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<span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Related concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Related concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Related_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Knowledge_a_posteriori_and_a_priori" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge_a_posteriori_and_a_priori"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Knowledge <i>a posteriori</i> and <i>a priori</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge_a_posteriori_and_a_priori-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empiricism_and_rationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empiricism_and_rationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Empiricism and rationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empiricism_and_rationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Scientific evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observation,_experimentation_and_scientific_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observation,_experimentation_and_scientific_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Observation, experimentation and scientific method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observation,_experimentation_and_scientific_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiries" title="Empiries – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Empiries" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="دليل تجريبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دليل تجريبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conocencia_emp%C3%ADrica" title="Conocencia empírica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Conocencia empírica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirie" title="Empirie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Empirie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiri" title="Empiri – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Empiri" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirische_Evidenz" title="Empirische Evidenz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Empirische Evidenz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%83%CF%87%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Εμπειρική σχέση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εμπειρική σχέση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidencia_emp%C3%ADrica" title="Evidencia empírica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evidencia empírica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirio" title="Empirio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Empirio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebidentzia_enpiriko" title="Ebidentzia enpiriko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ebidentzia enpiriko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="شواهد تجربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شواهد تجربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preuve_empirique" title="Preuve empirique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Preuve empirique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%BD%ED%97%98%EC%A0%81_%EC%A6%9D%EA%B1%B0" title="경험적 증거 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="경험적 증거" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="अनुभवजन्य साक्ष्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अनुभवजन्य साक्ष्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukti_empiris" title="Bukti empiris – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bukti empiris" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%C9%99%D0%B4i%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Эмпирикалық əдiстер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эмпирикалық əдiстер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukti_empirikal" title="Bukti empirikal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bukti empirikal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirisch_resultaat" title="Empirisch resultaat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Empirisch resultaat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF" title="تجربي شواهد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تجربي شواهد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evid%C3%AAncia_emp%C3%ADrica" title="Evidência empírica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evidência empírica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dovad%C4%83_empiric%C4%83" title="Dovadă empirică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dovadă empirică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impirikusqa_sut%27ichakuna" title="Impirikusqa sut'ichakuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Impirikusqa sut'ichakuna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5" title="Эмпирические данные – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эмпирические данные" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ئەزموونی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەزموونی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiri" title="Empiri – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Empiri" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C" title="หลักฐานเชิงประสบการณ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หลักฐานเชิงประสบการณ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampirik_kan%C4%B1t" title="Ampirik kanıt – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ampirik kanıt" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Емпіричний доказ – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Емпіричний доказ" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BA%B1ng_ch%E1%BB%A9ng_th%E1%BB%B1c_nghi%E1%BB%87m" title="Bằng chứng thực nghiệm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bằng chứng thực nghiệm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E8%AD%89" title="實證 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="實證" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E8%AF%81%E6%8D%AE" title="经验证据 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="经验证据" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Knowledge acquired by means of the senses</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Empirical" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Empirical_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Empirical (disambiguation)">Empirical (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p><b>Empirical evidence</b> is <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> obtained through <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sense</a> experience or <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> procedure. It is of central importance to the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a> and plays a role in various other fields, like <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>. </p><p>There is no general agreement on how the terms <i>evidence</i> and <i>empirical</i> are to be defined. Often different fields work with quite different conceptions. In epistemology, evidence is what <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justifies</a> <a href="/wiki/Beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Beliefs">beliefs</a> or what determines whether holding a certain belief is <a href="/wiki/Rational" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational">rational</a>. This is only possible if the evidence is possessed by the person, which has prompted various epistemologists to conceive evidence as private mental states like experiences or other beliefs. In <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, on the other hand, evidence is understood as that which <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Confirmation" title="Scientific method">confirms</a></i> or <i>disconfirms</i> <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis#Scientific_hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">scientific hypotheses</a> and arbitrates between competing theories. For this role, evidence must be public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or events and unlike private mental states, so that evidence may foster <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a>. The term <b>empirical</b> comes from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> ἐμπειρία <i>empeiría</i>, i.e. 'experience'. In this context, it is usually understood as what is observable, in contrast to unobservable or theoretical objects. It is generally accepted that unaided perception constitutes observation, but it is disputed to what extent objects accessible only to aided perception, like <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> seen through a microscope or positrons detected in a cloud chamber, should be regarded as observable. </p><p>Empirical evidence is essential to <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a posteriori</a></i> knowledge or <b>empirical knowledge</b>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justification</a> or <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsification</a> depends on experience or experiment. <i>A priori</i> knowledge, on the other hand, is seen either as innate or as justified by rational intuition and therefore as not dependent on empirical evidence. <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> fully accepts that there is knowledge <i>a priori</i>, which is either outright rejected by <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> or accepted only in a restricted way as knowledge of relations between our concepts but not as pertaining to the external world. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> is closely related to empirical evidence but not all forms of empirical evidence meet the standards dictated by <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific methods</a>. Sources of empirical evidence are sometimes divided into <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimentation">experimentation</a>, the difference being that only experimentation involves manipulation or intervention: phenomena are actively created instead of being passively observed. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></div> <p>The concept of evidence is of central importance in <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> but plays different roles in these two fields.<sup id="cite_ref-DiFate_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiFate-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In epistemology, evidence is what <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justifies</a> <a href="/wiki/Beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Beliefs">beliefs</a> or what determines whether holding a certain <a href="/wiki/Doxastic_attitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Doxastic attitude">doxastic attitude</a> is <a href="/wiki/Rational" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational">rational</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gage_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gage-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the olfactory experience of smelling smoke justifies or makes it rational to hold the belief that something is burning. It is usually held that for justification to work, the evidence has to be possessed by the believer. The most straightforward way to account for this type of evidence possession is to hold that evidence consists of the private mental states possessed by the believer.<sup id="cite_ref-Conee_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conee-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philpapers.org_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philpapers.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some philosophers restrict evidence even further, for example, to only conscious, propositional or factive mental states.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Restricting evidence to conscious mental states has the implausible consequence that many simple everyday beliefs would be unjustified. This is why it is more common to hold that all kinds of mental states, including stored but currently unconscious beliefs, can act as evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Conee_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conee-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philpapers.org_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philpapers.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various of the roles played by evidence in reasoning, for example, in explanatory, probabilistic and deductive reasoning, suggest that evidence has to be propositional in nature, i.e. that it is correctly expressed by <a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">propositional attitude</a> verbs like "believe" together with a that-clause, like "that something is burning".<sup id="cite_ref-Williamson_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williamson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DiFate_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiFate-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it runs counter to the common practice of treating non-propositional sense-experiences, like bodily pains, as evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-DiFate_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiFate-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huemer_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huemer-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its defenders sometimes combine it with the view that evidence has to be factive, i.e. that only attitudes towards true propositions constitute evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Williamson_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williamson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this view, there is no misleading evidence. The olfactory experience of smoke would count as evidence if it was produced by a fire but not if it was produced by a smoke generator. This position has problems in explaining why it is still rational for the subject to believe that there is a fire even though the olfactory experience cannot be considered evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Conee_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conee-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In philosophy of science, evidence is understood as that which <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Confirmation" title="Scientific method">confirms</a></i> or <i>disconfirms</i> <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis#Scientific_hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">scientific hypotheses</a> and arbitrates between competing theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Crupi_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crupi-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DiFate_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiFate-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measurements of Mercury's "anomalous" orbit, for example, constitute evidence that plays the role of <i>neutral arbiter</i> between Newton's and Einstein's theory of gravitation by confirming Einstein's theory. For scientific consensus, it is central that evidence is public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or events and unlike private mental states.<sup id="cite_ref-DiFate_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiFate-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gage_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gage-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This way it can act as a shared ground for proponents of competing theories. Two issues threatening this role are the <a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">problem of underdetermination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">theory-ladenness</a>. The problem of underdetermination concerns the fact that the available evidence often provides equal support to either theory and therefore cannot arbitrate between them.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theory-ladenness refers to the idea that evidence already includes theoretical assumptions. These assumptions can hinder it from acting as neutral arbiter. It can also lead to a lack of shared evidence if different scientists do not share these assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> is an important advocate of the position that theory-ladenness concerning scientific paradigms plays a central role in science.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A thing is <i>evidence</i> for a <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a> if it epistemically supports this proposition or indicates that the supported proposition is true. Evidence is <i>empirical</i> if it is constituted by or accessible to sensory experience. There are various competing theories about the exact definition of the terms <i>evidence</i> and <i>empirical</i>. Different fields, like epistemology, the sciences or legal systems, often associate different concepts with these terms. An important distinction among theories of evidence is whether they identify evidence with private <a href="/wiki/Mental_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental states">mental states</a> or with public physical objects. Concerning the term <i>empirical</i>, there is a dispute about where to draw the line between observable or empirical objects in contrast to unobservable or merely theoretical objects. </p><p>The traditional view proposes that evidence is empirical if it is constituted by or accessible to sensory experience. This involves experiences arising from the stimulation of the sense organs, like visual or auditory experiences,<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the term is often used in a wider sense including memories and introspection.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is usually seen as excluding purely intellectual experiences, like rational insights or intuitions used to justify basic logical or mathematical principles.<sup id="cite_ref-Baehr_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baehr-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms <i>empirical</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observable</a></i> are closely related and sometimes used as synonyms.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is an active debate in contemporary philosophy of science as to what should be regarded as observable or empirical in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">unobservable</a> or merely theoretical objects. There is general consensus that everyday objects like books or houses are observable since they are accessible via unaided perception, but disagreement starts for objects that are only accessible through aided perception. This includes using telescopes to study distant galaxies,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> microscopes to study bacteria or using cloud chambers to study positrons.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraassen_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraassen-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So the question is whether distant galaxies, bacteria or positrons should be regarded as observable or merely theoretical objects. Some even hold that any measurement process of an entity should be considered an observation of this entity. In this sense, the interior of the Sun is observable since neutrinos originating there can be detected.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difficulty with this debate is that there is a continuity of cases going from looking at something with the naked eye, through a window, through a pair of glasses, through a microscope, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this continuity, drawing the line between any two adjacent cases seems to be arbitrary. One way to avoid these difficulties is to hold that it is a mistake to identify the empirical with what is observable or sensible. Instead, it has been suggested that empirical evidence can include unobservable entities as long as they are detectable through suitable measurements.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A problem with this approach is that it is rather far from the original meaning of "empirical", which contains the reference to experience. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_concepts">Related concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Related concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge_a_posteriori_and_a_priori">Knowledge <i>a posteriori</i> and <i>a priori</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Knowledge a posteriori and a priori"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justification</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> is said to be <i>a posteriori</i> if it is based on empirical evidence. <i>A posteriori</i> refers to what depends on <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> (what comes after experience), in contrast to <i>a priori</i>, which stands for what is independent of experience (what comes before experience).<sup id="cite_ref-Baehr_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baehr-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russell_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the proposition that "all bachelors are unmarried" is knowable <i>a priori</i> since its truth only depends on the meanings of the words used in the expression. The proposition "some bachelors are happy", on the other hand, is only knowable <i>a posteriori</i> since it depends on experience of the <a href="/wiki/World#Philosophy_of_mind" title="World">world</a> as its justifier.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> held that the difference between <i>a posteriori</i> and <i>a priori</i> is tantamount to the distinction between empirical and non-empirical knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Craig2005_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig2005-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two central questions for this distinction concern the relevant sense of "experience" and of "dependence". The paradigmatic justification of knowledge <i>a posteriori</i> consists in sensory experience, but other mental phenomena, like memory or introspection, are also usually included in it.<sup id="cite_ref-Baehr_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baehr-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But purely intellectual experiences, like rational insights or <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuitions</a> used to justify basic logical or mathematical principles, are normally excluded from it.<sup id="cite_ref-Markie_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markie-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russell_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are different senses in which knowledge may be said to depend on experience. In order to know a proposition, the subject has to be able to entertain this proposition, i.e. possess the relevant concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Baehr_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baehr-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, experience is necessary to entertain the proposition "if something is red all over then it is not green all over" because the terms "red" and "green" have to be acquired this way. But the sense of dependence most relevant to empirical evidence concerns the status of justification of a belief. So experience may be needed to acquire the relevant concepts in the example above, but once these concepts are possessed, no further experience providing empirical evidence is needed to know that the proposition is true, which is why it is considered to be justified <i>a priori</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Baehr_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baehr-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russell_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empiricism_and_rationalism">Empiricism and rationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Empiricism and rationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In its strictest sense, <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> is the view that all knowledge is based on experience or that all epistemic justification arises from empirical evidence. This stands in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> view, which holds that some knowledge is independent of experience, either because it is innate or because it is justified by reason or rational reflection alone.<sup id="cite_ref-cdp_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdp-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Markie_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markie-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Expressed through the distinction between knowledge a priori and a posteriori from the previous section, rationalism affirms that there is knowledge a priori, which is denied by empiricism in this strict form.<sup id="cite_ref-Teixeira_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teixeira-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One difficulty for empiricists is to account for the justification of knowledge pertaining to fields like mathematics and logic, for example, that 3 is a prime number or that modus ponens is a valid form of deduction. The difficulty is due to the fact that there seems to be no good candidate of empirical evidence that could justify these beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Markie_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markie-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Teixeira_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teixeira-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such cases have prompted empiricists to allow for certain forms of knowledge a priori, for example, concerning tautologies or relations between our concepts. These concessions preserve the spirit of empiricism insofar as the restriction to experience still applies to knowledge about the external world.<sup id="cite_ref-Markie_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markie-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some fields, like <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, the choice between empiricism and rationalism makes a difference not just for how a given claim is justified but for whether it is justified at all. This is best exemplified in metaphysics, where empiricists tend to take a skeptical position, thereby denying the existence of metaphysical knowledge, while rationalists seek justification for metaphysical claims in metaphysical intuitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Markie_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markie-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_evidence">Scientific evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Scientific evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> is closely related to empirical evidence. Some theorists, like Carlos Santana, have argued that there is a sense in which not all empirical evidence constitutes scientific evidence. One reason for this is that the standards or criteria that scientists apply to evidence exclude certain evidence that is legitimate in other contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Santana_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santana-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal evidence</a> from a friend about how to treat a certain disease constitutes empirical evidence that this treatment works but would not be considered scientific evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Santana_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santana-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have argued that the traditional empiricist definition of empirical evidence as perceptual evidence is too narrow for much of scientific practice, which uses evidence from various kinds of non-perceptual equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Central to scientific evidence is that it was arrived at by following <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> in the context of some <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But people rely on various forms of empirical evidence in their everyday lives that have not been obtained this way and therefore do not qualify as scientific evidence. One problem with non-scientific evidence is that it is less reliable, for example, due to cognitive biases like the <a href="/wiki/Anchoring_effect" title="Anchoring effect">anchoring effect</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which information obtained earlier is given more weight, although science done poorly is also subject to such biases, as in the example of <a href="/wiki/P-hacking" class="mw-redirect" title="P-hacking"><em>p</em>-hacking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Santana_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santana-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observation,_experimentation_and_scientific_method"><span id="Observation.2C_experimentation_and_scientific_method"></span>Observation, experimentation and scientific method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Observation, experimentation and scientific method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the philosophy of science, it is sometimes held that there are two sources of empirical evidence: <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimentation">experimentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea behind this distinction is that only experimentation involves manipulation or intervention: phenomena are actively created instead of being passively observed.<sup id="cite_ref-Malik_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malik-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, inserting viral DNA into a bacterium is a form of experimentation while studying planetary orbits through a telescope belongs to mere observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Okasha_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Okasha-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these cases, the mutated DNA was actively produced by the biologist while the planetary orbits are independent of the astronomer observing them. Applied to the history of science, it is sometimes held that ancient science is mainly observational while the emphasis on experimentation is only present in modern science and responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Malik_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malik-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is sometimes phrased through the expression that modern science actively "puts questions to nature".<sup id="cite_ref-Okasha_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Okasha-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This distinction also underlies the categorization of sciences into experimental sciences, like physics, and observational sciences, like astronomy. While the distinction is relatively intuitive in paradigmatic cases, it has proven difficult to give a general definition of "intervention" applying to all cases, which is why it is sometimes outright rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-Okasha_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Okasha-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Malik_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malik-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Empirical evidence is required for a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> to gain acceptance in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a>. Normally, this validation is achieved by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> of forming a hypothesis, <a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproduction of results</a>, conference presentation, and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">journal publication</a>. This requires rigorous communication of hypothesis (usually expressed in mathematics), experimental constraints and controls (expressed in terms of standard experimental apparatus), and a common understanding of measurement. In the scientific context, the term <b>semi-empirical</b> is used for qualifying theoretical methods that use, in part, basic <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> or postulated scientific laws and experimental results. Such methods are opposed to theoretical <i><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio" title="Ab initio">ab initio</a></i> methods, which are purely <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a> and based on <a href="/wiki/First_principle" title="First principle">first principles</a>. Typical examples of both <i>ab initio</i> and <a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-empirical method">semi-empirical methods</a> can be found in <a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">computational chemistry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_distribution_function" title="Empirical distribution function">Empirical distribution function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_formula" title="Empirical formula">Empirical formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_measure" title="Empirical measure">Empirical measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_relationship" title="Empirical relationship">Empirical relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">Empirical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiential_knowledge" title="Experiential knowledge">Experiential knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_truth" title="Ground truth">Ground truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DiFate-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DiFate_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DiFate_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DiFate_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DiFate_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DiFate_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDiFate" class="citation web cs1">DiFate, Victor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/evidence/">"Evidence"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210625124049/https://iep.utm.edu/evidence/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Evidence&rft.aulast=DiFate&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fevidence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kelly-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2016" class="citation web cs1">Kelly, Thomas (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evidence/">"Evidence"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210908185254/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evidence/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Evidence&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fevidence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteupNeta2020" class="citation web cs1">Steup, Matthias; Neta, Ram (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/">"Epistemology"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200721023728/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Epistemology&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Steup&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft.au=Neta%2C+Ram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fepistemology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMittag" class="citation web cs1">Mittag, Daniel M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/evidenti/">"Evidentialism"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729002312/https://iep.utm.edu/evidenti/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Evidentialism&rft.aulast=Mittag&rft.aufirst=Daniel+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fevidenti%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gage-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gage_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gage_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGage2014" class="citation book cs1">Gage, Logan Paul (2014). "1. Introduction: Two Rival Conceptions of Evidence". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/GAGOAS"><i>Objectivity and Subjectivity in Epistemology: A Defense of the Phenomenal Conception of Evidence</i></a> (PhD Thesis). Baylor University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210616042929/https://philpapers.org/rec/GAGOAS">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Introduction%3A+Two+Rival+Conceptions+of+Evidence&rft.btitle=Objectivity+and+Subjectivity+in+Epistemology%3A+A+Defense+of+the+Phenomenal+Conception+of+Evidence&rft.pub=Baylor+University&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Gage&rft.aufirst=Logan+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FGAGOAS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conee-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conee_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conee_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conee_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConeeFeldman2008" class="citation book cs1">Conee, Earl; Feldman, Richard (2008). "Evidence". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/CONE"><i>Epistemology: New Essays</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201400/https://philpapers.org/rec/CONE">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidence&rft.btitle=Epistemology%3A+New+Essays&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Conee&rft.aufirst=Earl&rft.au=Feldman%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FCONE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philpapers.org-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-philpapers.org_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-philpapers.org_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiazza2009" class="citation journal cs1">Piazza, Tommaso (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/PIAEAT">"Evidentialism and the Problem of Stored Beliefs"</a>. <i>Philosophical Studies</i>. <b>145</b> (2): 311–324. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11098-008-9233-1">10.1007/s11098-008-9233-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56299607">56299607</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210616043049/https://philpapers.org/rec/PIAEAT">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Studies&rft.atitle=Evidentialism+and+the+Problem+of+Stored+Beliefs&rft.volume=145&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=311-324&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11098-008-9233-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56299607%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Piazza&rft.aufirst=Tommaso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FPIAEAT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williamson-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williamson_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williamson_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson2002" class="citation book cs1">Williamson, Timothy (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/019925656X.001.0001/acprof-9780199256563-chapter-10"><i>Evidence</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2F019925656X.001.0001">10.1093/019925656X.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-159867-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-159867-8"><bdi>978-0-19-159867-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210616043041/https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/019925656X.001.0001/acprof-9780199256563-chapter-10">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evidence&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2F019925656X.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-159867-8&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxford.universitypressscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2F019925656X.001.0001%2Facprof-9780199256563-chapter-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-mind/Propositional-attitudes">"Philosophy of mind – Propositional attitudes"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200719083018/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-mind/Propositional-attitudes">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+mind+%E2%80%93+Propositional+attitudes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fphilosophy-of-mind%2FPropositional-attitudes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huemer-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Huemer_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuemer2019" class="citation web cs1">Huemer, Michael (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sense-data/">"Sense-Data"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180611154837/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sense-data/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Sense-Data&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Huemer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fsense-data%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crupi-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crupi_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrupi2021" class="citation web cs1">Crupi, Vincenzo (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confirmation/">"Confirmation"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210517040548/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confirmation/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Confirmation&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Crupi&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fconfirmation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanford2017" class="citation web cs1">Stanford, Kyle (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-underdetermination/">"Underdetermination of Scientific Theory"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210521021947/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-underdetermination/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Underdetermination+of+Scientific+Theory&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Stanford&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fscientific-underdetermination%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-science/Underdetermination">"Philosophy of science – Underdetermination"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210616042926/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-science/Underdetermination">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+science+%E2%80%93+Underdetermination&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fphilosophy-of-science%2FUnderdetermination&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersenGreen2013" class="citation book cs1">Andersen, Hanne; Green, Sara (2013). "Theory-Ladenness". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-9863-7_86"><i>Encyclopedia of Systems Biology</i></a>. Springer. pp. 2165–2167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-9863-7_86">10.1007/978-1-4419-9863-7_86</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9863-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9863-7"><bdi>978-1-4419-9863-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220408024855/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-9863-7_86">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Empiricism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fempiricism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baehr-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baehr_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baehr_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baehr_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baehr_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baehr_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaehr" class="citation web cs1">Baehr, Jason S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/apriori/">"A Priori and A Posteriori"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191004061905/https://www.iep.utm.edu/apriori/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+Priori+and+A+Posteriori&rft.aulast=Baehr&rft.aufirst=Jason+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fapriori%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillerWebster1970" class="citation journal cs1">Willer, David; Webster, Murray (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2093949">"Theoretical Concepts and Observables"</a>. <i>American Sociological Review</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 748–757. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2093949">10.2307/2093949</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-1224">0003-1224</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2093949">2093949</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210625051552/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2093949">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+General+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Sehen%2C+Sichtbarkeit+Und+Empirische+Forschung&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=273-287&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1008374032737&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119357187%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schickore&rft.aufirst=Jutta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FSCHSSU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapere1982" class="citation journal cs1">Shapere, Dudley (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/SHATCO-3">"The Concept of Observation in Science and Philosophy"</a>. <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>49</b> (4): 485–525. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F289075">10.1086/289075</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224832408">224832408</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210628011740/https://philpapers.org/rec/SHATCO-3">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Observation+in+Science+and+Philosophy&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=485-525&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F289075&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224832408%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shapere&rft.aufirst=Dudley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FSHATCO-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalik2017" class="citation journal cs1">Malik, Saira (2017-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10838-016-9335-y">"Observation Versus Experiment: An Adequate Framework for Analysing Scientific Experimentation?"</a>. <i>Journal for General Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>48</b> (1): 71–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10838-016-9335-y">10.1007/s10838-016-9335-y</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1572-8587">1572-8587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+General+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Observation+Versus+Experiment%3A+An+Adequate+Framework+for+Analysing+Scientific+Experimentation%3F&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-95&rft.date=2017-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10838-016-9335-y&rft.issn=1572-8587&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Saira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10838-016-9335-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkasha2016" class="citation book cs1">Okasha, Samir (2016). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Evidence+Enriched&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=403-421&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F697747&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224833831%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Nora+Mills&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBOYEE-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Russell_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russell_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russell_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2020" class="citation web cs1">Russell, Bruce (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/apriori/">"A Priori Justification and Knowledge"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210812143105/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/apriori/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+Priori+Justification+and+Knowledge&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fapriori%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGensler2012" class="citation book cs1">Gensler, Harry J. (2012). "3.7 A priori and a posteriori". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRekA0qkPsC"><i>Introduction to Logic</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-99452-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-99452-4"><bdi>978-1-136-99452-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.7+A+priori+and+a+posteriori&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Logic&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-136-99452-4&rft.aulast=Gensler&rft.aufirst=Harry+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHnRekA0qkPsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Craig2005-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Craig2005_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraig2005">Craig 2005</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Markie-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Markie_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Markie_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Markie_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Markie_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Markie_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkie2017" class="citation web cs1">Markie, Peter (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/">"Rationalism vs. Empiricism"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190809193416/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Rationalism+vs.+Empiricism&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Markie&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Frationalism-empiricism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiebel2005" class="citation journal cs1">Siebel, Mark (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEAPA">"A Puzzle About Concept Possession"</a>. <i>Grazer Philosophische Studien</i>. <b>68</b> (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18756735-068001001">10.1163/18756735-068001001</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210628013945/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEAPA">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Grazer+Philosophische+Studien&rft.atitle=A+Puzzle+About+Concept+Possession&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F18756735-068001001&rft.aulast=Siebel&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FSIEAPA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cdp-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cdp_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFeldman2001">Feldman 2001</a>, p. 293</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlston1998" class="citation book cs1">Alston, William P. (1998). "Empiricism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/empiricism/v-1"><i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Taylor and Francis. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-P014-1">10.4324/9780415249126-P014-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415250696" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415250696"><bdi>978-0415250696</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202816/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/empiricism/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Empiricism&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780415249126-P014-1&rft.isbn=978-0415250696&rft.aulast=Alston&rft.aufirst=William+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rep.routledge.com%2Farticles%2Fthematic%2Fempiricism%2Fv-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkie1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Markie" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Markie">Markie, Peter J.</a> (1998). "Rationalism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/rationalism/v-1"><i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Taylor and Francis. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-P041-1">10.4324/9780415249126-P041-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415250696" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415250696"><bdi>978-0415250696</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624203959/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/rationalism/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rationalism&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780415249126-P041-1&rft.isbn=978-0415250696&rft.aulast=Markie&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rep.routledge.com%2Farticles%2Fthematic%2Frationalism%2Fv-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teixeira-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Teixeira_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teixeira_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeixeira2018" class="citation journal cs1">Teixeira, Célia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F0100-512x2018n14002ct">"How Not to Reject the a Priori"</a>. <i>Kriterion: Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>59</b> (140): 365–384. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F0100-512x2018n14002ct">10.1590/0100-512x2018n14002ct</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kriterion%3A+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=How+Not+to+Reject+the+a+Priori&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=140&rft.pages=365-384&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2F0100-512x2018n14002ct&rft.aulast=Teixeira&rft.aufirst=C%C3%A9lia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252F0100-512x2018n14002ct&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2007" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Michael (2007). "The Aufbau and the rejection of metaphysics". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-carnap/aufbau-and-the-rejection-of-metaphysics/5B8EE3CA519506849902DBAA1388C73E"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Carnap</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84015-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84015-6"><bdi>978-0-521-84015-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210630140117/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-carnap/aufbau-and-the-rejection-of-metaphysics/5B8EE3CA519506849902DBAA1388C73E">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Aufbau+and+the+rejection+of+metaphysics&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Carnap&rft.pages=129-152&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84015-6&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fcambridge-companion-to-carnap%2Faufbau-and-the-rejection-of-metaphysics%2F5B8EE3CA519506849902DBAA1388C73E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChakravartty2004" class="citation journal cs1">Chakravartty, Anjan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/CHASRE-4">"Stance Relativism: Empiricism Versus Metaphysics"</a>. <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A</i>. <b>35</b> (1): 173–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsa.2003.12.002">10.1016/j.shpsa.2003.12.002</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210629105007/https://philpapers.org/rec/CHASRE-4">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science+Part+A&rft.atitle=Stance+Relativism%3A+Empiricism+Versus+Metaphysics&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=173-184&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.shpsa.2003.12.002&rft.aulast=Chakravartty&rft.aufirst=Anjan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FCHASRE-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Santana-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Santana_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Santana_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Santana_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantana2018" class="citation journal cs1">Santana, Carlos (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/SANWNA-2">"Why Not All Evidence is Scientific Evidence"</a>. <i>Episteme</i>. <b>15</b> (2): 209–227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fepi.2017.3">10.1017/epi.2017.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152066892">152066892</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210627233619/https://philpapers.org/rec/SANWNA-2">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Episteme&rft.atitle=Why+Not+All+Evidence+is+Scientific+Evidence&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=209-227&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fepi.2017.3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A152066892%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Santana&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FSANWNA-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning2017" class="citation journal cs1">Browning, Heather (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BROACB-3">"Anecdotes Can Be Evidence Too"</a>. <i>Animal Sentience</i>. <b>2</b> (16): 13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.51291%2F2377-7478.1246">10.51291/2377-7478.1246</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210629002215/https://philpapers.org/rec/BROACB-3">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Animal+Sentience&rft.atitle=Anecdotes+Can+Be+Evidence+Too&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=13&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.51291%2F2377-7478.1246&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBROACB-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogen2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Bogen" title="James Bogen">Bogen, James</a> (2016). "Empiricism and After". 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Oxford; New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 779–795. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199368815.013.12">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199368815.013.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199368815" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199368815"><bdi>978-0199368815</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/933596096">933596096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Empiricism+and+After&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.series=Oxford+Handbooks+in+Philosophy&rft.pages=779-795&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F933596096&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199368815.013.12&rft.isbn=978-0199368815&rft.aulast=Bogen&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Bunge, Mario</a> (1998) [1967]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung/page/21"><i>Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory</i></a></span>. Science and Technology Studies (Revised ed.). New Brunswick, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung/page/21">21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780765804136" title="Special:BookSources/9780765804136"><bdi>9780765804136</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37156799">37156799</a>. <q>... empirical information is not weighed in a theoretical vacuum: every piece of evidence must be judged in the light of the theory employed in the design and implementation of the technique used to gather that information. Just as no factual theory stands by itself, so no datum constitutes an evidence for or against a theory unless it is gathered and interpreted with the help of some scientific theory.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science%3A+Volume+1%2C+From+Problem+to+Theory&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.series=Science+and+Technology+Studies&rft.pages=21&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37156799&rft.isbn=9780765804136&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosophyofscie0001bung%2Fpage%2F21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTverskyKahneman1974" class="citation journal cs1">Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1974-09-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124">"Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>185</b> (4157): 1124–1131. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Sci...185.1124T">1974Sci...185.1124T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124">10.1126/science.185.4157.1124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17835457">17835457</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143452957">143452957</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220715004933/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-07-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Judgment+under+Uncertainty%3A+Heuristics+and+Biases&rft.volume=185&rft.issue=4157&rft.pages=1124-1131&rft.date=1974-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143452957%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974Sci...185.1124T&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17835457&rft.aulast=Tversky&rft.aufirst=Amos&rft.au=Kahneman%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPickett2011">Pickett 2011</a>, Empirical</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malik-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Malik_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malik_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malik_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalik2017" class="citation journal cs1">Malik, Saira (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/MALOVE">"Observation Versus Experiment: An Adequate Framework for Analysing Scientific Experimentation?"</a>. <i>Journal for General Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>48</b> (1): 71–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10838-016-9335-y">10.1007/s10838-016-9335-y</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204023/https://philpapers.org/rec/MALOVE">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+General+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Observation+Versus+Experiment%3A+An+Adequate+Framework+for+Analysing+Scientific+Experimentation%3F&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-95&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10838-016-9335-y&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Saira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FMALOVE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález2010" class="citation book cs1">González, Wenceslao J. (2010). "1. Recent approaches on Observation and Experimentation". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZuOHU4aAh8C"><i>New Methodological Perspectives on Observation and Experimentation in Science</i></a>. Netbiblo. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9745-530-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-9745-530-5"><bdi>978-84-9745-530-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Recent+approaches+on+Observation+and+Experimentation&rft.btitle=New+Methodological+Perspectives+on+Observation+and+Experimentation+in+Science&rft.pub=Netbiblo&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-84-9745-530-5&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Wenceslao+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxZuOHU4aAh8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydBogen2021" class="citation web cs1">Boyd, Nora Mills; Bogen, James (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/science-theory-observation/">"Theory and Observation in Science"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210614180115/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/science-theory-observation/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Theory+and+Observation+in+Science&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Nora+Mills&rft.au=Bogen%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fscience-theory-observation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Okasha-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Okasha_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Okasha_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Okasha_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkasha2011" class="citation journal cs1">Okasha, S. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/OKAEOA">"Experiment, Observation and the Confirmation of Laws"</a>. <i>Analysis</i>. <b>71</b> (2): 222–232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fanalys%2Fanr014">10.1093/analys/anr014</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1983%2F79e68032-e432-47de-adb5-e7ca3ff2841d">1983/79e68032-e432-47de-adb5-e7ca3ff2841d</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202034/https://philpapers.org/rec/OKAEOA">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analysis&rft.atitle=Experiment%2C+Observation+and+the+Confirmation+of+Laws&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222-232&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1983%2F79e68032-e432-47de-adb5-e7ca3ff2841d&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fanalys%2Fanr014&rft.aulast=Okasha&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FOKAEOA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bird, Alexander (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/#4.2">"Thomas Kuhn"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Section 4.2 Perception, Observational Incommensurability, and World-Change<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thomas+Kuhn&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=Section+4.2+Perception%2C+Observational+Incommensurability%2C+and+World-Change&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2013%2Fentries%2Fthomas-kuhn%2F%234.2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Craig, Edward (2005). "a posteriori". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Shorter_Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415324953" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415324953"><bdi>978-0415324953</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=a+posteriori&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0415324953&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Feldman, Richard (2001) [1999]. "Evidence". In Audi, Robert (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_Dictionary_of_Philosophy" title="The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy">The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</a></i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521637220" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521637220"><bdi>978-0521637220</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidence&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=293-294&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0521637220&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas S. Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a> (1970) [1962]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/structureofscie000kuhn"><i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226458045" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226458045"><bdi>978-0226458045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Scientific+Revolutions&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0226458045&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstructureofscie000kuhn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickett2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pickett, Joseph P., ed. (2011). <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> (5th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-04101-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-547-04101-8"><bdi>978-0-547-04101-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-547-04101-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmpirical+evidence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empirical_evidence&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/empirical" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:empirical"><i>empirical</i></a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/evidence" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:evidence"><i>evidence</i></a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" 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title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. 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