби – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Исидор Айзек Раби" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF" title="इसिडोर आइज्याक रबि – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इसिडोर आइज्याक रबि" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%89%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B6%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%93" title="イジドール・イザーク・ラービ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イジドール・イザーク・ラービ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%82_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="اسیڈور اساق رابی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اسیڈور اساق رابی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8,_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Раби, Исидор Айзек – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Раби, Исидор Айзек" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF" title="इसिडोर ऐजक रबि – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="इसिडोर ऐजक रबि" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%86%D8%B1_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%82_%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ئیسیدۆر ئیسحاق ڕابی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیسیدۆر ئیسحاق ڕابی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D1%98%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Изидор Ајзак Раби – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Изидор Ајзак Раби" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF" title="இசிதர் ஐசக் ரபி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இசிதர் ஐசக் ரபி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Исидор Айзек Раби – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Исидор Айзек Раби" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%81_%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5" title="อิซิโดร์ ไอแซก ราบี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิซิโดร์ ไอแซก ราบี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%96" title="Ісидор Рабі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ісидор Рабі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B2%DA%A9_%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ازیڈور ائیزک ربی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ازیڈور ائیزک ربی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%9A%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E6%AF%94" title="伊西多·拉比 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="伊西多·拉比" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Isidor Isaac Rabi" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" 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Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Lee_DuBridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee DuBridge">Lee DuBridge</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/James_Killian" class="mw-redirect" title="James Killian">James Killian</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Israel Isaac Rabi</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1898-07-29</span>)</span>July 29, 1898<br /><a href="/wiki/Ryman%C3%B3w" title="Rymanów">Rymanów</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Galicia and Lodomeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a><br />(now Poland)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">January 11, 1988<span style="display:none">(1988-01-11)</span> (aged 89)<br /><a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Riverside_Cemetery_(Saddle_Brook,_New_Jersey)" title="Riverside Cemetery (Saddle Brook, New Jersey)">Riverside Cemetery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saddle_Brook,_New_Jersey" title="Saddle Brook, New Jersey">Saddle Brook, New Jersey</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Helen Newmark</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1926)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a>)<br /><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">MS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rabi_cycle" title="Rabi cycle">Rabi cycle</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rabi_problem" title="Rabi problem">Rabi problem</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rabi_resonance_method" title="Rabi resonance method">Rabi resonance method</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Breit-Rabi_formula" class="mw-redirect" title="Breit-Rabi formula">Breit-Rabi formula</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newcomb_Cleveland_Prize" title="Newcomb Cleveland Prize">Newcomb Cleveland Prize</a> (1939)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal" title="Elliott Cresson Medal">Elliott Cresson Medal</a> (1942)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> (1944)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> (1948)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Barnard_Medal_for_Meritorious_Service_to_Science" title="Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science">Barnard Medal</a> (1960)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace_Award" title="Atoms for Peace Award">Atoms for Peace Award</a> (1967)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Oersted_Medal" title="Oersted Medal">Oersted Medal</a> (1982)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_Welfare_Medal" title="Public Welfare Medal">Public Welfare Medal</a> (1985)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush_Award" title="Vannevar Bush Award">Vannevar Bush Award</a> (1986)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/301734731/">On the principal magnetic susceptibilities of crystals</a></i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1927)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Potter_Wills" title="Albert Potter Wills">Albert Potter Wills</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Brown_(Secretary_of_Defense)" title="Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)">Harold Brown</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Perl" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Perl">Martin Perl</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Ramsey">Norman Ramsey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:I._I._Rabi_signature.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/I._I._Rabi_signature.jpg/150px-I._I._Rabi_signature.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/I._I._Rabi_signature.jpg/225px-I._I._Rabi_signature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/I._I._Rabi_signature.jpg/300px-I._I._Rabi_signature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="164" /></a></span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Isidor Isaac Rabi</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>; born <b>Israel Isaac Rabi</b>, July 29, 1898 – January 11, 1988) was an American <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> who won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1944 for his discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a>, which is used in <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>. He was also one of the first scientists in the United States to work on the <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">cavity magnetron</a>, which is used in <a href="/wiki/Microwave_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Microwave radar">microwave radar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">microwave ovens</a>. </p><p>Born into a traditional <a href="/wiki/Polish-Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Jewish">Polish-Jewish</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Ryman%C3%B3w" title="Rymanów">Rymanów</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Central_Europe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Galicia (Central Europe)">Galicia</a>, Rabi came to the United States as an infant and was raised in New York's <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a>. He entered <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> student in 1916, but soon switched to <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>. Later, he became interested in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. He continued his studies at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, where he was awarded his doctorate for a thesis on the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_susceptibility" title="Magnetic susceptibility">magnetic susceptibility</a> of certain crystals. In 1927, he headed for Europe, where he met and worked with many of the finest physicists of the time. </p><p>In 1929, Rabi returned to the United States, where Columbia offered him a faculty position. In collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a>, he developed the <a href="/wiki/Breit%E2%80%93Rabi_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Breit–Rabi equation">Breit–Rabi equation</a> and predicted that the <a href="/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach_experiment" title="Stern–Gerlach experiment">Stern–Gerlach experiment</a> could be modified to confirm the properties of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>. His techniques for using nuclear magnetic resonance to discern the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_spin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear spin">nuclear spin</a> of atoms earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944. Nuclear magnetic resonance became an important tool for nuclear physics and chemistry, and the subsequent development of magnetic resonance imaging from it has also made it important to the field of medicine. </p><p>During World War II he worked on <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) <a href="/wiki/Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</a> (RadLab) and on the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. After the war, he served on the General Advisory Committee (GAC) of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>, and was chairman from 1952 to 1956. He also served on the Science Advisory Committees (SACs) of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Defense_Mobilization" title="Office of Defense Mobilization">Office of Defense Mobilization</a> and the Army's <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Research_Laboratory" title="Ballistic Research Laboratory">Ballistic Research Laboratory</a>, and was <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">Science Advisor</a> to President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>. He was involved with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> in 1946, and later, as United States delegate to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>, with the creation of <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> in 1952. When Columbia created the rank of university professor in 1964, Rabi was the first to receive that position. A special chair was named after him in 1985. He retired from teaching in 1967, but remained active in the department and held the title of University Professor Emeritus and Special Lecturer until his death. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_years">Early years</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Israel Isaac Rabi was born on July 29, 1898, into a <a href="/wiki/Polish-Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Jewish">Polish-Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Ryman%C3%B3w" title="Rymanów">Rymanów</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Central_Europe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Galicia (Central Europe)">Galicia</a>, in what was then part of <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> but is now Poland. Soon after he was born, his father, David Rabi, emigrated to the United States. The younger Rabi and his mother, Sheindel, joined David there a few months later, and the family moved into a two-room apartment on the <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>. At home the family spoke <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>. When Rabi was enrolled in school, Sheindel said his name was Izzy, and a school official, thinking it was short for Isidor, put that down as his name. Henceforth, that became his official name. Later, in response to <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semitism</a>, he started writing his name as Isidor Isaac Rabi, and was known professionally as I.I. Rabi. To most of his friends and family, including his sister Gertrude, who was born in 1903, he was known simply by his last name. In 1907, the family moved to <a href="/wiki/Brownsville,_Brooklyn" title="Brownsville, Brooklyn">Brownsville, Brooklyn</a>, where they ran a grocery store.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198717–21_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198717–21-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a boy, Rabi was interested in science. He read science books borrowed from the public library and built his own radio set. His first scientific paper—written on the design of a <a href="/wiki/Microphone#Condenser_microphone" title="Microphone">radio condenser</a>—was published in <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Electrics" title="Modern Electrics">Modern Electrics</a></i> when he was in elementary school.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198727_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198727-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1993312_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1993312-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After reading about <a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism" title="Copernican heliocentrism">Copernican heliocentrism</a>, he became an atheist. "It's all very simple", he told his parents, adding, "Who needs God?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198723_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198723-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a compromise with his parents, for his <a href="/wiki/Bar_Mitzvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar Mitzvah">Bar Mitzvah</a>, which was held at home, he gave a speech in Yiddish about how an electric light works. He attended the <a href="/wiki/Manual_Training_High_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Manual Training High School">Manual Training High School</a> in Brooklyn, from which he graduated in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198727–28_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198727–28-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later that year, he entered <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> student, but soon switched to <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">American entry into World War I</a> in 1917, he joined the <a href="/wiki/Student_Army_Training_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Student Army Training Corps">Student Army Training Corps</a> at Cornell. For his senior thesis, he investigated the <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>. He was awarded his Bachelor of Science degree in June 1919, but since at the time Jews were largely excluded from employment in the chemical industry and academia, he did not receive any job offers. He worked briefly at the <a href="/wiki/Lederle_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Lederle Laboratories">Lederle Laboratories</a>, and then as a <a href="/wiki/Bookkeeper" class="mw-redirect" title="Bookkeeper">bookkeeper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198733–34_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198733–34-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1922 Rabi returned to Cornell as a graduate chemistry student, and began studying physics. In 1923 he met, and began courting, Helen Newmark, a summer-semester student at <a href="/wiki/Hunter_College" title="Hunter College">Hunter College</a>. To be near her when she returned home, he continued his studies at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, where his supervisor was <a href="/wiki/Albert_Wills" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Wills">Albert Wills</a>. In June 1924 Rabi landed a job as a part-time tutor at the <a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a>. Wills, whose specialty was magnetism, suggested that Rabi write his doctoral thesis on the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_susceptibility" title="Magnetic susceptibility">magnetic susceptibility</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> vapor. The topic did not appeal to Rabi, but after <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">William Lawrence Bragg</a> gave a seminar at Columbia about the <a href="/wiki/Electric_susceptibility" title="Electric susceptibility">electric susceptibility</a> of certain crystals called <a href="/wiki/Tutton%27s_salt" title="Tutton's salt">Tutton's salts</a>, Rabi decided to research their magnetic susceptibility, and Wills agreed to be his supervisor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198735–40_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198735–40-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Measuring the magnetic resonance of crystals first involved <a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">growing the crystals</a>, a simple procedure often done by elementary school students. The crystals then had to be prepared by skillfully cutting them into sections with facets that had an orientation different from the internal structure of the crystal, and the response to a magnetic field had to be painstakingly measured. While his crystals were growing, Rabi read <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>'s 1873 <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism" title="A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism">A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</a></i>, which inspired an easier method. He lowered a crystal on a glass fiber attached to a <a href="/wiki/Torsion_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Torsion balance">torsion balance</a> into a solution whose magnetic susceptibility could be varied between two magnetic poles. When it matched that of the crystal, the magnet could be turned on and off without disturbing the crystal. The new method not only required much less work, it also produced a more accurate result. Rabi sent his thesis, entitled <i>On the Principal Magnetic Susceptibilities of Crystals</i>, to <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i> on July 16, 1926. He married Helen the next day. The paper attracted little fanfare in academic circles, although it was read by <a href="/wiki/Kariamanickam_Srinivasa_Krishnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kariamanickam Srinivasa Krishnan">Kariamanickam Srinivasa Krishnan</a>, who used the method in his own investigations of crystals. Rabi concluded that he needed to promote his work as well as publish it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198741–45_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198741–45-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabi1927174–185_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabi1927174–185-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like many other young physicists, Rabi was closely following momentous events in Europe. He was astounded by the <a href="/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach_experiment" title="Stern–Gerlach experiment">Stern–Gerlach experiment</a>, which convinced him of the validity of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. With <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Kronig" title="Ralph Kronig">Ralph Kronig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bitter" title="Francis Bitter">Francis Bitter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Zemansky" title="Mark Zemansky">Mark Zemansky</a> and others, he set out to extend the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a> to <a href="/wiki/Rotational%E2%80%93vibrational_spectroscopy#Symmetric_top_molecules" title="Rotational–vibrational spectroscopy">symmetric top molecules</a> and find the energy states of such a mechanical system. The problem was that none of them could solve the resulting equation, a second-order <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">partial differential equation</a>. Rabi found the answer in <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Schlesinger" title="Ludwig Schlesinger">Ludwig Schlesinger</a>'s <i>Einführung in die Theorie der Differentialgleichungen (Introduction to the theory of differential equations)</i>, which describes a method originally developed by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jacob_Jacobi" title="Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi">Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi</a>. The equation had the form of a <a href="/wiki/Hypergeometric_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypergeometric equation">hypergeometric equation</a> to which Jacobi had found a solution. Kronig and Rabi wrote up their result and sent it to <i>Physical Review</i>, which published it in 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198750–53_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198750–53-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKronigRabi1928262–269_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKronigRabi1928262–269-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe">Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In May 1927, Rabi was appointed a Barnard Fellow. This came with a <a href="/wiki/Stipend" title="Stipend">stipend</a> of $1,500 ($26,000 in 2023 dollars<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) for the period from September 1927 to June 1928. He immediately applied for a year's leave of absence from the City College of New York so he could study in Europe. When this was refused, he resigned. On reaching <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a>, where he hoped to work for <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, he met two fellow Americans, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Adams_Stratton" title="Julius Adams Stratton">Julius Adams Stratton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>. They found that Schrödinger was leaving, as he had been appointed head of the Theoretical Institute at <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelm University</a> in Berlin. Rabi therefore decided to seek a position with <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a> instead. In Munich, he found two more Americans, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Percy_Robertson" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard Percy Robertson">Howard Percy Robertson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a>. Sommerfeld accepted Rabi as a postdoctoral researcher. German physicists <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> were also working with Sommerfeld at the time, but the three Americans became especially close.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198755–57_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198755–57-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On Wills' advice, Rabi traveled to <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a> for the 97th annual meeting of the <a href="/wiki/British_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association for the Advancement of Science">British Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, where he heard <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> present a paper on quantum mechanics. Afterwards, Rabi moved to <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>, where he volunteered to work for <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>. Bohr was on vacation, but Rabi went straight to work on calculating the magnetic susceptibility of molecular <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>. After Bohr returned in October, he arranged for Rabi and <a href="/wiki/Yoshio_Nishina" title="Yoshio Nishina">Yoshio Nishina</a> to continue their work with <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hamburg" title="University of Hamburg">University of Hamburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198757–59_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198757–59-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although he came to <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> to work with Pauli, Rabi found <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Otto Stern</a> working there with two English-speaking postdoctoral fellows, Ronald Fraser and John Bradshaw Taylor. Rabi soon made friends with them, and became interested in their <a href="/wiki/Molecular_beam" title="Molecular beam">molecular beam</a> experiments,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198760–62_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198760–62-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for which Stern would receive the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToenniesSchmidt-BöckingFriedrichLower20111066_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToenniesSchmidt-BöckingFriedrichLower20111066-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their research involved non-uniform magnetic fields, which were difficult to manipulate and hard to measure accurately. Rabi devised a method of using a uniform field instead, with the molecular beam at a glancing angle, so the atoms would be deflected like light through a prism. This would be easier to use, and produce more accurate results. Encouraged by Stern, and greatly assisted by Taylor, Rabi managed to get his idea to work. On Stern's advice, Rabi wrote a letter about his results to <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198760–62_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198760–62-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which published it in February 1929,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabi1929163–164_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabi1929163–164-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by a paper entitled <i>Zur Methode der Ablenkung von Molekularstrahlen</i> ("On the method of deflection of molecular beams") to <i>Zeitschrift für</i> ("Journal of Physics"), where it was published in April.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabi1929b190–197_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabi1929b190–197-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By this time the Barnard Fellowship had expired, and Rabi and Helen were living on a $182 ($3,200 in 2023 dollars<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) per month stipend from the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a>. They left Hamburg for <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, where he hoped to work with Heisenberg. In Leipzig, he found <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, a fellow New Yorker. It would be the start of a long friendship. Heisenberg departed for a tour of the United States in March 1929, so Rabi and Oppenheimer decided to go to the <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">ETH Zurich</a>, where Pauli was now the professor of physics. Rabi's education in physics was enriched by the leaders in the field he met there, which included <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Heitler" title="Walter Heitler">Walter Heitler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz London</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Wheeler_Loomis" title="Francis Wheeler Loomis">Francis Wheeler Loomis</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John Slater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198765–67_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198765–67-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Molecular_Beam_Laboratory">Molecular Beam Laboratory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Molecular Beam Laboratory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_physicists_Ernest_O._Lawrence,_Enrico_Fermi,_and_Isidor_Rabi_-_NARA_-_558595.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three men talking. The one on the left is wearing a tie and leans against a wall. He stands head and shoulders above the other two. The one in the center is smiling, and wearing an open-necked shirt. The one on the right wears a shirt and lab coat. All three have photo ID passes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Atomic_physicists_Ernest_O._Lawrence%2C_Enrico_Fermi%2C_and_Isidor_Rabi_-_NARA_-_558595.jpg/220px-Atomic_physicists_Ernest_O._Lawrence%2C_Enrico_Fermi%2C_and_Isidor_Rabi_-_NARA_-_558595.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Atomic_physicists_Ernest_O._Lawrence%2C_Enrico_Fermi%2C_and_Isidor_Rabi_-_NARA_-_558595.jpg/330px-Atomic_physicists_Ernest_O._Lawrence%2C_Enrico_Fermi%2C_and_Isidor_Rabi_-_NARA_-_558595.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Atomic_physicists_Ernest_O._Lawrence%2C_Enrico_Fermi%2C_and_Isidor_Rabi_-_NARA_-_558595.jpg/440px-Atomic_physicists_Ernest_O._Lawrence%2C_Enrico_Fermi%2C_and_Isidor_Rabi_-_NARA_-_558595.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="2924" /></a><figcaption>Rabi (right) with fellow Nobel Prize winners <a href="/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest O. Lawrence">Ernest O. Lawrence</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>On March 26, 1929, Rabi received an offer of a lectureship from Columbia, with an annual salary of $3,000. The dean of Columbia's physics department, <a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a>, was looking for a theoretical physicist to teach <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> and an advanced course in the new subject of quantum mechanics, and Heisenberg had recommended Rabi. Helen was now pregnant, so Rabi needed a regular job, and this job was in New York. He accepted, and returned to the United States in August on the <a href="/wiki/SS_President_Roosevelt_(1921)" title="SS President Roosevelt (1921)">SS <i>President Roosevelt</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198766–69_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198766–69-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabi became the only Jewish faculty member at Columbia at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987104_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987104-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rabi was a poor instructor. <a href="/wiki/Leon_Lederman" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Lederman">Leon Lederman</a> recalled that after a lecture, students would head to the library to try to work out what Rabi had been talking about. <a href="/wiki/Irving_Kaplan_(chemist)" title="Irving Kaplan (chemist)">Irving Kaplan</a> rated Rabi and <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a> as "the worst teachers I ever had".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198771_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198771-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Ramsey">Norman Ramsey</a> considered Rabi's lectures "pretty dreadful",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198771_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198771-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/William_Nierenberg" title="William Nierenberg">William Nierenberg</a> felt that he was "simply an awful lecturer".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198772_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198772-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his shortcomings as a lecturer, his influence was great. He inspired many of his students to pursue careers in physics, and some became famous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198771–72_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198771–72-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rabi's first daughter, Helen Elizabeth, was born in September 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198770_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198770-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second girl, Margaret Joella, followed in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198783_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198783-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between his teaching duties and his family, he had little time for research, and published no papers in his first year at Columbia, but was nonetheless promoted to assistant professor at its conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198770_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198770-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became a professor in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1931 Rabi returned to particle beam experiments. In collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a>, he developed the <a href="/wiki/Breit-Rabi_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Breit-Rabi equation">Breit-Rabi equation</a>, and predicted that the Stern–Gerlach experiment could be modified to confirm the properties of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198780_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198780-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next step was to do so. With the help of Victor W. Cohen,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabi built a molecular beam apparatus at Columbia. Their idea was to employ a weak magnetic field instead of a strong one, with which they hoped to detect the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_spin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear spin">nuclear spin</a> of sodium. When the experiment was conducted, four beamlets were found, from which they deduced a nuclear spin of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198784–88_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198784–88-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rabi's Molecular Beam Laboratory began to attract others, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sidney_Millman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sidney Millman (page does not exist)">Sidney Millman</a>, a graduate student who studied <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> for his doctorate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillman197787_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillman197787-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198788–89_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198788–89-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another was <a href="/wiki/Jerrold_Zacharias" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerrold Zacharias">Jerrold Zacharias</a> who, believing that the sodium nucleus would be too difficult to understand, proposed studying the simplest of the elements, hydrogen. Its <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> isotope had only recently been discovered at Columbia in 1931 by Urey, who received the 1934 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> for this work. Urey was able to supply them with both <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> and gaseous deuterium for their experiments. Despite its simplicity, Stern's group in Hamburg had observed that hydrogen did not behave as predicted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199221–22_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199221–22-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urey also helped in another way; he gave Rabi half his prize money to fund the Molecular Beam Laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198790_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198790-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scientists whose careers began at the Molecular Beam Laboratory included Norman Ramsey, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerome_Kellogg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerome Kellogg (page does not exist)">Jerome Kellogg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Polykarp Kusch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199223_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199223-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All were men; Rabi did not believe that women could be physicists. He never had a woman as a doctoral or postdoctoral student, and generally opposed women as candidates for faculty positions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987116_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987116-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> At the suggestion of <a href="/wiki/C._J._Gorter" class="mw-redirect" title="C. J. Gorter">C. J. Gorter</a>, the team attempted to use an oscillating field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199233–34_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199233–34-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This became the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a> method. In 1937, Rabi, Kusch, Millman and Zacharias used it to measure the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a> of several lithium compounds with molecular beams, including <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">lithium chloride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithium_fluoride" title="Lithium fluoride">lithium fluoride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dilithium" title="Dilithium">dilithium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiMillmanKuschZacharias1939526–535_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiMillmanKuschZacharias1939526–535-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applying the method to hydrogen, they found that the moment of a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> was 2.785±0.02 <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magneton" title="Nuclear magneton">nuclear magnetons</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939728_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939728-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and not 1 as predicted by the then-current theory,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987115_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987115-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreitRabi1934230–231_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreitRabi1934230–231-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while that of a deuteron was 0.855±0.006 nuclear magnetons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939728_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939728-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This provided more accurate measurements of what Stern's team had found, and Rabi's team had confirmed, in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiKelloggZacharias1934a157–163_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiKelloggZacharias1934a157–163-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiKelloggZacharias1934b163–165_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiKelloggZacharias1934b163–165-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since a deuteron is composed of a proton and a <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> with aligned spins, the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_magnetic_moment" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron magnetic moment">neutron's magnetic moment</a> could be inferred by subtracting the proton's magnetic moment from the deuteron's. The resulting value was not zero, and had a sign opposite to that of the proton. Based on curious artifacts of these more accurate measurements, Rabi suggested that the deuteron had an <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole" title="Quadrupole">electric quadrupole moment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987112–113_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987112–113-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiZachariasMillmanKusch1938318_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiZachariasMillmanKusch1938318-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiZachariasMillmanKusch1992131–133_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiZachariasMillmanKusch1992131–133-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This discovery meant that the physical shape of the deuteron was not symmetric, which provided valuable insight into the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a> binding nucleons. For the creation of the molecular-beam magnetic-resonance detection method, Rabi was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199236_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199236-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style></p><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">List of Jewish Nobel laureates</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Original_cavity_magnetron,_1940_(9663811280).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Original_cavity_magnetron%2C_1940_%289663811280%29.jpg/170px-Original_cavity_magnetron%2C_1940_%289663811280%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Original_cavity_magnetron%2C_1940_%289663811280%29.jpg/255px-Original_cavity_magnetron%2C_1940_%289663811280%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Original_cavity_magnetron%2C_1940_%289663811280%29.jpg/340px-Original_cavity_magnetron%2C_1940_%289663811280%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="861" data-file-height="863" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a> block of an original cavity magnetron, showing the resonant cavities, developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Randall_(physicist)" title="John Randall (physicist)">John Randall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Boot" title="Harry Boot">Harry Boot</a> at <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham University">Birmingham University</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In September 1940, Rabi became a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the U.S. Army's <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Research_Laboratory" title="Ballistic Research Laboratory">Ballistic Research Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That month, the British <a href="/wiki/Tizard_Mission" title="Tizard Mission">Tizard Mission</a> brought a number of new technologies to the United States, including a <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">cavity magnetron</a>, a high-powered device that generates <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a> using the interaction of a stream of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>. This device promised to revolutionize <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, so <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis" title="Alfred Lee Loomis">Alfred Lee Loomis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee" title="National Defense Research Committee">National Defense Research Committee</a> decided to establish a new laboratory at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) to develop this radar technology. The name <a href="/wiki/Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</a> was chosen as both unremarkable and a tribute to the <a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkeley Radiation Laboratory">Berkeley Radiation Laboratory</a>. Loomis recruited <a href="/wiki/Lee_DuBridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee DuBridge">Lee DuBridge</a> to run it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConant2002209–213_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2002209–213-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Loomis and DuBridge recruited physicists for the new laboratory at an Applied Nuclear Physics conference at MIT in October 1940. Among those who volunteered was Rabi. His assignment was to study the magnetron, which was so secret that it had to be kept in a safe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987131–134_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987131–134-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Radiation Laboratory scientists set their sights on producing a microwave radar set by January 6, 1941, and having a prototype installed in a <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-20_Havoc" title="Douglas A-20 Havoc">Douglas A-20 Havoc</a> by March. This was done; the technological obstacles were gradually overcome, and a working US microwave radar set was produced. The magnetron was further developed on both sides of the Atlantic to permit a reduction in wavelength from 150 cm to 10 cm, and then to 3 cm. The laboratory went on to develop air-to-surface radar to detect submarines, the <a href="/wiki/SCR-584_radar" title="SCR-584 radar">SCR-584 radar</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">fire control</a>, and <a href="/wiki/LORAN" title="LORAN">LORAN</a>, a long-range radio navigation system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987135–135_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987135–135-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Rabi's instigation, a branch of the Radiation Laboratory was located at Columbia, with Rabi in charge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987143_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987143-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1942 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> attempted to recruit Rabi and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a> to work at the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a> on a new secret project. They convinced Oppenheimer that his plan for a military laboratory would not work, since a scientific effort would need to be a civilian affair. The plan was modified, and the new laboratory would be a civilian one, run by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> under contract from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a>. In the end, Rabi still did not go west, but did agree to serve as a consultant to the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962230–232_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962230–232-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabi attended the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity test</a> in July 1945. The scientists working on Trinity set up a <a href="/wiki/Betting_pool" title="Betting pool">betting pool</a> on the yield of the test, with predictions ranging from total dud to 45 kilotons of <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNT equivalent</a> (kt). Rabi arrived late and found the only entry left was for 18 kilotons, which he purchased.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986656_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986656-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wearing welding goggles, he waited for the result with Ramsey and <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987155–156_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987155–156-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The blast was rated at 18.6 kilotons, and Rabi won the pool.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986656_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986656-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life">Later life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1945, Rabi delivered the Richtmyer Memorial Lecture, held by the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Physics_Teachers" title="American Association of Physics Teachers">American Association of Physics Teachers</a> in honor of <a href="/wiki/Floyd_K._Richtmyer" title="Floyd K. Richtmyer">Floyd K. Richtmyer</a>, wherein he proposed that the magnetic resonance of atoms might be used as the basis of a clock. <a href="/wiki/William_L._Laurence" title="William L. Laurence">William L. Laurence</a> wrote it up for <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, under the headline "'Cosmic pendulum' for clock planned".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before long Zacharias and Ramsey had built such <a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">atomic clocks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987170–171_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987170–171-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabi actively pursued his research into magnetic resonance until about 1960, but he continued to make appearances at conferences and seminars until his death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1993319_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1993319-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198715_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198715-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bardeen,_Rabi,_Heisenberg_1962.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Bardeen%2C_Rabi%2C_Heisenberg_1962.jpg/220px-Bardeen%2C_Rabi%2C_Heisenberg_1962.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Bardeen%2C_Rabi%2C_Heisenberg_1962.jpg/330px-Bardeen%2C_Rabi%2C_Heisenberg_1962.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Bardeen%2C_Rabi%2C_Heisenberg_1962.jpg/440px-Bardeen%2C_Rabi%2C_Heisenberg_1962.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1761" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>Rabi with fellow Nobel Prize laureates <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> (right) in 1962</figcaption></figure> <p>Rabi chaired Columbia's physics department from 1945 to 1949, during which time it was home to two Nobel laureates (Rabi and Enrico Fermi) and eleven future laureates, including seven faculty (Polykarp Kusch, <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Willis Lamb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Maria Goeppert-Mayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a>, Norman Ramsey, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Townes" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Townes">Charles Townes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Hideki Yukawa</a>), a research scientist (<a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a>), a visiting professor (Hans Bethe), a doctoral student (Leon Lederman) and an undergraduate (<a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Leon Cooper</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Martin_L._Perl" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin L. Perl">Martin L. Perl</a>, a doctoral student of Rabi's, won the Nobel Prize in 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabi was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eugene_Higgins_professor_of_physics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eugene Higgins professor of physics (page does not exist)">Eugene Higgins professor of physics</a> at Columbia but when Columbia created the rank of university professor in 1964, Rabi was the first to receive such a chair. This meant that he was free to research or teach whatever he chose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198768_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198768-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He retired from teaching in 1967 but remained active in the department and held the title of University Professor Emeritus until his death.<sup id="cite_ref-ACAP_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACAP-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A special chair was named after him in 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-Obit_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obit-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A legacy of the Manhattan Project was the network of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy_National_Laboratories" title="United States Department of Energy National Laboratories">national laboratories</a>, but none was located on the East Coast. Rabi and Ramsey assembled a group of universities in the New York area to lobby for their own national laboratory. When Zacharias, who was now at MIT, heard about it, he set up a rival group at MIT and <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a>. Rabi had discussions with <a href="/wiki/Major_General_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Major General (United States)">Major General</a> <a href="/wiki/Leslie_R._Groves_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie R. Groves Jr.">Leslie R. Groves Jr.</a>, the director of the Manhattan Project, who was willing to go along with a new national laboratory, but only one. Moreover, while the Manhattan Project still had funds, the wartime organization was expected to be phased out when a new authority came into existence. After some bargaining and lobbying by Rabi and others, the two groups came together in January 1946. Eventually nine universities (Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins</a>, MIT, <a href="/wiki/Princeton" class="mw-redirect" title="Princeton">Princeton</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">Rochester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale">Yale</a>) came together, and on January 31, 1947, a contract was signed with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC), which had replaced the Manhattan Project, that established the <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987182–185_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987182–185-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.3F.010_(11086446676).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/HD.3F.010_%2811086446676%29.jpg/220px-HD.3F.010_%2811086446676%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/HD.3F.010_%2811086446676%29.jpg/330px-HD.3F.010_%2811086446676%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/HD.3F.010_%2811086446676%29.jpg/440px-HD.3F.010_%2811086446676%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2233" data-file-height="3200" /></a><figcaption>Rabi (seated, right) with fellow Nobel Prize laureates (standing left to right) <a href="/wiki/Val_Fitch" class="mw-redirect" title="Val Fitch">Val Fitch</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">James Cronin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chao_Chung_Ting" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Chao Chung Ting">Samuel Chao Chung Ting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chen-Ning_Yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen-Ning Yang">Chen-Ning Yang</a> (seated, left)</figcaption></figure> <p>Rabi suggested to <a href="/wiki/Edoardo_Amaldi" title="Edoardo Amaldi">Edoardo Amaldi</a> that Brookhaven might be a model that Europeans could emulate. Rabi saw science as a way of inspiring and uniting a Europe that was still recovering from the war. An opportunity came in 1950 when he was named the United States Delegate to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Educational,_Scientific_and_Cultural_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization">United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization</a> (UNESCO). At a UNESCO meeting at the <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Vecchio" title="Palazzo Vecchio">Palazzo Vecchio</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> in June 1950, he called for the establishment of regional laboratories. These efforts bore fruit; in 1952, representatives of eleven countries came together to create the <i>Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire</i> (<a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> or European Organization for Nuclear Research). Rabi received a letter from Bohr, Heisenberg, Amaldi and others congratulating him on the success of his efforts. He had the letter framed and hung it on the wall of his home office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987235–237_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987235–237-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_matters">Military matters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Military matters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a> that created the Atomic Energy Commission provided for a nine-man General Advisory Committee (GAC) to advise the commission on scientific and technical matters. Rabi was one of those appointed in December 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962648_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962648-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The GAC was enormously influential throughout the late 1940s, but in 1950 the GAC unanimously opposed the development of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a>. Rabi went further than most of the other members, and joined Fermi in opposing the hydrogen bomb on moral as well as technical grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969380–385_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969380–385-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> overrode the GAC's advice, and ordered development to proceed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969403–408_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969403–408-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabi later said: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I never forgave Truman for buckling under the pressure. He simply did not understand what it was about. As a matter of fact, after he stopped being President he still didn't believe that the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">Russians had a bomb</a> in 1949. He said so. So for him to have alerted the world that we were going to make a hydrogen bomb at a time when we didn't even know how to make one was one of the worst things he could have done. It shows the dangers of this sort of thing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987246_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987246-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Oppenheimer was not reappointed to the GAC when his term expired in 1952, and Rabi succeeded him as chairman, serving until 1956.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969665_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969665-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabi later testified on Oppenheimer's behalf at the Atomic Energy Commission's <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">controversial security hearing</a> in 1954 that led to Oppenheimer being stripped of his security clearance. Many witnesses supported Oppenheimer, but none more forcefully than Rabi: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>So it didn't seem to me the sort of thing that called for this kind of proceeding... against a man who has accomplished what Dr. Oppenheimer has accomplished. There is a real positive record... We have an A-bomb and a whole series of it, and we have a whole series of super bombs, and what more do you want, mermaids?<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987227_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987227-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Rabi was appointed a member of the Science Advisory Committee (SAC) of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Defense_Mobilization" title="Office of Defense Mobilization">Office of Defense Mobilization</a> in 1952, serving as its chairman from 1956 to 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This coincided with the <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a>. President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Eisenhower">Dwight Eisenhower</a> met with the SAC on October 15, 1957, to seek advice on possible US responses to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet satellite success</a>. Rabi, who knew Eisenhower from the latter's time as president of Columbia, was the first to speak, and put forward a series of proposals, one of which was to strengthen the committee so it could provide the President with timely advice. This was done, and the SAC became the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">President's Science Advisory Committee</a> a few weeks later. He also became Eisenhower's Science Advisor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987248–251_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987248–251-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1956 Rabi attended the <a href="/wiki/Project_Nobska" title="Project Nobska">Project Nobska</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">anti-submarine warfare</a> conference, where discussion ranged from <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a> to nuclear weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriedman1994109–114_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedman1994109–114-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He served as the US Representative to the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> Science Committee at the time that the term "<a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>" was coined. While serving in that capacity, he bemoaned the fact that many large software projects were delayed. This prompted discussions that led to the formation of a study group that organized the first conference on software engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKenzie200134_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKenzie200134-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honors">Honors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Honors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the course of his life, Rabi received many honors in addition to the Nobel Prize. These included the <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal" title="Elliott Cresson Medal">Elliott Cresson Medal</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a> in 1942,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> and the <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Medal_for_Service_in_the_Cause_of_Freedom" title="King's Medal for Service in the Cause of Freedom">King's Medal for Service in the Cause of Freedom</a> from Great Britain in 1948,<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the officer in the French <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Honour" title="Legion of Honour">Legion of Honour</a> in 1956,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1993320_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1993320-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Columbia University's <a href="/wiki/Barnard_Medal_for_Meritorious_Service_to_Science" title="Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science">Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science</a> in 1960,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_International_Gold_Medal" title="Niels Bohr International Gold Medal">Niels Bohr International Gold Medal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace_Award" title="Atoms for Peace Award">Atoms for Peace Award</a> in 1967, the <a href="/wiki/Oersted_Medal" title="Oersted Medal">Oersted Medal</a> from the American Association of Physics Teachers in 1982, the <a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms_Award" title="Four Freedoms Award">Four Freedoms Award</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute">Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Public_Welfare_Medal" title="Public Welfare Medal">Public Welfare Medal</a> from the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1985, the Golden Plate Award of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush_Award" title="Vannevar Bush Award">Vannevar Bush Award</a> from the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1993320_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1993320-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PublicWelfare_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PublicWelfare-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was a Fellow (elected 1931)<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a>, serving as its president in 1950, and a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>. He was internationally recognized with membership in the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Academy" title="Japan Academy">Japan Academy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Brazilian Academy of Sciences">Brazilian Academy of Sciences</a>, and in 1959 was appointed a member of the board of governors of the <a href="/wiki/Weizmann_Institute_of_Science" title="Weizmann Institute of Science">Weizmann Institute of Science</a> in Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most valuable of Columbia University's undergraduate research scholarships, designed to motivate and support promising young scientists, is named after him,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so is the street, <a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_at_CERN" title="List of streets at CERN">Route Rabi</a> at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%A9vessin" class="mw-redirect" title="Prévessin">Prévessin</a> site in France. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>'s I. I. Rabi Scholars program assists "some of Columbia College's most promising science students at the point of admission into the College."<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death">Death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rabi died at his home on <a href="/wiki/Riverside_Drive_(Manhattan)" title="Riverside Drive (Manhattan)">Riverside Drive</a> in Manhattan from cancer on January 11, 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-Obit_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obit-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1993319_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1993319-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His wife, Helen, survived him and died at the age of 102 on June 18, 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his last days, he was reminded of his greatest achievement when his physicians examined him using <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>, a technology that had been developed from his ground-breaking research on magnetic resonance. The machine happened to have a reflective inner surface, and he remarked: "I saw myself in that machine... I never thought my work would come to this."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987xxi–xxii_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987xxi–xxii-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rabi was portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Barry_Dennen" title="Barry Dennen">Barry Dennen</a> in the 1980 television miniseries <i><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(TV_series)" title="Oppenheimer (TV series)">Oppenheimer</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by <a href="/wiki/David_Krumholtz" title="David Krumholtz">David Krumholtz</a> in the 2023 film <i><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)" title="Oppenheimer (film)">Oppenheimer</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Books">Books</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">Rabi, Isidor Isaac (1960). <i>My Life and Times as a Physicist</i>. Claremont, California: <a href="/wiki/Claremont_McKenna_College" title="Claremont McKenna College">Claremont College</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1071412">1071412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Life+and+Times+as+a+Physicist&rft.place=Claremont%2C+California&rft.pub=Claremont+College&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1071412&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=Isidor+Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Rabi, Isidor Isaac; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Serber, Robert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Weisskopf, Victor F.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Pais" title="Abraham Pais">Pais, Abraham</a>; <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Seaborg, Glenn T.</a> (1969). <i>Oppenheimer: The Story of One of the Most Remarkable Personalities of the 20th Century</i>. <a href="/wiki/Scribner%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Scribner's">Scribner's</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/223176672">223176672</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oppenheimer%3A+The+Story+of+One+of+the+Most+Remarkable+Personalities+of+the+20th+Century&rft.pub=Scribner%27s&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223176672&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=Isidor+Isaac&rft.au=Serber%2C+Robert&rft.au=Weisskopf%2C+Victor+F.&rft.au=Pais%2C+Abraham&rft.au=Seaborg%2C+Glenn+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Rabi, Isidor Isaac (1970). <i>Science: The Center of Culture</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/World_Publishing_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="World Publishing Co.">World Publishing Co.</a> <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/74630">74630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%3A+The+Center+of+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=World+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F74630&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=Isidor+Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198717–21-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198717–21_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 17–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198727-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198727_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1993312-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1993312_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRamsey1993">Ramsey 1993</a>, p. 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198723-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198723_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198727–28-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198727–28_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198733–34-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198733–34_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198735–40-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198735–40_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 35–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198741–45-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198741–45_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 41–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabi1927174–185-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabi1927174–185_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabi1927">Rabi 1927</a>, pp. 174–185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198750–53-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198750–53_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 50–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKronigRabi1928262–269-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKronigRabi1928262–269_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKronigRabi1928">Kronig & Rabi 1928</a>, pp. 262–269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">1634–1699: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States%3A+Addenda+et+Corrigenda&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44525121.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span> 1700–1799: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consumer+Price+Index+%28estimate%29+1800%E2%80%93&rft.au=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fabout-us%2Fmonetary-policy%2Finflation-calculator%2Fconsumer-price-index-1800-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198755–57-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198755–57_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 55–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198757–59-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198757–59_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 57–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198760–62-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198760–62_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198760–62_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 60–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToenniesSchmidt-BöckingFriedrichLower20111066-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToenniesSchmidt-BöckingFriedrichLower20111066_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToenniesSchmidt-BöckingFriedrichLower2011">Toennies et al. 2011</a>, p. 1066.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabi1929163–164-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabi1929163–164_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabi1929">Rabi 1929</a>, pp. 163–164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabi1929b190–197-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabi1929b190–197_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabi1929b">Rabi 1929b</a>, pp. 190–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198765–67-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198765–67_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 65–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198766–69-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198766–69_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 66–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987104-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987104_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198771-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198771_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198771_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198772-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198772_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198771–72-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198771–72_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 71–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198770-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198770_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198770_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198783-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198783_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nobel-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1944/rabi-bio.html">"Isidor Isaac Rabi – Biographical"</a>. Nobel Media<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 17,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Isidor+Isaac+Rabi+%E2%80%93+Biographical&rft.pub=Nobel+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1944%2Frabi-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198780-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198780_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927191536/http://www.physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v28/i1/p111_s2?bypassSSO=1">"Obituary: Victor William Cohen"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Today" title="Physics Today">Physics Today</a></i>. <b>28</b> (1): 111–112. January 1975. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975PhT....28a.111.">1975PhT....28a.111.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3068792">10.1063/1.3068792</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228">0031-9228</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v28/i1/p111_s2?bypassSSO=1">the original</a> on September 27, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+Victor+William+Cohen&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=111-112&rft.date=1975-01&rft.issn=0031-9228&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3068792&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975PhT....28a.111.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicstoday.org%2Fresource%2F1%2Fphtoad%2Fv28%2Fi1%2Fp111_s2%3FbypassSSO%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198784–88-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198784–88_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 84–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillman197787-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillman197787_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillman1977">Millman 1977</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198788–89-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198788–89_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199221–22-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199221–22_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1992">Goldstein 1992</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden198790-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden198790_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199223-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199223_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1992">Goldstein 1992</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987116-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987116_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199233–34-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199233–34_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1992">Goldstein 1992</a>, pp. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiMillmanKuschZacharias1939526–535-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiMillmanKuschZacharias1939526–535_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabiMillmanKuschZacharias1939">Rabi et al. 1939</a>, pp. 526–535.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939728-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939728_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939728_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939">Kellogg et al. 1939</a>, p. 728.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987115-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987115_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreitRabi1934230–231-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreitRabi1934230–231_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBreitRabi1934">Breit & Rabi 1934</a>, pp. 230–231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiKelloggZacharias1934a157–163-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiKelloggZacharias1934a157–163_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabiKelloggZacharias1934a">Rabi, Kellogg & Zacharias 1934a</a>, pp. 157–163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiKelloggZacharias1934b163–165-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiKelloggZacharias1934b163–165_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabiKelloggZacharias1934b">Rabi, Kellogg & Zacharias 1934b</a>, pp. 163–165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987112–113-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987112–113_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 112–113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiZachariasMillmanKusch1938318-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiZachariasMillmanKusch1938318_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabiZachariasMillmanKusch1938">Rabi et al. 1938</a>, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabiZachariasMillmanKusch1992131–133-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabiZachariasMillmanKusch1992131–133_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabiZachariasMillmanKusch1992">Rabi et al. 1992</a>, pp. 131–133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199236-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199236_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1992">Goldstein 1992</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161201052108/http://ftp.arl.army.mil/~mike/comphist/40sac/index.html">"BRL's Scientific Advisory Committee, 1940"</a>. U.S. Army Research Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.arl.army.mil/~mike/comphist/40sac/index.html">the original</a> on December 1, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 26,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BRL%27s+Scientific+Advisory+Committee%2C+1940&rft.pub=U.S.+Army+Research+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.arl.army.mil%2F~mike%2Fcomphist%2F40sac%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant2002209–213-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConant2002209–213_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConant2002">Conant 2002</a>, pp. 209–213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987131–134-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987131–134_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 131–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987135–135-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987135–135_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 135–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987143-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987143_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962230–232-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962230–232_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 230–232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986656-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986656_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986656_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, p. 656.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERigden1987155–156-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigden1987155–156_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRigden1987">Rigden 1987</a>, pp. 155–156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isidor I. Rabi, "Radiofrequency spectroscopy" (<a href="/wiki/Floyd_K._Richtmyer" title="Floyd K. Richtmyer">Richtmyer Memorial Lecture</a>, delivered at Columbia University in New York, on January 20, 1945).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Meeting at New York, January 19 and 20, 1945" <i>Physical Review</i>, vol. 67, pp. 199–204 (1945).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence1945" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_L._Laurence" title="William L. Laurence">Laurence, William</a> (January 21, 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tf.nist.gov/general/pdf/2039.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Cosmic pendulum' for clock planned"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. 34<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 31,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Barry+Dennen&rft.pub=BFI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.bfi.org.uk%2Ffilms-tv-people%2F4ce2ba144130f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollis2023" class="citation magazine cs1">Collis, Clark (July 21, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ew.com/movies/oppenheimer-who-plays-who-biopic-christopher-nolan/">"Oppenheimer cast: Who plays who in Christopher Nolan's real-life drama"</a>. <i>Entertainment Weekly</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 24,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Entertainment+Weekly&rft.atitle=Oppenheimer+cast%3A+Who+plays+who+in+Christopher+Nolan%27s+real-life+drama&rft.date=2023-07-21&rft.aulast=Collis&rft.aufirst=Clark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Few.com%2Fmovies%2Foppenheimer-who-plays-who-biopic-christopher-nolan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMossKnight2023" class="citation magazine cs1">Moss, Molly; Knight, Lewis (July 22, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radiotimes.com/movies/oppenheimer-cast-christopher-nolan-murphy/">"Oppenheimer cast: Full list of actors in Christopher Nolan film"</a>. <i>Radio Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 24,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+Times&rft.atitle=Oppenheimer+cast%3A+Full+list+of+actors+in+Christopher+Nolan+film&rft.date=2023-07-22&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=Molly&rft.au=Knight%2C+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.radiotimes.com%2Fmovies%2Foppenheimer-cast-christopher-nolan-murphy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreitRabi1934" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Breit, G.</a>; Rabi, I.I. (1934). "On the interpretation of present values of nuclear moments". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 230–231. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934PhRv...46..230B">1934PhRv...46..230B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.230">10.1103/PhysRev.46.230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=On+the+interpretation+of+present+values+of+nuclear+moments&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=230-231&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.230&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934PhRv...46..230B&rft.aulast=Breit&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Rabi%2C+I.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConant2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jennet_Conant" title="Jennet Conant">Conant, Jennet</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tuxedopark00jenn"><i>Tuxedo Park: A Wall Street Tycoon and the Secret Palace of Science That Changed the Course of World War II</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-87287-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-87287-0"><bdi>0-684-87287-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48966735">48966735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tuxedo+Park%3A+A+Wall+Street+Tycoon+and+the+Secret+Palace+of+Science+That+Changed+the+Course+of+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48966735&rft.isbn=0-684-87287-0&rft.aulast=Conant&rft.aufirst=Jennet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftuxedopark00jenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Friedman" title="Norman Friedman">Friedman, Norman</a> (1994). <i>US Submarines Since 1945: An Illustrated Design History</i>. Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-260-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-260-9"><bdi>1-55750-260-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/29477981">29477981</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=US+Submarines+Since+1945%3A+An+Illustrated+Design+History&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+MD&rft.pub=United+States+Naval+Institute&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F29477981&rft.isbn=1-55750-260-9&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1992" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Jack S. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/differentsortoft0000gold"><i>A Different Sort of Time: The Life of Jerrold R. Zacharias</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-07138-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-07138-X"><bdi>0-262-07138-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24628294">24628294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Different+Sort+of+Time%3A+The+Life+of+Jerrold+R.+Zacharias&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24628294&rft.isbn=0-262-07138-X&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Jack+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdifferentsortoft0000gold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <i>The New World, 1939–1946</i>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7"><bdi>0-520-07186-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft.isbn=0-520-07186-7&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettDuncan1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Duncan, Francis (1969). <i>Atomic Shield, 1947–1952</i>. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07187-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07187-5"><bdi>0-520-07187-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3717478">3717478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Shield%2C+1947%E2%80%931952&rft.place=University+Park&rft.series=A+History+of+the+United+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3717478&rft.isbn=0-520-07187-5&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Duncan%2C+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelloggRabiRamseyZacharias1939" class="citation journal cs1">Kellogg, J.M.B.; Rabi, I.I.; <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey, N.F. Jr.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jerrold_R._Zacharias" title="Jerrold R. Zacharias">Zacharias, J.R.</a> (October 1939). "The Magnetic Moment of the Proton and the Deuteron. The Radiofrequency Spectrum of 2H in Various Magnetic Fields". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>56</b> (8): 728–743. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...56..728K">1939PhRv...56..728K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.56.728">10.1103/PhysRev.56.728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Magnetic+Moment+of+the+Proton+and+the+Deuteron.+The+Radiofrequency+Spectrum+of+2H+in+Various+Magnetic+Fields&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=728-743&rft.date=1939-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.56.728&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...56..728K&rft.aulast=Kellogg&rft.aufirst=J.M.B.&rft.au=Rabi%2C+I.I.&rft.au=Ramsey%2C+N.F.+Jr.&rft.au=Zacharias%2C+J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKronigRabi1928" class="citation journal cs1">Kronig, R. de L.; Rabi, I.I. (February 1928). "The Symmetrical Top in the Undulatory Mechanics". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>29</b> (2): 262–269. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927PhRv...29..262K">1927PhRv...29..262K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.29.262">10.1103/PhysRev.29.262</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4000903">4000903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Symmetrical+Top+in+the+Undulatory+Mechanics&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=262-269&rft.date=1928-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4000903%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.29.262&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1927PhRv...29..262K&rft.aulast=Kronig&rft.aufirst=R.+de+L.&rft.au=Rabi%2C+I.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKenzie2001" class="citation book cs1">MacKenzie, Donald (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mechanizingproof0000mack"><i>Mechanizing Proof: Computing, Risk, and Trust</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-13393-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-13393-8"><bdi>0-262-13393-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45835532">45835532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mechanizing+Proof%3A+Computing%2C+Risk%2C+and+Trust&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45835532&rft.isbn=0-262-13393-8&rft.aulast=MacKenzie&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmechanizingproof0000mack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillman1977" class="citation journal cs1">Millman, S. (1977). "Recollections of a Rabi Student of the Early Years in the Molecular Beam Laboratory". <i>Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>38</b>: 87–105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2164-0947.1977.tb02951.x">10.1111/j.2164-0947.1977.tb02951.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Recollections+of+a+Rabi+Student+of+the+Early+Years+in+the+Molecular+Beam+Laboratory&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=87-105&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.2164-0947.1977.tb02951.x&rft.aulast=Millman&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabi1927" class="citation journal cs1">Rabi, I.I. (January 1927). "On the Principal Magnetic Susceptibilities of Crystals". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>29</b> (1): 174–185. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927PhRv...29..174R">1927PhRv...29..174R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.29.174">10.1103/PhysRev.29.174</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=On+the+Principal+Magnetic+Susceptibilities+of+Crystals&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=174-185&rft.date=1927-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.29.174&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1927PhRv...29..174R&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=I.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabi1929" class="citation journal cs1">Rabi, I.I. (February 2, 1929). "Refraction of Beams of Molecules". <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>123</b> (3092): 163–164. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929Natur.123..163R">1929Natur.123..163R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F123163b0">10.1038/123163b0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4113129">4113129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Refraction+of+Beams+of+Molecules&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=3092&rft.pages=163-164&rft.date=1929-02-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4113129%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F123163b0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929Natur.123..163R&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=I.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabi1929b" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rabi, I.I. (March 1929b). "Zur Methode der Ablenkung von Molekularstrahlen". <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik" title="Zeitschrift für Physik">Zeitschrift für Physik</a></i> (in German). <b>54</b> (3–4): 190–197. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929ZPhy...54..190R">1929ZPhy...54..190R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01339837">10.1007/BF01339837</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123202872">123202872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+Methode+der+Ablenkung+von+Molekularstrahlen&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=190-197&rft.date=1929-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123202872%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01339837&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929ZPhy...54..190R&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=I.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabiKelloggZacharias1934a" class="citation journal cs1">Rabi, I.I.; Kellogg, J.M.; <a href="/wiki/Jerrold_R._Zacharias" title="Jerrold R. Zacharias">Zacharias, J.R.</a> (1934a). "The magnetic moment of the proton". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 157–163. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934PhRv...46..157R">1934PhRv...46..157R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.157">10.1103/PhysRev.46.157</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+magnetic+moment+of+the+proton&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=157-163&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.157&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934PhRv...46..157R&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=I.I.&rft.au=Kellogg%2C+J.M.&rft.au=Zacharias%2C+J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabiKelloggZacharias1934b" class="citation journal cs1">Rabi, I.I.; Kellogg, J.M.; <a href="/wiki/Jerrold_R._Zacharias" title="Jerrold R. Zacharias">Zacharias, J.R.</a> (1934b). "The magnetic moment of the deuton". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 163–165. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934PhRv...46..163R">1934PhRv...46..163R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.163">10.1103/PhysRev.46.163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+magnetic+moment+of+the+deuton&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=163-165&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.163&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934PhRv...46..163R&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=I.I.&rft.au=Kellogg%2C+J.M.&rft.au=Zacharias%2C+J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabiZachariasMillmanKusch1938" class="citation journal cs1">Rabi, I.I.; <a href="/wiki/Jerrold_R._Zacharias" title="Jerrold R. Zacharias">Zacharias, J.R.</a>; Millman, S.; Kusch, P. (1938). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.53.318">"A New Method of Measuring Nuclear Magnetic Moment"</a>. <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>53</b> (4): 318. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1938PhRv...53..318R">1938PhRv...53..318R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.53.318">10.1103/PhysRev.53.318</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=A+New+Method+of+Measuring+Nuclear+Magnetic+Moment&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=318&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.53.318&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1938PhRv...53..318R&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=I.I.&rft.au=Zacharias%2C+J.R.&rft.au=Millman%2C+S.&rft.au=Kusch%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.53.318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabiMillmanKuschZacharias1939" class="citation journal cs1">Rabi, I.I.; Millman, S.; Kusch, P.; <a href="/wiki/Jerrold_R._Zacharias" title="Jerrold R. Zacharias">Zacharias, J.R.</a> (1939). "The Molecular Beam Resonance Method for Measuring Nuclear Magnetic Moments. The Magnetic Moments of 3Li6, 3Li7 and 9F19". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>55</b> (6): 526–535. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...55..526R">1939PhRv...55..526R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.526">10.1103/PhysRev.55.526</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27209454">27209454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Molecular+Beam+Resonance+Method+for+Measuring+Nuclear+Magnetic+Moments.+The+Magnetic+Moments+of+3Li6%2C+3Li7+and+9F19&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=526-535&rft.date=1939&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27209454%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.526&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...55..526R&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=I.I.&rft.au=Millman%2C+S.&rft.au=Kusch%2C+P.&rft.au=Zacharias%2C+J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabiZachariasMillmanKusch1992" class="citation journal cs1">Rabi, I.I.; <a href="/wiki/Jerrold_R._Zacharias" title="Jerrold R. Zacharias">Zacharias, J.R.</a>; Millman, S.; Kusch, P. (1992). "Milestones in Magnetic Resonance: 'A new method of measuring nuclear magnetic moment'. 1938". <i>Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 131–133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjmri.1880020203">10.1002/jmri.1880020203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1562763">1562763</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73238886">73238886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Magnetic+Resonance+Imaging&rft.atitle=Milestones+in+Magnetic+Resonance%3A+%27A+new+method+of+measuring+nuclear+magnetic+moment%27.+1938&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=131-133&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73238886%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1562763&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjmri.1880020203&rft.aulast=Rabi&rft.aufirst=I.I.&rft.au=Zacharias%2C+J.R.&rft.au=Millman%2C+S.&rft.au=Kusch%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey, Norman</a> (1993). <i>I. I. Rabi 1898–1988</i>. Biographical memoirs. Vol. 62. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-585-14673-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-585-14673-X"><bdi>0-585-14673-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45729831">45729831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I.+I.+Rabi+1898%E2%80%931988&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.series=Biographical+memoirs&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45729831&rft.isbn=0-585-14673-X&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_Atomic_Bomb" title="The Making of the Atomic Bomb"><i>The Making of the Atomic Bomb</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7"><bdi>0-671-44133-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13793436">13793436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13793436&rft.isbn=0-671-44133-7&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRigden1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_S._Rigden" title="John S. 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New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-06792-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-06792-1"><bdi>0-465-06792-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/14931559">14931559</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rabi%2C+Scientist+and+Citizen&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Sloan+Foundation+Series&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F14931559&rft.isbn=0-465-06792-1&rft.aulast=Rigden&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frabiscientistcit00rigd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToenniesSchmidt-BöckingFriedrichLower2011" class="citation journal cs1">Toennies, J.P. in; Schmidt-Böcking, H.; Friedrich, B.; Lower, J.C.A. (2011). "Otto Stern (1888–1969): The Founding Father of Experimental Atomic Physics". <i>Annalen der Physik</i>. <b>523</b> (12): 1045–1070. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1109.4864">1109.4864</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011AnP...523.1045T">2011AnP...523.1045T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.201100228">10.1002/andp.201100228</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119204397">119204397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=Otto+Stern+%281888%E2%80%931969%29%3A+The+Founding+Father+of+Experimental+Atomic+Physics&rft.volume=523&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1045-1070&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1109.4864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119204397%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.201100228&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011AnP...523.1045T&rft.aulast=Toennies&rft.aufirst=J.P.+in&rft.au=Schmidt-B%C3%B6cking%2C+H.&rft.au=Friedrich%2C+B.&rft.au=Lower%2C+J.C.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isidor_Isaac_Rabi&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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War and Peace in the Nuclear Age. 1986<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview+with+Isidor+Isaac+Rabi&rft.series=War+and+Peace+in+the+Nuclear+Age&rft.date=1986&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenvault.wgbh.org%2Fcatalog%2FV_7E62DED261394CEDBB3A79E9260DB791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsidor+Isaac+Rabi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/24205-1">Interview of I. I. Rabi by Stephen White on 1980 February 11</a>, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/88152299">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Find_a_Grave" title="Find a Grave">Find a Grave</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165969#P535" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=84659">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/49">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165969#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #bebebe;">Government offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Lee_DuBridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee DuBridge">Lee DuBridge</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">President's Science Advisory Committee</a> </b><br />1956–1957 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/James_Killian" 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title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">P. Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">M. Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann" title="Gabriel Lippmann">Lippmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dal%C3%A9n" title="Gustaf Dalén">Dalén</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Kamerlingh Onnes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1915: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">W. L. Bragg</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1917: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Glover_Barkla" title="Charles Glover Barkla">Barkla</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1918: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1919: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Stark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Guillaume</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1921: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1924: <a href="/wiki/Manne_Siegbahn" title="Manne Siegbahn">M. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">Franck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Hertz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">C. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" title="Owen Willans Richardson">O. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">De Broglie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1931</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1933: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1934</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">C. D. Anderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">G. P. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Stern</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Bridgman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Victor_Appleton" title="Edward Victor Appleton">Appleton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Bothe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Lamb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Kusch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Brattain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">C. N. Yang</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">T. D. Lee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Cherenkov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Tamm</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Glaser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_M%C3%B6ssbauer" title="Rudolf Mössbauer">Mössbauer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Goeppert Mayer</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Basov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov" title="Alexander Prokhorov">Prokhorov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Kastler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Néel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Gabor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Ryle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Hewish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Roy_Mottelson" title="Ben Roy Mottelson">Mottelson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">Rainwater</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Richter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._C._Ting" title="Samuel C. C. Ting">Ting</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Mott</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">R. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Bloembergen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Schawlow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kai_Siegbahn" title="Kai Siegbahn">K. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">K. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Van der Meer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ruska</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> / <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Steinberger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt" title="Hans Georg Dehmelt">Dehmelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul" title="Wolfgang Paul">Paul</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">R. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">J. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Brockhouse" title="Bertram Brockhouse">Brockhouse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shull" title="Clifford Shull">Shull</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist)" title="David Lee (physicist)">D. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff" title="Douglas Osheroff">Osheroff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson" title="Robert Coleman Richardson">R. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Chu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Claude_Cohen-Tannoudji" title="Claude Cohen-Tannoudji">Cohen-Tannoudji</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips" title="William Daniel Phillips">Phillips</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Alferov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Kroemer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–<br />present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell" title="Eric Allin Cornell">Cornell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ketterle" title="Wolfgang Ketterle">Ketterle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Wieman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Koshiba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Giacconi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Abrikosov (physicist)">Abrikosov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_L._Hall" title="John L. Hall">Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._H%C3%A4nsch" title="Theodor W. Hänsch">Hänsch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Grünberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Kao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Boyle</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Geim</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Novoselov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Perlmutter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Riess</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">Wineland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serge_Haroche" title="Serge Haroche">Haroche</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Akasaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Amano</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Nakamura</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Kajita</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">McDonald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" title="David J. Thouless">Thouless</a> / <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Haldane" title="Duncan Haldane">Haldane</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Kosterlitz" title="J. Michael Kosterlitz">Kosterlitz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Ashkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Mourou</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Strickland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Queloz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Genzel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Ghez" title="Andrea M. Ghez">Ghez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hasselmann" title="Klaus Hasselmann">Hasselmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syukuro_Manabe" title="Syukuro Manabe">Manabe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2022: <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2023: <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Agostini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Krausz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">L'Huillier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">Hopfield</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Hinton</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1944_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1944_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1944 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1944_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1944 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1944_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1944 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1944_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1944 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1944 Nobel Prize in Literature">1944</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_V._Jensen" title="Johannes V. Jensen">Johannes Vilhelm Jensen</a> (Denmark)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> (Switzerland)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> (United States/Poland)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Spencer Gasser</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1939_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1939 Nobel Prize winners">1939</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1940_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1940 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1940</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1941_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1941 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1941</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1942_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1942 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1942</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1943_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1943 Nobel Prize winners">1943</a></dd> <dd><b>1944 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1945_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1945 Nobel Prize winners">1945</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1946_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1946 Nobel Prize winners">1946</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1947_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1947 Nobel Prize winners">1947</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1948_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1948 Nobel Prize winners">1948</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1949_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1949 Nobel Prize winners">1949</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_Persons_of_the_Year" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template talk:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_Persons_of_the_Year" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_Person_of_the_Year" title="Time Person of the Year"><i>Time</i> Persons of the Year</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1927–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> (1927)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Chrysler" title="Walter Chrysler">Walter Chrysler</a> (1928)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Owen_D._Young" title="Owen D. Young">Owen D. Young</a> (1929)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a> (1930)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> (1931)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1932)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_S._Johnson" title="Hugh S. Johnson">Hugh S. Johnson</a> (1933)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1934)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> (1935)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wallis_Simpson" title="Wallis Simpson">Wallis Simpson</a> (1936)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soong_Mei-ling" title="Soong Mei-ling">Soong Mei-ling</a> (1937)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> (1938)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1939)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1940)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1941)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1942)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1943)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1945)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a> (1946)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1947)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1948)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1949)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">The American Fighting-Man</a> (1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammed Mosaddeq</a> (1951)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II </a> (1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> (1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> (1954)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Curtice" title="Harlow Curtice">Harlow Curtice</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Freedom Fighters</a> (1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (1957)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> U.S. Scientists: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper" title="Charles Stark Draper">Charles Draper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Donald A. Glaser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Purcell</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isidor Rabi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Van_Allen" title="James Van Allen">James Van Allen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a> </span> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a> (1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Westmoreland" title="William Westmoreland">William Westmoreland</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Baby_boomers" title="Baby boomers">The Generation Twenty-Five and Under</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">The Apollo 8 Astronauts</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">Jim Lovell</a> </span> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_(United_States)" title="Middle America (United States)">The Middle Americans</a> (1969)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1972)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Sirica" title="John Sirica">John Sirica</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Faisal of Saudi Arabia">King Faisal</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> American Women: <a href="/wiki/Susan_Brownmiller" title="Susan Brownmiller">Susan Brownmiller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Byerly" title="Kathleen Byerly">Kathleen Byerly</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alison_Cheek" title="Alison Cheek">Alison Cheek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jill_Ker_Conway" title="Jill Ker Conway">Jill Conway</a> / <a href="/wiki/Betty_Ford" title="Betty Ford">Betty Ford</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ella_Grasso" title="Ella Grasso">Ella Grasso</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carla_Anderson_Hills" title="Carla Anderson Hills">Carla Hills</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</a> / <a href="/wiki/Susie_Sharp" title="Susie Sharp">Susie Sharp</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_Sutton_(journalist)" title="Carol Sutton (journalist)">Carol Sutton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Addie_L._Wyatt" title="Addie L. Wyatt">Addie Wyatt</a> </span> (1975)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (1976)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> (1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1978)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> (1979)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">The Computer</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> (1983)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ueberroth" title="Peter Ueberroth">Peter Ueberroth</a> (1984)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Corazon_Aquino" title="Corazon Aquino">Corazon Aquino</a> (1986)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1987)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">The Endangered Earth</a> (1988)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (1990)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Turner" title="Ted Turner">Ted Turner</a> (1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> The Peacemakers: <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a> </span> (1993)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> (1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Newt Gingrich</a> (1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Ho" title="David Ho">David Ho</a> (1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Grove" title="Andrew Grove">Andrew Grove</a> (1997)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Ken Starr</a> (1998)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Bezos" title="Jeff Bezos">Jeff Bezos</a> (1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2000)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rudy_Giuliani" title="Rudy Giuliani">Rudolph Giuliani</a> (2001)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> The Whistleblowers: <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Cooper_(accountant)" title="Cynthia Cooper (accountant)">Cynthia Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coleen_Rowley" title="Coleen Rowley">Coleen Rowley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sherron_Watkins" title="Sherron Watkins">Sherron Watkins</a> </span> (2002)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">The American Soldier</a> (2003)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2004)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> The Good Samaritans: <a href="/wiki/Bono" title="Bono">Bono</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melinda_French_Gates" title="Melinda French Gates">Melinda Gates</a> </span> (2005)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/You_(Time_Person_of_the_Year)" title="You (Time Person of the Year)">You</a> (2006)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> (2007)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2008)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a> (2009)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a> (2010)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">The Protester</a> (2011)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2012)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> (2013)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> <a href="/wiki/Responses_to_the_West_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic" title="Responses to the West African Ebola virus epidemic">Ebola Fighters</a>: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. <a href="/wiki/Kent_Brantly" title="Kent Brantly">Kent Brantly</a> / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / <a href="/wiki/Salome_Karwah" title="Salome Karwah">Salome Karwah</a> </span> (2014)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> (2015)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (2016)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/MeToo_movement" title="MeToo movement">The Silence Breakers</a> (2017)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> The Guardians: <a href="/wiki/Jamal_Khashoggi" title="Jamal Khashoggi">Jamal Khashoggi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Ressa" title="Maria Ressa">Maria Ressa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wa_Lone" title="Wa Lone">Wa Lone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kyaw_Soe_Oo" title="Kyaw Soe Oo">Kyaw Soe Oo</a> / Staff of <i><a href="/wiki/Capital_Gazette_shooting" title="Capital Gazette shooting">The Capital</a></i> </span> (2018)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greta_Thunberg" title="Greta Thunberg">Greta Thunberg</a> (2019)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (2020)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a> (2021)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy" title="Volodymyr Zelenskyy">Volodymyr Zelenskyy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Spirit of Ukraine</a> (2022)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Swift" title="Taylor Swift">Taylor Swift</a> (2023)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Template:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Template talk:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">Presidents of the American Physical Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1899–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Augustus_Rowland" title="Henry Augustus Rowland">Henry Augustus Rowland</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Gordon_Webster" title="Arthur Gordon Webster">Arthur Gordon Webster</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Barus" title="Carl Barus">Carl Barus</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Leamington_Nichols" title="Edward Leamington Nichols">Edward Leamington Nichols</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crew" title="Henry Crew">Henry Crew</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Magie" title="William Francis Magie">William Francis Magie</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Osgood_Peirce" title="Benjamin Osgood Peirce">Benjamin Osgood Peirce</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Merritt" title="Ernest Merritt">Ernest Merritt</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Robert Andrews Millikan</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Bumstead" title="Henry A. Bumstead">Henry A. Bumstead</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Sweetman_Ames" title="Joseph Sweetman Ames">Joseph Sweetman Ames</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Lyman_IV" title="Theodore Lyman IV">Theodore Lyman</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Corwin_Mendenhall" title="Thomas Corwin Mendenhall">Thomas Corwin Mendenhall</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Miller" title="Dayton Miller">Dayton Miller</a> (1925)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Taylor_Compton" title="Karl Taylor Compton">Karl Taylor Compton</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gale_(astrophysicist)" title="Henry Gale (astrophysicist)">Henry Gale</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Gray_Swann" title="William Francis Gray Swann">William Francis Gray Swann</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_D._Foote" title="Paul D. Foote">Paul D. Foote</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Wood" title="Robert W. Wood">Robert W. Wood</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_K._Richtmyer" title="Floyd K. Richtmyer">Floyd K. Richtmyer</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_M._Randall" title="Harrison M. Randall">Harrison M. Randall</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_James_Briggs" title="Lyman James Briggs">Lyman James Briggs</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Torrence_Tate_Sr." title="John Torrence Tate Sr.">John Torrence Tate Sr.</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zeleny" title="John Zeleny">John Zeleny</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Stewart" title="George W. Stewart">George Stewart</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_W._Hull" title="Albert W. Hull">Albert W. Hull</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Jeffrey_Dempster" title="Arthur Jeffrey Dempster">Arthur Jeffrey Dempster</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Fletcher" title="Harvey Fletcher">Harvey Fletcher</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Alvin_DuBridge" title="Lee Alvin DuBridge">Lee Alvin DuBridge</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Wheeler_Loomis" title="Francis Wheeler Loomis">Francis Wheeler Loomis</a> (1949)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Christian_Lauritsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Christian Lauritsen">Charles Christian Lauritsen</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">John Hasbrouck Van Vleck</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">H. Bethe</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Thayer_Birge" title="Raymond Thayer Birge">Raymond Thayer Birge</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">E. Wigner</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_V._Houston" title="William V. Houston">William V. Houston</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harry_Williams" title="John Harry Williams">John Harry Williams</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Felix Bloch</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Walter Alvarez</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Mills Purcell</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_M._Morse" title="Philip M. Morse">Philip M. Morse</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Edward_Mayer" title="Joseph Edward Mayer">Joseph Edward Mayer</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pief_Panofsky" title="Pief Panofsky">Pief Panofsky</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William A. Fowler</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_M._Branscomb" title="Lewis M. Branscomb">Lewis M. Branscomb</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Arthur Leonard Schawlow</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Marshak" title="Robert Marshak">Robert Marshak</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert R. Wilson</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Logsdon Fitch</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Krumhansl" title="James A. Krumhansl">James A. Krumhansl</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Merzbacher" title="Eugen Merzbacher">Eugen Merzbacher</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_M._Henley" title="Ernest M. Henley">Ernest M. Henley</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_N._Langenberg" title="Donald N. Langenberg">Donald N. Langenberg</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar Patel</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">J.R. Schrieffer</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sessler" title="Andrew Sessler">Andrew Sessler</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Jerome Isaac Friedman</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_S._Langer" title="James S. Langer">James S. Langer</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Trilling" title="George Trilling">George Trilling</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Brinkman" title="William F. Brinkman">William F. Brinkman</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriam_Sarachik" title="Myriam Sarachik">Myriam Sarachik</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Quinn" title="Helen Quinn">Helen Quinn</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">John Hopfield</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Bienenstock" title="Arthur Bienenstock">Arthur Bienenstock</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_A._Murray" title="Cherry A. Murray">Cherry A. Murray</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Callan" title="Curtis Callan">Curtis Callan</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barry Barish</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Byer" title="Robert L. Byer">Robert L. Byer</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Turner" title="Michael S. Turner">Michael S. Turner</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Beasley" title="Malcolm Beasley">Malcolm R. Beasley</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Aronson" title="Sam Aronson">Sam Aronson</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Neal" title="Homer Neal">Homer Neal</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Greene_(physicist)" title="Laura Greene (physicist)">Laura Greene</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Falcone" title="Roger Falcone">Roger Falcone</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">David Gross</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_H._Bucksbaum" title="Philip H. Bucksbaum">Philip H. Bucksbaum</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates Jr.</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Hellman" title="Frances Hellman">Frances Hellman</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rosner" title="Robert Rosner">Robert Rosner</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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of science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/21px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/42px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165969#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165969#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165969#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000081945081">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/3564874">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/17697/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJv8GB6Wp9fRmjk8dbJ4bd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/129881465">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50052407">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb140644210">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb140644210">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00453540">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36002725">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20011211210&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p073349429">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90506762">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007266710405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA06481568?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=84659">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:rabi.isidor-isaac">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/747675">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/b66b8b28-b7a8-4722-b819-05706df47275">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1180688">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd129881465.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/129881465">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/077220315">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10582061">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6fq9zrz">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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