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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Axel_Arrhenius" title="Carl Axel Arrhenius – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Carl Axel Arrhenius" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84_%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%84_%D8%A2%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="کارل اکسل آرنیوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کارل اکسل آرنیوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Axel_Arrhenius" title="Carl Axel Arrhenius – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Swedish chemist (1757–1824)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Carl Axel Arrhenius</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Axel_Arrhenius_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Carl_Axel_Arrhenius_crop.jpg/220px-Carl_Axel_Arrhenius_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Carl_Axel_Arrhenius_crop.jpg/330px-Carl_Axel_Arrhenius_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Carl_Axel_Arrhenius_crop.jpg/440px-Carl_Axel_Arrhenius_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="1385" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1757-03-29</span>)</span>29 March 1757<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">20 November 1824<span style="display:none">(1824-11-20)</span> (aged 67)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Discovery of mineral <a href="/wiki/Gadolinite" title="Gadolinite">ytterbite</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Carl Axel Arrhenius</b> (29 March 1757 – 20 November 1824)<sup id="cite_ref-Hofberg_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a Swedish <a href="/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)" title="Officer (armed forces)">military officer</a>, amateur <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a>. He is best known for his discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> ytterbite (later called <a href="/wiki/Gadolinite" title="Gadolinite">gadolinite</a>) in 1787. </p><p>The discovery of ytterbite was the first step in identifying an entire group of previously unknown elements, the <a href="/wiki/Rare_earths" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earths">rare earths</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rabinovich_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rabinovich-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eliseeva_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eliseeva-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eight stable rare earth elements were eventually extracted from ytterbite: <a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">terbium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">dysprosium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">holmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">erbium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">thulium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">ytterbium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">lutetium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">yttrium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-American_Chemical_Society_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Chemical_Society-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Axel_Arrhenius&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arrhenius was born in <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a> on 29 March 1757 to Jakob Larsson Arrhenius and Brita Sofia Georgii. In 1796 he married Gustafva von Bilang.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofberg_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Axel_Arrhenius&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arrhenius became a <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant" title="Lieutenant">lieutenant</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Svea_Artillery_Regiment" title="Svea Artillery Regiment">Svea Artillery Regiment</a> of the Swedish army, the regiment being stationed in <a href="/wiki/Vaxholm" title="Vaxholm">Vaxholm</a>. As an artillery officer, Arrhenius was assigned to study the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> at the Swedish Royal Mint's (Kungliga Myntet) laboratory. Being taught to test gunpowder by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bengt_Reinhold_Geijer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bengt Reinhold Geijer (page does not exist)">Bengt Reinhold Geijer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Jacob_Hjelm" title="Peter Jacob Hjelm">Peter Jacob Hjelm</a> at the Royal Mint sparked his interest in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, and this experience served as the beginning of his chemical studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Weeks_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weeks-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Enghag_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Enghag-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, in 1787, he discovered the mineral ytterbite (later renamed gadolinite).<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Enghag_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Enghag-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1787 Arrhenius accompanied <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Bernhard_Wadstr%C3%B6m&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carl Bernhard Wadström (page does not exist)">Carl Bernhard Wadström</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anders_Sparrman" title="Anders Sparrman">Anders Sparrman</a> on a visit for scientific investigations in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofberg_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rookmaaker_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rookmaaker-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rönnbäck_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rönnbäck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Troelstra_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Troelstra-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Returning from Senegal in 1787–1788, Arrhenius met French chemist <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> during a layover in <a href="/wiki/Paris,_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris, France">Paris, France</a>. He became an ardent proponent in Sweden of Lavoisier's new theories of oxygenation and combustion. Lavoisier extensively researched <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a>, including that of gunpowder, leading to significant improvements of the quality of this explosive. This advance was of natural interest to Arrhenius.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofberg_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arrhenius then took part in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1788%E2%80%931790)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)">campaign against Russia</a> in 1788, in which he distinguished himself militarily.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofberg_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was promoted to major in 1801,<sup id="cite_ref-Hofberg_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later to <a href="/wiki/Feldzeugmeister" class="mw-redirect" title="Feldzeugmeister">Feldzeugmeister</a>. He was put in command of the manufacture and inspection of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> for the Swedish army in 1816.<sup id="cite_ref-Enghag_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Enghag-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arrhenius became a member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_War_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences</a> in 1799, and of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a> in 1817.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofberg_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He regretted that he had to spend most of his time in "the occupations of practical life" and could not devote himself to studying chemistry. In 1816–1817, then more than sixty years of age, Arrhenius attended the classes of chemist <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a>, continuing his studies of chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-Weeks_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weeks-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carl Axel Arrhenius died on 20 November 1824.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofberg_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ytterbite">Ytterbite</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Axel_Arrhenius&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ytterbite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gadolinite-(Y)-244305.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Gadolinite-%28Y%29-244305.jpg/170px-Gadolinite-%28Y%29-244305.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Gadolinite-%28Y%29-244305.jpg/255px-Gadolinite-%28Y%29-244305.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Gadolinite-%28Y%29-244305.jpg/340px-Gadolinite-%28Y%29-244305.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A sample of ytterbite (later named gadolinite) from Vaxholm</figcaption></figure> <p>During his time as a lieutenant in Vaxholm, Arrhenius visited the <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a> mine in the village of <a href="/wiki/Ytterby" title="Ytterby">Ytterby</a> on the island of Resarön.<sup id="cite_ref-Rabinovich_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rabinovich-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gschneidner_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gschneidner-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this visit, in 1787, he found an unusually heavy dark mineral.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rabinovich_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rabinovich-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dinér_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dinér-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mine_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mine-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mineral's first description was published by Bengt Reinhold Geijer in <i><a href="/wiki/Crell%27s_Annalen" title="Crell's Annalen">Crell's Annalen</a></i> in 1788, where he credited Arrhenius with the discovery of a "Schwerstein" or "heavy rock".<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mineral was eventually sent to the chemist <a href="/wiki/Johan_Gadolin" title="Johan Gadolin">Johan Gadolin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_%C3%85bo" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Åbo">University of Åbo</a> for suitable analysis. In 1794, after careful <a href="/wiki/Chemical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical analysis">chemical analysis</a>, Gadolin reported that approximately 38% of the sample was a previously unknown "earth". (The idea of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> was not yet established.) The compound that Gadolin isolated, the first rare-earth metal compound, is now known as <a href="/wiki/Yttrium(III)_oxide" title="Yttrium(III) oxide">Yttrium(III) oxide</a>. It is composed of the first known <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">rare-earth element</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">yttrium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-What_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moeller_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moeller-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gadolin1794_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gadolin1794-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examining a different sample, <a href="/wiki/Anders_Gustaf_Ekeberg" title="Anders Gustaf Ekeberg">Anders Gustaf Ekeberg</a> confirmed the existence of a new "earth", calling it "yttria" and the source mineral "ytterbite".<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mineral that Arrhenius discovered and Gadolin and Ekeberg analyzed was eventually renamed <a href="/wiki/Gadolinite" title="Gadolinite">gadolinite</a> in 1800.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsyth_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rare-earths are chemically very similar to each other, almost always occur together in minerals on earth and are rarely found in isolation from other rare-earth elements. Their similarity and co-existence made their initial identification difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Enghag_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Enghag-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weeks_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weeks-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 701">: 701 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-XVI_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XVI-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery of ytterbite was the first step in a long process of investigations by many scientists in different countries. The identification of new "earths" extended over 100 years, and eventually led to the understanding of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> and their relationships in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic system">periodic system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dinér_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dinér-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zepf_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zepf-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ytterbite was eventually found to contain eight stable rare earth elements (<a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">terbium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">dysprosium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">holmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">erbium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">thulium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">ytterbium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">lutetium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">yttrium</a>). Most of the remaining rare earths were found in the mineral <a href="/wiki/Cerite" title="Cerite">cerite</a>, which contains seven rare earth elements (<a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">lanthanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">praseodymium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">neodymium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">samarium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">europium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">gadolinium</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-American_Chemical_Society_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Chemical_Society-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zepf_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zepf-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Axel_Arrhenius&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hofberg-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hofberg_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofberg_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofberg_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofberg_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofberg_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofberg_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofberg_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofberg_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHofberg1906" class="citation book cs1">Hofberg, Herman (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yfEYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA48"><i>Svenskt Biografiskt Handlexicon</i></a>. Vol. 1. Sweden: A. Bonnier. p. 48<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Svenskt+Biografiskt+Handlexicon&rft.place=Sweden&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=A.+Bonnier&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Hofberg&rft.aufirst=Herman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyfEYAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Axel+Arrhenius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rabinovich-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rabinovich_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rabinovich_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rabinovich_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinovich" class="citation web cs1">Rabinovich, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.iupac.org/publications/ci/2010/3206/si.html">"Gadolin and the Cradle of the Rare Earths"</a>. <i>Chemistry International</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+International&rft.atitle=Gadolin+and+the+Cradle+of+the+Rare+Earths&rft.aulast=Rabinovich&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fold.iupac.org%2Fpublications%2Fci%2F2010%2F3206%2Fsi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Axel+Arrhenius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliseeva-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eliseeva_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEliseevaBünzli2011" class="citation journal cs1">Eliseeva, Svetlana V.; Bünzli, Jean-Claude G. 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Woodhead Publishing. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857093479" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857093479"><bdi>978-0857093479</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rare+Earth-Based+Corrosion+Inhibitors&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Woodhead+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0857093479&rft.aulast=Forsyth&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft.au=Hinton%2C+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMLU8AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Axel+Arrhenius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-XVI-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-XVI_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks,_Mary_Elvira1932" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks" title="Mary Elvira Weeks">Weeks, Mary Elvira</a> (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XVI. The rare earth elements". <i>Journal of Chemical Education</i>. <b>9</b> (10): 1751–1773. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JChEd...9.1751W">1932JChEd...9.1751W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed009p1751">10.1021/ed009p1751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+the+elements%3A+XVI.+The+rare+earth+elements&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1751-1773&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed009p1751&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932JChEd...9.1751W&rft.au=Weeks%2C+Mary+Elvira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Axel+Arrhenius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zepf-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zepf_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zepf_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZepf2013" class="citation book cs1">Zepf, Volker (14 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MTtEAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18"><i>Rare Earth Elements: A New Approach to the Nexus of Supply, Demand and Use: Exemplified along the Use of Neodymium in Permanent Magnets</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642354588" title="Special:BookSources/9783642354588"><bdi>9783642354588</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rare+Earth+Elements%3A+A+New+Approach+to+the+Nexus+of+Supply%2C+Demand+and+Use%3A+Exemplified+along+the+Use+of+Neodymium+in+Permanent+Magnets&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013-02-14&rft.isbn=9783642354588&rft.aulast=Zepf&rft.aufirst=Volker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMTtEAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Axel+Arrhenius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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