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Al Andalós — Wikipèdia

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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">mòu a la barra laterala</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">Escondre</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Començament</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etimologia_d&#039;Al_Andalós" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etimologia_d&#039;Al_Andalós"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etimologia d'Al Andalós</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Etimologia_d&#039;Al_Andalós-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Commuta la subsecció Etimologia d'Al Andalós</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Etimologia_d&#039;Al_Andalós-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Autras_proposicions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autras_proposicions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Autras proposicions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autras_proposicions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-L&#039;Emirat_e_lo_Califat_de_Còrdoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#L&#039;Emirat_e_lo_Califat_de_Còrdoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>L'Emirat e lo Califat de Còrdoa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-L&#039;Emirat_e_lo_Califat_de_Còrdoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lo_primièr_periòde_Taifa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lo_primièr_periòde_Taifa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Lo primièr periòde Taifa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lo_primièr_periòde_Taifa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almoravids,_almoads_e_marinids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almoravids,_almoads_e_marinids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Almoravids, almoads e marinids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almoravids,_almoads_e_marinids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Societat</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Societat-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Commuta la subsecció Societat</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Societat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non_musulmans_jol_Califat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non_musulmans_jol_Califat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Non musulmans jol Califat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non_musulmans_jol_Califat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tractament_dels_non_musulmans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tractament_dels_non_musulmans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Tractament dels non musulmans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tractament_dels_non_musulmans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ascension_e_casuda_del_poder_musulman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ascension_e_casuda_del_poder_musulman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Ascension e casuda del poder musulman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ascension_e_casuda_del_poder_musulman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultura" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultura"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Cultura</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultura-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Commuta la subsecció Cultura</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cultura-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Filosofia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filosofia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Filosofia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filosofia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Filosofia_andalosa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filosofia_andalosa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Filosofia andalosa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filosofia_andalosa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Filosofia_josieva_e_cultura" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filosofia_josieva_e_cultura"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Filosofia josieva e cultura</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filosofia_josieva_e_cultura-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eiretatge_d&#039;Al_Andalós" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eiretatge_d&#039;Al_Andalós"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Eiretatge d'Al Andalós</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eiretatge_d&#039;Al_Andalós-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Commuta la subsecció Eiretatge d'Al Andalós</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Eiretatge_d&#039;Al_Andalós-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-L&#039;eiretatge_scientific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#L&#039;eiretatge_scientific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>L'eiretatge scientific</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-L&#039;eiretatge_scientific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Astronomia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Astronomia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sciéncias_de_la_Tèrra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sciéncias_de_la_Tèrra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Sciéncias de la Tèrra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sciéncias_de_la_Tèrra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geografia_e_exploracion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geografia_e_exploracion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Geografia e exploracion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geografia_e_exploracion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medecina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medecina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Medecina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medecina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psicologia_e_Sociologia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psicologia_e_Sociologia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.5</span> <span>Psicologia e Sociologia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psicologia_e_Sociologia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agricultura" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agricultura"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.6</span> <span>Agricultura</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agricultura-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eiretatge_cultural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eiretatge_cultural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Eiretatge cultural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eiretatge_cultural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arquitectura" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arquitectura"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Arquitectura</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arquitectura-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Cosina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lingüistica_e_literatura" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lingüistica_e_literatura"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.3</span> <span>Lingüistica e literatura</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lingüistica_e_literatura-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traduccions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traduccions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.4</span> <span>Traduccions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traduccions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Musica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Musica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.5</span> <span>Musica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Musica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terralha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terralha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.6</span> <span>Terralha</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terralha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eiretatge_tecnologic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eiretatge_tecnologic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Eiretatge tecnologic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eiretatge_tecnologic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infrastructura" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrastructura"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Infrastructura</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infrastructura-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aviacion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aviacion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Aviacion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aviacion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vejatz_tanben" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vejatz_tanben"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Vejatz tanben</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vejatz_tanben-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nòtas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nòtas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Nòtas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nòtas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliografia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliografia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliografia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliografia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Filmes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filmes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Filmes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filmes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ligams_extèrnes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ligams_extèrnes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Ligams extèrnes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ligams_extèrnes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Somari" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Commuta la taula de continguts." > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Commuta la taula de continguts.</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Al Andalós</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Vés a un article en una altra llengua. Disponible en 88 llengües" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-88" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">88 lengas</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - atjeh" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="atjeh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - aleman de Soïssa" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="aleman de Soïssa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - aragonés" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragonés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articles de qualitat"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3" title="الأندلس - arabi" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأندلس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3" title="أندلوس - arabe marocain" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="أندلوس" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="arabe marocain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3" title="الاندلس - àrab egipci" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الاندلس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="àrab egipci" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%81ndalus" title="Al-Ándalus - asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Al-Ándalus" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fnd%C9%99l%C3%BCs_tarixi" title="Əndəlüs tarixi - azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əndəlüs tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB-%D3%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D3%99%D0%BB%D2%AF%D1%81" title="Әл-Әндәлүс - baixkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Әл-Әндәлүс" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="baixkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Аль-Андалус - belarús" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аль-Андалус" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="belarús" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Андалус - bulgar" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Андалус" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8" title="আন্দালুস - bengalin" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আন্দালুস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengalin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Endelus" title="El-Endelus - bosniac" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="El-Endelus" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniac" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%80ndalus" title="Al-Àndalus - catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Al-Àndalus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3" title="ئەندەلوس - kurd central" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەندەلوس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="kurd central" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - chèc" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="chèc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - gal·lès" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="gal·lès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="article recomanat"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - danés" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="danés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - alemand" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="alemand" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Endulus" title="El Endulus - Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="El Endulus" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB-%CE%86%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82" title="Αλ-Άνταλους - grèc" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλ-Άνταλους" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grèc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - anglés" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="anglés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%81ndalus" title="Al-Ándalus - espanhòl" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Al-Ándalus" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="espanhòl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%81ndalus" title="Al-Ándalus - estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Al-Ándalus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - basc" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3_(%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C)" title="اندلس (اسلامی) - perse" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اندلس (اسلامی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="perse" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - finlandés" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - francés" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="francés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%81ndalus" title="Al-Ándalus - irlandés" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Al-Ándalus" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - gaelic escossés" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="gaelic escossés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1" title="אל-אנדלוס - ebrèu" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אל-אנדלוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="ebrèu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8" title="अल अन्दलुस - Indi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अल अन्दलुस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Indi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - croat" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusz" title="Andalusz - ongrés" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Andalusz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="ongrés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC-%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD" title="Ալ-Անդալուս - armèni" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալ-Անդալուս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armèni" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B9" title="アンダルス - japonés" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アンダルス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - javanés" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="javanés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A-%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ალ-ანდალუსია - georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალ-ანდალუსია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Әл-Андалуси - cazac" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әл-Андалуси" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="cazac" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EC%95%88%EB%8B%AC%EB%A3%A8%EC%8A%A4" title="알안달루스 - corean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알안달루스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="corean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endulus_(dewlet)" title="Endulus (dewlet) - curd" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Endulus (dewlet)" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="curd" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusia" title="Andalusia - latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Andalusia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - ladin" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - lingua franca nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="lingua franca nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalusija" title="Al-Andalusija - lituan" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Al-Andalusija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusa" title="Andalusa - leton" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Andalusa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="leton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Ел-Андалус - macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ел-Андалус" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="അൽ അന്തലൂസ് - malaiàlam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അൽ അന്തലൂസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malaiàlam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - malai" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - neerlandés" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="neerlandés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - norvegian nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvegian nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - norvegian bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvegian bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - polonés" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polonés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3" title="اندلس - Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اندلس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - portugués" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugués" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - romanés" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="romanés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Аль-Андалус - rus" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аль-Андалус" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="rus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - escossés" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="escossés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D9%8A%D9%86" title="مسلم اسپين - sindi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مسلم اسپين" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="sindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - serbocroat" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbocroat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indlas" title="Indlas - taixelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Indlas" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="taixelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Andaluz" title="Al Andaluz - eslovèn" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Al Andaluz" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="eslovèn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalus" title="Andalus - somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Andalus" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Endelus" title="El-Endelus - albanés" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="El-Endelus" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albanés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B7" title="Ал Андалуз - serbi" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ал Андалуз" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - suedés" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suedés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="அல்-அந்தலுஸ் - tamol" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அல்-அந்தலுஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Андалус - tajic" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Андалус" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="tajic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%AA" title="อัลอันดะลุส - tai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อัลอันดะลุส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="tai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/End%C3%BCl%C3%BCs" title="Endülüs - turc" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Endülüs" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%84%DB%87%D8%B3" title="ئەندەلۇس - oigor" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئەندەلۇس" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="oigor" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Аль-Андалус - ucrainés" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аль-Андалус" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ucrainés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3" title="اندلس - ordó" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اندلس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="ordó" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - ozbèc" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="ozbèc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus - vietnamian" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E8%BE%BE%E5%8D%A2%E6%96%AF" title="安达卢斯 - xinès wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="安达卢斯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="xinès wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8F%E2%B4%B7%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%99" title="ⵉⵏⴷⵍⴰⵙ - amazic estàndard marroquí" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵉⵏⴷⵍⴰⵙ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="amazic estàndard marroquí" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E8%BE%BE%E5%8D%A2%E6%96%AF" title="安达卢斯 - chinés" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="安达卢斯" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chinés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E9%81%94%E7%9B%A7%E6%96%AF" title="安達盧斯 - cantonés" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="安達盧斯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantonés" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q123559#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Modificar los ligams interlenga" class="wbc-editpage">Modificar los ligams</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Espacis de noms"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Al_Andal%C3%B3s" title="Veire l’article [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="new vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discutir:Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" rel="discussion" class="new" title="Discussion a prepaus d&#039;aquesta pagina (la pagina existís pas) [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Discussion</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Canvia la variant de llengua" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">occitan</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Afichatges"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Al_Andal%C3%B3s"><span>Legir</span></a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit" title="Modificar aquela pagina [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Modificar</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit" title="Modificar lo còdi font d&#039;aquela pagina [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=history" title="Los autors e versions precedentas d&#039;aquesta pagina. 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href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%BAs&amp;redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Andalús">Al Andalús</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="oc" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="0" style="float:right;clear:right;width:20.8em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;min-width:20.8em;"><tbody><tr><th class="tnavbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;">Istòria d'Espanha</th> </tr><tr><td class="&#123;&#123;&#123;classa-imatge&#125;&#125;&#125;" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Escudo_de_Espa%C3%B1a_(mazonado).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img 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href="/w/index.php?title=Protoist%C3%B2ria_dels_Celtib%C3%A8rs&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Protoistòria dels Celtibèrs (la pagina existís pas)">Protoistòria dels Celtibèrs</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Isp%C3%A0nia" title="Ispània">Ispània</a></td> </tr><tr> <th class="" style="padding:0.1em; background-color:#f4bf92;;"><a href="/wiki/Edat_Mejana" title="Edat Mejana">Edat mejana</a></th> </tr><tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em; ;text-align:center;"> <a href="/wiki/Reialme_visig%C3%B2t" title="Reialme visigòt">Reialme visigòt</a><br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Al Andalós</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Reconqu%C3%A8sta" title="Reconquèsta">Reconquèsta</a></td> </tr><tr> <th class="" style="padding:0.1em;;background-color:#f4bf92;; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Edat_Mod%C3%A8rna" title="Edat Modèrna">Edat modèrna</a></th> </tr><tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em; ;"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Succession_d%27Espanha_(1680-1701)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Succession d&#39;Espanha (1680-1701) (la pagina existís pas)">Succession d'Espanha (1680-1701)</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_de_Succession_d%27Espanha" title="Guèrra de Succession d&#39;Espanha">Guèrra de Succession</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Succession_d%27Espanha_(1701-1883)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Succession d&#39;Espanha (1701-1883) (la pagina existís pas)">Succession d'Espanha (1701-1883)</a></td> </tr><tr> <th class="" style="padding:0.1em;;background-color:#f4bf92;;"><a href="/wiki/Edat_Contemporan%C3%A8a" title="Edat Contemporanèa">Edat contemporanèa</a></th> </tr><tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em; ;"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gu%C3%A8rra_d%27Independ%C3%A9ncia_espanh%C3%B2la&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Guèrra d&#39;Independéncia espanhòla (la pagina existís pas)">Guèrra d'Independéncia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ostal_de_Borbon" title="Ostal de Borbon">Ostal de Borbon</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Espanha_de_las_Luses&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Espanha de las Luses (la pagina existís pas)">Espanha de las Luses</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gu%C3%A8rra_d%27Independ%C3%A9ncia_espanh%C3%B2la&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Guèrra d&#39;Independéncia espanhòla (la pagina existís pas)">Guèrra d'Independéncia</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Restauracion_absolutista_en_Espanha&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Restauracion absolutista en Espanha (la pagina existís pas)">Restauracion absolutista</a><br />Regne d'<a href="/wiki/Isab%C3%A8l_II_d%27Espanha" title="Isabèl II d&#39;Espanha">Isabèl II</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolucion_de_1868&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Revolucion de 1868 (la pagina existís pas)">Revolucion de 1868</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Primi%C3%A8ra_Republica_Espanh%C3%B2la" title="Primièra Republica Espanhòla">I Republica</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Restauracion_dels_Borbons&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Restauracion dels Borbons (la pagina existís pas)">Restauracion dels Borbons</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Segonda_Republica_Espanh%C3%B2la" title="Segonda Republica Espanhòla">II Republica</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civiu_Espanh%C3%B2la" title="Guèrra Civiu Espanhòla">Guèrra Civila</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Franquisme" title="Franquisme">Franquisme</a><br /></td> </tr><tr> <th class="" style="padding:0.1em;;background-color:#f4bf92;;">Actual</th> </tr><tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em; ;"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transicion_democratica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Transicion democratica (la pagina existís pas)">Transicion democratica</a></td> </tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="border-top: 2px #C5C9E6 solid; font-size: 80%; font-weight: lighter; background:#eeeeff"><div style="float:left; text-align:left"><span style="color: #555555;"></span></div><div style="float:right; text-align:right">&#160;<span class="noprint plainlinksneverexpand tnavbar" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:xx-small;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mod%C3%A8l:Mod%C3%A8l:Barra_laterala&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Modèl:Modèl:Barra laterala (la pagina existís pas)"><abbr class="abbr" title="Veire aqueste modèl.">v</abbr></a>&#160;· <a href="/w/index.php?title=Discussion_Mod%C3%A8l:Mod%C3%A8l:Barra_laterala&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Discussion Modèl:Modèl:Barra laterala (la pagina existís pas)"><abbr class="abbr" style="color:#002bb8;" title="Discussion sus aqueste modèl.">d</abbr></a>&#160;· <a class="external text" href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mod%C3%A8l:Mod%C3%A8l:Barra_laterala&amp;action=edit"><abbr class="abbr" title="Modificar aqueste modèl. Mercé de previsualizar abans de salvar.">m</abbr></a></span>&#160;</div></th> </tr></tbody></table><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Alhambra-Granada-2003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Alhambra-Granada-2003.jpg/250px-Alhambra-Granada-2003.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Alhambra-Granada-2003.jpg/375px-Alhambra-Granada-2003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Alhambra-Granada-2003.jpg/500px-Alhambra-Granada-2003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Pati dels leons, <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> de <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Al-Andalus732.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Al-Andalus732.jpg/250px-Al-Andalus732.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Al-Andalus732.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="327" /></a><figcaption>Mapa d'Al Andalós</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Spain_Andalusia_Granada_BW_2015-10-25_17-22-07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Spain_Andalusia_Granada_BW_2015-10-25_17-22-07.jpg/250px-Spain_Andalusia_Granada_BW_2015-10-25_17-22-07.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Spain_Andalusia_Granada_BW_2015-10-25_17-22-07.jpg/375px-Spain_Andalusia_Granada_BW_2015-10-25_17-22-07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Spain_Andalusia_Granada_BW_2015-10-25_17-22-07.jpg/500px-Spain_Andalusia_Granada_BW_2015-10-25_17-22-07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2303" data-file-height="3455" /></a><figcaption>Pati de los Arrayanes, Alhambra de <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Al Andalós</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabi" title="Arabi">arabi</a>: الأندلس) èra lo nom arabi balhat a las parts de la <a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Iberica" title="Peninsula Iberica">Peninsula Iberica</a> e de <a href="/wiki/Septim%C3%A0nia" title="Septimània">Septimània</a> governadas pels arabis e <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">musulmans</a> <a href="/wiki/Magr%C3%A8b" title="Magrèb">nòrd-africans</a> (jol nom generic de "<a href="/wiki/Moros" title="Moros">moros</a>"), mantun còp dins lo periòde entre 711 e 1492.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>A la seguida de la conquista,Al Andalós èra devesit en cinc regions administrativas correspondentas aperaquí a <a href="/wiki/Andalosia" title="Andalosia">Andalosia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%ADcia" title="Galícia">Galícia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castelha_e_Leon" title="Castelha e Leon">Castelha e Leon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aragon" title="Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalonha" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Catalonha">Catalonha</a>, e <a href="/wiki/Septim%C3%A0nia" title="Septimània">Septimània</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Coma entitat politica, Al Andalús constituiguèt successivament una província del <a href="/wiki/Califat_Omeia" title="Califat Omeia">Califat Omeia</a>, governat pel califa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Walid_I&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Al Walid I (la pagina existís pas)">Al Walid I</a> (711–750); de l'Emirat de Còrdoa (750–929); del <a href="/wiki/Califat_de_C%C3%B2rdoa" title="Califat de Còrdoa">Califat de Còrdoa</a> (929–1031); e de las <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifas</a>, pichons reialmes eissits de l'esberlament del Califat de Còrdoa. </p><p>Dins los sègles seguents, Al Andalós venguèt una província de las dinastias musulmanas <a href="/wiki/Berb%C3%A8r" title="Berbèr">berbèras</a> dels <a href="/wiki/Dinastia_Almoravid" title="Dinastia Almoravid">Almoravids</a> e <a href="/wiki/Almoads" title="Almoads">Almoads</a>, se fragmentèt puèi en fòrça estats minors, que lo mai conegut foguèt l'<a href="/wiki/Emirat_de_Granada" title="Emirat de Granada">Emirat de Granada</a>. Pendent una granda part de son istòria, mai que mai jol Califat de Còrdoa, Al Andalús èra un breç del saber, e la vila de <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B2rdoa" title="Còrdoa">Còrdoa</a> venguèt un centre cultural e economic màger a l'encòp dins lo <a href="/wiki/Bacin_Mediterran%C3%A8u" title="Bacin Mediterranèu">Bacin Mediterranèu</a> e lo mond islamic. </p><p>Durant una granda part de son istòria, Al Andalós foguèt en conflicte amb los reialmes <a href="/wiki/Cristianisme" title="Cristianisme">crestians</a> del nòrd. En 1085, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anf%C3%B3s_VI_de_Leon_e_Castelha&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anfós VI de Leon e Castelha (la pagina existís pas)">Anfós VI de Leon e Castelha</a> prenguèt <a href="/wiki/Toledo" title="Toledo">Toledo</a>, en precipitar la decadéncia progressiva fins a 1236, amb la casuda de Còrdoa, l'Emirat de Granada demorèt lo sol territòri musulman dins çò qu'es uèi <a href="/wiki/Espanha" title="Espanha">Espanha</a>. La <a href="/wiki/Reconquesta" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconquesta">Reconquesta</a> <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguesa</a> culminèt en 1249 amb la presa de l'<a href="/wiki/Algarve" class="mw-redirect" title="Algarve">Algarve</a> per <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anf%C3%B3s_III_de_Portugal&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anfós III de Portugal (la pagina existís pas)">Anfós III</a>. En 1238, l'<a href="/wiki/Emirat_de_Granada" title="Emirat de Granada">Emirat de Granada</a> venguèt oficialament un estat tributari de la <a href="/wiki/Reiaume_de_Castelha" title="Reiaume de Castelha">corona de Castelha</a>, alavetz dirigida per lo rei <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrand_III_de_Castelha&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ferrand III de Castelha (la pagina existís pas)">Ferrand III</a>. Lo 2 de genièr de 1492, <a href="/wiki/Boabdil" title="Boabdil">Boabdil</a> capitulèt e daissèt l'<a href="/wiki/Emirat_de_Granada" title="Emirat de Granada">Emirat de Granada</a> a la reina <a href="/wiki/Isab%C3%A8l_I%C3%A8ra_de_Castelha" title="Isabèl Ièra de Castelha">Isabèl Ièra de Castelha</a>, que amb son marit <a href="/wiki/Ferrand_II_d%27Aragon" title="Ferrand II d&#39;Aragon">Ferrand II d'Aragon</a> èran ambedós los <i><a href="/wiki/Reis_Catolics" title="Reis Catolics">Reis Catolics</a></i>. La reddicion foguèt la fin d'Al Andalús coma entitat politica. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etimologia_d'Al_Andalós"><span id="Etimologia_d.27Al_Andal.C3.B3s"></span>Etimologia d'Al Andalós</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=1" title="Modificar la seccion : Etimologia d&#039;Al Andalós" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Etimologia d&#039;Al Andalós"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Almoravid_dinar_1138_631905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Almoravid_dinar_1138_631905.jpg/220px-Almoravid_dinar_1138_631905.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Almoravid_dinar_1138_631905.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="161" /></a><figcaption>Dinars d'aur almoravids</figcaption></figure> <p>L'<a href="/wiki/Etimologia" title="Etimologia">etimologia</a> del mot <i>Al Andalós</i> es discutida. En mai, l'espandi del territòri iberic designat pel terme cambièt durant los sègles. Coma designacion d'Iberia o de sa part sud, lo nom foguèt d'en primièr atestat sus de pèças de moneda batudas per lo novèl govèrn musulman d'Iberia cap a 715 (lo dobte sus l'an es degut al fach que las pèças èran bilingüas en latin e arabi e las doas inscripcions de l'an de la batuda èran diferentas).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fin finala tres etimologias especificas foguèron propausadas pels universitaris occidentals, totas presument que lo nom apareguèt aprèp lo periòde <a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Empèri Roman">roman</a> dins l'istòria de la Peninsula Iberica. Los aparaires d'aquela ipotèsi èran d'istorians. Recentament, una expertesa lingüistica foguèt facha per arribar a una conclusion. Los arguments de <a href="/wiki/Toponimia" title="Toponimia">toponimia</a> (estudi dels noms de luòc), d'istòria, e d'estructura de la lenga demostrèron la manca de substància de totas las proposicions precedentas, e metèron en evidéncia que lo nom èra anterior a l'ocupacion romana puslèu que posterior<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Una objeccion màger a las primièras proposicions es que lo meteis nom <i>Andaluz</i> (l'equivalent d' <i>Andalus</i> en ortografia espanhòla) existís dins mantun luòc montanhós de Castelha.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> En mai, lo fragment <i>and-</i> es comun dins fòrça noms de luòcs en Espanha, e lo tròç <i>-luz</i> apareis tanben sovent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autras_proposicions">Autras proposicions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=2" title="Modificar la seccion : Autras proposicions" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Autras proposicions"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Al-%C3%81ndalus_caligraf%C3%ADa_%C3%A1rabe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Al-%C3%81ndalus_caligraf%C3%ADa_%C3%A1rabe.png/220px-Al-%C3%81ndalus_caligraf%C3%ADa_%C3%A1rabe.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Al-%C3%81ndalus_caligraf%C3%ADa_%C3%A1rabe.png 1.5x" data-file-width="242" data-file-height="112" /></a><figcaption>Calligrafia aràbia d'Al Andalós</figcaption></figure> <p>Lo nom "Andalosia" o "Vandalosia" èra tradicionalament considerat coma derivar de "<a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>" (la tribú germanica que colonizèt una part d'Iberia entre 407 e 429), pasmens, i a pas de referéncia istorica per o confirmar. Aquesta ipotèsi es de còps que i a associada a l'istorian del sègle XIX <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reinhart_Dozy&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Reinhart Dozy (la pagina existís pas)">Reinhart Dozy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> mas se contradiguèt e reconeguèt sas decas. Emai qu'acceptèsse que "al-Andalús" derive de "vandal", cresiá que geograficament aquò se referissiá sonque al pòrt que lo vandals i partiguèron d'Iberia per Africa—la localizacion d'aquel pòrt èra desconeguda.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Una autra proposicion es que "Andalós" es una version aràbia del nom "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Atlantis&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Atlantis (la pagina existís pas)">Atlantis</a>". Aquesta idèa foguèt recentament defenduda per l'istorian espanhòl <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vallv%C3%A9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Vallvé (la pagina existís pas)">Vallvé</a>, mas unicament pel fach que l'explicacion es versemblabla foneticament e explicariá d'unes faches toponimics (cap de pròva istorica foguèt pas provesida).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> En arabi estandard modèrne, lo mot per "Atlantis" es <i>aţlānţis</i>. </p><p>Vallvé escriu: </p> <blockquote><p><i>Los tèxtes arabis que provesisson las primièras mencions de l'isla d'Al Andalós e de la mar d'Al Andalós venon extraordinàriament clars se cambiam aquela expression per "Atlantis" o "Atlantic". La meteissa causa se pòt dire per referéncia a <a href="/wiki/Eracles" title="Eracles">Eracles</a> e las <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amazona&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Amazona (la pagina existís pas)">Amazonas</a> que l'isla, segon los comentaris arabis d'aquesta legenda <a href="/wiki/Mitologia_gr%C3%A8ga" title="Mitologia grèga">grèga</a> e <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">latina</a>, èra situada en jauf al-Andalús—es a dire, al nòrd o al dintre de l'<a href="/wiki/Ocean_Atlantic" title="Ocean Atlantic">Ocean Atlantic</a>.</i></p></blockquote> <p>L'"Isla d'Al Andalós" es mencionada dins una cronica aràbia anonima de la conquista d'Iberia compausada dos o tres sègles aprèp los faches.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Es identificada coma l'endrech de l'arrambatge de l'abans garda de l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Conquista_musulmana_d%27Isp%C3%A0nia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Conquista musulmana d&#39;Ispània (la pagina existís pas)">envasion musulmana d'Iberia</a>. La cronica ditz tanben que l'"Isla d'al-Andalús" foguèt puèi tornar nomenada "Isla de Tarifa". Las fòrças d'envasion preliminaras de qualques centenats d'òmes menats pel cap berbèr, Tarif abu Zura, ocupèron lo primièr tròç de tèrra encontrat aprèp la traversada de l'<a href="/wiki/Estrech_de_Gibartar" title="Estrech de Gibartar">Estrech de Gibartar</a> en 710. La fòrça d'envasion principala menada per Tariq ibn Ziyad seguèt un an pus tard. Lo luòc de l'acostament, uèi conegut en Espanha jol nom de <i>Punta Marroquí</i> o <i>Punta de Tarifa</i>, es la punta sud d'un illon, nomenat Isla de Tarifa o Isla de las Palomas, situat al ras de las còstas d'Espanha. </p><p>Lo testimòni de la cronica aràbia, lo nom modèrne de l'"Isla de Tarifa", e la pròva toponimica mencionada çai sus mòstran que "Andaluz" es un nom d'origina preromana e pòrta a pensar que l'"Isla d'Al Andalús" es l'Isla de Tarifa de uèi, qu'es situada just a l'òrle de la vila espanhòla modèrna de <a href="/wiki/Tarifa" title="Tarifa">Tarifa</a>. L'extension de sens de la designacion "Al-Andalus" d'un simple illon a Iberia tota ten mantun precedents istorics. </p><p>Dins los ans 1980, l'istorian Halm, regetèt tanben l'ipotèsi "Vandal", en propausar una alternativa innovanta.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Halm pren coma punt de despart lo fach que las tribús germanicas èran conegudas per aver distribuit las tèrras conquistadas en las tirar al sòrt, e que Iberia durant lo periòde del poder <a href="/wiki/Visig%C3%B2ts" title="Visigòts">visigotic</a> èra de còps designada al defòra per un nom latin, <i>Gothica Sors</i>, que significa <span class="citation">«parcèla de tèrra gotica»</span>. Halm puèi especulèt sul fach que los quites visigòts podián aver sonat sas tèrras novèlas "parcèlas de tèrras ", e aquò dins sa lenga pròpria. Pasmens, la version gotica del tèrme <i>Gothica Sors</i> es pas atestada. Halm se declarèt capable de la tornar bastir, e propausèt <i>*landahlauts</i> (l'asterisc es lo simbòl estandard entre los <a href="/wiki/Ling%C3%BCista" title="Lingüista">lingüistas</a> per una forma lingüistica qu'es sonque propausada e pas atestada). Halm suggeriguèt alara que lo tèrme gotic ipotetic auriá pogut menar a l'encòp al tèrme latin atestat, <i>Gothica Sors</i> (per revirada del sens), e al nom arabi, Al-Andalus (per imitacion fonetica). Pasmens, Halm provesiguèt pas cap de pròva (istorica o lingüistica) per sas ipotèsis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="L'Emirat_e_lo_Califat_de_Còrdoa"><span id="L.27Emirat_e_lo_Califat_de_C.C3.B2rdoa"></span>L'Emirat e lo Califat de Còrdoa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=3" title="Modificar la seccion : L&#039;Emirat e lo Califat de Còrdoa" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edita el codi de la secció: L&#039;Emirat e lo Califat de Còrdoa"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg/300px-Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg/450px-Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg/600px-Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3762" data-file-height="2486" /></a><figcaption>L'interior de la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Granda_Mosqueta_de_C%C3%B2rdoa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Granda Mosqueta de Còrdoa (la pagina existís pas)">Granda Mosqueta de Còrdoa</a>, uèi <a href="/w/index.php?title=Catedrala_de_C%C3%B2rdoa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Catedrala de Còrdoa (la pagina existís pas)">Catedrala de Còrdoa</a>. La <a href="/wiki/Mosqueta" title="Mosqueta">mosqueta</a> es un dels pus bèls exemples de l'arquitectura aràbia islamica dins l'estil Umayyad. Una mosqueta foguèt bastida (742) sul site de la basilica crestiana visigotica de Sant Vincenç (600), puèi tornamai cambiada pels crestians en <i>Catedral de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción</i> en 1236.</figcaption></figure> <p>Jols òrdres del grand califa omeia <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Walid_I&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Walid I (la pagina existís pas)">Al-Walid I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a> desbarquèt amb una tropa pichona a <a href="/wiki/Gibartar" title="Gibartar">Gibartar</a> lo <a href="/wiki/30_d%27abril" title="30 d&#39;abril">30 d'abril</a> de <a href="/wiki/711" class="mw-redirect" title="711">711</a>. Aprèp una victòria decisiva a la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Batalha_de_Guadalete&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Batalha de Guadalete (la pagina existís pas)">Batalha de Guadalete</a> lo <a href="/wiki/19_de_julhet" title="19 de julhet">19 de julhet</a> de <a href="/wiki/711" class="mw-redirect" title="711">711</a>, Tariq ibn-Ziyad botèt la màger part de la <a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Iberica" title="Peninsula Iberica">Peninsula Iberica</a> jos ocupacion musulmana dins una campanha militara de sèt ans. Traversèron los <a href="/wiki/Piren%C3%A8us" title="Pirenèus">Pirenèus</a> e ocupèron una part d'<a href="/wiki/Occit%C3%A0nia" title="Occitània">Occitània</a>, mas foguèron desfaches pels <a href="/wiki/Francs" title="Francs">francs</a> de <a href="/wiki/Carles_Mart%C3%A8l" title="Carles Martèl">Carles Martèl</a> a la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Batalha_de_Peitieus&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Batalha de Peitieus (la pagina existís pas)">Batalha de Peitieus</a> en 732. Pasmens aquesta batalha arrestèt pas la progression berbèra e en 734 <a href="/wiki/Avinhon" title="Avinhon">Avinhon</a> èra conquistada, <a href="/wiki/Arle" title="Arle">Arle</a> atacada e <a href="/wiki/Proven%C3%A7a" title="Provença">Provença</a> tota envasida. En 737, los musulmans atenguèron <a href="/wiki/Borgonha" title="Borgonha">Borgonha</a>, que i capturèron fòrça <a href="/wiki/Esclavatge" title="Esclavatge">esclaus</a> per los prendre en Iberia. Carles Martel respondèt de longa per de campanhas contre los musumans del sud de <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A0llia" title="Gàllia">Gàllia</a> entre 736 e 739 e 20 ans mai tard, en 759, los francs menats per <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pepin_lo_Br%C3%A8u&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pepin lo Brèu (la pagina existís pas)">Pepin lo Brèu</a> fòrabandiguèron los musulmans de <a href="/wiki/Septim%C3%A0nia" title="Septimània">Septimània</a> qu'èra una de las cinc regions administrativas d'Al Andalús.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>La Peninsula Iberica, levat lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reialme_d%27Ast%C3%BArias&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Reialme d&#39;Astúrias (la pagina existís pas)">Reialme d'Astúrias</a>, venguèt part de l'espandit <a href="/wiki/Califat_Omeia" title="Califat Omeia">Califat Omeia</a>, jol nom d' <i>Al Andalós</i>. La primièra atestacion d'aquel nom arabi es una pèça de moneda <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dinar&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dinar (la pagina existís pas)">dinar</a>, servada al musèu arqueologic de <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, datada de cinc ans aprèp la conquista (716). La pèça pòrta lo mot "Al Andalós" en escritura aràbia d'un costat e lo latin iberic "Span" a l'envers.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al començament, al Andalús èra dirigit per de governadors nomenats pel <a href="/wiki/Califa" title="Califa">Califa</a>, per de periòdes de tres ans. Pasmens, a partir de 740, una seria de guèrras civilas entre divèrs grops musulmans en Iberia faguèt que la situacion escapèt al contraròtle del califa, e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yusuf_ibn_%27Abd_al-Rahman_al-Fihri&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Yusuf ibn &#39;Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri (la pagina existís pas)">Yūsuf al-Fihri</a>, n'emergiguèt coma principal ganhant, en venir de fach un governador independent. </p><p>En 750, los <a href="/wiki/Califat_abbassida" title="Califat abbassida">abbassidas</a> enversèron los omeias per contraròtlar lo grand <a href="/w/index.php?title=Califat_Abbasida&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Califat Abbasida (la pagina existís pas)">Empèri Arabi</a>. Mas en 756, lo prince omeia faidit <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abd-ar-Rahman_I&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Abd-ar-Rahman I (la pagina existís pas)">Abd-ar-Rahman I</a> (mai tard nomenat <i>Al-Dākhil</i>) cacèt Yūsuf al-Fihri per s'establir se meteis <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">Emir</a> de <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B2rdoa" title="Còrdoa">Còrdoa</a>. Refusèt de se sometre al califa abbasida, que los soldats avián tuat una part de sa familha. Aprèp trenta ans de règne, establiguèt un poder tèune sus la màger part d'al Andalús, en vencir a l'encòp los partisans de la familha al-Fihri e del califa abbassida. </p><p>Per lo sègle e mièg seguent, sa descendéncia contunhèt d'èsser emir de Còrdoa, amb contraròtle nominal del rèsta d'<i>al-Andalus</i> e de còps que i a de qualques parts de <a href="/wiki/Magr%C3%A8b" title="Magrèb">Magrèb</a> , mas amb un contraròtle real, mai que mai subre las marchas al ras de la frontièra crestiana, e cambiadís en foncion de la competéncia individuala de l'emir en plaça. D'efièch lo poder de l'emir <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abdallah_ibn_Muhammad&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Abdallah ibn Muhammad (la pagina existís pas)">Abdallah ibn Muhammad</a> (cap a 900) s'espandiguèt pas de per delà de Còrdoa. Mas lo sieu felen <a href="/wiki/Abd-al-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-al-Rahman III">Abd-al-Rahman III</a>, que li succediguèt en 912, non solament restaurèt tant e lèu lo poder omeia a travèrs al Andalús mas l'estendèt tanben dins tot l'oèst de l'Africa del Nòrd. En 929 se proclamèt el meteis <a href="/w/index.php?title=Califa_de_C%C3%B2rdoa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Califa de Còrdoa (la pagina existís pas)">califa</a>, en enauçar l'emirat a una posicion que rivalizava en prestigi non solament amb lo califa abbassida a <a href="/wiki/Bagdad" title="Bagdad">Bagdad</a> mas tanben amb lo califa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_Shi%27a&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Islam Shi&#39;a (la pagina existís pas)">Shi'ite</a> a <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>—amb qui èra en competicion pel contraròtle de l'Africa del Nòrd. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Al_Andalus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Al_Andalus.png/220px-Al_Andalus.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Al_Andalus.png/330px-Al_Andalus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Al_Andalus.png/440px-Al_Andalus.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption>Lo Califat de Còrdoa cap a l'an 1000 a l'apogèu d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Mansur_Ibn_Abi_Aamir&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir (la pagina existís pas)">Al-Mansur</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Lo periòde del Califat es vist pels escrivans musulmans coma <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edat_d%27Aur_Islamic&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Edat d&#39;Aur Islamic (la pagina existís pas)">edat d'aur</a> d'al Andalús. La produccion de cerealas per irrigacion, aital coma l'importacion de manjar d'<a href="/wiki/Orient_Mejan" title="Orient Mejan">Orient Mejan</a>, provesiguèron la region de Còrdoa e d'autras ciutats <i>Andalusī</i> amb un sector economic agricòla dels mai avançats d'Euròpa. Entre las ciutats europèas, Còrdoa jol califat, amb una populacion de saique 500&#160;000, podiá gaireben despassar <a href="/wiki/Constantin%C3%B2ple" title="Constantinòple">Constantinòple</a> coma mai granda e mai benananta vila en Euròpa.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandler_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandler-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Dintre del mond islamic, Còrdoa èra un dels centres culturals màgers. Lo trabalh dels sieus mai importants filosòfs e scientifics (en particular <a href="/wiki/Albucassis" title="Albucassis">Albucassis</a> e <a href="/wiki/Averro%C3%A8s" title="Averroès">Averroès</a>) aguèt una infuéncia màger subre la vida intellectuala de l'Euròpa medievala. </p><p>Musulmans e non musulmans venguèron sovent de l'estrangièr per fin d'estudiar dins las bibliotècas e las universitats d'<i>al Andalús</i> aprèp la reconquista de Toledo en 1085. Lo mai conegut d'aqueles foguèt <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Scot&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Scot (la pagina existís pas)">Michael Scot</a> (1175- 1235), que portèt los trabalhs d'<a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rushd">Ibn Rushd</a> ("Averroès") e d'<a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a> ("Avicena") en <a href="/wiki/It%C3%A0lia" title="Itàlia">Itàlia</a>. Aquela transmission aguèt saique un impacte significatiu subre l'arribada de la <a href="/wiki/Renaissen%C3%A7a" title="Renaissença">Renaissença</a> en Euròpa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lo_primièr_periòde_Taifa"><span id="Lo_primi.C3.A8r_peri.C3.B2de_Taifa"></span>Lo primièr periòde Taifa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=4" title="Modificar la seccion : Lo primièr periòde Taifa" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Lo primièr periòde Taifa"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lo califat de Còrdoa s'abausonèt vertadièrament pendent una guèrra civila roïnosa entre 1009 e 1013 emai que foguèsse pas acabada completament abans 1031. <i>Al Andalús</i> s'esberlèt alavetz en nombroses estats independents sonats <i><a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifas</a></i>. Èran generalament tròp flacs per se defendre sols contra las atacas repetidas dels estats crestians del nòrd e de l'oèst, que los musumans disián "las nacions galicianas",<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> e s'èran espandits dempuèi sos bastions inicials en <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%ADcia" title="Galícia">Galícia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ast%C3%BArias" title="Astúrias">Astúrias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cant%C3%A0bria" title="Cantàbria">Cantàbria</a>, Bascoat e dins la <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marcha_Ispanica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcha Ispanica (la pagina existís pas)">Marcha Ispanica</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Carolingian" title="Empèri Carolingian">carolingiana</a> per venir los reialmes de <a href="/wiki/Reiaume_de_Navarra" title="Reiaume de Navarra">Navarra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reialme_de_Leon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reialme de Leon">Leon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reialme_de_Castelha" class="mw-redirect" title="Reialme de Castelha">Castelha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aragon" title="Aragon">Aragon</a> e lo <a href="/wiki/Lista_dels_comtes_de_Barcelona" title="Lista dels comtes de Barcelona">Comtat de Barcelona</a>. Fin finala las atacas virèron en conquistas, e en responsa los reis de las <i>taifas</i> foguèron forçats de demandar l'ajuda dels caps musulmans <a href="/w/index.php?title=Almoravid&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Almoravid (la pagina existís pas)">almoravids</a>, de <a href="/wiki/Magr%C3%A8b" title="Magrèb">Magrèb</a>. Aquesta manòbra desesperada riscava de virar al sieu desavantatge, quand los moravids qu'avián sonats anarián venir del sud e conquistar tanben mantuna <i>taifa</i> . </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Almoravid_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Almoravid_Empire.png/220px-Almoravid_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Almoravid_Empire.png 1.5x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="537" /></a><figcaption>Mapa mostrant l'espandiment de l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dinastia_Almoravida&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dinastia Almoravida (la pagina existís pas)">empèri Almoravid</a> </figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Almoravids,_almoads_e_marinids"><span id="Almoravids.2C_almoads_e_marinids"></span>Almoravids, almoads e marinids</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=5" title="Modificar la seccion : Almoravids, almoads e marinids" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Almoravids, almoads e marinids"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Almohad1200.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Almohad1200.png/280px-Almohad1200.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Almohad1200.png/420px-Almohad1200.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Almohad1200.png/560px-Almohad1200.png 2x" data-file-width="716" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Dinastia almohad e estats vesins, cap a 1200.</figcaption></figure> <p>En 1086 lo rei <a href="/w/index.php?title=Almoravid&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Almoravid (la pagina existís pas)">almoravid</a> de <a href="/wiki/Marr%C3%B2c" title="Marròc">Marròc</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Yusuf ibn Tashfin (la pagina existís pas)">Yusuf ibn Tashfin</a> foguèt convidat pels princes musulmans d'Iberia per fin de los aparar contre <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anf%C3%B3s_VI_de_Castel&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anfós VI de Castel (la pagina existís pas)">Anfós VI</a>, rei <a href="/wiki/Reialme_de_Castelha" class="mw-redirect" title="Reialme de Castelha">Castelha</a> e <a href="/wiki/Reialme_de_Leon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reialme de Leon">Leon</a>. Aqueste meteis an, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Yusuf ibn Tashfin (la pagina existís pas)">Yusuf ibn Tashfin</a> traversèt l'estrech per <a href="/wiki/Algeciras" title="Algeciras">Algeciras</a> e infligiguèt una desfacha sevèra als crestians a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Batalha_d%27az-Zallaqah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Batalha d&#39;az-Zallaqah (la pagina existís pas)">az-Zallaqah</a>. En 1094, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Yusuf ibn Tashfin (la pagina existís pas)">Yusuf ibn Tashfin</a> aviá forabandit totes los princes musulmans d'Iberia e annexat sos estats, levat un a <a href="/wiki/Saragossa" title="Saragossa">Saragossa</a>. Tornèt conquistar <a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ncia" title="Valéncia">Valéncia</a> als crestians. </p><p>Los <a href="/wiki/Almoravids" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravids">almoravids</a> foguèron remplaçats al sègle XII pels <a href="/w/index.php?title=Almoad&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Almoad (la pagina existís pas)">almoads</a>, una autra dinastia berbèra, aprèp la victòria d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Yusuf_Ya%27qub_al-Mansur&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Yusuf Ya&#39;qub al-Mansur (la pagina existís pas)">Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur</a> sul castelhan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anf%C3%B3s_VIII_de_Castelha&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anfós VIII de Castelha (la pagina existís pas)">Anfós VIII</a> a la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Batalha_d%27Alarcos&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Batalha d&#39;Alarcos (la pagina existís pas)">Batalha d'Alarcos</a>. En 1212 una coalicion de reis crestians jol camandament del castelhan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anf%C3%B3s_VIII_of_Castile&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anfós VIII of Castile (la pagina existís pas)">Anfós VIII</a> vencèt los almohads a la <a href="/wiki/Batalha_de_Las_Navas_de_Tolosa" title="Batalha de Las Navas de Tolosa">Batalha de Las Navas de Tolosa</a>. Los almohads contunhèron de dirigir Al Andalús per un autre <a href="/wiki/Decenni" title="Decenni">decenni</a>, mas amb un poder e un prestigi mai redusit; e la guèrra civila que seguèt la mòrt de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Ya%27qub_Yusuf_II&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Ya&#39;qub Yusuf II (la pagina existís pas)">Abu Ya'qub Yusuf II</a> menèt lèu lèu al restabliment de las taifas. Las taifas, novèlament independentas mas ara aflaquidas, foguèron rapidament conquistadas per Portugal, Castelha e Aragon. Aprèp la casuda de <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BArcia" title="Múrcia">Múrcia</a> (1243) e d'<a href="/wiki/Algarve" class="mw-redirect" title="Algarve">Algarve</a> (1249), sonque l'<a href="/wiki/Emirat_de_Granada" title="Emirat de Granada">Emirat de Granada</a> subrevisquèt coma estat musulman, mas tributari de Castelha. La majoritat dels tributs èran pagats en <a href="/wiki/Aur" title="Aur">aur</a> venent de çò qu'es uèi <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> e <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> e carrejat en Iberia per las rotas comercialas de <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>. </p><p>La darrièra amenaça musulmana pels reialmes crestians foguèt lo règne dels <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marinids&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Marinids (la pagina existís pas)">marinids</a> en Marròc al sègle XIV, que prenguèron Granada dins son esfèra d'influéncia e ocupèron mai d'una de sas vilas, coma <a href="/wiki/Algeciras" title="Algeciras">Algeciras</a>. Pasmens, foguèron incapables de prene <a href="/wiki/Tarifa" title="Tarifa">Tarifa</a>, que resistiguèt fins a l'arribada de l'armada castelhana menada per <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anf%C3%B3s_XI&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anfós XI (la pagina existís pas)">Anfós XI</a>. Lo rei de Castelha, ajudat per <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anf%C3%B3s_IV_de_Portugal&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anfós IV de Portugal (la pagina existís pas)">Anfós IV de Portugal</a> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=P%C3%A8ire_IV_d%27Aragon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pèire IV d&#39;Aragon (la pagina existís pas)">Pèire IV d'Aragon</a>, vencèt decisivament los marinids a la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Batalha_de_Salado&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Batalha de Salado (la pagina existís pas)">Batalha de Salado</a> en 1340 e prenguèt Algeciras en 1344. <a href="/wiki/Gibartar" title="Gibartar">Gibartar</a>, alara jos poder <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">granadin</a>, èra assetjada en 1349–1350, Anfós XI e una granda part de son armada moriguèron de la <a href="/w/index.php?title=P%C3%A8sta_negra&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pèsta negra (la pagina existís pas)">pèsta negra</a>. Son successor, <a href="/w/index.php?title=P%C3%A8ire_de_Castelha&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pèire de Castelha (la pagina existís pas)">Pèire de Castelha</a>, faguèt la patz amb los musulmans e virèt son atencion cap a las tèrras crestianas, començèt un periòde de gaireben 150 ans de rebellions e guèrras entre los estats crestians qu'assegurèron la subervivença de Granada. En 1469 lo maridatge de Ferrand d'Aragon e Isabèl de Castelha marquèt lo debut de l'agression finala contre l'Emirat de Granada (Gharnatah). Lo rei e la reina convencèron lo papa de declarar la seuna guèrra una crosada. Los crestians van esclafar un centre de resisténcia aprèp l'autre e finalament, en genièr de 1492, aprèp un sètge long, lo sultan, <a href="/wiki/Boabdil" title="Boabdil">Boabdil</a>, va rendre lo palais de la fortalesa, lo famós <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Societat">Societat</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=6" title="Modificar la seccion : Societat" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Societat"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:AndalusQuran.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/AndalusQuran.JPG/220px-AndalusQuran.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/AndalusQuran.JPG/330px-AndalusQuran.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/AndalusQuran.JPG/440px-AndalusQuran.JPG 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="672" /></a><figcaption>Una pagina de l'<a href="/wiki/Alcoran" title="Alcoran">Alcoran</a> dins un manuscrit d'Al Andalós del sègle XII.</figcaption></figure> <p>La societat d'Al Andalús èra compausada de tres grops religioses principals: crestians, musulmans e josieus. E mai qu'units al nivèl religiós, los musulmans avián divèrsas divisions etnicas, la principala essent la distincion entre berbèrs e arabis. Los <a href="/wiki/Mossarabi" title="Mossarabi">mossarabis</a> èran de crestians qu'avián viscut longtemps jos poder musulmans e que n'avián adoptat las costumas, l'art e las paraulas, en tot manténer sos rituals crestians e sa lenga romanica pròpria. Caduna d'aquelas comunitats viviá dins de quartièrs diferents de las vilas. Al sègle X i aguèt una conversion massissa de crestians, de tal biais que los <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muladi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Muladi (la pagina existís pas)">muladis</a></i> (musulmans d'origina etnica iberica) formèron la majoritat de la populacion d'Al Andalús a la fin del sègle.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Higueruela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Higueruela.jpg/220px-Higueruela.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Higueruela.jpg/330px-Higueruela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Higueruela.jpg/440px-Higueruela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2135" data-file-height="2377" /></a><figcaption>Illustracion tardiva que representa los soldats josieus, combatent al costat de las tropas de Muhammed IX, sultan nasrid de <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>, a la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Batalha_de_Higueruela&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Batalha de Higueruela (la pagina existís pas)">batalha de Higueruela</a>, en 1431.</figcaption></figure> <p>Los berbèrs, que constituissián la màger part dels envasidors, demoravan dins las regions montanhosas de çò qu'es uèi lo nòrd de Portugal e dins la <i>Meseta central</i> (replanat central), mentre que los arabis èran dins lo sud e dins la val d'<a href="/wiki/%C3%88bre" title="Èbre">Èbre</a> al nòrd-èst. Los <a href="/wiki/Josieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Josieu">josieus</a> travalhavan mai que mai coma collectaires d'impòsts, dins lo negòci, o coma mètges o ambaissadors. A la fin del sègle XV i aviá aperaquí 50&#160;000 josieus a Granada e saique 100&#160;000 dins tota l'Iberia islamica.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non_musulmans_jol_Califat">Non musulmans jol Califat</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=7" title="Modificar la seccion : Non musulmans jol Califat" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Non musulmans jol Califat"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tractament_dels_non_musulmans">Tractament dels non musulmans</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=8" title="Modificar la seccion : Tractament dels non musulmans" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Tractament dels non musulmans"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Los non musulmans avián l'estatut d'<i>ahl al-<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dhimmi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dhimmi (la pagina existís pas)">dhimma</a> </i>(persona protegida), los adultes pagavan una taxa dicha "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jizya&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Jizya (la pagina existís pas)">Jizya</a>" , egala a un Dinar per an levat pels vièlhs, per las femnas, los mainatges e los estropiats, aquò cada còp que i aviá una autoritat crestiana dins la comunitat. Se que non, los non musulmans avián l'estatut de <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Majus&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Majus (la pagina existís pas)">majus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lo tractament dels non musulmans dins lo Califat foguèt lo subjècte de fòrça discussions entre los universitaris e comentaires, especialament los que son interessats per far de parallèls amb la coexisténcia entre musulmans e non musulmans dins lo mond modèrne. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mar%C3%ADa_Rosa_Menocal&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="María Rosa Menocal (la pagina existís pas)">María Rosa Menocal</a>, una especialista de la literatura iberica, afortissiá que "la tolerància èra un dels aspèctes inerents de la societat d'Al Andalós".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Al sieu vejaire, los <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dhimmi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dhimmi (la pagina existís pas)">dhimmis</a> josieus e crestians que vivián jol Califat, e mai qu'aguèsson mens de dreches que los musulmans, èran dins una situacion melhora que non pas dins d'autres airals de l'Euròpa crestiana. </p><p>Los <a href="/wiki/Josieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Josieu">josieus</a> constituissián mens de 5% de la populacion.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Al Andalús èra un centre clau de la vida josieva a la començança de l'<a href="/wiki/Edat_Mejana" title="Edat Mejana">Edat Mejana</a>, e produsiguèt d'universitaris famoses e una comunitat josieva de las mai ricas e establas. Mas i pas de consensus entre los universitaris sul fach que las relacions entre josieus e musulmans èran d'efièch un modèl de relacions entre religions. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bernard_Lewis&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernard Lewis (la pagina existís pas)">Bernard Lewis</a> s'opausa a aqueste vejaire, afortissent qu'es un usatge modèrne en contradiccion amb l'istòria e apologetica. Afortís que l'Islam tradicionalament assegura pas l'egalitat e pretendèt pas jamai d'o far, en apondre que seriá una <span class="citation">«absurditat teologica e illogica.»</span><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ascension_e_casuda_del_poder_musulman">Ascension e casuda del poder musulman</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=9" title="Modificar la seccion : Ascension e casuda del poder musulman" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Ascension e casuda del poder musulman"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Andalus_cantor.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Andalus_cantor.JPG/220px-Andalus_cantor.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Andalus_cantor.JPG/330px-Andalus_cantor.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Andalus_cantor.JPG/440px-Andalus_cantor.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Imatge de la lectura d'una istòria de la Pasca josieva d'<i>al-Andalus</i>, d'après una <a href="/w/index.php?title=Haggadah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Haggadah (la pagina existís pas)">Haggadah</a> espanhòla del sègle XIV.</figcaption></figure> <p>Lo Califat tractèt los non musulmans d'un biais diferent segon las epòcas. Un long periòde de tolerància comencèt aprèp 912, amb lo règne d'<a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd-ar-Rahman III</a> e del sieu filh, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a> ont los josieus d'Al Andalús prosperèron, se vodant se meteisses al servici del <a href="/wiki/Califat_de_C%C3%B2rdoa" title="Califat de Còrdoa">Califat de Còrdoa</a>, a l'estudi de las sciéncias, al negòci e a l'industria, especialament al comerci de la <a href="/wiki/Seda" title="Seda">seda</a> e dels <a href="/wiki/Esclavatge" title="Esclavatge">esclaus</a>, en participar aital a la prosperitat del país. L'Iberia del sud venguèt un asil pels josieus oprimits dels autres païses.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Los crestians, motivats per l'exemple de sos coreligionaris de l'autre costat de la frontièra d'Al Andalús, de còps que i a faguèron lo proselitisme del cristianisme en recercar mai o mens deliberadament d'èsser martirs, quitament pendent aquestes periòdes tolerants. Per exemple, 48 crestians de Còrdoa foguèron decapitats per ofensa religiosa contre l'Islam. Demorèron coneguts coma los <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martirs_de_C%C3%B2rdoa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Martirs de Còrdoa (la pagina existís pas)">Martirs de Còrdoa</a>. Aquestas mòrts aguèron de consequéncias al delà d'un simple treboladís religiós, demorèron longtemps dins las memòrias; los felens dels martirs èran plenament conscients del destin de sos avis e causiguèron de s'opausar encara al poder islamic<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jols <a href="/wiki/Dinastia_Almoravid" title="Dinastia Almoravid">Almoravids</a> e <a href="/wiki/Almoads" title="Almoads">Almoads</a> se pòt que i aguèsse agut de secutaments intermitents dels Josieus,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> mas las fonts son fòrça raras e donan pas un imatge clar, pasmens sembla que la situacion se siá degalhada aprèp l'an 1160.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pendent aquestas èrsas successivas de violéncia contre los non musulmans, d'unes josieus e qualques universitaris musulmans daissèron los parçans d'Iberia contrarotlats pels musulmans per la ciutat alara encara relativament toleranta de <a href="/wiki/Toledo" title="Toledo">Toledo</a>, qu'èra estada reconquista en 1085 pels crestians. D'unes josieus rejonguèron las armadas crestianas (aperaquí 40&#160;000), alara que d'autres rejonguèron los <a href="/wiki/Dinastia_Almoravid" title="Dinastia Almoravid">Almoravids</a> dins lo combat contra <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anf%C3%B3s_VI_de_Castelha&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anfós VI de Castelha (la pagina existís pas)">Anfós VI de Castelha</a>. </p><p>Lo sègle XI vegèt de pogroms musulmans contra los josieus d'Al Andalós; aquestes se debanèron a Còrdoa en 1011 e a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaple_de_Granada_de_1066&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Chaple de Granada de 1066 (la pagina existís pas)">Granada en 1066</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schweitzer267-268_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schweitzer267-268-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Los <a href="/w/index.php?title=Almoad&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Almoad (la pagina existís pas)">Almoads</a>, qu'avián pres lo contraròtle dels territòris almoravids de Magrèb e d'Andalusia cap a 1147,<sup id="cite_ref-islamicworldeb_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-islamicworldeb-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> superèron los <a href="/w/index.php?title=Almoravides&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Almoravides (la pagina existís pas)">Almoravides</a> dins lor vejaire fondamentalista, e tractèron durament los <i>dhimmis</i>. Fàcia a la causida entre la conversion o la mòrt, fòrça josieus e crestians emigrèron.<sup id="cite_ref-frank_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frank-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> D'unes, coma la familha de <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, fugiguèron a l'èst cap a de tèrras musulmanas pus tolerantas,<sup id="cite_ref-frank_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frank-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> mentre que d'autres anèron al nòrd s'installar dins los creissents reialmes crestians.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Çò qu'es uèi lo territòri d'Espanha e de Portugal foguèt a l'Edat Mejana lo luòc de guèrras constantas entre musulmans e crestians. D'atacas periodicas èran lançadas a partir d'Al Andalus cap als reialmes crestians d'Espanha e Portugal, que tornavan amb pilha e <a href="/wiki/Esclavatge" title="Esclavatge">esclaus</a>. Durant una ataca contra <a href="/wiki/Lisbona" title="Lisbona">Lisbona</a> en 1189, per exemple, lo califa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Almoad&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Almoad (la pagina existís pas)">Almoad</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yaqub_al-Mansur&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Yaqub al-Mansur (la pagina existís pas)">Yaqub al-Mansur</a> prenguèt 3000 femnas e mainatges captius, mentre que lo governador de Còrdoa, dins una incursion a <a href="/wiki/Silves" class="mw-disambig" title="Silves">Silves</a> en 1191, capturèt 3000 esclaus crestians.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Lo darrièr bastion musulman de la dinastia <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nasrid&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nasrid (la pagina existís pas)">Nasrid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a> caiguèt cap a 1492. D'aquel temps per çò qu'es dels arabis de <a href="/wiki/Castelha" title="Castelha">Castelha</a> denombrats "un mièg milion dins lo reialme, 100&#160;000 foguèron tuats o faches esclaus, 200&#160;000 emigrèron, e 200&#160;000 demorèron coma populacion residuala. Una granda part de l'elèit musulman, i comprés <a href="/wiki/Boabdil" title="Boabdil">Muhammad XII</a>, que li èra estada donada la region de la montanha d'Alpujarra coma principautat, trobèt intolerabla la vida jos poder crestian e se n'anèt en Africa del Nòrd"<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultura">Cultura</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=10" title="Modificar la seccion : Cultura" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Cultura"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg/220px-Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Lo dintre del palais d'<a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> a Granada ondrat d'arabesques.</figcaption></figure> <p>C.W. Previte-Orton escriguèt dins son obratge <i>Cambridge medieval history</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>La brilhanta civilizacion sarrasina de l'Espanha musulmana faguèt dels moros, quitament pendent son descreis jols <i>reis de las Taifas</i>, lo pòble de l'oèst pus cultivat.</p></blockquote> <p>Fòrça tribús, religions e raças coexistiguèron dins Al Andalós, caduna contribuiguèt a la prosperitat intellectuala d'Andalosia. L'alfabetizacion en Iberia islamica èra de luenh pus espandida que non pas dins cap autre país de l'oèst.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tre los primièrs jorn, los omèias volguèron èsser vistes coma los rivals intellectuals dels abbasidas, e per Còrdoa aver de bibliotècas e d'institutions d'educacion capablas de superar <a href="/wiki/Bagdad" title="Bagdad">Bagdad</a>. Emai que i aguèsse una rivalitat clara entre los dos poders, i aviá libertat de viatjar entre los dos califats, çò qu'ajudèt las idèas nòvas e innovacions de s'espandir. </p><p>Al sègle X, la ciutat de <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B2rdoa" title="Còrdoa">Còrdoa</a> aviá 700 <a href="/wiki/Mosqueta" title="Mosqueta">mosquetas</a>, 60&#160;000 <a href="/wiki/Palais" title="Palais">palais</a>, e 70 <a href="/wiki/Bibliot%C3%A8ca" title="Bibliotèca">bibliotècas</a>, que la pus granda assostava fins a 600&#160;000 libres. En comparason, la pus granda bibliotèca de l'Euròpa crestiana a l'epòca aviá pas mai de 400 manuscrits, alara que la bibliotèca de l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Universitat_de_Par%C3%ADs&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Universitat de París (la pagina existís pas)">Universitat de París</a> aviá pas que solament 2000 libres encara al sègle XIV. Al total, aperaquí 60&#160;000 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tractat&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tractat (la pagina existís pas)">tractats</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Poesia_ar%C3%A0bia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Poesia aràbia (la pagina existís pas)">poèmas</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polemica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Polemica (la pagina existís pas)">polemicas</a> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antologia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Antologia (la pagina existís pas)">compilacions</a> se publicavan cada an en Al Andalús.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> En comparason, l'Espanha modèrna publiquèt 46&#160;330 libres l'an 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-unesco_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unesco-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Per una granda part de son istòria, particularament jol califat de Còrdoa, al-Andalús foguèt un far del saber, e la vila de Còrdoa venguèt un dels centres culturals e economics màgers a l'encòp del <a href="/wiki/Bacin_Mediterran%C3%A8u" title="Bacin Mediterranèu">Bacin Mediterranèu</a> e del mond islamic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Filosofia">Filosofia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=11" title="Modificar la seccion : Filosofia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Filosofia"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Filosofia_andalosa">Filosofia andalosa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=12" title="Modificar la seccion : Filosofia andalosa" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Filosofia andalosa"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:AverroesColor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg/220px-AverroesColor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg/330px-AverroesColor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Averro%C3%A8s" title="Averroès">Averroès</a>, fondador de l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Averro%C3%AFsme&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Averroïsme (la pagina existís pas)">averroïsme</a>, escòla de filosofia qu'aguèt una influéncia sus la pujada del <a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularisme&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Secularisme (la pagina existís pas)">secularisme</a> en Euròpa de l'oèst.</figcaption></figure> <p>L'istorian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Said_Al-Andalusi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Said Al-Andalusi (la pagina existís pas)">Said Al-Andalusi</a> escriguèt que lo califa <a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd-ar-Rahman III</a> aviá amassat de bibliotècas de libres e acordat son patronatge a d'universitaris en <a href="/wiki/Medecina" title="Medecina">medecina</a> e en "sciéncias ancianas". Pus tard, <i>al-Mustansir</i> (<a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a>) venguèt e bastiguèt una universitat e de bibliotècas a Còrdoa que venguèt un dels centres mondials de la medecina e de las discussions filosoficas. </p><p>Pasmens, quand lo filh d'Al-Hakam <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hisham_II&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hisham II (la pagina existís pas)">Hisham II</a> prenguèt lo contraròtle, lo poder vertadièr èra dins las mans del <i>hajib</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Mansur_Ibn_Abi_Aamir&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir (la pagina existís pas)">al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir</a>. Al-Mansur èra clarament un òme religiós e desaprovava las sciéncias coma l'<a href="/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia">astronomia</a>, la <a href="/wiki/Logica" title="Logica">logica</a> e especialament l'<a href="/wiki/Astrologia" title="Astrologia">astrologia</a>, d'un biais tal que fòrça libres sus aqueles subjèctes, qu'èran estats preservats e collectats amb grands fraisses per <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a>, foguèron cremats publicament. Pr'aquò, amb la mòrt d'Al-Mansur en 1002 se reviscolèt l'interès per la filosofia. De nombroses universitaris emergiguèron, coma <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Uthman_Ibn_Fathun&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun (la pagina existís pas)">Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun</a>, que son trabalh màger èra lo tractat filosofic l'"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbre_de_Saviesa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbre de Saviesa (la pagina existís pas)">Arbre de Saviesa</a>". Un universitari excepcional en astronomia e astrologia èra <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A0slama_al-Majrit%C3%AD" title="Màslama al-Majrití">Màslama Ibn Ahmad al-Majrití</a> (defuntat en 1008), un viatjaire intrepid que viatgèt de per tot lo mond islamic e al delà, e que demorèt en contacte amb los <a href="/wiki/Fraires_de_la_Puretat" title="Fraires de la Puretat">Fraires de la Puretat</a>. D'efièch se ditz qu'es el que portèt las 51 "<a href="/wiki/Epist%C3%B2las_dels_Fraires_de_la_Puretat" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistòlas dels Fraires de la Puretat">Epistòlas dels Fraires de la Puretat</a>" a <i>al Andalús</i> e qu'apondèt lo recuèlh a aqueste trabalh, pasmens es tanben possible que foguèsse apondut pus tard per un autre universitari del meteis nom d'al-Majrití. Un autre libre atribuit a al-Majrití es lo <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ghayat_al-Hakim&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ghayat al-Hakim (la pagina existís pas)">Ghayat al-Hakim</a></i> "La Tòca del Savi", un libre qu'explora una sintèsi del <a href="/wiki/Platonisme" title="Platonisme">Platonisme</a> amb la <a href="/wiki/Erm%C3%A8s_Trismegist" title="Ermès Trismegist">filosofia ermetica</a>. L'emplec d'incantacions faguèt que lo libre foguèt largament refusat dins los ans seguents, pasmens las comunitats <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sofi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sofi (la pagina existís pas)">Sofis</a> contunhèron son estudi. </p><p>Un adèpte eminent d'al-Majriti foguèt lo filosòf e geomètre <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_al-Hakam_al-Kirmani&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani (la pagina existís pas)">Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani</a>. Un adèpte d'aqueste darrièr ne foguèt lo grand Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, pus conegut dins lo mond arabi jol nom de <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Baja" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Baja">Ibn Baja</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a>" </p><p>Lo filosòf andalós <a href="/wiki/Averro%C3%A8s" title="Averroès">Averroès</a> (1126–1198) es considerat coma lo paire de la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularisme&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Secularisme (la pagina existís pas)">pensada seculara</a> en Euròpa e benlèu un dels pensaires pus important. Foguèt lo fondador de l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Averro%C3%AFsme&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Averroïsme (la pagina existís pas)">averroïsme</a>, escòla de filosofia, e son trabalh e sos comentaris aguèron un impacte subre la pujada del <a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularisme&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Secularisme (la pagina existís pas)">secularisme</a> en <a href="/wiki/Eur%C3%B2pa_de_l%27O%C3%A8st" class="mw-redirect" title="Euròpa de l&#39;Oèst">Euròpa de l'Oèst</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fakhry_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fakhry-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Desvolopèt tanben lo concèpte de "<a href="/w/index.php?title=L%27exist%C3%A9ncia_preced%C3%ADs_l%27ess%C3%A9ncia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="L&#39;existéncia precedís l&#39;esséncia (la pagina existís pas)">l'existéncia precedís l'esséncia</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Un autre filosòf andalós qu'aguèt una influéncia significativa subre la filosofia modèrna foguèt <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Tufail&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Tufail (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn Tufail</a>. Sa novèla filosofica , <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (la pagina existís pas)">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></i>, traduita en Latin en <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> en 1671, desvolopèt los tèmas d'empiricisme, tabula rasa, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Innat_e_aquesit&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Innat e aquesit (la pagina existís pas)">innat e aquesit</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Condicion_de_possibilitat&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Condicion de possibilitat (la pagina existís pas)">condicion de possibilitat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materialisme" title="Materialisme">materialisme</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Probl%C3%A8ma_de_Molyneux&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Problèma de Molyneux (la pagina existís pas)">Problèma de Molyneux</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Entre los universitaris e escrivans europèus influenciats per aquesta novèla , podèm citar: <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Wainwright_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wainwright-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Melchis%C3%A9dech_Th%C3%A9venot&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Melchisédech Thévenot (la pagina existís pas)">Melchisédech Thévenot</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wallis" title="John Wallis">John Wallis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Keith&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="George Keith (la pagina existís pas)">George Keith</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Barclay&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Barclay (la pagina existís pas)">Robert Barclay</a>, los <a href="/w/index.php?title=Societat_REligiosa_dels_amics&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Societat REligiosa dels amics (la pagina existís pas)"><i>Quakers</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Hartlib&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Samuel Hartlib (la pagina existís pas)">Samuel Hartlib</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Toomer-222_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toomer-222-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Filosofia_josieva_e_cultura">Filosofia josieva e cultura</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=13" title="Modificar la seccion : Filosofia josieva e cultura" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Filosofia josieva e cultura"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amb la tolerància relativa d' <i>Al Andalós</i> e lo descreis del centre de la pensada josieva de <a href="/wiki/Babil%C3%B2nia" title="Babilònia">Babilònia</a>, <i>al-Andalús</i> venguèt lo centre dels esfòrces intellectuals josieus. De poètas e comentaires coma <a href="/wiki/Juda_Halev%C3%AD" title="Juda Haleví">Juda Haleví</a> (1086–1145) e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dunash_ben_Labrat&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dunash ben Labrat (la pagina existís pas)">Dunash ben Labrat</a> (920–990) contribuiguèron a la vida culturala d'<i>al-Andalús</i>, mas l'endrech èra encara mai important pel desvolopament de la filosofia josieva. Un corrent de filosòfs josieus, que s'auto-influencièron amb los filosòfs musulmans, culminèt amb lo pensaire josieu largament celebrat a l'Edat Mejana, <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> (1135–1205), e mai que realize pas son òbra en <i>al-Andalús</i>, amor que quand aviá 13 ans, sa familha fugiguèt los secutaments dels Almoads. </p> <hr /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eiretatge_d'Al_Andalós"><span id="Eiretatge_d.27Al_Andal.C3.B3s"></span>Eiretatge d'Al Andalós</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=14" title="Modificar la seccion : Eiretatge d&#039;Al Andalós" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Eiretatge d&#039;Al Andalós"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="L'eiretatge_scientific"><span id="L.27eiretatge_scientific"></span>L'eiretatge scientific</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=15" title="Modificar la seccion : L&#039;eiretatge scientific" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edita el codi de la secció: L&#039;eiretatge scientific"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Astronomia">Astronomia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=16" title="Modificar la seccion : Astronomia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Astronomia"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Als sègles XI e XII, d'astronòms d'Al Andalús faguèron l'escomesa ja prepausada per <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>, de desvolopar una teoria alternativa qu'evitariá las errors trobadas dins lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Teoria_Geocentrica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Teoria Geocentrica (la pagina existís pas)">modèl geocentrica de Ptolemèu</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>. Coma la critica d'Ibn al-Haytham, lo trabalh andalós anonim, <i>al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus</i> (<i>Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy</i>), faguèt una lista d'objeccions a l'astronomia ptolemaïca. Aquò marquèt lo començament de la revòlta de l'Escòla andalosa contra l'astronomia ptolemaïca, tanben nomenada la "revòlta andalosa"<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>. </p><p>A la fin del sègle XI, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arzachel&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Arzachel (la pagina existís pas)">al-Zarqali</a> (Latinizat en Arzachel) descobriguèt que las <a href="/wiki/Orbita" title="Orbita">orbitas</a> de las <a href="/wiki/Planeta" title="Planeta">planetas</a> son <a href="/wiki/Ellipsa" title="Ellipsa">ellipticas</a> e non pas circularas,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> though he still followed the Ptolemaic model. </p><p>Al sègle XII, <a href="/wiki/Averro%C3%A8s" title="Averroès">Averroès</a> regetèt l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicicle&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Epicicle (la pagina existís pas)">epicicle</a> prepausat per <a href="/wiki/Claudi_Ptolem%C3%A8u" title="Claudi Ptolemèu">Ptolemèu</a>. Regetèt lo modèl de Ptolemèu e afortiguèt que l'univèrs èra un modèl estrictament <a href="/w/index.php?title=Concentric&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Concentric (la pagina existís pas)">concentric</a>. Escriguèt la critica seguenta subre lo modèl planetari de Ptolemèu:<sup id="cite_ref-Gingerich_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gingerich-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><i>D'afortir l'existéncia d'una esfèra epicentrica es contrari a la natura. [...] L'astronomia de nòstre temps</i>&#160;::<i>nos balha pas la veritat, mas sonque apròva de calculs aluenhats de la realitat existenta.</i></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Lo contemporanèu d'Averroes, <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, escriguèt çò que seguís subre lo modèl planetari prepausat per <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Baja" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Baja">Ibn Baja</a> (Avempace): </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Ausiguèri que Abu Bakr [Ibn Bajja] descobriguèt un sistèma ont i a pas d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicicle&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Epicicle (la pagina existís pas)">epicicles</a> mas las</i>&#160;::<i>esfèras <a href="/w/index.php?title=Excentricitat_(matematicas)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Excentricitat (matematicas) (la pagina existís pas)">excentricas</a> son pas exclusas per el. L'ausiguèri pas d'un de sos</i>&#160;::<i>estudiants; e quitament s'es vertadièr que descobriguèt un tal sistèma, ganhèt pas fòrça amb el,</i>&#160;::<i>l'excentricitat es aicí meteis contrària als principis aplicats per Aristòtel&#160;... T'ai explicat</i>&#160;::<i>qu'aquestas dificultats concernisson pas l'astronòm, qu'a pas per vocacion de nos descriure las proprietats</i>&#160;::<i>existentas de las esfèras, mas de suggerir, mai o mens correctament, una teoria que lo movement de las</i> &#160;::<i><a href="/wiki/Estela" title="Estela">estelas</a> e dels <a href="/wiki/Planeta" title="Planeta">planetas</a> i es unifòrme e circular, confòrme a las observacions.</i><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Ibn Bajjah prepausèt tanben que la <a href="/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia">galaxia</a> de la <a href="/wiki/Via_Lact%C3%A8a" title="Via Lactèa">Via Lactèa</a> èra compausada de maitas estelas mas qu'apareissiá coma un imatge contunh pr'amor de l'efièch de <a href="/wiki/Refraccion" title="Refraccion">refraccion</a> dins l'<a href="/wiki/Atmosf%C3%A8ra_(T%C3%A8rra)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosfèra (Tèrra)">atmosfèra terrestra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Montada_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montada-56"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Pus tard al sègle XII, sos contunhaires <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Tufail&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Tufail (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn Tufail</a> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nur_Ed-Din_Al_Betrugi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi (la pagina existís pas)">Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi</a> (Alpetragius) foguèron los primièrs de prepausar de modèls planetaris sens pas cap d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Equant&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Equant (la pagina existís pas)">equant</a>, d'epicicles o excentricas. Al-Betrugi foguèt tanben lo primièr de descobrir que los planètas son <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luminositat&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Luminositat (la pagina existís pas)">autoluminós</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Sas configuracions, pasmens, foguèron pas acceptadas pr'amor de las posicions numericas dels planetas dins sos modèls qu'èran mens exactas qu'aquelas del modèl ptolemaïc,<sup id="cite_ref-Gale_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-58"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> subretot pr'amor que seguissián la nocion d'<a href="/wiki/Arist%C3%B2tel" title="Aristòtel">Aristòtel</a> de movement cicular perfièch. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sciéncias_de_la_Tèrra"><span id="Sci.C3.A9ncias_de_la_T.C3.A8rra"></span>Sciéncias de la Tèrra</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=17" title="Modificar la seccion : Sciéncias de la Tèrra" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Sciéncias de la Tèrra"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A la fin del sègle XI, Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ma'udh, que demorava en Al Andalós, escriguèt un trabalh subre l'<a href="/wiki/Optica" title="Optica">optica</a> pus tard traduit en latin amb lo títol de <i>Liber de crepisculis</i>, que foguèt per error atribuit a <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>. Aquò èra un trabalh cortet que conteniá una estimacion de l'angle de davalada del <a href="/wiki/Solelh" class="mw-redirect" title="Solelh">solelh</a> a la debuta del <a href="/wiki/Crepuscul" title="Crepuscul">calabrun</a> del matin e a la fin del luscre del vèspre, e un ensag per fin de calcular sus la basa aquesta e d'autras donadas lo pes de l'umiditat atmosferica responsabla de la refraccion dels rais del solelh. Mercé a son experimentacion, obtenguèt la valor exacta de 18°, que se sarra de la valor modèrna<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>. </p><p>A la debuta del sègle XIII, lo biologista arabi d'Al Andalús Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati desvolopèt un <a href="/wiki/Met%C3%B2de_scientific" title="Metòde scientific">metòde scientific</a> per la <a href="/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica">botanica</a>, que presentava de tecnicas empiricas e experimentalas per l'ensag, la descripcion e l'identificacion de nombrosas <a href="/wiki/Farmacognosia" title="Farmacognosia">matèrias primièras naturalas</a>, e separava los rapòrts non verificats d'aqueles apiejats per los ensages e las observacions<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>. Son escolan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Baitar&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn al-Baitar (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn al-Baitar</a> publiquèt lo <i>Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada</i>, qu'es considerat coma una de las compilacions botanicas màgers de l'istòria, e faguèt autoritat dins la botanica pendent de sègles. Conten d'articles detalhats sus almens 1400 <a href="/wiki/Planta" class="mw-redirect" title="Planta">plantas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noiridura" class="mw-redirect" title="Noiridura">mangiscas</a>, e <a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%B2ga" title="Dròga">drògas</a>, que 300 foguèron sas pròprias descobèrtas originalas. Lo <i>Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada</i> aguèt tanben una influéncia en <a href="/wiki/Eur%C3%B2pa" title="Euròpa">Euròpa</a> après d'essèr estat traduch en <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">latin</a> en 1758.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geografia_e_exploracion">Geografia e exploracion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=18" title="Modificar la seccion : Geografia e exploracion" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Geografia e exploracion"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Portuguese_Caravel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Portuguese_Caravel.jpg/220px-Portuguese_Caravel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Portuguese_Caravel.jpg/330px-Portuguese_Caravel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Portuguese_Caravel.jpg/440px-Portuguese_Caravel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1126" data-file-height="1747" /></a><figcaption>La <a href="/wiki/Carav%C3%A8la" title="Caravèla">caravèla</a> foguèt fortament influenciada per l'estil dels vaissèls musulmans.</figcaption></figure> <p>Los viatges de longas distàncias creèron un besonh de mapas novèlas, e los viatjaires sovent provesiguèron las informacions necessàrias. E mai que tals viatges foguèsson azardós a l'<a href="/wiki/Edat_Mejana" title="Edat Mejana">Edat Mejana</a>, los musulmans entreprenguèron pasmens de viatges longasses. Una rason per aquò èra l'obligacion per cada musulman de far lo <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a>, lo romiatge musulman que cada an se debana a <a href="/wiki/La_M%C3%A8ca" title="La Mèca">La Mèca</a> en Arabia Saudita e trai de fidèls d'<a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, d'Al Andalús, de <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8rsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pèrsia">Pèrsia</a> e d'<a href="/wiki/%C3%8Dndia" title="Índia">Índia</a>. Un autre motiu pels viatges èra lo negòci. Los musulmans fasián de comerci amb los europèus, los indians e los chineses e los mercants arabis viatjavan subre de longas distàncias per menar sos afars.<sup id="cite_ref-ESS116_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESS116-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lo baculus, utilizat per l'astronomia nautica, a per origina Al Andalús e foguèt utilizat pus tard pels navigators portugueses pels viatges de longa distància.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Las origina de la <a href="/wiki/Carav%C3%A8la" title="Caravèla">caravèla</a>, utilizada per las longas traversadas pels portugueses e espanhòls dempuèi lo sègle XV, remonta al <i>qarib</i> emplegats pels exploradors d'Al Andalús al sègle XIII.<sup id="cite_ref-Hobson_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hobson-65"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Segon una teoria controversiada, los exploradors d'Al Andalós aurián pogut viatjar fins a las Americas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medecina">Medecina</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=19" title="Modificar la seccion : Medecina" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Medecina"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Canons_of_medicine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Canons_of_medicine.JPG/220px-Canons_of_medicine.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Canons_of_medicine.JPG/330px-Canons_of_medicine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Canons_of_medicine.JPG/440px-Canons_of_medicine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>Una copia <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latina</a> del <i>Canon de la Medicina</i>, datada de 1484, a la bibliotèca de l'Universitat de San Antonio(Texas)</figcaption></figure> <p>Còrdoa sola èra reputada per aver mai de 50 espitals (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bimaristan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bimaristan (la pagina existís pas)">Bimaristan</a>) al temps d'<a href="/wiki/Albucassis" title="Albucassis">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi</a> (Abulcasis).<sup id="cite_ref-FSTC_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FSTC-66"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Sir <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Bagot_Glubb&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="John Bagot Glubb (la pagina existís pas)">John Bagot Glubb</a> escriguèt:<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>A l'epòca de Mamun las escòlas de medecina èran extremament activas a <a href="/wiki/Bagdad" title="Bagdad">Bagdad</a>. Lo primièr espital public</i> <i>foguèt dubèrt a Bagdad durant lo <a href="/wiki/Califat" title="Califat">Califat</a> de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harun_al-Rashid&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Harun al-Rashid (la pagina existís pas)">Haroon-ar-Rashid</a>. Coma lo sistèma se</i> <i>desvolopava, los mètges e cirurgians èran encargats de balhar de lecturas als estudiants en medecina e de</i> <i>decernir los diplòmas als que consideravan qualificats per practicar. Lo primièr <a href="/w/index.php?title=Espital&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Espital (la pagina existís pas)">espital</a> en Egipte foguèt</i> <i>dubèrt en 872 AD e après aquò los espitals publics espeliguèron dins l'empèri d'Espanha tot fins a</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Magr%C3%A8b" title="Magrèb">Magrèb</a> e <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8rsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pèrsia">Pèrsia</a>.</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Los <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A8tge" title="Mètge">mètges</a> musulmans d'Al-Andalús contribuguèron significativament dins lo camp de <a href="/wiki/Medecina" title="Medecina">medecina</a>, inclusent los domenis de l'<a href="/wiki/Anatomia" title="Anatomia">anatomia</a> e de la <a href="/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia">fisiologia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Albucassis" title="Albucassis">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi</a> (Abulcasis), qu'es considerat coma lo "paire de la cirurgia modèrna",<sup id="cite_ref-Araguz_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Araguz-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> contribuguèt grandament a la disciplina de la <a href="/wiki/Cirurgia" title="Cirurgia">cirurgia</a> amb son <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Tasrif" title="Al-Tasrif">Kitab al-Tasrif</a></i> ("<i>Metòde de Medecina</i>"), una enciclopèdia medicala de 30 volums que foguèt pus tard traduita en <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">latin</a> e en <a href="/wiki/Occitan" title="Occitan">occitan</a> e utilizada dins las escòlas de medecina musulmanas e europèas pendent de sègles. Pausèt las fondacions de la cirurgia modèrna,<sup id="cite_ref-Araguz_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Araguz-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> amb son <i>Kitab <a href="/wiki/Al-Tasrif" title="Al-Tasrif">al-Tasrif</a></i>, que i inventèt nombrosas aisinas cirurgicalas, en particular las primièras aisinas cirurgicalas especificament femeninas,<sup id="cite_ref-Saad_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saad-69"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> e tanben l'usatge cirurgical del <a href="/w/index.php?title=Catgut&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Catgut (la pagina existís pas)">catgut</a>, dels <a href="/w/index.php?title=Forceps&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Forceps (la pagina existís pas)">forceps</a>, de la ligatura...etc. <sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cap al sègle Xen, los medecins e cirurgians musulmans aplicavan d'<a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%B2l" title="Alcòl">alcòl</a> purificat subre las <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nafradura&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nafradura (la pagina existís pas)">nafraduras</a> coma agent <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antiseptic&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Antiseptic (la pagina existís pas)">antiseptic</a>. Los cirurgians d'Al Andalús utilizavan de metòdes especials per fin de manténer l'antisepsia abans e pendent la cirurgia. Son tanben a l'origina de protocòls especifics per manténer l'igièna dins lo periòde que seguís l'operacion. Son taus de capitada èra tant enauçat que de dignitaris d'Euròpa tota venián a <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B2rdoa" title="Còrdoa">Còrdoa</a> per èsser tractats dins una mena de "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Clinica_Mayo&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Clinica Mayo (la pagina existís pas)">Clinica Mayo</a>" de l'Edat Mejana<sup id="cite_ref-Ajram_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ajram-71"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Zuhr&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Zuhr (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn Zuhr</a> (Avenzoar) foguèt lo primièr cirurgian experimental conegut.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Al sègle XIIen foguèt responsable de l'introduccion del <a href="/wiki/Met%C3%B2de_scientific" title="Metòde scientific">metòde scientific</a> experimental dins la cirurgia, e foguèt lo primièr d'emplegar los ensages suls animals per fin d'experimentar de proceduras cirurgicalas abans de las aplicar als pacients umans.<sup id="cite_ref-Rabie2005_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rabie2005-73"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Faguèt tanben las primièras <a href="/w/index.php?title=Disseccion&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Disseccion (la pagina existís pas)">disseccions</a> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Autopsia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Autopsia (la pagina existís pas)">autopsias</a> pòstmortem tant en çò dels umans qu'en çò dels animals.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Establiguèt tanben la cirurgia coma disciplina independenta de la medecina , en introdusir un cicle d'entraïnament pels futurs cirurgians, per fin de los qualificar abans que sián menats a far d'operacions d'un biais independent e per definir los ròtles dels practicans generalistas e dels cirurgians.<sup id="cite_ref-Rabie2005_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rabie2005-73"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Al Andalús, <a href="/wiki/Albucassis" title="Albucassis">Abu al-Qasim</a> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Zuhr&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Zuhr (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn Zuhr</a>, entre d'autres cirurgians musulmans, practicavan de centenas d'operacions cirurgicalas jos anestesia per inalacion d'espongas trempadas dins de narcotics. Los mètges musulmans foguèron a l'origina de l'emplec de derivats de l'<a href="/wiki/%C3%92pi" title="Òpi">òpi</a> coma anestesics a l'Edat Mejana. <a href="/wiki/Avicena" title="Avicena">Ibn Sina</a> (Avicena) escriguèt a prepaus de son emplec medical dins son <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Canon_de_la_Medicina&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Canon de la Medicina (la pagina existís pas)">Canon de la Medicina</a></i>, que mai tard influencièt lo trabalh de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paracels&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Paracels (la pagina existís pas)">Paracels</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Psicologia_e_Sociologia">Psicologia e Sociologia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=20" title="Modificar la seccion : Psicologia e Sociologia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Psicologia e Sociologia"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Albucassis" title="Albucassis">Abu al-Qasim</a> (Abulcasis), lo paire de la <a href="/wiki/Cirurgia" title="Cirurgia">cirurgia</a> modèrna, desvolopèt de concepcions de materials e de tecnicas que son totjorn utilizadas en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurocirurgia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Neurocirurgia (la pagina existís pas)">neurocirurgia</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Zuhr&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Zuhr (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn Zuhr</a> (Avenzoar) faguèt la primièra descripcion precisa de trebolicis <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurologia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Neurologia (la pagina existís pas)">neurologics</a>, coma la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meningiti&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Meningiti (la pagina existís pas)">meningiti</a>, la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tromboflebiti&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tromboflebiti (la pagina existís pas)">tromboflebiti</a> intracraniana, e las tumors de cellulas germinalas mediastinalas, e portèt sas contribucions a la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurofarmacologia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Neurofarmacologia (la pagina existís pas)">neurofarmacologia</a> modèrna. <a href="/wiki/Averro%C3%A8s" title="Averroès">Averroès</a> suggeriguèt l'existéncia de la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Malauti%C3%A1_de_Parkinson&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Malautiá de Parkinson (la pagina existís pas)">malautiá de Parkinson</a> e atribuiguèt las proprietats fotorectrises de la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Retina (la pagina existís pas)">retina</a>. <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> escriguèt subre los trebolaments <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuropsiquiatria&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Neuropsiquiatria (la pagina existís pas)">neuropsiquiatrics</a> e descriguèt la <a href="/w/index.php?title=R%C3%A0bia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ràbia (la pagina existís pas)">ràbia</a> e l'intoxicacion per la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Atropa_belladonna&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Atropa belladonna (la pagina existís pas)">belladonna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Araguz_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Araguz-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Said_Al-Andalusi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Said Al-Andalusi (la pagina existís pas)">Said Al-Andalusi</a> (1029–1168) establiguèt que totes los umans de totas las regions del monde avián una origina comuna mas diferissián per d'unes aspèctes: "<a href="/wiki/Etica" title="Etica">etica</a>, aparéncia, païsatge e lenga". Considerèt l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ist%C3%B2ria_d%27Egipte&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Istòria d&#39;Egipte (la pagina existís pas)">Istòria d'Egipte</a> coma una part de l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ist%C3%B2ria_universala&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Istòria universala (la pagina existís pas)">istòria universala</a> de tota l'umanitat, e faguèt lo ligam entre Egipte e <a href="/wiki/Sodan" title="Sodan">Sodan</a> e l'istòria dels <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">arabs</a> a travèrs un avi comun.<sup id="cite_ref-Daly-17_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daly-17-75"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Liguèron l'anciana Egipte a l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ist%C3%B2ria_Musulmana&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Istòria Musulmana (la pagina existís pas)">Istòria Musulmana</a> a travèrs d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hagar_(B%C3%ADblia)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hagar (Bíblia) (la pagina existís pas)">Hajar</a> (Hagar), molher d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_view_of_Abraham&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic view of Abraham (la pagina existís pas)">Ibrahim</a> (Abraham) e maire d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ismail&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ismail (la pagina existís pas)">Ismail</a> (Ismaèl), lo patriarca dels arabis,<sup id="cite_ref-Daly-17_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daly-17-75"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> fasent d'Hajar la maire dels arabis.<sup id="cite_ref-Daly-18_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daly-18-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Agricultura">Agricultura</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=21" title="Modificar la seccion : Agricultura" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Agricultura"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tre lo sègle IX, un sistèma agricòla modèrne venguèt central dins la vida economica e l'organizacion dels califats, en remplaçar lo modèl roman largament virat cap a l'exportacion. Las ciutats de l'Orient Mejan, d'Africa del Nòrd e de l'Espanha moresca èran provesidas d'un sistèma agricòla elaborat amb irrigacion extensiva basat sus la coneissença dels principis d'<a href="/wiki/Idraulica" title="Idraulica">idraulica</a> e d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Idrostatica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Idrostatica (la pagina existís pas)">idrostatica</a>, que d'unes foguèron eiretats dels romans. </p><p>L'introduction de culturas nòvas transformèt l'agricultura en una industria globala capabla d'exportar pertot<sup id="cite_ref-Watson_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson-77"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> en particular en Euròpa que l'agricultura s'i limitava a qualques varietats de blat vengudas d'<a href="/wiki/Asia_Centrala" title="Asia Centrala">Asia Centrala</a>. L'Espanha moresca recebèt çò qu'anava transmetre a la rèsta d'Euròpa; de metòdes de cultura, e tanben de plantas, fruches e ortalissas nòvas. Aquelas nòvas culturas inclusián sucre de cana, ris, citrus, albricòts, coton, carchòfas, merinjanas, e safran. D'autras, ja conegudas, foguèron en mai desvolopadas. Maitas foguèron puèi exportadas de las còstas espanhòlas cap a las colonias espanhòlas del monde nòu. Tanben transmesa per l'influéncia musulmana, l'industria de la seda espeliguèt, lo lin èra cultivat e exportat, e l'<a href="/wiki/Espart" title="Espart">espart</a>, que butava salvatge en maitas bosigas, èra amassat e transformat en diferents articles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eiretatge_cultural">Eiretatge cultural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=22" title="Modificar la seccion : Eiretatge cultural" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Eiretatge cultural"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arquitectura">Arquitectura</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=23" title="Modificar la seccion : Arquitectura" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Arquitectura"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Los dirigents musulmans introdusiguèron un estil arquitectural arabi, que a la fin de son règne en Iberia inclusiá d'elements arabis, bizantins, e visigotics. Aquestes elements daissèron una influéncia dins la Peninsula Iberica après la Reconquista. Qualques exemples d'aquelas contribucions arquitecturalas a l'epòca de las <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifas</a> son la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Granda_Mosqueta_de_C%C3%B2rdoa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Granda Mosqueta de Còrdoa (la pagina existís pas)">Granda Mosqueta de Còrdoa</a> e lo palais cordoan d'al-Rustafa. Crestians e josieus adoptèron d'elements arquitecturals arabis dins sas pròprias <a href="/wiki/Gl%C3%A8isa" class="mw-disambig" title="Glèisa">glèisas</a> e <a href="/wiki/Sinag%C3%B2ga" title="Sinagòga">sinagògas</a>. Aquò foguèt nomenat l'estil mossarabic. L'arquitectura mossarabica se caracteriza per l'abséncia de decoracion exteriora, la diversitat dels plans de sòl, l'usatge de l'arca de fèrre de caval dins l'estil islamic, e la preséncia de colomnas coma supòrt, amb un capitèl ondrat d'elements vegetals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cosina">Cosina</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=24" title="Modificar la seccion : Cosina" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Cosina"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Los <a href="/wiki/Restaurant" title="Restaurant">restaurants</a> de l'Espanha islamica medievala servissián de repais de tres plats, coma o preconizèt <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ziryab&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ziryab (la pagina existís pas)">Ziryab</a> al sègle IX, en insistir sul fach que los plats avián d'èsser servits en tres etapas separadas: <a href="/wiki/Sopa" title="Sopa">sopa</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plat_principal&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Plat principal (la pagina existís pas)">plat principal</a>, e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dess%C3%A8rt&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dessèrt (la pagina existís pas)">dessèrt</a><sup id="cite_ref-Marin_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marin-78"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lingüistica_e_literatura"><span id="Ling.C3.BCistica_e_literatura"></span>Lingüistica e literatura</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=25" title="Modificar la seccion : Lingüistica e literatura" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Lingüistica e literatura"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg/220px-Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg/330px-Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg/440px-Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1841" /></a><figcaption>Scèna de cant de laüt extraita d'un manuscrit de l'istòria de Bayad e Riyad</figcaption></figure> <p>L'escòla de Toledo foguèt un centre reputat de lingüistica medievala. De membres celèbres d'aquesta escòla foguèron: Yehudah ibn Tibbon, Hermannus Alemannus, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adelard_de_Bath&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Adelard de Bath (la pagina existís pas)">Adelard de Bath</a> e <a href="/wiki/Gerard_de_Cremona" title="Gerard de Cremona">Gerard de Cremona</a>. </p><p>Al sègle XII, lo filosòf e escrivan arabi andalós <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Tufail&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Tufail (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn Tufail</a> (latinizat en "Abubacer") demostrèt lo primièr que la teoria de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tabula_rasa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tabula rasa (la pagina existís pas)">tabula rasa</a> d'<a href="/wiki/Avicena" title="Avicena">Avicena</a> èra una <a href="/w/index.php?title=Experi%C3%A9ncia_mentala&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Experiéncia mentala (la pagina existís pas)">experiéncia mentala</a>, dins sa novèla, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayy_ibn_Yaqzan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hayy ibn Yaqzan (la pagina existís pas)">Hayy ibn Yaqzan</a></i>, que i descriu lo desvolopament de la ment d'un <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enfant_salvatge&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Enfant salvatge (la pagina existís pas)">enfant salvatge</a> "en partir de la tabula rasa entrò l'atge adult, en isolacion completa de la societat" subre una <a href="/w/index.php?title=Illa_des%C3%A8rta&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Illa desèrta (la pagina existís pas)">illa desèrta</a>. La traduccion latina d'aquel trabalh, titolada <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>, publicada per <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Pococke&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Pococke (la pagina existís pas)">Edward Pococke</a> en 1671, aguèt una influéncia sus la formulacion de la tabula rasa de <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> dins <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (la pagina existís pas)">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> que venguèt una de las fonts pricipalas de l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Empiricisme&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Empiricisme (la pagina existís pas)">empiricisme</a> dins la filosofia occidentala modèrna, e influencièt maites filosòfs del sègle de las Luses, coma <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> e <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>. </p><p><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hadith Bayad wa Riyad (la pagina existís pas)">Hadith Bayad wa Riyad</a></i> (<i>L'istòria de Bayad e Riyad</i>) es una istòria d'amor del sègle XIII escrita a Al Andalós. Los personatges principals del raconte son Bayad, filh d'un mercant de <a href="/wiki/Damasc" title="Damasc">Damasc</a>, e Riyad, filha ben educada de la cort d'un <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hajib&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hajib (la pagina existís pas)">Hajib</a> (vizir o ministre) d'Al Andalús qu'es en relacion amb la domaisèla. Lo manuscrit <i>Hadith Bayad wa Riyad</i> es considerat coma lo sol manuscrit illustrat conegut qu'aja subreviscut a mai de uèit sègles de preséncia musulmana e aràbia dins la Peninsula Iberica. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Traduccions">Traduccions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=26" title="Modificar la seccion : Traduccions" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Traduccions"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Una contribucion majora al desvolopament de la sciéncia en Euròpa foguèt la recèrca pels sabents europèus del saber portat pels musulmans de la Peninsula Iberica o de Sicília. Traduguèron aital de nombroses tèxtes scientifics e filosofics de l'arabi al latin. </p><p>Un dels traductors pus productius en Espanha èra <a href="/wiki/Gerard_de_Cremona" title="Gerard de Cremona">Gerard de Cremona</a>, que revirèt 87 libres de l'arabi al latin,<sup id="cite_ref-Zaimeche_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zaimeche-79"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> entre los quals <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abreujat_del_calcul_per_la_restauracion_e_la_comparason&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Abreujat del calcul per la restauracion e la comparason (la pagina existís pas)">Abreujat del calcul per la restauracion e la comparason</a></i> de <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi" title="Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi">Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi</a>, <i>Elementa astronomica</i> de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jabir_ibn_Aflah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Jabir ibn Aflah (la pagina existís pas)">Jabir ibn Aflah</a> ,<sup id="cite_ref-Katz_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz-80"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>los trabalhs d'optica e d'astronomia de <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ahmad_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_Kath%C4%ABr_al-Fargh%C4%81n%C4%AB&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī (la pagina existís pas)">Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī</a>, e sus la classificacion de las sciéncias de <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> los trabalhs en quimia e medecina de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhazes&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhazes (la pagina existís pas)">Razi</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Bieber_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bieber-82"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> los trabalhs de<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thabit_ibn_Qurra&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Thabit ibn Qurra (la pagina existís pas)">Thabit ibn Qurra</a> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq (la pagina existís pas)">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> e aqueles de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arzachel&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Arzachel (la pagina existís pas)">Arzachel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jabir_ibn_Aflah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Jabir ibn Aflah (la pagina existís pas)">Jabir ibn Aflah</a>, lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Banū Mūsā (la pagina existís pas)">Banū Mūsā</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ab%C5%AB_K%C4%81mil_Shuj%C4%81_ibn_Aslam&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam (la pagina existís pas)">Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albucassis" title="Albucassis">Abu al-Qasim</a>, e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Haytham&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn al-Haytham (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (inclús lo <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tractat_d%27Optica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tractat d&#39;Optica (la pagina existís pas)">Tractat d'Optica</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Zaimeche_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zaimeche-79"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amb la casuda de l'<a href="/wiki/Emirat_de_Granada" title="Emirat de Granada">Emirat de Granada</a> en 1492, las iniciativas scientificas e tecnologicas del mond islamic foguèron eiretadas pels europèus e pausèron las fondacions de la <a href="/wiki/Renaissen%C3%A7a" title="Renaissença">Renaissença</a> e de la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolucion_Scientifica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Revolucion Scientifica (la pagina existís pas)">Revolucion Scientifica</a> en Euròpa.<sup id="cite_ref-Grant_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant-84"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Musica">Musica</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=27" title="Modificar la seccion : Musica" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Musica"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Lautenmacher-1568.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Lautenmacher-1568.png/220px-Lautenmacher-1568.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Lautenmacher-1568.png/330px-Lautenmacher-1568.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Lautenmacher-1568.png/440px-Lautenmacher-1568.png 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>Lo <a href="/wiki/La%C3%BCt" title="Laüt">laüt</a> foguèt adoptat del mond arabi. (Estampa de 1568).</figcaption></figure> <p>Nombroses instruments musicals utilizats en musica classica, mai que mai dins la musica espanhòla, an per origina la musica aràbia e los instruments utilizats en Al-Andalus: lo <a href="/wiki/La%C3%BCt" title="Laüt">laüt</a> èra derivat del <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oud&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Oud (la pagina existís pas)">al'ud</a></i>, lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reb%C3%A8c&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Rebèc (la pagina existís pas)">rebèc</a> (avi del <a href="/wiki/Violon" title="Violon">violon</a>) del <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rebab&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Rebab (la pagina existís pas)">rebab</a></i>, la <a href="/wiki/Guitarra" title="Guitarra">guitarra</a> de la <i>qitara</i>, lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Naker&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Naker (la pagina existís pas)">naker</a> del <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naqareh&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Naqareh (la pagina existís pas)">naqareh</a></i>, l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Adufe&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Adufe (la pagina existís pas)">adufe</a> del <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daf&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Daf (la pagina existís pas)">al-duff</a></i>, l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alboka&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Alboka (la pagina existís pas)">alboka</a> de l'<i>al-buq</i>, L'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Naffir&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Naffir (la pagina existís pas)">anafil</a> del <i>al-nafir</i>, l'exabeba de l' <i>al-shabbaba</i> (<a href="/wiki/Fla%C3%BCta" title="Flaüta">flaüta</a>), l'atabal de l' <i>al-tabl</i>, l'atambal del <i>al-tinbal</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Balaban_(instrument)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Balaban (instrument) (la pagina existís pas)">balaban</a>, las <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cancarinetas&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Cancarinetas (la pagina existís pas)">cancarinetas</a> del <i>kasatan</i>, las <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuna_(music)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuna (music) (la pagina existís pas)">sonajas de azófar</a> del <i>sunuj al-sufr</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> lo xelami del <i>sulami</i> o <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fistula&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Fistula (la pagina existís pas)">fistula</a></i> (flaüta),<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shawm&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Shawm (la pagina existís pas)">shawm</a> e la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dol%C3%A7aina&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dolçaina (la pagina existís pas)">dolçaina</a> dels instruments d'ancas doblas <i>zamr</i> e <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zurna&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Zurna (la pagina existís pas)">al-zurna</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaita_Galiciana&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaita Galiciana (la pagina existís pas)">gaita</a> de la <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhaita&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhaita (la pagina existís pas)">ghaita</a></i>, lo <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rackett&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Rackett (la pagina existís pas)">rackett</a></i> de l'<i>iraqya</i> o <i>iraqiyya</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> la <a href="/wiki/Arpa_classica" class="mw-redirect" title="Arpa classica">arpa</a> e la <a href="/wiki/Citara" title="Citara">citara</a> del <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kanun_(instrument)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kanun (instrument) (la pagina existís pas)">qanun</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Canon_(musica)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Canon (musica) (la pagina existís pas)">canon</a> del <i>qanun</i>, lo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Violin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Violin (la pagina existís pas)">violin</a> del <i>ghichak</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> e la <a href="/wiki/Teorba" title="Teorba">Teorba</a> del <i>tarab</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> L'influéncia moresca se retròba tanben dins lo <a href="/wiki/Flamenc" class="mw-disambig" title="Flamenc">flamenc</a> modèrne qu'aquò siá al nivèl vocal, instrumental o dins la dança. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Terralha">Terralha</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=28" title="Modificar la seccion : Terralha" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Terralha"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Lustreware.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lustreware.jpg/220px-Lustreware.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lustreware.jpg/330px-Lustreware.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lustreware.jpg/440px-Lustreware.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Ceramica ispanomoresca vitrificada amb decoracion d'esmauts de Lustre metallic, Espanha <i>circa</i> 1475.</figcaption></figure> <p>La <a href="/w/index.php?title=Faien%C3%A7a_ispanomoresca&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Faiença ispanomoresca (la pagina existís pas)">faiença ispanomoresca</a> es un estil de <a href="/wiki/Terralha" title="Terralha">terralha</a> islamica creada a Al Andalús, après que los <a href="/wiki/Moros" title="Moros">moros</a> ajan introduits doas tecnicas de <a href="/wiki/Ceramica" title="Ceramica">ceramica</a> en <a href="/wiki/Eur%C3%B2pa" title="Euròpa">Euròpa</a>: vitrificacion amb faïença opaca blanca, e lustres metallics pintats. La faiença ispanomoresca diferissiá de la terralha dels païses crestians per sas decoracions.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>La <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitrificacion&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Vitrificacion (la pagina existís pas)">vitrificacion</a> de la <a href="/wiki/Ceramica" title="Ceramica">ceramica</a> foguèt inventada pels terralhaires musulmans al sègle VIII a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bass%C3%B2ra&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bassòra (la pagina existís pas)">Bassòra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mason_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> La primièra ceramica vitrificada sembla que foguèsse estada facha en <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> al sègle IX.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A partir d'aquí s'espandiguèt en <a href="/wiki/Egipte" title="Egipte">Egipte</a>, <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8rsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pèrsia">Pèrsia</a> e Espanha, abans d'aténher <a href="/wiki/It%C3%A0lia" title="Itàlia">Itàlia</a> a la <a href="/wiki/Renaissen%C3%A7a" title="Renaissença">Renaissença</a>, los <a href="/wiki/Pa%C3%AFses_Basses" title="Païses Basses">Païses Basses</a> al sègle XVI, e <a href="/wiki/Anglat%C3%A8rra" title="Anglatèrra">Anglatèrra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7a" title="França">França</a> e los autres païses europèus pauc après. </p><p>Los <a href="/w/index.php?title=Esmauts_de_Lustre_metallic&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Esmauts de Lustre metallic (la pagina existís pas)">esmauts de Lustre metallic</a> foguèron inventats per <a href="/w/index.php?title=J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān (la pagina existís pas)">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a>, que los apliquèt a la ceramica al sègle VIII<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Puèi la produccion d'esmauts de lustre metallic venguèt populara en <a href="/wiki/Orient_Mejan" title="Orient Mejan">Orient Mejan</a>, s'espandiguèt en <a href="/wiki/Eur%C3%B2pa" title="Euròpa">Euròpa</a> en primièr en Al Andalús, en particular a <a href="/wiki/Malaga" title="Malaga">Malaga</a>, puèi en Itàlia, que i foguèt utilizada per melhorar la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Majolica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Majolica (la pagina existís pas)">majolica</a>. </p><p>L'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Albarello&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Albarello (la pagina existís pas)">albarello</a> es un tipe de terralha <a href="/w/index.php?title=Majolica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Majolica (la pagina existís pas)">majolica</a> originalament destinat a conténer las drògas dels <a href="/w/index.php?title=Apoticari&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Apoticari (la pagina existís pas)">apoticaris</a>. Lo desvolopament d'aquel tipe de pòts de <a href="/wiki/Farmacia" title="Farmacia">farmacia</a> es eissit de l'Orient Mejan islamic. Foguèt portat en Itàlia pels mercants ispanomorescs al sègle XV. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eiretatge_tecnologic">Eiretatge tecnologic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=29" title="Modificar la seccion : Eiretatge tecnologic" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Eiretatge tecnologic"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichi%C3%A8r:Campo_de_Criptana_Molinos_de_Viento_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Campo_de_Criptana_Molinos_de_Viento_1.jpg/220px-Campo_de_Criptana_Molinos_de_Viento_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Campo_de_Criptana_Molinos_de_Viento_1.jpg/330px-Campo_de_Criptana_Molinos_de_Viento_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Campo_de_Criptana_Molinos_de_Viento_1.jpg/440px-Campo_de_Criptana_Molinos_de_Viento_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1149" data-file-height="862" /></a><figcaption>Los primièrs <a href="/wiki/Molin_de_vent" title="Molin de vent">molins de vents</a> d'aisses verticals foguèron bastits pels engenhaires islamics</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infrastructura">Infrastructura</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=30" title="Modificar la seccion : Infrastructura" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Infrastructura"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>De <a href="/wiki/Molina" class="mw-redirect" title="Molina">molinas</a> industrialas foguèron bastidas en Al-Andalus entre los sègles XI e XIII. Molins de caucatge, fabricas siderurgicas, e autres molins, s'espandiguèron de l'Espanha musulmana a l'Espanha crestiana al sègle XII.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Lo primièr <a href="/wiki/Molin_de_vent" title="Molin de vent">molin de vent</a> foguèt bastit en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sistan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sistan (la pagina existís pas)">Sistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afganistan" title="Afganistan">Afganistan</a>, aperaquí entre los sègles VII e VIII, coma lo descriguèron los geografs musulmans. Aqueles èran de molins de vent d'aisses verticals qu'avián un long arbre mecanic vertical e amb d'alas rectangularas.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Foguèron indrodusits en Euròpa per Espanha. Lo molin de pont èra un tipe de molina unic qu'èra bastit al dintre de la superestructura d'un pont. La primièra traça d'aquel tipe de molin se tròba a Còrdoa al sègle XII.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-99"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> La primièra <a href="/wiki/Farga" title="Farga">farga</a> moguda per per l'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Energia_idrolica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Energia idrolica (la pagina existís pas)">energia idrolica</a> d'una <a href="/wiki/Molina" class="mw-redirect" title="Molina">molina</a> e non pas per la fòrça fisica, foguèt inventat al sègle VII dins l'Espanha islamica.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-65_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-65-100"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> De molinas foguèron utilizada dins las minas a <a href="/wiki/Samarcanda" title="Samarcanda">Samarcanda</a> a partir de 973. En <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8rsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pèrsia">Pèrsia</a> medievala servissián per trissar la mena; al sègle XI s'espandiguèron dins tot lo mond islamic inclús en Al Andalús.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-10_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-10-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fòrça <a href="/wiki/Paissi%C3%A8ra" title="Paissièra">paissièras</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robina&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robina (la pagina existís pas)">robinas</a>, e sistèmas de provesiment d'aiga <a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Qanat (la pagina existís pas)">qanat</a>, e sistèmas d'<a href="/wiki/Irrigacion" title="Irrigacion">irrigacion</a> "Tribunal d'aiga" foguèron bastits pendent l'Edat d'Aur Islamic e son totjorn en usatge uèi dins los païses islamics e las ancianas províncias islamicas europèas coma <a href="/wiki/Sic%C3%ADlia" title="Sicília">Sicília</a> e la <a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Iberica" title="Peninsula Iberica">Peninsula Iberica</a>, particularament en <a href="/wiki/Andalosia" title="Andalosia">Andalosia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aragon" title="Aragon">Aragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ncia_(prov%C3%ADncia)" title="Valéncia (província)">Valéncia</a>. Lo sistèma d'irrigacion e de distibucion d'aiga arabi foguèt pus tar adoptat per las <a href="/wiki/Illas_Can%C3%A0rias" title="Illas Canàrias">Illas Canàrias</a> e en <a href="/wiki/America" title="America">America</a> mercé als <a href="/wiki/Espanha" title="Espanha">espanhòls</a> e es sempre utilizat en <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A8xas" title="Tèxas">Tèxas</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C3%B2u_Mexic" title="Nòu Mexic">Nòu Mexic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexic" title="Mexic">Mexic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Per%C3%B3" title="Peró">Peró</a>, e <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Las vilas musulmanas coma Còrdoa avián un sistèma avançat d'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aiga_correnta&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Aiga correnta (la pagina existís pas)">aiga correnta</a> amb malhum de <a href="/wiki/Toat" class="mw-redirect" title="Toat">toats</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Banhs_publics&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Banhs publics (la pagina existís pas)">banhs publics</a>, fonts publicas, provesiment en <a href="/wiki/Aiga_potabla" title="Aiga potabla">aiga potabla</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> e espandiguèron los comuns e los banhs privats e publics.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Los primièrs <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanal&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Fanal (la pagina existís pas)">fanals</a> foguèron fargats dins l'Empèri arabi,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> mai que mai a Còrdoa , qu'aguèt tanben los primièrs comuns e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conteneire_d%27escobilhas&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Conteneire d&#39;escobilhas (la pagina existís pas)">conteneires d'escobilhas</a> per amassar los descais.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aviacion">Aviacion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=31" title="Modificar la seccion : Aviacion" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Aviacion"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al sègle IX dins l'"Espanha islamica", <a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A0s_Ibn_Firn%C3%A0s" title="Abbàs Ibn Firnàs">Abbàs Ibn Firnàs</a> (Armen Firnas) inventèt una version primitiva del <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paracasuda&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Paracasuda (la pagina existís pas)">paracasuda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Poore_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poore-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smithsonian_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> John H. Lienhard lo descriguèt coma seguís dins <i>The Engines of Our Ingenuity</i>: </p><p><i>"En 852, un califa nòu e una experiéncia estranha: un risca-tot nomenat Armen Firman decidiguèt de s'envolar d'una torre de Còrdoa. Planèt entrò la tèrra en fasent servir una mena de grand mantèl coma una ala per alentir sa casuda. Subrevisquèt amb de nafraduras menoras, e lo jove Ibn Firnas èra aila per o véser."</i><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ibn Firnàs foguèt tanben lo primièr que faguèt un ensag de <a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%B2l&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Vòl (la pagina existís pas)">vòl</a> contrarotlat, contrariament als ensages de planatge realizats dins la China anciana qu'èran incontrarotlables. Ibn Firnàs manipulèt las comandas de vòl de son <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ala_d%C3%A8lta&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ala dèlta (la pagina existís pas)">ala dèlta</a> en fasent servir un parelh d'alas artificialas per ajustar son <a href="/wiki/Altitud" title="Altitud">altitud</a> e cambiar de direccion. Capitèt de tornar d'ont èra partit, mas son <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aterratge&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Aterratge (la pagina existís pas)">aterratge</a> foguèt un auvari.<sup id="cite_ref-White_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Segon <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_Hitti&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Philip Hitti (la pagina existís pas)">Philip Hitti</a> dins <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ist%C3%B2ria_dels_Arabis_(libre)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Istòria dels Arabis (libre) (la pagina existís pas)">Istòria dels Arabis</a></i>: </p><p>"Ibn Firnas foguèt lo primièr òme de l'istòria que faguèt un ensag scientific del vòl."<i></i> </p><p>La maquina d'Ibn Firnas èra saique la primièra ala dèlta, e mai que i aja agut d'ensages primairencs de <a href="/w/index.php?title=S%C3%A8rp_volaira&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sèrp volaira (la pagina existís pas)">sèrps volairas</a> "embarcadas" dins la China anciana. La coneissença e las maquinas volantas de Firnas s'espandiguèron per las autras parts d'<a href="/wiki/Eur%C3%B2pa" title="Euròpa">Euròpa</a> a partir de referéncias aràbias.<sup id="cite_ref-Poore_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poore-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smithsonian_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> L'ala volanta d'Ibn Firnas foguèt tanben la primièra d'aver d'alas artificialas, e mai lo vòl foguèsse pas fin finala capitat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vejatz_tanben">Vejatz tanben</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=32" title="Modificar la seccion : Vejatz tanben" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Vejatz tanben"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ist%C3%B2ric_de_la_pres%C3%A9ncia_musulmana_dins_la_Peninsula_Iberica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Istòric de la preséncia musulmana dins la Peninsula Iberica (la pagina existís pas)">Istòric de la preséncia musulmana dins la Peninsula Iberica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conquistas_musulmanas&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Conquistas musulmanas (la pagina existís pas)">Conquistas musulmanas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Andalus (la pagina existís pas)">Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Califat_de_C%C3%B2rdoa" title="Califat de Còrdoa">Califat de Còrdoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al%27Garb_Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Al&#39;Garb Al Andalós (la pagina existís pas)">Al'Garb Al Andalós</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravids" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravids">Almoravids</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dinastia_Almohada&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dinastia Almohada (la pagina existís pas)">Dinastia Almohada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conviv%C3%A9ncia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Convivéncia (la pagina existís pas)">Convivéncia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edat_d%27Aur_Islamica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Edat d&#39;Aur Islamica (la pagina existís pas)">Edat d'Aur Islamica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_en_Espanha&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Islam en Espanha (la pagina existís pas)">Islam en Espanha</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27Islam&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Istòria de l&#39;Islam (la pagina existís pas)">Istòria de l'Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ist%C3%B2ria_dels_josieus_jol_poder_musulman&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Istòria dels josieus jol poder musulman (la pagina existís pas)">Istòria dels josieus jol poder musulman</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edat_d%27Aur_de_la_cultura_josieva_dins_la_Peninsula_Iberica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Edat d&#39;Aur de la cultura josieva dins la Peninsula Iberica (la pagina existís pas)">Edat d'Aur de la cultura josieva dins la Peninsula Iberica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_e_antisemitisme&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Islam e antisemitisme (la pagina existís pas)">Islam e antisemitisme#Espanha</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diaspora_ar%C3%A0bia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Diaspora aràbia (la pagina existís pas)">Diaspora aràbia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dhimmi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dhimmi (la pagina existís pas)">Dhimmi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Morisco&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Morisco (la pagina existís pas)">Morisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mossarabi" title="Mossarabi">Mossarabi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muladi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Muladi (la pagina existís pas)">Muladi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Reis&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kemal Reis (la pagina existís pas)">Kemal Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lista_d%27escrivans_marroquins&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Lista d&#39;escrivans marroquins (la pagina existís pas)">Lista d'escrivans marroquins</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nòtas"><span id="N.C3.B2tas"></span>Nòtas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=33" title="Modificar la seccion : Nòtas" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Nòtas"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="references-small decimal" style=""><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Pels autors arabis medievals, lo tèrme d'<i>al Andalús</i> designa la totalitat de las zonas conquistadas&#160;— siquiera temporalmente&#160;— por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, Espana y Francia" ("For the medieval Arab authors, al-Andalus designates all the conquered areas&#160;— even temporarily&#160;— by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Portugal, Spain and France"), <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_%C3%81ngel_Garc%C3%ADa_de_Cort%C3%A1zar" class="extiw" title="es:José Ángel García de Cortázar">José Ángel García de Cortázar</a>, <i>V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, 1 al 5 de agosto de 1994</i>, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1995, p.52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de al-andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo&#160;: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica." ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus to all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania"), <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eloy_Benito_Ruano" class="extiw" title="es:Eloy Benito Ruano">Eloy Benito Ruano</a>, <i>Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media</i>, Real Academia de la Historia, 2000, p.79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Andalus, al-" <i>Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. John L. Esposito, Ed. Oxford University Press. 2003. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed 12 June 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_F._O%27Callaghan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph F. O&#39;Callaghan (la pagina existís pas)">Joseph F. O'Callaghan</a>, <i>A History of Medieval Spain </i>, Cornell University Press, 1983, p.142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bossong 2002[online]:1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bossong 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">The village of Andaluz (41°31', -2°49') lies at the foot of Andaluz Mountain on the Duero River in the province of Soria, and within 10&#160;km of it are the villages of Torreandaluz and Centenera de Andaluz. A brook named Andaluz is said to flow in the province of Guadalajara out of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110209075932/http://www.andaduras.com/at_milagros.htm">Cueva de la Hoz</a> (41°00', -2°18'). Bossong[online]:10-11, but the coordinates given are according to Google Maps and differ slightly from those in Bossong.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dozy, Reinhart P. 1881. Recherches sur l'histoire et la littérature des Arabes d'Espagne pendant le Moyen-Age.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bossong 2002[online]:2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vallvé Bermejo, Joaquín. 1986. The Territorial Divisions of Muslim Spain. Madrid: CSIC (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csic.es">Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bossong[online]:3. The document in question is the Akhbar Majmu'a fi fath al-Andalus, "Collection of traditions on the conquest of al-Andalus". It was published in Spanish translation in 1867 by Emilio Lafuente y Alcántara. Its subtitle indicates it dates from the 11th c., but several historians today say the 10th c. instead, during the rule of caliph 'Abd al-Rahman III.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Halm 1989</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco_Cardini&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Franco Cardini (la pagina existís pas)">Franco Cardini</a>, <i>Europe and Islam </i>, Wiley-Blackwell, 2001, p.9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Halm 1989:254</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chandler-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Chandler_15-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tertius Chandler. <i>Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census</i> (1987), St. David's University Press (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081229030631/http://www.etext.org/Politics/World.Systems/datasets/citypop/civilizations/citypops_2000BC-1988AD">etext.org</a>). <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0889462070" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-88946-207-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Khaldun. The Muqaddimah</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/ics/ics5.htm">Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations</a>, Thomas F. Glick</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wasserstein, 1995, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayyusi. The legacy of Muslim Spain</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051109071705/http://www.twbookmark.com/books/52/0316566888/press_release.html">The Ornament of the World by María Rosa Menocal</a>, Accessed, 12 June 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2450626">.mw-parser-output span.default a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Lock_icon_blue.gif")center right no-repeat!important;padding-right:17px!important}.mw-parser-output span.abonament a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")center right no-repeat!important;padding-right:17px!important}.mw-parser-output span.liure a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")center right no-repeat!important;padding-right:17px!important}.mw-parser-output span.limitat a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")center right no-repeat!important;padding-right:17px!important}.mw-parser-output span.pdf a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif/15px-Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif")center right no-repeat!important;padding-right:17px!important}</style><span class="citation noarchive" style="font-style:normal" id="CITEREF">«<span class="default"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/spain/5.htm">Spain&#160;— AL ANDALUS</a></span>».</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, Bernard W (1984). <i>The Jews of Islam</i>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stavans, 2003, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kraemer, 2005, pp. 10–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2450626"><span class="citation noarchive" style="font-style:normal" id="CITEREF">.</span>, Accessed 12 June 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Callaghan, 1975, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roth, 1994, pp. 113–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schweitzer267-268-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Schweitzer267-268_28-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick M. Schweitzer, Marvin Perry., <i>Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present</i>, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0312165617" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-312-16561-7</a>, pp. 267–268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&amp;letter=G&amp;search=Granada">Granada</a> by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_Encyclopedia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Jewish Encyclopedia (la pagina existís pas)">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1906 ed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harzig, Hoerder and Shubert, 2003, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-islamicworldeb-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-islamicworldeb_31-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 2, 2007, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frank-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-frank_32-0">32,0</a></sup> et <sup><a href="#cite_ref-frank_32-1">32,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank and Leaman, 2003, pp. 137–138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2450626"><span class="citation noarchive" style="font-style:normal" id="CITEREF">«<span class="default"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html">Sephardim</a></span>».</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-34">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kraemer, 2005, pp. 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2450626"><span class="citation noarchive" style="font-style:normal" id="CITEREF">«<span class="default"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm">Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier</a></span>».</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-36">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Kamen, Spain 1469-1714 A Society of Conflict Third edition, pp 37–38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Previte-Orton (1971), vol. 1, pg. 376</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Previte-Orton (1971), vol. 1, pg. 377</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dato' Dzulkifli Abd Razak, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071206121721/http://www.prn2.usm.my/mainsite/bulletin/article/29dar05.html">Quest for knowledge</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Straits_Times&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="New Straits Times (la pagina existís pas)">New Sunday Times</a></i>, 3 July 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-unesco-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-unesco_40-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">UNESCO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060618094735/http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/html/CultAndCom/Table_IV_5_Europe.html">"Europe"</a>, Book production: number of titles by UDC classes, UNESCO Institute of Statistics</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fakhry-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Fakhry_41-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Majid Fakhry (2001). <i>Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence</i>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/1851682694" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-85168-269-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-42">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">«{{{1}}}»</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Russell_43-0">43,0</a></sup> et <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Russell_43-1">43,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">G. A. Russell (1994), <i>The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England</i>, pp. 224–262, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brill_Publishers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Brill Publishers (la pagina existís pas)">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004094598" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-09459-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), <i>The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān</i>, pp. 38–46, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brill_Publishers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Brill Publishers (la pagina existís pas)">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004093001" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-09300-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Tufayl&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Tufayl (la pagina existís pas)">Ibn Tufayl</a> and Léon Gauthier (1981), <i>Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan</i>, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://limitedinc.blogspot.com/2007/04/things-about-arabick-influence-on-john.html">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. A. Russell (1994), <i>The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England</i>, pp. 224–239, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brill_Publishers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Brill Publishers (la pagina existís pas)">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004094598" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-09459-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wainwright-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Wainwright_47-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Wainwright, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html">Desert island scripts</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>, 22 March 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. A. Russell (1994), <i>The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England</i>, p. 227, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brill_Publishers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Brill Publishers (la pagina existís pas)">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004094598" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-09459-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-49">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. A. Russell (1994), <i>The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England</i>, p. 247, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brill_Publishers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Brill Publishers (la pagina existís pas)">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004094598" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-09459-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Toomer-222-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Toomer-222_50-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. J. Toomer (1996), <i>Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England</i>, p. 222, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxford_University_Press&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Oxford University Press (la pagina existís pas)">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0198202911" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-820291-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFSaliba1981">Saliba 1981</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pagina(s)">p.</abbr>&#160;219)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-52">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">«{{{1}}}»</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-53">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Briffault&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Briffault (la pagina existís pas)">Robert Briffault</a> (1938). <i>The Making of Humanity</i>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gingerich-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Gingerich_54-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">«{{{1}}}»</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-55">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard R. Goldstein&#160;::(March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", <i>Isis</i> <b>63</b> (1): 39–47 [40–41].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Montada-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Montada_56-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2450626"><span class="citation noarchive" style="font-style:normal" id="CITEREF">«<span class="default"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-bajja">Ibn Bajja</a></span>».</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-57">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", <i>Isis</i> <b>63</b> (1): 39–47 [41].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gale-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Gale_58-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">«{{{1}}}»</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-59">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">«{{{1}}}»</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-60">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">«{{{1}}}»</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-61">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", <i>OISE Papers</i>, in <i>STSE Education</i>, Vol. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-62">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell McNeil, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071015005248/http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/baitart.htm">Ibn al-Baitar</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaspina_University-College&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Malaspina University-College (la pagina existís pas)">Malaspina University-College</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ESS116-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-ESS116_63-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Edson and Savage-Smith (2004), pp. 113–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-64">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dr. Salah Zaimeche PhD (<a href="/w/index.php?title=University_of_Manchester_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (la pagina existís pas)">University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology</a>), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090526052308/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=233">1000 years of missing Astronomy</a>, FSTC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hobson-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Hobson_65-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Hobson (2004), <i>The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation</i>, p. 141, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cambridge_University_Press&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Cambridge University Press (la pagina existís pas)">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0521547245" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-54724-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FSTC-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FSTC_66-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2450626"><span class="citation noarchive" style="font-style:normal" id="CITEREF">«<span class="default"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=364">Muslim Contribution to Cosmetics</a></span>».</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-67">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Bagot_Glubb&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="John Bagot Glubb (la pagina existís pas)">John Bagot Glubb</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cf.&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Cf. (la pagina existís pas)">cf.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/quote2.html">Quotations on Islamic Civilization</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Araguz-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Araguz_68-0">68,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Araguz_68-1">68,1</a></sup> et <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Araguz_68-2">68,2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", <i>Revista de neurología</i> <b>34</b> (9): 877–892 <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="oc" dir="ltr">Error de citacion&#160;: Etiqueta <code>&lt;ref&gt;</code> no vàlida; el nom «Araguz» està definit diverses vegades amb contingut diferent.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saad-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Saad_69-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", <i>Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine</i> <b>2</b> (4), pp. 475–479 [476]. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxford_University_Press&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Oxford University Press (la pagina existís pas)">Oxford University Press</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-70">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", <i>The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.</i> <b>4</b> (1), pp. 1–15. (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cf.&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Cf. (la pagina existís pas)">cf.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111001101604/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674">Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage</a>, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ajram-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Ajram_71-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992), <i>Miracle of Islamic Science</i>, Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0911119434" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-911119-43-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-72">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", <i>Saudi Medical Journal</i> <b>27</b> (11): 1631–1641.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rabie2005-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Rabie2005_73-0">73,0</a></sup> et <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Rabie2005_73-1">73,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", <i>Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333–1339</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-74">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120208031923/http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine">Islamic medicine</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hutchinson_Encyclopedia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hutchinson Encyclopedia (la pagina existís pas)">Hutchinson Encyclopedia</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daly-17-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Daly-17_75-0">75,0</a></sup> et <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Daly-17_75-1">75,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">«{{{1}}}»</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daly-18-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Daly-18_76-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">«{{{1}}}»</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Watson_77-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100", <i>The Journal of Economic History</i> <b>34</b> (1), pp. 8–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marin-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Marin_78-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Manuela Marin (1994), <i>The Legacy of Muslim Spain</i>, p. 117, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brill_Publishers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Brill Publishers (la pagina existís pas)">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004095993" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-09599-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zaimeche-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Zaimeche_79-0">79,0</a></sup> et <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Zaimeche_79-1">79,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Salah Zaimeche (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Main%20-%20Aspects%20of%20the%20Islamic%20Influence1.pdf">Aspects of the Islamic Influence on Science and Learning in the Christian West</a>, p. 10. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Katz_80-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">V. J. Katz, <i>A History of Mathematics: An Introduction</i>, p. 291</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-81">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see: Edward Grant (1974) <i>A Source Book in Medieval Science</i>, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr.), pp. 35–8 or Charles Burnett, "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century," <i>Science in Context</i>, 14 (2001): at 249–288, at pp. 275–281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bieber-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Bieber_82-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerome B. Bieber. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010318000221/http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~jbieber/HS/trans2.htm">Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Fe_Community_College_(Florida)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Santa Fe Community College (Florida) (la pagina existís pas)">Santa Fe Community College</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-83">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Campbell, <i>Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages</i>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant_84-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Grant&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Grant (la pagina existís pas)">Edward Grant</a> (1996), <i>The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cambridge_University_Press&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Cambridge University Press (la pagina existís pas)">Cambridge University Press</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-85">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFarmer1988">Farmer 1988</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pagina(s)">p.</abbr>&#160;137)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-86">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFarmer1988">Farmer 1988</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pagina(s)">p.</abbr>&#160;140)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-87">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFarmer1988">Farmer 1988</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-88">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFarmer1988">Farmer 1988</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pagina(s)">p.</abbr>&#160;141)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-89">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFarmer1988">Farmer 1988</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pagina(s)">p.</abbr>&#160;142)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-90">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2450626"><span class="citation noarchive" style="font-style:normal" id="CITEREF">«<span class="default"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Music2.pdf">The Arab Contribution to the Music of the Western World</a></span>»&#32;(PDF).</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-91">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFarmer1988">Farmer 1988</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pagina(s)">p.</abbr>&#160;143)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-92">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFarmer1988">Farmer 1988</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pagina(s)">p.</abbr>&#160;144)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-93">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mason-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Mason_94-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Mason-1995">Mason, Robert B.&#32;(1995). <i>New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World</i>&#32;<b>XII</b>.&#32;Brill Academic Publishers,&#32;1. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004103147" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-10314-7</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=New+Looks+at+Old+Pots%3A+Results+of+Recent+Multidisciplinary+Studies+of+Glazed+Ceramics+from+the+Islamic+World&amp;rft.aulast=Mason&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&amp;rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&amp;rft.pages=1">&#160;</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-95">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-96">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ahmad_Y_Hassan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ahmad Y Hassan (la pagina existís pas)">Ahmad Y Hassan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2091.htm">Lustre Glass</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%209.htm">Lazaward And Zaffer Cobalt Oxide In Islamic And Western Lustre Glass And Ceramics</a>, <i>History of Science and Technology in Islam</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-97">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>46</b> (1): 1–30 [11]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-98">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ahmad_Y_Hassan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ahmad Y Hassan (la pagina existís pas)">Ahmad Y Hassan</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Donald_Routledge_Hill&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Donald Routledge Hill (la pagina existís pas)">Donald Routledge Hill</a> (1986). <i>Islamic Technology: An illustrated history</i>, p. 54. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cambridge_University_Press&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Cambridge University Press (la pagina existís pas)">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0521422396" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-42239-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucas-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lucas_99-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Lucas (2006), <i>Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology</i>, p. 62, BRILL, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004146490" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-14649-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucas-65-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lucas-65_100-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Lucas (2006), <i>Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology</i>, p. 65, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brill_Publishers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Brill Publishers (la pagina existís pas)">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004146490" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-14649-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucas-10-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Lucas-10_101-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>46</b> (1): 1–30 [10–1 and 27]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hassan-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_102-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ahmad_Y_Hassan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ahmad Y Hassan (la pagina existís pas)">Ahmad Y Hassan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm">Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-103">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fiona MacDonald (2006), <i>The Plague and Medicine in he Middle Ages</i>, pp. 42–3, Gareth Stevens, <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0836859073" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8368-5907-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-104">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tor Eigeland, "The Tiles of Iberia", <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sa_comaudi_Aramco_World&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sa comaudi Aramco World (la pagina existís pas)">Sa comaudi Aramco World</a></i>, March-April 1992, pp. 24–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-105">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fielding_H._Garrison&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Fielding H. Garrison (la pagina existís pas)">Fielding H. Garrison</a>, <i>History of Medicine</i>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mod%C3%A8l:Quote&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Modèl:Quote (la pagina existís pas)">Modèl:Quote</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-106">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">S. P. Scott (1904), <i>History of the Moorish Empire in Europe</i>, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br /> F. B. Artz (1980), <i>The Mind of the Middle Ages</i>, Third edition revised, <a href="/w/index.php?title=University_of_Chicago_Press&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="University of Chicago Press (la pagina existís pas)">University of Chicago Press</a>, pp 148–50. <br /> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cf.&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Cf. (la pagina existís pas)">cf.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080229042135/http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&amp;intSectionID=441">References</a>, 1001 Inventions)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poore-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Poore_107-0">107,0</a></sup> et <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Poore_107-1">107,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Poore, Daniel. A History of Early Flight. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1952.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_108-0">108,0</a></sup> et <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_108-1">108,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Smithsonian Institution. Manned Flight. Pamphlet 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-109">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">David W. Tschanz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070318132449/http://www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/05/article04.shtml">Flights of Fancy on Manmade Wings</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=IslamOnline.net&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="IslamOnline.net (la pagina existís pas)">IslamOnline.net</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-110">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100708124653/http://www.fi.edu/wright/again/wings.avkids.com/wings.avkids.com/Book/Vehicles/advanced/parachutes-01.html">Parachutes</a>, <i>Principles of Aeronautics</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Franklin_Institute&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Franklin Institute (la pagina existís pas)">Franklin Institute</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-111">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mod%C3%A8l:Cite_episode&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Modèl:Cite episode (la pagina existís pas)">Modèl:Cite episode</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-White_112-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lynn_Townsend_White,_Jr.&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (la pagina existís pas)">Lynn Townsend White, Jr.</a> (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>2</b> (2), pp. 97–111 [100–101].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-113">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080503200416/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196401/first.flights.htm">First Flights</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saudi_Aramco_World&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Saudi Aramco World (la pagina existís pas)">Saudi Aramco World</a></i>, January-February 1964, pp. 8–9.</span> </li> </ol> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliografia">Bibliografia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=34" title="Modificar la seccion : Bibliografia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Bibliografia"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Alfonso, Esperanza, 2007. <i>Islamic culture through Jewish eyes: al-Andalus from the tenth to twelfth century</i>. New York, NY: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9780415437325" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-43732-5</a></li> <li>Al-Djazairi, S.E. 2005. <i>The Hidden Debt to Islamic Civilisation</i>. Bayt Al-Hikma Press. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0955115612" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-9551156-1-2</a></li> <li>Bossong, Georg. 2002. Der Name <i>Al-Andalus</i>: Neue Überlegungen zu einem alten Problem. In David Restle and Dietmar Zaefferer, eds, <i>Sounds and systems: studies in structure and change. A festschrift for Theo Vennemann.</i> Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp.&#160;149–164. (In German) Also available online: see External Links below.</li> <li>Cohen, Mark. 1995. <i>Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages</i> Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/069101082X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-691-01082-X</a></li> <li>Collins, Roger. 1989. <i>The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797</i>, Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0631194053" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-631-19405-3</a></li> <li>Frank, Daniel H. and Leaman, Oliver. 2003. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0521655749" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-65574-9</a></li> <li>Gerli, E. Michael, ed., 2003. <i>Medieval Iberia: an encyclopedia</i>. New York. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0415939186" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-415-93918-6</a></li> <li>Halm, Heinz. 1989. Al-Andalus und Gothica Sors. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/islm.1989.66.2.252/html">Der Islam</a></i> 66:252–263.</li> <li>Hamilton, Michelle M., Sarah J. Portnoy, and David A. Wacks, eds. 2004. <i>Wine, Women, and Song: Hebrew and Arabic Literature in Medieval Iberia</i>. Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs.</li> <li>Harzig, Christiane, Hoerder, Dirk and Shubert, Adrian. 2003. <i>The Historical Practice in Diversity</i>. Berghahn Books. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/1571813772" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-57181-377-2</a></li> <li>Jayyusi, Salma Khadra, ed. 1994. The legacy of Muslim Spain. 2 vol. Chief consultant to the editor, Manuela Marín. Leiden: Brill. [Originally published 1992 in German.]</li> <li>Kennedy, Hugh. 1996. <i>Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus</i>, Longman. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0582495156" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-582-49515-6</a></li> <li>Kraemer, Joel. 1997. Comparing Crescent and Cross (book review). <i>The Journal of Religion</i>, 1997 July, 77(3):449–454.</li> <li>Kraemer, Joel. 2005. Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait. In Kenneth Seeskin, ed., <i>The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0521819741" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-81974-1</a></li> <li>Kraemer, Joel. 2008. <i>Maimonides&#160;: the life and world of one of civilization's greatest minds</i>. New York :Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/038551199X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-385-51199-X</a></li> <li>Lafuente y Alcántara, Emilio, translator. 1867. <i>Ajbar Machmua (colección de tradiciones): crónica anónima del siglo XI / dada a luz por primera vez, traducida y anotada por Emilio Lafuente y Alcántara</i>. Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia y Geografía. In Spanish and Arabic. Also available in the public domain online, see External Links.</li> <li>Luscombe, David et al., eds. 2004. <i>The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c.1024–c.1198, Part 1</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0521414113" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-41411-3</a></li> <li>Marcus, Ivan G.,1985. Beyond the Sepahrdic mystique. in <i>Orim</i>, vol. 1, 35-53.</li> <li>Marín, Manuela et al., eds. 1998. <i>The Formation of Al-Andalus: History and Society</i>. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0860787087" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-86078-708-7</a></li> <li>Menocal, Maria Rosa. 2002. <i>Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain</i>. Back Bay Books. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0316168718" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-316-16871-8</a></li> <li>Monroe, James T. 1970. <i>Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship&#160;: (Sixteenth century to the present)</i>. Leiden.</li> <li>Monroe, James T. 1974. <i>Hispano-Arabic Poetry: A Student Anthology</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Netanyahu, Benzion. 1995. <i>The Origins Of The Inquisition In Fifteenth Century Spain</i>. Random House <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0679410651" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-679-41065-1</a></li> <li>O'Callaghan, Joseph F. 1975. <i>A History of Medieval Spain</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0801492645" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8014-9264-5</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rageh_Omaar&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Rageh Omaar (la pagina existís pas)">Omaar, Rageh</a>. 2005. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/islamic-history-europe.shtml">An Islamic History of Europe</a></i>. video documentary, <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> 4, August 2005.</li> <li>Reilly, Bernard F. 1993. <i>The Medieval Spains</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/0521397413" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-39741-3</a></li> <li>Roth, Norman. 1994. <i>Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004061312" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-06131-2</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claudio_S%C3%A1nchez-Albornoz_y_Mendui%C3%B1a&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz y Menduiña (la pagina existís pas)">Sanchez-Albornoz, Claudio</a>. 1974. <i>El Islam de España y el Occidente</i>. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. Colección Austral; 1560. [Originally published in 1965 in the conference proceedings, <i>L'occidente e l'islam nell'alto medioevo: 2-8 aprile 1964</i>, 2 vols. Spoleto: Centro Italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo. Series: Settimane di studio del Centro Italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo; 12. Vol. 1:149–308.]</li> <li>Schorsch, Ismar, 1989. The myth of Sephardic supremacy, in <i>The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 34, 47-66</i></li> <li>Stavans, Ilan. 2003. <i>The Scroll and the Cross: 1,000 Years of Jewish-Hispanic Literature</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/041592930X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-415-92930-X</a></li> <li>Wasserstein, David J. 1995. Jewish élites in Al-Andalus. In Daniel Frank (Ed.). <i>The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society and Identity</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/Especial:Obratge_de_refer%C3%A9ncia/9004104046" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-10404-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Filmes">Filmes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=35" title="Modificar la seccion : Filmes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Filmes"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamicspain.tv">"Cities of Light: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain"</a> (documentary film)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ligams_extèrnes"><span id="Ligams_ext.C3.A8rnes"></span>Ligams extèrnes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=36" title="Modificar la seccion : Ligams extèrnes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Andal%C3%B3s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="Edita el codi de la secció: Ligams extèrnes"><span>Modificar lo còdi</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080627064440/http://www.rose.unizh.ch/seminar/personen/bossong/boss_bask_120.pdf">Paper by Georg Bossong evaluating proposals for the etymology of "al-Andalus".</a> In German.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/bibliotecavirtualandalucia/consulta/resultados_autores.cmd?campo=idautor&amp;idValor=5772&amp;forma=ficha&amp;posicion=1">Photocopy of the Ajbar Machmu'a, translated by Lafuente 1867</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/culture/al-andalus/html_eng/article.shtml">The routes of al-Andalus</a> (from the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> web site)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimheritage.com/">Muslim contributions to Andalus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.andalus.com">History and influences of Andalusian music</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne2.htm">The Library of Iberian Resources Online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070512082946/http://www.paradoxplace.com/Photo%20Pages/Spain/Spain_History/Al-Andalus_Chronology.htm">Al-Andalus Chronology and Photos</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/martyrs/martyrs.htm">Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain</a> by Kenneth Baxter Wolf</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091014132337/http://www.afropop.org/Alandalus/Alandalus.html">The Musical Legacy of Al-Andalus</a>&#160;– historical maps, photos, and music showing the Great Mosque of Córdoba and related movements of people and culture over time</li></ul> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐847495b4dd‐wqnh2 Cached time: 20241128131505 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.391 seconds Real time usage: 0.598 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 4425/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 20627/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 4396/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 11/100 Expensive parser function count: 0/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 63361/5000000 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 0/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 240.613 1 -total 45.35% 109.126 1 Modèl:Reflist 15.07% 36.270 1 Modèl:Istòria_d'Espanha 13.04% 31.381 1 Modèl:Barra_laterala 12.21% 29.385 6 Modèl:Ligam_web 7.88% 18.971 8 Modèl:Harv 4.40% 10.580 1 Modèl:Dialècte_Lengadocian 4.07% 9.782 2 Modèl:Cita 3.96% 9.516 7 Modèl:P. 2.97% 7.140 1 Modèl:Icòna_de_títol --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key ocwiki:pcache:66639:|#|:idhash:canonical and timestamp 20241128131505 and revision id 2455457. 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