Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences

<!DOCTYPE html>      <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" class="no-js" lang="en"> <head> <base href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/" /> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" /> <meta name="theme-color" content="#069" /> <meta name="description" content="Information on the environment for those involved in developing, adopting, implementing and evaluating environmental policy, and also the general public" /> <meta name="DC.description" content="Forests used to constitute the dominant natural vegetation in most of Europe, covering up to 80 % of the land surface. However, the current extent and condition of forest ecosystems are the result of the process of human appropriation (domestication), which started more than 5000 years ago. By the end of the 17th century, more than half of Europe’s original forest had disappeared and covered just a few percent of the total land area in countries such as Denmark or Ireland. In response to forest depletion, stricter forest management practices emerged to replant, protect and maintain forest cover and the multi-functionality of forests in terms of wood production and protection against, for example, soil and wind erosion. " /> <meta name="description" content="Forests used to constitute the dominant natural vegetation in most of Europe, covering up to 80 % of the land surface. However, the current extent and condition of forest ecosystems are the result of the process of human appropriation (domestication), which started more than 5000 years ago. By the end of the 17th century, more than half of Europe’s original forest had disappeared and covered just a few percent of the total land area in countries such as Denmark or Ireland. In response to forest depletion, stricter forest management practices emerged to replant, protect and maintain forest cover and the multi-functionality of forests in terms of wood production and protection against, for example, soil and wind erosion. " /> <meta name="DC.format" content="text/html" /> <meta name="DC.type" content="Briefing" /> <meta name="DC.date.valid_range" content="2018/11/27 - " /> <meta name="keywords" content="forest depletion, copernicus land monitoring, forest management, forest, forest ecosystems, ecosystem-based management" /> <meta name="DC.date.modified" content="2023-03-14T00:07:46+01:00" /> <meta name="DC.subject" content="forest depletion, copernicus land monitoring, forest management, forest, forest ecosystems, ecosystem-based management" /> <meta name="DC.date.created" content="2018-11-19T11:51:23+01:00" /> <meta name="DC.language" content="en" /> <style> /* - critical.css - */ /*! (do not remove this :) *//*! (not this either :) */@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:300;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Light"),local("OpenSans-Light"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-v17-latin-ext_latin-300.woff2) format("woff2"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-v17-latin-ext_latin-300.woff) format("woff")}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Regular"),local("OpenSans-Regular"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Regular1-v15.woff2) format("woff2");unicode-range:U+0100-024F, U+0259, U+1E00-1EFF, U+2020, U+20A0-20AB, U+20AD-20CF, U+2113, U+2C60-2C7F, U+A720-A7FF}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Regular"),local("OpenSans-Regular"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Regular2-v15.woff2) format("woff2");unicode-range:U+0000-00FF, U+0131, U+0152-0153, U+02BB-02BC, U+02C6, U+02DA, U+02DC, U+2000-206F, U+2074, U+20AC, U+2122, U+2191, U+2193, U+2212, U+2215, U+FEFF, U+FFFD}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-display:swap;font-weight:400;src:local("Open Sans Regular"),local("OpenSans-Regular"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Regular-v16.woff) format("woff")}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:700;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Bold"),local("OpenSans-Bold"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Bold1-v15.woff2) format("woff2");unicode-range:U+0100-024F, U+0259, U+1E00-1EFF, U+2020, U+20A0-20AB, U+20AD-20CF, U+2113, U+2C60-2C7F, U+A720-A7FF}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:700;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Bold"),local("OpenSans-Bold"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Bold2-v15.woff2) format("woff2"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Bold-v16.woff) format("woff");unicode-range:U+0000-00FF, U+0131, U+0152-0153, U+02BB-02BC, U+02C6, U+02DA, U+02DC, U+2000-206F, U+2074, U+20AC, U+2122, U+2191, U+2193, U+2212, U+2215, U+FEFF, U+FFFD}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Regular"),local("OpenSans-Regular"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Regular1-v15.woff2) format("woff2");unicode-range:U+0100-024F, U+0259, U+1E00-1EFF, U+2020, U+20A0-20AB, U+20AD-20CF, U+2113, U+2C60-2C7F, U+A720-A7FF}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Regular"),local("OpenSans-Regular"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Regular2-v15.woff2) format("woff2");unicode-range:U+0000-00FF, U+0131, U+0152-0153, U+02BB-02BC, U+02C6, U+02DA, U+02DC, U+2000-206F, U+2074, U+20AC, U+2122, U+2191, U+2193, U+2212, U+2215, U+FEFF, U+FFFD}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:700;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Bold"),local("OpenSans-Bold"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Bold1-v15.woff2) format("woff2");unicode-range:U+0100-024F, U+0259, U+1E00-1EFF, U+2020, U+20A0-20AB, U+20AD-20CF, U+2113, U+2C60-2C7F, U+A720-A7FF}@font-face{font-family:"Open Sans";font-style:normal;font-weight:700;font-display:swap;src:local("Open Sans Bold"),local("OpenSans-Bold"),url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/GoogleFonts-OpenSans-Bold2-v15.woff2) format("woff2");unicode-range:U+0000-00FF, U+0131, U+0152-0153, U+02BB-02BC, U+02C6, U+02DA, U+02DC, U+2000-206F, U+2074, U+20AC, U+2122, U+2191, U+2193, U+2212, U+2215, U+FEFF, U+FFFD}@media screen{*{margin:0;padding:0}}*{-webkit-box-sizing:border-box;-moz-box-sizing:border-box;box-sizing:border-box}::-webkit-input-placeholder,::-ms-input-placeholder,::-moz-placeholder,::placeholder{color:#777;opacity:1}input[type=text]:placeholder-shown{color:black;opacity:1}:link,:visited{text-decoration:none}h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,code{font-size:1em}h1,.h1{font-size:180%}h2,.h2{font-size:150%}a img,:link img,:visited img{border:none}a{color:#004B87;outline:none;cursor:pointer}a:hover{color:#8e004d}a:visited{color:#8e004d}table{border-spacing:0}img{vertical-align:text-bottom}iframe{border:0 none}input,button,select,textarea{font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit}label{font-weight:bold}legend{display:block;margin-bottom:17px;color:#333333}.clearfix::after,.eea-container::after,.row::after,.form-horizontal .form-group::after,.nav::after,.navbar::after,.navbar-header::after,.navbar-collapse::after{clear:both}.clearfix::before,.clearfix::after,.eea-container::before,.eea-container::after,.row::before,.row::after,.form-horizontal .form-group::before,.form-horizontal .form-group::after,.nav::before,.nav::after,.navbar::before,.navbar::after,.navbar-header::before,.navbar-header::after,.navbar-collapse::before,.navbar-collapse::after{content:" ";display:table}.visualClear{display:block;clear:both}.hiddenStructure{border:0 !important;clip:rect(0 0 0 0) !important;clip-path:inset(50%) !important;height:1px !important;margin:-1px !important;overflow:hidden !important;padding:0 !important;position:absolute !important;white-space:nowrap !important;width:1px !important}.eea-slide-tooltips,#portal-logo-link-header,.navbar-toggle,.hiddenElem,.site-description,#print-warning,#portaltab-eeahome,#portal-searchbox,#edit-bar{display:none}.hidden{display:none !important}html{font-size:1rem;font-weight:400}body{font:87.5% "Open Sans","Segoe UI", Tahoma, sans-serif;color:#333;margin:0;padding:0;line-height:1.5}#globalnav-holder{display:block}#visual-portal-wrapper{max-width:1400px;margin:30px auto 0 auto;padding:0;clear:both}#footer-wrapper{background-color:#004B87;margin:2em 0 0 0;padding:1.125rem 0;clear:both}h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6{color:inherit;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Open Sans", Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;line-height:1.2}p{font-family:"Open Sans", Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;margin:0 0 1rem 0}ul{margin:0 0 0 1.5em}.space-between{justify-content:space-between}.flex{display:flex}.flex-container{max-width:1024px;width:100%;margin:auto;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap}.eea-container{margin:0 auto;padding:0 15px;max-width:1400px}.fullwidth .eea-container{max-width:100%}.pull-left{float:left !important}.pull-right{float:right !important}.list-items>li{display:list-item}.contentViews li{display:inline}.list-inline li{display:inline !important}.list-inline li::before{content:" "}.eea-sliding-section{-webkit-transition:all .25s ease-out;-o-transition:all .25s ease-out;-moz-transition:all .25s ease-out;transition:all .25s ease-out;will-change:transform;-webkit-transform:translate3d(0, 0, 0);overflow:hidden}.overflow-initial{overflow:initial}@media screen{.width-full{width:100%}.row{width:100%;display:block;position:relative}.cell{position:relative;float:left}.width-3\:4{width:63.5%}}.width-1\:4{width:35.5%}.panel{display:none;z-index:600;background:transparent;border:0}#header-holder{width:100%;clear:both;display:block;position:relative}#header-holder .navbar{background-color:#FFF;border-bottom:1px solid #ececec}.navbar-toggle{position:relative;float:right;padding:9px 10px;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:8px;background:transparent none;border:1px solid #ddd;cursor:pointer}.navbar-collapse{visibility:hidden;display:none}#portal-top{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap}#portal-header{display:flex;justify-content:space-between;align-items:center;clear:both;position:relative;margin:0 auto;overflow:inherit;min-height:60px;height:60px;z-index:initial;width:100%}#printLogo{display:block;width:auto;height:40px;min-width:209px}#portal-globalnav{clear:both;display:flex;height:50px;list-style:none;margin:0 auto;max-width:1024px;padding:0;position:relative}.secondary-portaltabs{color:#666;display:flex;margin:0;position:relative}#secondary-globalnav-tips{width:0;padding:0 !important;font-size:12px}.portal-globalnav>li,.secondary-portaltabs>li{margin:0;min-height:50px;display:flex;line-height:normal}.portal-globalnav>li>a,.eea-siteaction>a{display:flex;align-items:center}.portal-globalnav>li>a{color:inherit;padding:1em 0.75em}#portal-personaltools-wrapper{display:none}.eea-siteaction>a,.eea-siteaction>a:hover,.eea-siteaction .eea-icon{color:inherit;cursor:pointer}.siteaction-title{display:none;margin-left:0.2em}#siteaction-chooselang-menu .siteaction-title,#siteaction-search-menu .siteaction-title{display:inline-block}#siteaction-europe-menu{padding-left:1em;padding-right:0}.icon-siteaction-europe-flag{background:url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/europe-flag.svg) no-repeat top left;display:inline-block;width:60px;height:38px;-webkit-background-size:contain;background-size:contain}.fullwidth #portal-globalnav,.fullwidth #portal-header,.fullwidth .flex-container,.fullwidth #visual-portal-wrapper{max-width:100%}.fullwidth #visual-portal-wrapper{overflow:hidden}.fullwidth #portal-columns{min-width:100%}.moreLink{border:0 !important;display:inline-block;padding-left:20px;position:relative}.moreLink:before{content:"\f138";font-family:FontAwesome;font-size:16px;color:gray;position:absolute;margin-left:-18px;top:3px}.eea-btn.moreLink:before{color:inherit;top:23.5%}#eea-above-columns{min-height:1px;background-color:#FFF}.plone-breadcrumb{border-width:0 0 1px 0;border-style:solid;border-color:#ececec;font-size:12px}#breadcrumbs-home{padding-left:0}.plone-breadcrumb-list>li{font-weight:400;display:inline-block;position:relative;padding:0 0 0 25px;margin:0;line-height:1}.plone-breadcrumb-list{display:inline-block;padding:8px 0;list-style:none;margin:0}.plone-breadcrumb-list .eea-icon{vertical-align:0}.fullwidth .plone-breadcrumb .container{margin:0;min-width:100%}.plone-breadcrumb-list>li+li:after{content:"\f054";position:absolute;color:#cccccc;padding:0;font-family:"FontAwesome";top:0;left:6px}.plone-breadcrumb a{color:#086ca3}.plone-breadcrumb .breadcrumbSeparator,.plone-breadcrumb #breadcrumbs-you-are-here{display:none}#region-content,.content-header{position:relative}#content-core{clear:both}.content-core-wrapper{position:relative}#portal-column-two-wrapper{top:1.5rem;position:absolute;right:-387px;width:100%;max-width:300px;z-index:2;padding-bottom:2em;overflow-x:auto;scrollbar-width:thin}.portlet .navTreeLevel0>li:first-child>a{border-top:0}.portletNavigationTree a:visited{color:#274357}#firstHeader{margin:0 0 5px 0;line-height:1.2;font-size:1.25rem;font-weight:bold}.navTree{list-style:none none;margin-left:0;margin-bottom:0}.navTreeItem{display:block !important;padding:0 !important;margin:0 !important}.navTreeItem img{width:16px;height:16px}.portlet .navTree li a{margin:0;padding:10px;border-top:1px solid #d3d3d3;font-weight:normal;font-size:1rem;line-height:1.5;position:relative}.navTreeItem a,.portletItem .navTreeItem a{color:#274357;display:block;text-decoration:none}.mobile-only .portletNavigationTree{background:transparent;border:0;width:100%;margin-bottom:0}.mobile-only .navTreeLevel0>li:first-child>a{padding-top:0}.mobile-only #firstHeader{font-weight:normal;font-size:1.15rem}.mobile-only .portletNavigationTree .portletSubMenuHeader,.mobile-only .portletNavigationTree .portletSubMenuHeader:hover{background-color:transparent;font-weight:normal}.mobile-only .portletNavigationTree,.mobile-only .portletNavigationTree .eea-icon-left:after,.mobile-only .portletHeader .eea-icon-left:after,.mobile-only .portletHeader>a,.mobile-only .portlet .navTree li a{color:#FFF !important}.mobile-only .navTree a:hover{color:#FFF !important}.mobile-only .navTree a:hover:after,.mobile-only .navTreeCurrentItem:after{border-left-color:#FFF !important}#portal-globalnav .mobile-only+.mobile-only,#portal-globalnav .mobile-only:last-of-type{border-bottom:1px solid #d3d3d3}@media (min-width: 1025px){#portal-column-two-wrapper::-webkit-scrollbar{width:7px;background-color:#f3f3f3}#portal-column-two-wrapper::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb{background-color:#CCC}}@media (max-width: 1279px){.mini-header #portal-column-two-wrapper{display:none}}.portalMessage{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:1em;clear:both}.frontpage .progressbar-viewlet{display:none}.content-header-body{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%}.content-header .documentByLine{order:0;max-width:100%;flex-basis:100%}#themes-tags{order:2;flex-basis:100%;max-width:100% !important}.documentDescription{order:3;width:100%}#article-language{margin:0 0 .5rem 0;position:relative;right:0;display:block;order:2;min-width:170px}.documentExportActions{margin:0;position:relative;right:0;order:2}.documentExportActions .eea-icon-file-pdf-o{font-size:1rem}.megatopics-area{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:nowrap;justify-content:center}#megatopics-area{font-size:0.9em;margin-bottom:1.5em;width:100%}.megatopics-area .portlet{margin:0;padding:0;min-height:286px;height:100%;border:0}.portlet-megatopic{flex:1}#megatopics-area .portlet-megatopic{margin:0 1px;border:1px solid #ececec}.portlet-megatopic-header{position:relative;height:170px;background-size:cover}.megatopics-area .portletHeader{background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.8);color:rgba(255,255,255,0.9);margin:0;height:auto;padding:1em;position:absolute;bottom:0;width:100%;text-align:left;font-weight:bold !important;line-height:1.2;font-size:1rem}.portlet-megatopic-body{padding:1rem}#megatopics-area .portlet-megatopic-body li{padding-left:0;margin-bottom:0}.portlet-megatopic .list-items{margin:0 0 0 1rem}p,.content-core li{font-size:1rem}.content-core li,.portlet li,.portletStaticText li{margin-bottom:0.25em;display:list-item}.documentContent li a{display:inline}.content-core dt{font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0}.portletHeader,.portlet .portletHeader{font-weight:normal;margin-bottom:1em}#content .featured p:last-child{margin-bottom:0}#main-content{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:space-between}#portal-column-content{min-width:635px;padding:0 15px}body:not(.template-report_view) .width-3\:4{max-width:830px}#portal-column-two .portlet{margin:0 0 1em 0}.column-area,.right-column-area{width:59.5%;flex-basis:59.5%;margin:0 0;padding:0}.right-column-area{width:39%;flex-basis:37.5%;order:1}.frontpage #highlights-area{padding:0;overflow:hidden}.featured,.portlet{margin-bottom:1em;padding:15px;background:#ffffff;border:1px solid #ececec}.figure-left{float:left}#news-header{height:35px;clear:both;display:block;margin:14px 0 5px 0}#news-header h2{border:none;font-size:160%;font-weight:normal;margin:6px;padding:0}#articles-area h2{line-height:1em;border-bottom:0;margin:0 0 0.5em 0}#semantic-data-service{margin-top:0}#topic-selector{position:absolute;margin-top:2.8em;left:0;margin-left:8em}.filter-topic{float:left;text-align:left;width:81%;padding-top:6px;margin-top:0}.gallery-layout-selection{float:right;position:relative;top:5px;list-style:none;margin-bottom:10px;display:inline}.eea-tabs{padding:0 10px 0 0;margin:0 !important;list-style:none none;background-color:#274357;border:1px solid #ececec;border-bottom:0}.eea-tabs::before,.eea-tabs::after{display:table;content:" ";clear:both}#whatsnew-gallery .eea-tabs>li{float:left}#visual-portal-wrapper .eea-tabs.two-rows>li>a{line-height:2.2}.eea-tabs>li{margin:0 !important;padding:0;display:inline-block}.eea-tabs>li>a{color:#fff;display:block;font-size:1rem;padding:8px;position:relative;text-shadow:1px 1px 1px #000000;border:0}.eea-tabs.two-rows>li>a{line-height:1.35}.eea-tabs-panels{border:1px solid #ececec;padding:15px;clear:both}.eea-tabs-panel{display:none}.eea-tabs-panel:first-of-type{display:block}.tileImage{float:left;margin:1em 1em 1em 0}.archives{float:right;margin:1.5em 25px 15px 15px;position:relative;top:8px;line-height:1em}#eea-mobile-shortcut.shortcut-default,#enquiry-service-shortcut.shortcut-default{padding:25px 21px}.shortcut-default{text-align:left;padding:1.5em;background:#ffffff;margin-bottom:1em;border:1px solid #ececec}@media screen and (min-width: 1200px){.content-header .documentByLine{max-width:80%;flex-basis:80%}.documentExportActions{margin:0 0.5rem 0 auto}}@media screen and (min-width: 1250px){.navbar-collapse{display:block;height:auto !important;overflow:visible !important;visibility:visible}.photoAlbumEntryWrapper>.lazy,.tileImage>.lazy{min-width:141px;min-height:100px}.secondary-portaltabs .eea-accordion-panels,#portal-logo-link-header{display:none}}@media (min-width: 1280px){.mobile-only{display:none !important}}@media screen and (min-width: 1360px){.portal-globalnav>li>a,.secondary-portaltabs>li{font-size:15px}}@media all and (-ms-high-contrast: none), (-ms-high-contrast: active){.hiddenStructure{display:none !important}#portal-logo-link{width:213px;display:block}}/*! */ /*# sourceMappingURL=critical.css.dtml.map */ </style> <style> /* - eea-theme-critical.css - */ /*! (do not remove this :) *//*! *//*! (not this either :) */h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,.h1,.h2,.h3,.h4,.h5,.h6{margin-bottom:1.5rem;font-weight:600;line-height:1.2;color:inherit}.h0{font-size:3.75rem !important}h1{font-size:3.125rem}.h1{font-size:3.125rem !important}h2{font-size:2.5rem}.h2{font-size:2.5rem !important}h3{font-size:1.75rem}.h3{font-size:1.75rem !important}h4{font-size:1.5rem}.h4{font-size:1.5rem !important}h5{font-size:1.25rem}.h5{font-size:1.25rem !important}h6{font-size:1rem}.h6{font-size:1rem !important}.h7{font-size:.75rem !important}p{font-size:1.25rem;margin-bottom:1.5rem;line-height:1.6}p:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.figureHeading{font-size:1.25rem;line-height:1.6}ul,ol{margin:0 0 1.5rem 1.5rem;line-height:1.6}.list-unstyled{margin-left:0;list-style:none !important}.content-core{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:2rem}.content-core h2:not(:first-child),.content-core h3:not(:first-child),.content-core h4:not(:first-child){margin-top:2.5rem}.content-core h2+h3,.content-core h3+h4{margin-top:0 !important}.content-core li{font-size:1.25rem;padding-left:1rem;margin-bottom:.5rem}.content-core li:last-child,.content-core p:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.content-core ul{list-style:square outside url("//www.eea.europa.eu/bullet.gif")}@media print{.content-core ol{margin-left:0}}.indicator-figure-plus-container .warningMessage{display:none}.mini-header:not(.expired-content) .wf-state-published #content-core{background-color:#FFF}.mini-header{overflow-x:hidden}.mini-header .annotator-wrapper{position:inherit}.mini-header .mini-portal-type{position:absolute;padding:.5rem 1.5rem;background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.7);top:-2.5rem;text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:500;font-size:1.25rem;line-height:1;left:-1rem}.mini-header.mini-header-light .mini-portal-type{background-color:#FFF}.mini-header .content-header-body{position:relative;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:space-between;width:100%;padding-top:1rem}.mini-header .content-header-body:before{width:100vw;content:" ";background-color:white;position:absolute;height:calc(100% + 5rem);margin-left:calc(50% - 50vw);margin-right:calc(50% - 49.3vw);top:0;z-index:-2;min-height:100px}.mini-header .documentByLine .portalType,.mini-header .content-header-body #themes-tags{display:none}.mini-header .content-header .documentByLine{position:relative;display:flex;align-content:center;justify-content:flex-start;flex-wrap:wrap;flex:1;max-width:initial}.mini-header .content-header .documentByLine::before{position:absolute;width:100vw;left:-15px;display:block;content:" ";border-top:2px solid white;top:-.5rem;max-width:830px}.mini-header.mini-header-light .documentByLine:before{border-top:1px solid #ececec}.mini-header .documentExportActions{margin:0 0 .5rem 1rem;order:5}.mini-header .documentExportActions .export-action-title{display:inline}.mini-header .documentByLineImageCopyright,.mini-header .documentByLineModified{display:inline-block}.mini-header .eea-icon-file-pdf-o{font-size:1rem}.mini-header #portal-column-content{margin:0 auto;min-width:initial;width:100%;float:none}.mini-header[class*="_view"] .width-3\:4{float:none;max-width:830px}.mini-header[class*="_view"] .width-full{max-width:100%}.mini-header .content-core-wrapper{margin-top:3.75rem}.mini-header .content-header{padding:1rem 0 0 0;color:#FFF;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:space-between;position:relative}.mini-header .content-header .documentFirstHeading{padding-right:0;min-width:85%;margin:1.25rem 0 2.5rem 0;letter-spacing:-1px;font-size:2.5rem;line-height:1.15}.mini-header .content-header:before{content:" ";width:100%;left:-1rem;background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.7);position:absolute;height:100%;z-index:-1;top:0;padding:0 1rem}.mini-header #content-core:before{content:" ";width:100vw;position:absolute;height:100%;background-color:#FFF;z-index:-1;margin-left:calc(50% - 50vw);margin-right:calc(50% - 49.3vw)}.mini-header .documentDescription{margin-bottom:1.5rem;font-size:1.125rem;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.333;width:100%}.mini-header .content-header .documentFirstHeading,.mini-header .content-header .documentDescription{order:1}.mini-header .content-header .documentFirstHeading,.mini-header .content-header .documentExportActions a{color:inherit !important}.mini-header #languageCodes,.mini-header .content-header .documentByLine{order:2}.mini-header .content-header .documentExportActions{order:3;position:relative}.mini-header .content-header>div{order:4}.mini-header .documentByLine,.mini-header .documentDescription,.mini-header .documentByLine a{color:inherit}.mini-header.mini-header-light .documentDescription{color:#333;line-height:1.6;font-size:1.25rem;font-weight:bold}.mini-header #themes-tags .listHead{display:none}.mini-header #article-language{margin-top:0;position:relative;order:4;align-self:auto;min-width:auto}.mini-header .documentExportActions+#article-language{margin-left:0.75rem}.mini-header #article-language .eea-icon:before,.mini-header #article-language>a{color:inherit}.mini-header #region-content{padding-top:8em}.mini-header .fiche-endnotes{margin-top:1.75rem}.mini-header.mini-header-light #region-content{padding-top:1px}.mini-header.mini-header-light .content-header{margin-top:100px;color:#000}.mini-header.mini-header-light .content-header:before{background-color:#FFF}.mini-header-below-content-wrapper>.disclaimer{margin-bottom:-2rem}@media (max-width: 660px){.mini-header .content-header-body{justify-content:flex-start}.mini-header .content-header .documentByLine{max-width:100%;flex-basis:100%}.mini-header .documentExportActions{display:flex;justify-content:flex-start;margin-left:0}}@media (min-width: 661px){.mini-header #content .documentByLine{max-width:initial;flex-basis:0}}@media (max-width: 767px){html{font-size:0.875rem}.mini-header .content-header:before{width:101%;left:-1.1rem}}@media (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 1023px){html{font-size:0.9375rem}}@media (min-width: 1024px){html{font-size:1rem}.mini-header .content-header .documentByLine::before{left:-14.3%;max-width:1001px}.mini-header .content-header #article-language+.documentByLine::before{max-width:990px}.mini-header.mini-header-light .documentByLine:before{max-width:800px !important;left:0}.mini-header.mini-header-light .width-full .documentByLine:before,.mini-header.mini-header-light.portaltype-topic .width-3\:4 .documentByLine:before,.mini-header.mini-header-light.portaltype-folder .width-3\:4 .documentByLine:before{max-width:98vw !important}.mini-header .content-header-body:before{height:calc(100% + 6.25rem)}.mini-header .content-core-wrapper{margin-top:6.25rem}}@media (min-width: 1024px){.mini-header #portal-column-content{min-width:830px}.mini-header #content .documentByLine{max-width:initial}.mini-header .width-3\:4 .content-header:before{width:122%;left:-11%;padding:0}.mini-header .width-3\:4 .mini-portal-type{left:-11%}.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-folder .content-header:before,.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-topic .content-header:before{width:105%;left:-2.5%}.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-folder .mini-portal-type,.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-topic .mini-portal-type{left:-2.5%}.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-folder #portal-column-content,.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-topic #portal-column-content{max-width:100%}}@media (min-width: 1280px){.mini-header .content-header{margin-top:200px}.mini-header-navigation .content-header,.mini-header-navigation .content-core{max-width:830px}.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-folder .relatedItems h2,.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-folder .relatedItems .eea-tabs,.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-topic .relatedItems h2,.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-topic .relatedItems .eea-tabs{left:0 !important}.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-folder .relatedItems .eea-tabs-panels,.mini-header:not(.mini-header-navigation).portaltype-topic .relatedItems .eea-tabs-panels{margin-left:260px}}@media (min-width: 1280px) and (max-width: 1599px){.mini-header-navigation[class*="_view"] #portal-column-content{float:none;max-width:94%}.mini-header-navigation .relatedItems h2,.mini-header-navigation .relatedItems .eea-tabs{left:0 !important}.mini-header-navigation .relatedItems .eea-tabs-panels{margin-left:260px}.mini-header-navigation .mini-portal-type{left:-2.5% !important}.mini-header-navigation .content-header::before{width:105% !important;left:-2.5% !important}.mini-header-navigation #plone-document-byline:before{max-width:830px !important}.mini-header-navigation .content-header-body::before{width:1615px}}@media (min-width: 1280px) and (max-width: 1399px){.mini-header-navigation #visual-portal-wrapper{margin-top:0;overflow:hidden}}@media (min-width: 1400px){.mini-header.mini-header-light.portaltype-topic .width-3\:4 .documentByLine::before,.mini-header.mini-header-light.portaltype-folder .width-3\:4 .documentByLine::before,.mini-header.mini-header-light .width-full .documentByLine::before{max-width:1370px !important}}@media (min-width: 1400px) and (max-width: 1599px){.mini-header-navigation .content-header-body::before{width:calc(100vw + 27.5%)}}@media print{.mini-header .mini-portal-type{top:-3.75rem}.mini-header h1,.mini-header h2,.mini-header h3{margin-top:0}.mini-header ul{list-style:none}}/*! *//*! */ /*# sourceMappingURL=eea-theme-critical.css.dtml.map */ </style> <link rel="preload" onload="this.onload=null;this.rel='stylesheet'" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/portal_css/EEADesign2006/ploneStyles1732293714528161049.css" as="style" /> <noscript><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/portal_css/EEADesign2006/ploneStyles1732293714528161049.css" /></noscript> <link rel="preload" onload="this.onload=null;this.rel='stylesheet'" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/portal_css/EEADesign2006/ploneStyles1732293714530894041.css" as="style" /> <noscript><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/portal_css/EEADesign2006/ploneStyles1732293714530894041.css" /></noscript> <link rel="preload" onload="this.onload=null;this.rel='stylesheet'" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/portal_css/EEADesign2006/ploneStyles1732293714531069040.css" as="style" /> <noscript><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/portal_css/EEADesign2006/ploneStyles1732293714531069040.css" /></noscript> <script> !function(t){"use strict";t.loadCSS||(t.loadCSS=function(){});var e=loadCSS.relpreload={};if(e.support=function(){var e;try{e=t.document.createElement("link").relList.supports("preload")}catch(t){e=!1}return function(){return e}}(),e.bindMediaToggle=function(t){function e(){t.media=a}var a=t.media||"all";t.addEventListener?t.addEventListener("load",e):t.attachEvent&&t.attachEvent("onload",e),setTimeout(function(){t.rel="stylesheet",t.media="only x"}),setTimeout(e,3e3)},e.poly=function(){if(!e.support())for(var a=t.document.getElementsByTagName("link"),n=0;n<a.length;n++){var o=a[n];"preload"!==o.rel||"style"!==o.getAttribute("as")||o.getAttribute("data-loadcss")||(o.setAttribute("data-loadcss",!0),e.bindMediaToggle(o))}},!e.support()){e.poly();var a=t.setInterval(e.poly,500);t.addEventListener?t.addEventListener("load",function(){e.poly(),t.clearInterval(a)}):t.attachEvent&&t.attachEvent("onload",function(){e.poly(),t.clearInterval(a)})}"undefined"!=typeof exports?exports.loadCSS=loadCSS:t.loadCSS=loadCSS}("undefined"!=typeof global?global:this); </script> <title> Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences — European Environment Agency </title>  <meta name="generator" content="Plone - http://plone.org" /> <div class="eea-i18n-js hiddenElem"> <div id="eeaPaginationNext">next</div> <div id="eeaPaginationPrev">previous</div> <div id="eeaPaginationItems">items</div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">/* jslint:disable */ !function(){var e=function(){function e(){if(!r.isReady){try{document.documentElement.doScroll("left")}catch(t){return void setTimeout(e,1)}r.ready()}}var t,n,o={};o["[object Boolean]"]="boolean",o["[object Number]"]="number",o["[object String]"]="string",o["[object Function]"]="function",o["[object Array]"]="array",o["[object Date]"]="date",o["[object RegExp]"]="regexp",o["[object Object]"]="object";var r={isReady:!1,readyWait:1,holdReady:function(e){e?r.readyWait++:r.ready(!0)},ready:function(e){if(!0===e&&!--r.readyWait||!0!==e&&!r.isReady){if(!document.body)return setTimeout(r.ready,1);if(r.isReady=!0,!0!==e&&--r.readyWait>0)return;t.resolveWith(document,[window.jQuery])}},bindReady:function(){if(!t){if(t=r._Deferred(),"complete"===document.readyState)return setTimeout(r.ready,1);if(document.addEventListener)document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",n,!1),window.addEventListener("load",r.ready,!1);else if(document.attachEvent){document.attachEvent("onreadystatechange",n),window.attachEvent("onload",r.ready);var o=!1;try{o=null==window.frameElement}catch(e){}document.documentElement.doScroll&&o&&e()}}},_Deferred:function(){var e,t,n,o=[],i={done:function(){if(!n){var t,d,a,c,u,y=arguments;for(e&&(u=e,e=0),t=0,d=y.length;t<d;t++)a=y[t],"array"===(c=r.type(a))?i.done.apply(i,a):"function"===c&&o.push(a);u&&i.resolveWith(u[0],u[1])}return this},resolveWith:function(r,i){if(!n&&!e&&!t){i=i||[],t=1;try{for(;o[0];)o.shift().apply(r,i)}finally{e=[r,i],t=0}}return this},resolve:function(){return i.resolveWith(this,arguments),this},isResolved:function(){return!(!t&&!e)},cancel:function(){return n=1,o=[],this}};return i},type:function(e){return null==e?String(e):o[Object.prototype.toString.call(e)]||"object"}};return document.addEventListener?n=function(){document.removeEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",n,!1),r.ready()}:document.attachEvent&&(n=function(){"complete"===document.readyState&&(document.detachEvent("onreadystatechange",n),r.ready())}),function(e){r.bindReady();r.type(e);t.done(e)}}();window.jQuery=$=jq=function(t,n){return"function"==typeof t?e(t):new jQuery.fn.init(t,n)},window.jQuery.fn=window.jQuery.prototype={init:function(){return this}},window.jQuery.fn.init.prototype=window.jQuery.fn,window.jQuery.fn.ready=e}(); </script> <script type="text/javascript"> context_url='https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and';</script> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/x-icon" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/favicon.ico" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/touch_icon.png" /> <script type="text/javascript"> jQuery(function($){ if (typeof($.datepicker) != "undefined"){ $.datepicker.setDefaults( jQuery.extend($.datepicker.regional[''], {dateFormat: 'dd/mm/yy'})); } }); </script> <meta property="og:title" content="Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences" /><meta property="og:url" content="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and" /><meta property="og:image" content="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/@@images/df2a758f-375e-4544-a541-fde5a30e25d3.jpeg" /><meta property="og:site_name" content="European Environment Agency" /><meta property="og:description" content="Forests used to constitute the dominant natural vegetation in most of Europe, covering up to 80 % of the land surface. However, the current extent and condition of forest ecosystems are the result of the process of human appropriation (domestication), which started more than 5000 years ago. By the end of the 17th century, more than half of Europe’s original forest had disappeared and covered just a few percent of the total land area in countries such as Denmark or Ireland. In response to forest depletion, stricter forest management practices emerged to replant, protect and maintain forest cover and the multi-functionality of forests in terms of wood production and protection against, for example, soil and wind erosion. " /><meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <link rel="alternate" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/RSS" title="Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences - RSS 1.0" type="application/rss+xml" /> <link rel="alternate" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/rss.xml" title="Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences - RSS 2.0" type="application/rss+xml" /> <link rel="alternate" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/atom.xml" title="Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences - Atom" type="application/rss+xml" /> <link rel="search" href="http://search.apps.eea.europa.eu" title="Search this site" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="en" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and" /> </head> <body id="top" class="template-fiche_view portaltype-fiche site-SITE section-publications subsection-forest-dynamics-in-europe-and subsection-forest-dynamics-in-europe-and-forest-dynamics-in-europe-and icons-on userrole-anonymous is_view_template mini-header scroll-analytics en" dir="ltr" data-portal-url="https://www.eea.europa.eu" data-base-url="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and"> <div id="print-warning"> <p>Do something for our planet, print this page only if needed. Even a small action can make an enormous difference when millions of people do it!</p> </div> <a class="eea-template back-to-toc-button link-without-style" href="#document-toc" title="Back to table of contents"></a> <div class="eea header"> <div class="top bar"> <div class="ui container"> <div class="item header-top-item official-union"> <img src="data:image/png;base64,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" alt="European Union flag" class="ui image" /> <div aria-label="An official website of the European Union | How do you know?" role="listbox" aria-expanded="false" class="ui dropdown" tabindex="0"> <div class="divider text mobile-sr-only">An official website of the European Union | How do you know?</div><i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down"></i> <div role="option" class="menu transition"> <div class="content" tabindex="0" role="presentation"> <p>All official European Union website addresses are in the <b>europa.eu</b> domain.</p> <a href="https://europa.eu/european-union/contact/institutions-bodies_en" target="_blank" rel="noopener">See all EU institutions and bodies</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="item header-top-item"> <div id="theme-sites" aria-label="dropdown" role="listbox" aria-expanded="false" class="ui dropdown" tabindex="0"> <div aria-atomic="true" aria-live="polite" role="alert" class="divider text"> Environmental information systems </div> <i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down"></i> <div role="group" class="menu transition"> <div class="wrapper" tabindex="0" role="presentation"> <div role="option" class="item"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">European Environment Agency website</a> </div> <div role="option" class="item"> <a href="https://water.europa.eu/marine" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">WISE marine - Marine information system for Europe</a> </div> <div role="option" class="item"> <a href="https://water.europa.eu/freshwater" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">WISE freshwater - Freshwater information system for Europe</a> </div> <div role="option" class="item"><a href="https://biodiversity.europa.eu" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">BISE - Biodiversity information system for Europe</a></div> <div role="option" class="item"> <a href="https://forest.eea.europa.eu/" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">FISE - Forest information system for Europe</a> </div> <div role="option" class="item"><a href="https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/observatory" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">European Climate and health observatory</a></div> <div role="option" class="item"><a href="https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ClimateADAPT</a></div> <div role="option" class="item"><a href="https://industry.eea.europa.eu" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">European Industrial Emissions Portal</a></div> <div role="option" class="item"><a href="https://climate-energy.eea.europa.eu" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Climate and energy in the EU</a> </div> <div role="option" class="item"><a href="https://land.copernicus.eu/en" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Copernicus Land Monitoring Service</a></div> <div role="option" class="item"><a href="https://insitu.copernicus.eu" class="site" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Copernicus InSitu</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="main bar transparency"> <div class="ui container"> <div class="ui grid"> <div class="four wide computer eight wide mobile eight wide tablet column"> <div> <a title="Site" class="logo" href="/en"><img title="Site" src="/newheader/eea-logo.d80e6aca.svg" alt="European Environment Agency" class="ui image eea-logo" width='347' height='128' /></a> </div> </div> <div class="eight wide computer four wide mobile four wide tablet column"> <div class="main-menu inverted"> <div class="ui text eea-main-menu tablet or lower menu" id="navigation"> <div class="active item"> <a href="/en" title="Home">Home</a> </div> <div class="item" data-id="tip-topic"> <a href="/en/topics" title="Topics">Topics</a> </div> <div class="item" data-id="tip-analysis-and-data"> <a href="/en/analysis" title="Analysis and data">Analysis and data</a> </div> <div class="item" data-id="tip-countries"> <a href="/en/countries" title="Countries">Countries</a> </div> <div class="item" data-id="tip-newsroom"> <a href="/en/newsroom" title="Newsroom">Newsroom</a> </div> <div class="item" data-id="tip-about-us"> <a href="/en/about" title="About us">About us</a> </div> </div> <button class="search-action" tabindex="0" aria-pressed="false" aria-haspopup="true"> <img src="/newheader/search-line.dbe67552.svg" alt="search button open/close" class="ui image" height='54' width='54' /></button><button class="burger-action mobile" tabindex="0" aria-pressed="false" aria-haspopup="true"> <img src="/newheader/menu-line.1c63601f.svg" alt="menu icon open/close" class="ui image" /> </button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="mega-menu" class="slide down hidden transition"> <div class="ui container"> <div class="menu-content tablet hidden mobile hidden" id="tip-topic"> <div class="ui grid"> <div id="at-a-glance" class="three wide column"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Topics" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/topics" ><span>Topics</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right" ></i ></a> </div> <a title="At a glance" class="sub-title" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance" ><span>At a glance</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"> <a title="State of Europe's environment" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/state-of-europes-environment" ><span>State of Europe's environment</span></a ><a title="Climate" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/climate" ><span>Climate</span></a ><a title="Economy and resources" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/economy-and-resources" ><span>Economy and resources</span></a ><a title="Health" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/health" ><span>Health</span></a ><a title="Nature" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/nature" ><span>Nature</span></a ><a title="Sustainability" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/sustainability" ><span>Sustainability</span></a > </div> </div> <div id="topics-right-column" class="nine wide column"> <a title="In-depth topics" class="sub-title" href="/en/topics/in-depth" ><span>In-depth topics</span></a > <div class="ui four column grid"> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Agriculture and food system" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/agriculture-and-food" ><span>Agriculture and food system</span></a ><a title="Air pollution" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/air-pollution-new" ><span>Air pollution</span></a ><a title="Bathing water quality" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/bathing-water" ><span>Bathing water quality</span></a ><a title="Biodiversity: state of habitats and species" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/biodiversity" ><span>Biodiversity: state of habitats and species</span></a ><a title="Buildings and construction" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/buildings-and-construction" ><span>Buildings and construction</span></a ><a title="Chemicals" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/chemicals" ><span>Chemicals</span></a ><a title="Circular economy" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/circular-economy" ><span>Circular economy</span></a ><a title="Climate change impacts, risks and adaptation" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/climate-change-impacts-risks-and-adaptation" ><span>Climate change impacts, risks and adaptation</span></a ><a title="Climate change mitigation: reducing emissions" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/climate-change-mitigation-reducing-emissions" ><span>Climate change mitigation: reducing emissions</span></a ><a title="Electric vehicles" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/electric-vehicles" ><span>Electric vehicles</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Energy" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/energy" ><span>Energy</span></a ><a title="Energy efficiency" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/energy-efficiency" ><span>Energy efficiency</span></a ><a title="Environmental health impacts" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/environmental-health-impacts" ><span>Environmental health impacts</span></a ><a title="Environmental inequalities" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/environmental-inequalities" ><span>Environmental inequalities</span></a ><a title="Extreme weather: floods, droughts and heatwaves" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/extreme-weather-floods-droughts-and-heatwaves" ><span>Extreme weather: floods, droughts and heatwaves</span></a ><a title="Forests and forestry" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/forests-and-forestry" ><span>Forests and forestry</span></a ><a title="Industry" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/industry" ><span>Industry</span></a ><a title="Land use" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/land-use" ><span>Land use</span></a ><a title="Nature protection and restoration" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/nature-protection-and-restoration" ><span>Nature protection and restoration</span></a ><a title="Noise" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/noise" ><span>Noise</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Plastics" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/plastics" ><span>Plastics</span></a ><a title="Pollution" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/pollution" ><span>Pollution</span></a ><a title="Production and consumption" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/production-and-consumption" ><span>Production and consumption</span></a ><a title="Renewable energy" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/renewable-energy" ><span>Renewable energy</span></a ><a title="Resource use and materials" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/resource-use-and-materials" ><span>Resource use and materials</span></a ><a title="Road transport" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/road-transport-new" ><span>Road transport</span></a ><a title="Seas and coasts" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/seas-and-coasts" ><span>Seas and coasts</span></a ><a title="Soil" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/soil" ><span>Soil</span></a ><a title="Sustainability challenges" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/sustainability-challenges" ><span>Sustainability challenges</span></a ><a title="Sustainability solutions" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/sustainability-solutions" ><span>Sustainability solutions</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Sustainable finance" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/sustainable-finance" ><span>Sustainable finance</span></a ><a title="Textiles" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/textiles" ><span>Textiles</span></a ><a title="Transport and mobility" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/transport-and-mobility-new" ><span>Transport and mobility</span></a ><a title="Urban sustainability" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/urban-sustainability" ><span>Urban sustainability</span></a ><a title="Waste and recycling" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/waste-and-recycling" ><span>Waste and recycling</span></a ><a title="Water" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth/water" ><span>Water</span></a > </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="menu-content tablet hidden mobile hidden" id="tip-analysis-and-data"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Analysis and data" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/analysis" ><span>Analysis and data</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right"></i ></a> </div> <div class="ui four column grid"> <div class="column"> <a title="Publications" class="sub-title" href="/en/analysis/publications" ><span>Publications</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Maps and charts" class="sub-title" href="/en/analysis/maps-and-charts" ><span>Maps and charts</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Indicators" class="sub-title" href="/en/analysis/indicators" ><span>Indicators</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Country fact sheets" class="sub-title" href="/en/analysis/country-fact-sheets" ><span>Country fact sheets</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Datahub" class="sub-title" href="/en/analysis/data-hub" ><span>Datahub</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="menu-content tablet hidden mobile hidden" id="tip-countries"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Countries" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/countries" ><span>Countries</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right"></i ></a> </div> <div class="ui grid"> <div class="eight wide column"> <a title="EEA member countries" class="sub-title" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries" ><span>EEA member countries</span></a > <div class="ui five column grid"> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Austria" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/austria" ><span>Austria</span></a ><a title="Belgium" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/belgium" ><span>Belgium</span></a ><a title="Bulgaria" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/bulgaria" ><span>Bulgaria</span></a ><a title="Croatia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/croatia" ><span>Croatia</span></a ><a title="Cyprus" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/cyprus" ><span>Cyprus</span></a ><a title="Czechia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/czechia" ><span>Czechia</span></a ><a title="Denmark" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/denmark" ><span>Denmark</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Estonia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/estonia" ><span>Estonia</span></a ><a title="Finland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/finland" ><span>Finland</span></a ><a title="France" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/france" ><span>France</span></a ><a title="Germany" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/germany" ><span>Germany</span></a ><a title="Greece" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/greece" ><span>Greece</span></a ><a title="Hungary" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/hungary" ><span>Hungary</span></a ><a title="Iceland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/iceland" ><span>Iceland</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Ireland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/ireland" ><span>Ireland</span></a ><a title="Italy" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/italy" ><span>Italy</span></a ><a title="Latvia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/latvia" ><span>Latvia</span></a ><a title="Liechtenstein" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/liechtenstein" ><span>Liechtenstein</span></a ><a title="Lithuania" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/lithuania" ><span>Lithuania</span></a ><a title="Luxembourg" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/luxembourg" ><span>Luxembourg</span></a ><a title="Malta" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/malta" ><span>Malta</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Netherlands" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/netherlands" ><span>Netherlands</span></a ><a title="Norway" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/norway" ><span>Norway</span></a ><a title="Poland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/poland" ><span>Poland</span></a ><a title="Portugal" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/portugal" ><span>Portugal</span></a ><a title="Romania" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/romania" ><span>Romania</span></a ><a title="Slovakia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/slovakia" ><span>Slovakia</span></a ><a title="Slovenia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/slovenia" ><span>Slovenia</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Spain" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/spain" ><span>Spain</span></a ><a title="Sweden" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/sweden" ><span>Sweden</span></a ><a title="Switzerland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/switzerland" ><span>Switzerland</span></a ><a title="Türkiye" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/turkiye" ><span>Türkiye</span></a > </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="four wide column"> <div class="ui one column grid nested-grid"> <div class="column"> <a title="Cooperating countries" class="sub-title" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries" ><span>Cooperating countries</span></a > <div class="ui two column grid"> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Albania" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/albania" ><span>Albania</span></a ><a title="Bosnia and Herzegovina" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/bosnia-and-herzegovina" ><span>Bosnia and Herzegovina</span></a ><a title="Kosovo" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/kosovo" ><span>Kosovo *</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Montenegro" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/montenegro" ><span>Montenegro</span></a ><a title="North Macedonia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/north-macedonia" ><span>North Macedonia</span></a ><a title="Serbia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/serbia" ><span>Serbia</span></a > </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="menu-content tablet hidden mobile hidden" id="tip-newsroom"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Newsletter" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/newsroom"> <span>Newsletter</span> <span> overview</span> <i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right"></i> </a> </div> <div class="ui four column grid"> <div class="column"> <a title="Press releases" class="sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/news"> <span>Press releases</span> </a> <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Feature articles" class="sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/editorial"> <span>Feature articles</span> </a> <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Corporate visuals" class="sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/branding-materials"> <span>Corporate visuals</span> </a> <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Events" class="sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/events"> <span>Events</span> </a> <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Photo competitions" class="sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/photo-competitions"> <span>Photo competitions</span> </a> <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Newsletter and news service" class="sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/newsletter"> <span>Newsletter and news service</span> </a> <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="menu-content tablet hidden mobile hidden" id="tip-about-us"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="About us" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/about" ><span>About us</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right" ></i ></a> </div> <div class="ui four column grid"> <div class="column"> <a title="Who we are" class="sub-title" href="/en/about/who-we-are" ><span>Who we are</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"> <a title="Governance" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/who-we-are/governance" ><span>Governance</span></a ><a title="Our knowledge network — Eionet" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/who-we-are/our-knowledge-network-eionet" ><span>Our knowledge network — Eionet</span></a ><a title="Projects and cooperation agreements" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/who-we-are/projects-and-cooperation-agreements" ><span>Projects and cooperation agreements</span></a ><a title="Becoming a climate neutral agency" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/who-we-are/becoming-a-climate-neutral-agency" ><span>Becoming a climate neutral agency</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Key partners" class="sub-title" href="/en/about/key-partners" ><span>Key partners</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"> <a title="European Union partners" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/key-partners/eu-partners" ><span>European Union partners</span></a ><a title="International engagement" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/key-partners/international-engagement" ><span>International engagement</span></a ><a title="Copernicus" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/key-partners/copernicus" ><span>Copernicus</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Careers" class="sub-title" href="/en/about/careers" ><span>Careers</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"> <a title="Vacancies" class="item" href="/en/about/careers/vacancies"><span>Vacancies</span></a> <a title="How to apply" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/careers/how-to-apply" ><span>How to apply</span></a ><a title="Our workplace" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/careers/our-workplace" ><span>Our workplace</span></a ><a title="Traineeships" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/careers/traineeships" ><span>Traineeships</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Procurement and grants" class="sub-title" href="/en/about/procurement-and-grants" ><span>Procurement and grants</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"> <a title="Contracts between €15,000 and €143,000" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/procurement-and-grants/negotiated-procedures" ><span>Contracts between €15,000 and €143,000</span></a ><a title="Contracts above €143,000" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/procurement-and-grants/tenders" ><span>Contracts above €143,000</span></a ><a title="Toolbox" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/procurement-and-grants/toolbox" ><span>Toolbox</span></a > </div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Policy corner: EU policies we support" class="sub-title" href="/en/about/policy-corner-eu-policies-we-support" ><span>Policy corner: EU policies we support</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"></div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Working practices" class="sub-title" href="/en/about/working-practices" ><span>Working practices</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"> <a title="Procedures and policies" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/working-practices/procedures-and-policies" ><span>Procedures and policies</span></a ><a title="Personal data protection" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/working-practices/personal-data-protection" ><span>Personal data protection</span></a > <a title="Register of documents" class="item" href="/en/about/working-practices/docs-register"><span>Register of documents</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="column"> <a title="Contact us" class="sub-title" href="/en/about/contact-us" ><span>Contact us</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list menu-list"> <a title="Frequently asked questions (FAQs)" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/contact-us/faqs" ><span>Frequently asked questions (FAQs)</span></a ><a title="Ask your question" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/contact-us/ask" ><span>Ask your question</span></a > </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="tablet only mobile only mobile-menu"> <div class="ui accordion"> <button class="active title"> Home<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right"></i> </button> <div class="content active"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Home" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled active" href="/en" ><span>Home</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right" ></i ></a> </div> </div> <button class="title"> Topics<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down"></i> </button> <div class="content"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Topics" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/topics" ><span>Topics</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right" ></i ></a> </div> <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="State of Europe's environment" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/state-of-europes-environment" ><span>State of Europe's environment</span></a ><a title="Climate" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/climate" ><span>Climate</span></a ><a title="Economy and resources" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/economy-and-resources" ><span>Economy and resources</span></a ><a title="Health" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/health" ><span>Health</span></a ><a title="Nature" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/nature" ><span>Nature</span></a ><a title="Sustainability" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/at-a-glance/sustainability" ><span>Sustainability</span></a ><a title="In-depth topics" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/topics/in-depth" ><span>In-depth topics</span></a > </div> </div> <button class="title"> Analysis and data<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Analysis and data" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/analysis" ><span>Analysis and data</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right" ></i ></a> </div> <a title="Publications" class="item sub-title" href="/en/analysis/publications" ><span>Publications</span></a ><a title="Indicators" class="item sub-title" href="/en/analysis/indicators" ><span>Indicators</span></a ><a title="Maps and charts" class="item sub-title" href="/en/analysis/maps-and-charts" ><span>Maps and charts</span></a ><a title="Country fact sheets" class="item sub-title" href="/en/analysis/country-fact-sheets" ><span>Country fact sheets</span></a ><a title="Datahub" class="item sub-title" href="/en/analysis/data-hub" ><span>Datahub</span></a > </div> <button class="title"> Countries<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Countries" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/countries" ><span>Countries</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right" ></i ></a> </div> <div class="accordion"> <button class="title"> EEA member countries<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <a title="See all" class="item title-item" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries" ><span>See all</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Austria" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/austria" ><span>Austria</span></a ><a title="Belgium" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/belgium" ><span>Belgium</span></a ><a title="Bulgaria" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/bulgaria" ><span>Bulgaria</span></a ><a title="Croatia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/croatia" ><span>Croatia</span></a ><a title="Cyprus" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/cyprus" ><span>Cyprus</span></a ><a title="Czechia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/czechia" ><span>Czechia</span></a ><a title="Denmark" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/denmark" ><span>Denmark</span></a ><a title="Estonia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/estonia" ><span>Estonia</span></a ><a title="Finland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/finland" ><span>Finland</span></a ><a title="France" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/france" ><span>France</span></a ><a title="Germany" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/germany" ><span>Germany</span></a ><a title="Greece" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/greece" ><span>Greece</span></a ><a title="Hungary" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/hungary" ><span>Hungary</span></a ><a title="Iceland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/iceland" ><span>Iceland</span></a ><a title="Ireland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/ireland" ><span>Ireland</span></a ><a title="Italy" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/italy" ><span>Italy</span></a ><a title="Latvia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/latvia" ><span>Latvia</span></a ><a title="Liechtenstein" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/liechtenstein" ><span>Liechtenstein</span></a ><a title="Lithuania" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/lithuania" ><span>Lithuania</span></a ><a title="Luxembourg" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/luxembourg" ><span>Luxembourg</span></a ><a title="Malta" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/malta" ><span>Malta</span></a ><a title="Netherlands" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/netherlands" ><span>Netherlands</span></a ><a title="Norway" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/norway" ><span>Norway</span></a ><a title="Poland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/poland" ><span>Poland</span></a ><a title="Portugal" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/portugal" ><span>Portugal</span></a ><a title="Romania" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/romania" ><span>Romania</span></a ><a title="Slovakia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/slovakia" ><span>Slovakia</span></a ><a title="Slovenia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/slovenia" ><span>Slovenia</span></a ><a title="Spain" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/spain" ><span>Spain</span></a ><a title="Sweden" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/sweden" ><span>Sweden</span></a ><a title="Switzerland" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/switzerland" ><span>Switzerland</span></a ><a title="Türkiye" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/eea-member-countries/turkiye" ><span>Türkiye</span></a > </div> </div> </div> <div class="accordion"> <button class="title"> Cooperating countries<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <a title="See all" class="item title-item" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries" ><span>See all</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Albania" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/albania" ><span>Albania</span></a ><a title="Bosnia and Herzegovina" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/bosnia-and-herzegovina" ><span>Bosnia and Herzegovina</span></a ><a title="Kosovo" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/kosovo" ><span>Kosovo *</span></a ><a title="Montenegro" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/montenegro" ><span>Montenegro</span></a ><a title="North Macedonia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/north-macedonia" ><span>North Macedonia</span></a ><a title="Serbia" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/countries/cooperating-countries/serbia" ><span>Serbia</span></a > </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="title"> Newsroom<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down"></i> </button> <div class="content"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="Newsroom" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/newsroom" ><span>Newsroom</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right" ></i ></a> </div> <a title="Press releases" class="item sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/news" ><span>Press releases</span></a ><a title="Feature articles" class="item sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/editorial" ><span>Feature articles</span></a ><a title="Corporate visuals" class="item sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/branding-materials" ><span>Corporate visuals</span></a ><a title="Events" class="item sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/events" ><span>Events</span></a ><a title="Photo competitions" class="item sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/photo-competitions" ><span>Photo competitions</span></a ><a title="Newsletter and news service" class="item sub-title" href="/en/newsroom/newsletter" ><span>Newsletter and news service</span></a > </div> <button class="title"> About us<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down"></i> </button> <div class="content"> <div class="mega-menu-title"> <a title="About us" class="ui button inverted icon right labeled" href="/en/about" ><span>About us</span><span> overview</span ><i alt="Title icon" aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-right" ></i ></a> </div> <div class="accordion"> <button class="title"> Who we are<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <a title="See all" class="item title-item" href="/en/about/who-we-are" ><span>See all</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Governance" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/who-we-are/governance" ><span>Governance</span></a ><a title="Our knowledge network — Eionet" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/who-we-are/our-knowledge-network-eionet" ><span>Our knowledge network — Eionet</span></a ><a title="Projects and cooperation agreements" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/who-we-are/projects-and-cooperation-agreements" ><span>Projects and cooperation agreements</span></a ><a title="Becoming a climate neutral agency" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/who-we-are/becoming-a-climate-neutral-agency" ><span>Becoming a climate neutral agency</span></a > </div> </div> </div> <div class="accordion"> <button class="title"> Key partners<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <a title="See all" class="item title-item" href="/en/about/key-partners" ><span>See all</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="European Union partners" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/key-partners/eu-partners" ><span>European Union partners</span></a ><a title="International engagement" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/key-partners/international-engagement" ><span>International engagement</span></a ><a title="Copernicus" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/key-partners/copernicus" ><span>Copernicus</span></a > </div> </div> </div> <div class="accordion"> <button class="title"> Careers<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <a title="See all" class="item title-item" href="/en/about/careers" ><span>See all</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Vacancies" class="item" href="/en/about/careers/vacancies"><span>Vacancies</span></a> <a title="How to apply" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/careers/how-to-apply" ><span>How to apply</span></a ><a title="Our workplace" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/careers/our-workplace" ><span>Our workplace</span></a ><a title="Traineeships" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/careers/traineeships" ><span>Traineeships</span></a > </div> </div> </div> <div class="accordion"> <button class="title"> Procurement and grants<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <a title="See all" class="item title-item" href="/en/about/procurement-and-grants" ><span>See all</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Contracts between €15,000 and €143,000" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/procurement-and-grants/negotiated-procedures" ><span>Contracts between €15,000 and €143,000</span></a ><a title="Contracts above €143,000" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/procurement-and-grants/tenders" ><span>Contracts above €143,000</span></a ><a title="Toolbox" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/procurement-and-grants/toolbox" ><span>Toolbox</span></a > </div> </div> </div> <a title="Policy corner: EU policies we support" class="item sub-title" href="/en/about/policy-corner-eu-policies-we-support" ><span>Policy corner: EU policies we support</span></a > <div class="accordion"> <button class="title"> Working practices<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <a title="See all" class="item title-item" href="/en/about/working-practices" ><span>See all</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Procedures and policies" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/working-practices/procedures-and-policies"><span>Procedures and policies</span></a><a title="Personal data protection" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/working-practices/personal-data-protection"><span>Personal data protection</span></a> <a title="Register of documents" class="item" href="/en/about/working-practices/docs-register"><span>Register of documents</span></a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="accordion"> <button class="title"> Contact us<i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-chevron-down" ></i> </button> <div class="content"> <a title="See all" class="item title-item" href="/en/about/contact-us" ><span>See all</span></a > <div role="list" class="ui list"> <a title="Frequently asked questions (FAQs)" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/contact-us/faqs" ><span>Frequently asked questions (FAQs)</span></a ><a title="Ask your question" class="item" role="listitem" href="/en/about/contact-us/ask" ><span>Ask your question</span></a > </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="search-box" class="slide down hidden transition"> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="ui container"> <form method="get" action='/en/advanced-search'> <div class="ui fluid icon input search"> <input placeholder="Search or ask your question..." type="text" name='q' /> <i aria-hidden="true" class="link eea-icon"> <img src="/static/media/search-line.dbe67552.svg" alt="search button open/close" class="ui image"/></i> </div> </form> <div class="search-suggestions"><h4>Try our suggestions</h4><div role="list" class="ui list"><div role="listitem" class="item"><a href="/en/advanced-search?q=What is PFAS?">What is PFAS?</a></div><div role="listitem" class="item"><a href="/en/advanced-search?q=How much have new cars co2 emissions decreased?">How much have new cars co2 emissions decreased?</a></div><div role="listitem" class="item"><a href="/en/advanced-search?q=How many people are exposed to air pollution?">How many people are exposed to air pollution?</a></div><div role="listitem" class="item"><a href="/en/advanced-search?q=How many premature deaths are attributed to PM2.5?">How many premature deaths are attributed to PM2.5?</a></div><div role="listitem" class="item"><a href="/en/advanced-search?q=Which countries use most renewable energy?">Which countries use most renewable energy?</a></div><div role="listitem" class="item"><a href="/en/advanced-search?q=What countries had the highest land take in the EEA-39?">What countries had the highest land take in the EEA-39?</a></div></div></div> </div> <div class="advanced-search"> <div class="ui container"> <div>For more search options</div> <a href="/en/advanced-search" class="ui button white inverted" title="Advanced search" >Go to advanced search</a > </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="eea-above-columns"></div> <div id="visual-portal-wrapper"> <div id="portal-columns" class="row">  <div id="visual-column-wrapper"> <div id="portal-column-content" class="width-3:4"> <div id="viewlet-above-content"> <div id="eea-alchemy-modalEnabled"></div> <div id="sentry" data-sentry-dsn="https://b8f49a13f9704ac88fb4c9bb30539028@sentry.eea.europa.eu/2" data-sentry-env="W1 AWS" data-sentry-ver="23.9.14" data-sentry-user="{}" data-sentry-site="www" data-sentry-server="www-plone-anon-instance-5"></div> </div> <div id="region-content" class=""> <dl class="portalMessage info" id="kssPortalMessage" style="display:none"> <dt>Info</dt> <dd></dd> </dl> <div id="content" class="documentContent panels"> <div class="fullwidth-img-container"> <div class="fullwidth-img-bg" style="background-image:url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_panoramic)" title="Image credits: © Schwoaze | Pixabay.com"></div> </div> <div class="content-header"> <p class="mini-portal-type">Briefing</p> <h1 id="parent-fieldname-title" class="documentFirstHeading"> Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences </h1> <div class="content-header-body"> <div class="documentExportActions"> <ul> <li id="export-action-download_pdf"> <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/download.pdf" title="Download as PDF"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-3x eea-icon-file-pdf-o"></span> <span class="export-action-title">PDF</span> </a> </li> </ul> </div>  <div class="documentByLine" id="plone-document-byline"> <noscript> <div class="portalMessage warning">This website has limited functionality with javascript off. Please make sure javascript is enabled in your browser.</div> </noscript> <span class="portalType">Briefing</span> <span class="docDate publishDate"> Published 27 Nov 2018 <span class="byline-separator"></span> </span> <span class="docDate modificationDate"> Last modified 14 Mar 2023 <span class="byline-separator"></span> </span> <div class="documentByLineReadingStats inline-block"> <span class="documentByLineReadingTime">9</span> <span>min read</span> <span class="byline-separator"></span> </div> <div class="documentByLineImageCopyright"> <span>Photo: ©</span> Schwoaze | Pixabay.com </div> </div> <div class="documentByLineThemes" id="themes-tags"> <span class="listHead">Topics:</span> <span> <a class="link-category" rel="tag" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity">Biodiversity — Ecosystems</a> </span> <span> <a class="link-category" rel="tag" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/climate">Climate change mitigation</a> </span> </div> <div id="parent-fieldname-description" class="documentDescription"> Forests used to constitute the dominant natural vegetation in most of Europe, covering up to 80 % of the land surface. However, the current extent and condition of forest ecosystems are the result of the process of human appropriation (domestication), which started more than 5000 years ago. By the end of the 17th century, more than half of Europe’s original forest had disappeared and covered just a few percent of the total land area in countries such as Denmark or Ireland. In response to forest depletion, stricter forest management practices emerged to replant, protect and maintain forest cover and the multi-functionality of forests in terms of wood production and protection against, for example, soil and wind erosion. </div> </div> </div> <nav id="portal-breadcrumbs" class="plone-breadcrumb"> <div class="eea-container breadcrumbs-container"> <span id="breadcrumbs-you-are-here" class="hiddenStructure">You are here:</span> <ol aria-labelledby="breadcrumbs-you-are-here" class="plone-breadcrumb-list"> <li id="breadcrumbs-home"> <a title="Home" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu"> <em class="eea-icon eea-icon-lg eea-icon-home eea-icon-marginless"></em> </a> </li> <li id="breadcrumbs-1"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications" title="Publications">Publications</a> </li> <li id="breadcrumbs-2"> <span id="breadcrumbs-current">Forest dynamics in Europe and ...</span> </li> </ol> </div> </nav> <div class="content-core-wrapper"> <div id="content-core" class="content-core wf-state-published"> <div class="fiche-body"> <div class="fullwidth-img-container"> <div class="fullwidth-img-bg" style="background-image:url(https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_panoramic)" title="Image credits: © Schwoaze | Pixabay.com"></div> </div> <div class="fiche-summary"> <div class="keyFact keyFact--enlarged"> <div class="" id="parent-fieldname-summary-a4f41ed46e8b46ff92834476267851b3"> <h2>Key Messages</h2> <ul> <li>Driven by market forces and by EU and national policies on energy and climate mitigation, the demand for forest products and ecosystem services is projected to increase in the future.</li> <li>Forest ecosystems are increasingly prone to disturbances, such as storms, fires, droughts, invasive species and outbreaks of insect infestation and disease, all amplifying vulnerability to climate change.</li> <li>The way forest management faces these increasing demands and disturbances will have profound effects on the health, diversity, productivity and resilience of forest ecosystems.</li> <li>Ecosystem-based management is one approach to rethinking sustainable forest management in ways that are compatible with multi-functionality.</li> <li>Information on multi-causal changes in forest cover is currently limited; dedicated use of very high-resolution satellite imagery would overcome this lack of data.</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="" id="parent-fieldname-text-a4f41ed46e8b46ff92834476267851b3"> <p>One of the main land use changes in Europe over the last 200 years has been the expansion of the forest area, mainly driven by large-scale afforestation programmes in many European countries. At the same time, the rural exodus accelerated and changes in technology allowed the intensification of agricultural systems on smaller areas (Mather, 2001; Pile et al., 2012). Forests expanded through spontaneous regeneration on abandoned agricultural land.</p> <p>In the 50 years after the Second World War, the forest area in western Europe increased by almost 30 %. The growth was substantially lower in central and eastern as well as in southern Europe, with about 20 % and 16 % respectively (Gold, 2003). In northern Europe, forest was already the dominant land cover. The increase in forest cover continues up to the present, although it stabilised after the beginning of the 1990s, with the exception of western Europe (Forest Europe, 2015). Afforestation and deforestation are now locally concentrated in a few European countries and involve less than 0.4 % and 0.3 % of land conversions respectively. However, a stable forest area does not necessarily mean that Europe’s forests are not subject to change: forest ecosystems respond to human activities and maturing, and other natural dynamics.</p> <p>In recent years, the multiple functions and potential uses of forests have attracted interest. Afforestation has been found to be a means of increasing the terrestrial carbon sink and protecting unstable soils. In addition to a supply of wood, forests also provide multiple ecosystem functions and services that are vital to society and human well-being. These include providing freshwater and clean air, regulating climate and nutrient cycling, and contributing to human health and recreation (Thompson et al., 2014).</p> <p>Forests host a dominant part of Europe’s terrestrial biodiversity and contribute significantly to climate change mitigation. Forests remove around 430 million tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide and store 13 % of Europe’s greenhouse gas emissions (Nabuurs et al., 2015). Without forests, or in the event of inadequate forest management, these resources and services could be damaged or destroyed.</p> <p>The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2016) reports that less than 10 % of the forest area is intensively managed plantations. Nevertheless, their role may grow with the incentives offered under new EU policies to manage forests for, for example, regulation of land-based carbon accounting (land use, land use change and forestry) and energy. This means maximising the provision of biomass either from Europe’s forests or, as has already happened, by importing more biomass (e.g. wood pellets from North America).</p> <p>Forest management needs to maintain the resilience of forest ecosystems while avoiding abrupt and destructive changes. However, currently, the information available on forest management practices across Europe is too sparse and unrepresentative to give a reliable overview of the condition of forest-ecosystems and their biodiversity. Furthermore, some national statistics may not include all logging activities, some of which are for domestic heating purposes.</p> <h4 class="figureHeading">Figure 1. Forest utilisation rates for the EU-28 countries, 1990-2012 (excluding Malta and Luxembourg)</h4> <p><iframe height="660" src="../../../data-and-maps/daviz/forest-utilisation-rate-per-country-1/embed-chart?chart=googlechartid_googlechartid_chart_112&chartWidth=603&chartHeight=595&customStyle=.googlechart_view%7Bmargin-left%3A0px%3B%7Ddiv%5Bid*%3D%22googlechart_qr_%22%5D%7Bdisplay%3Anone%7Ddiv%5Bid*%3D%22googlechart_wm_%22%5D%7Bdisplay%3Anone%7D&skipdaviztitle=true&skipcharttitle=true&padding=7%2C86%2C54%2C149" style="" width="607"></iframe></p> <div class="pageBreak"></div> <p>In this regard, country statistics provide information on the intensive use of Europe’s forests. Europe is one of the largest producers of roundwood in the world (Eurostat, 2017). Roundwood production has increased steadily in the most recent decades, temporarily declining in 2007/2008 because of the financial crisis. It recovered from 2010 onwards, returning to more stable production by 2013 at the pre-crisis level of around 458 million cubic<sup> </sup>metres<sup> </sup>(Eurostat, 2017).</p> <p>At the same time, the average forest utilisation rate (the ratio between the average annual volume felled and the volume of annual growth in the stock of living trees) stayed well below 100 %. This indicates that, although it varied by country, the production of timber remained sustainable (see Figure 1; Forest Europe, 2015; EEA, 2016). Wood production and forest management in a considerable share of European forests take place under forest certification schemes that aim to promote long-term environmental sustainability and the supply of the wide range of ecosystem services that society requires.</p> <p>However, the currently stable forest area and sustainable use of forests do not necessarily mean that Europe’s forests are not subject to pressures and changes that may threaten their multi-functionality. Aspects of the condition of forests give rise to concern for their long-term stability and health across Europe (EEA, 2015). Climate change impacts, such as storms, pests and pollution, and encroaching human development (infrastructure and tourism), as well as natural disturbances, are all threats to our forests.</p> <p>There are signs of an increasing limitation of phosphorous for the growth of trees and forest stands (e.g. Sardans et al., 2016). Several studies show nitrogen saturation in central European forests, which leads to nutrient imbalances between nitrogen and other mineral elements (e.g. Meesenburg et al., 2016) as well as phosphorous. Furthermore, sulphate — a driver of soil acidification — is still high in central and southern Europe (e.g. Waldner et al., 2014).</p> <p>Extreme weather severely affects forests: natural disturbances have recently caused a loss of 0.15 % of the growing stock in Europe (in some countries up to 10 % of annual fellings). Storms account for 53 % of abiotic damage and forest fires for 16 % of abiotic damage: the total burnt area in 2016 was higher than in each of the previous 3 years.</p> <p>Only 26 % of forest species and 15 % of the forest habitats were found to be in favourable conservation status (EEA, 2015). The EU-28 Member States report forest practices as one of the main causes of unfavourable and bad conservation status of forest habitats and species under the Habitats Directive. However, the reporting under the directives does not quantify the extent of damage caused by forest activities or the extent of the ecological consequences.</p> <p>Forest practices vary substantially across Europe — ranging from no management due to abandonment, through management for nature protection, to intensive short-rotation monoculture forestry managed for producing energy-related biomass. The ecological functions of forests are resilient to certain rates and degrees of disturbance, as forests evolve under the influence of natural disturbances. The current composition and structure of Europe’s forests reflects a variety of novel anthropogenic disturbances (Novàkovà et al., 2015; Thorn et al., 2017; Vacchiano et al., 2017).</p> <p>Intensive management operations involve overlogging, skidding damage to remaining trees and the soil, and a lack of replanting at critical sites. Unsustainable forest practices in the form of, for example, planting non-native tree species and monocultures and, in some cases, illegal logging increase the vulnerability of forests at a time when the need for biomass and many other services is growing. Examples include the tendency for non-native species to become invasive, establishing over large areas and becoming difficult to control and eliminate, e.g. after plantingPiceaorEucalyptus(Liebhold et al., 2017; Dieler et al., 2017).</p> <p>Other pressures on forests, e.g. the effects of nitrogen deposition, climate change, loss of top predators that control herbivore populations, may cause damage to forests. Illegal logging is increasingly reported (e.g. in the Carpathian region). Such degradation of forest ecosystems may increase the risks of eroding the biodiversity and ecological condition of forests and of forest soils due to compaction, loss of nutrients and loss of forest soils (Bengtsson et al., 2000; Frelich et al., 2018).</p> <p>Considering the above, it is very clear that better information and knowledge about European forest ecosystems is required if we are to meet the needs of environmental protection, and the climate and energy policies, all in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals adopted by all countries as part of the United Nations Agenda 2030. This includes accurate quantification of forest land use and land cover changes, and information on forest management practices and their impacts on forest resources.</p> <p>Future methodologies will provide improved information on changes in forest area and in forest managements at the European level. This will include the regular updates to the Copernicus land monitoring services, which will deliver very high-resolution forest information such as density of tree cover, forest type, and riparian and small woody tree features. Closer collaboration between the EEA member countries via the Eionet network will contribute to harmonising country information and increasing the quality of the assessments.</p> </div> <div class="fiche-endnotes"> <div class="fiche-endnotes-body"> <div class="" id="parent-fieldname-endnotes-a4f41ed46e8b46ff92834476267851b3"> <div class="eea-accordion-panels eea-accordion-panels-plain eea-accordion-panels-bordered-secondary non-exclusive collapsed-by-default"> <div class="eea-accordion-panel"> <h2 class="eea-accordion-title eea-icon-left-container">References</h2> <div class="pane"> <p>Bengtsson, J., et al., 2000, ‘Biodiversity, disturbances, ecosystem function and management of European forests’, Forest Ecology and Management132(1), pp. 39-50.</p> <p>Dieler, J., et al., 2017, ‘Effect of forest stand management on species composition, structural diversity, and productivity in the temperate zone of Europe’, European Journal of Forest Research136(4), pp. 739-766.</p> <p>EEA, 2015, State of nature in the EU, EEA Technical Report No 2/2015, European Environment Agency.</p> <p>EEA, 2016, Europe’s forest ecosystems: state and trends, EEA Report No 5/2016, European Environment Agency.</p> <p>Eurostat, 2017, Agriculture, forestry and fishery statistics: 2017 edition, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.</p> <p>FAO, 2016, Global forest resources assessment 2015 — how are the world’s forests changing?, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</p> <p>Forest Europe, 2015, State of Europe’s forests 2015. Status and trends in sustainable forest management in Europe, Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, Forest Europe Liaison Unit Madrid.</p> <p>Frelich, L. E., et al., 2018, ‘Natural disturbances and forest management: interacting patterns on the landscape’, in: Ecosystem services from forest landscapes, Springer, Cham, pp. 221-248.</p> <p>Gold S., 2003, The development of European forest resources 1950 to 2000 - A study implemented in the framework of the European Forest Sector Outlook Study (EFSOS), UNECE Timber and Forest discussion papers, Geneva.</p> <p>Liebhold, A. M., et al., 2017, ‘Biological invasions in forest ecosystems’, Biological Invasions 19(11), pp. 3437-3458.</p> <p>Mather, A. S., 2001, ‘The transition from deforestation to reforestation in Europe’, in: Angelsen, A. and Kaimowitz, D. (eds), Agricultural technologies and tropical deforestation, CAB International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.</p> <p>Meesenburg, H., et al., 2016, ‘Long-term changes of ecosystem services at Solling, Germany: recovery from acidification, but increasing nitrogen saturation?’, Ecological Indicators 65, pp. 103-112.</p> <p>Nabuurs, G.-J., et al., 2015, A new role for forests and the forest sector in the EU post-2020 climate targets, From Science to Policy No 2, European Forest Institute.</p> <p>Sardans, J., et al., 2016, ‘Foliar and soil concentrations and stoichiometry of nitrogen and phosphorous across European Pinus sylvestris forests: relationships with climate, N deposition and tree growth’, Functional Ecology 30 (5), pp. 676-689.</p> <p>Nováková, M. H. and Edwards-Jonášová, M., 2015, ‘Restoration of central-European mountain Norway spruce forest 15 years after natural and anthropogenic disturbance’, Forest Ecology and Management 344, pp. 120-130.</p> <p>Pile, L. S., et al., 2012, ‘Forest resource management plans: a sustainability approach’, Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education 41(1), pp. 79-86.</p> <p>Thompson, I., et al., 2014, Forest resilience, biodiversity, and climate change: a synthesis of the biodiversity, resilience, stability relationship in forest ecosystems, Technical Series No 33, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, Canada.</p> <p>Thorn, S., et al., 2017, ‘Effects of natural disturbances and salvage logging on biodiversity — lessons from the Bohemian Forest’, Forest Ecology and Management 388, pp. 113-119.</p> <p>Vacchiano, G., et al., 2017, ‘Forest dynamics and disturbance regimes in the Italian Apennines’, Forest Ecology and Management 388, pp. 57-66.</p> <p>Waldner, P., et al., 2014, ‘Detection of temporal trends in atmospheric deposition of inorganic nitrogen and sulphate to forests in Europe’, Atmospheric Environment 95, pp. 363-374</p> </div> <div> <div class="eea-accordion-panel"> <h2 class="eea-accordion-title eea-icon-left-container">Identifiers</h2> <div class="pane"><br /> <p><span class="discreet">Briefing no. 16/2018</span><br /><span class="discreet">Title: <b>Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences</b> </span></p> <p><span class="discreet"> PDF TH-AM-18-018-EN-N - ISBN 978-92-9480-032-9 - ISSN 2467-3196 - doi:10.2800/905921 </span><br /><span class="discreet"> HTML TH-AM-18-018-EN-Q - ISBN 978-92-9480-031-2 - ISSN 2467-3196 - doi:10.2800/9675</span></p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="related-wrapper fullwidth-bg eea-block bg-secondary"> <div id="relatedItems" class="relatedItems"> <h2 class="notoc">Related content</h2> <div class="sorter_ctl" style="margin-bottom: 1.5em; display:none;"> <label for="sort_by"> <span>Sort by:</span> <select name="sort_by" id="sort_by"> <option value="effective">Publishing date</option> <option value="title">Title</option> </select> </label> </div>  <div class="visualNoMarker" data-paginate-count="3"> <h3 class="notoc">Interactive charts</h3> <div> <div class="photoAlbumEntry" data-effective="1512052800000" data-title="Forest utilisation rate per country (annual fellings as a percentage of annual increment)"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/forest-utilisation-rate-per-country-1" title="Forest utilisation rate per country (annual fellings as a percentage of annual increment)" class=""> <span class="photoAlbumEntryWrapper"> <span class="photoAlbumEntryWrapperImg lazy" data-src="https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/forest-utilisation-rate-per-country-1/image_mini"></span> </span> <span class="photoAlbumEntryTitleWrapper"> <span class="photoAlbumEntryType">Data Visualization</span> <span class="photoAlbumEntryTitle">Forest utilisation rate per country (annual fellings as a percentage of annual increment)</span> </span> <span class="photoAlbumEntryDescription"></span> </a> </div> </div> <h3 class="notoc">Related news and articles</h3> <div> <div class="photoAlbumEntry" data-effective="1543309200000" data-title="Better information needed on Europe's forests"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/better-information-needed-on-europes-forests" title="Better information needed on Europe's forests" class=""> <span class="photoAlbumEntryWrapper"> <span class="photoAlbumEntryWrapperImg lazy" data-src="https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/better-information-needed-on-europes-forests/image_mini"></span> </span> <span class="photoAlbumEntryTitleWrapper"> <span class="photoAlbumEntryType">News</span> <span class="photoAlbumEntryTitle">Better information needed on Europe's forests</span> </span> <span class="photoAlbumEntryDescription">There is a growing demand for forest products and ecosystem services but information on the changes in Europe's forests is currently limited. According to an EEA briefing, published today, high-resolution satellite images will improve knowledge about changes in structure, function and condition of forest ecosystems and the impacts of different forest management practices across Europe.</span> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mini-header-below-content-wrapper"> <div class="mini-header-below-content eea-accordion-panels eea-accordion-panels-plain eea-accordion-panels-bordered-primary non-exclusive collapsed-by-default"> <div class="eea-accordion-panel eea-versions-portlet"> <h2 class="notoc eea-icon-left-container eea-accordion-title"> <span>Permalinks</span> </h2> <div class="pane"> <dl id="permalinks"> <dt>Permalink to this version</dt> <dd> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/ds_resolveuid/a4f41ed46e8b46ff92834476267851b3" title="a4f41ed46e8b46ff92834476267851b3">a4f41ed46e8b46ff92834476267851b3</a> </dd> <dt>Permalink to latest version</dt> <dd> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/ds_resolveuid/AXKD1N03B5" title="AXKD1N03B5">AXKD1N03B5</a> </dd> </dl> </div> </div>  <div class="geographical-coverage eea-accordion-panel"> <h3 class="notoc eea-accordion-title eea-icon-left-container" >Geographic coverage</h3> <div class="geotags pane"> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Austria</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Belgium</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Bulgaria</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Croatia</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Cyprus</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Czechia</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Denmark</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Estonia</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Finland</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">France</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Germany</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Greece</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Hungary</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Ireland</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Italy</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Latvia</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Lithuania</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Netherlands</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Poland</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Portugal</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Romania</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Slovakia</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Slovenia</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Spain</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">Sweden</span> <span class="geotags-category" rel="tag">United Kingdom</span> </div> </div>   <div class="eea-accordion-panel"> <h3 class="temporal-coverage-title notoc eea-accordion-title eea-icon-left-container">Temporal coverage</h3>  <div id="tempCoverage" class="pane"> <span> <span class="body-category" rel="tag">1990-2012</span> </span> </div> </div> <div class="qrbox featured"> <div class="qrbox-text" style="font-size:x-small;"> <p><strong>For references</strong>, please go to <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and">https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and</a> or scan the QR code.</p> <p> <span class="discreet"> PDF generated on 25 Nov 2024, 11:56 AM </span> </p> </div> <img class="qr" alt="EEA Page URL QR" title="EEA Page URL QR" src="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/@@eeaqrcode" /> </div>  <div class="eea-accordion-panel"> <h2 class="eea-icon-left-container eea-accordion-title">Topics</h2> <div class="pane" id="mini-themes-tags" > <div class="documentByLineThemes" id="themes-tags"> <span class="listHead">Topics:</span> <span> <a class="link-category" rel="tag" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity">Biodiversity — Ecosystems</a> </span> <span> <a class="link-category" rel="tag" href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/climate">Climate change mitigation</a> </span> </div> </div> </div> <div class="eea-pdf-viewlet" data-async="1"> </div> <div id="mini-category" class="eea-accordion-panel"> <h2 class="notoc eea-accordion-title eea-icon-left-container">Tags</h2> <div class="pane"> Filed under: <span> <a href="http://search.apps.eea.europa.eu/?q=forest%20depletion" class="link-category" rel="tag">forest depletion</a> </span> <span> <a href="http://search.apps.eea.europa.eu/?q=copernicus%20land%20monitoring" class="link-category" rel="tag">copernicus land monitoring</a> </span> <span> <a href="http://search.apps.eea.europa.eu/?q=forest%20management" class="link-category" rel="tag">forest management</a> </span> <span> <a href="http://search.apps.eea.europa.eu/?q=forest" class="link-category" rel="tag">forest</a> </span> <span> <a href="http://search.apps.eea.europa.eu/?q=forest%20ecosystems" class="link-category" rel="tag">forest ecosystems</a> </span> <span> <a href="http://search.apps.eea.europa.eu/?q=ecosystem-based%20management" class="link-category" rel="tag">ecosystem-based management</a> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="viewlet-below-content"><div id="category" class="documentByLine"> Filed under: <span> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/@@search?Subject%3Alist=forest%20depletion" class="link-category" rel="nofollow">forest depletion</a><span class="separator">,</span> </span> <span> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/@@search?Subject%3Alist=copernicus%20land%20monitoring" class="link-category" rel="nofollow">copernicus land monitoring</a><span class="separator">,</span> </span> <span> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/@@search?Subject%3Alist=forest%20management" class="link-category" rel="nofollow">forest management</a><span class="separator">,</span> </span> <span> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/@@search?Subject%3Alist=forest" class="link-category" rel="nofollow">forest</a><span class="separator">,</span> </span> <span> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/@@search?Subject%3Alist=forest%20ecosystems" class="link-category" rel="nofollow">forest ecosystems</a><span class="separator">,</span> </span> <span> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/@@search?Subject%3Alist=ecosystem-based%20management" class="link-category" rel="nofollow">ecosystem-based management</a> </span> </div> <div id="socialmedia-viewlet"> <div class="visualClear"></div> <div class="documentActions"> <h5 class="hiddenStructure">Document Actions</h5> <h2 class="share-title notoc">Share with others</h2> <table class="table-document-actions"> <tr> <td> <div id="socialmedia-list"> <ul class="social-buttons"> <li> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https%3A//www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and&text=Forest%20dynamics%20in%20Europe%20and%20their%20ecological%20consequences&via=EUEnvironment"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-twitter-square"></span></a> </li> <li> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A//www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-facebook-square"></span></a> </li> <li> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Share on LinkedIn" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A//www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and&title=Forest%20dynamics%20in%20Europe%20and%20their%20ecological%20consequences&summary=Forests%20used%20to%20constitute%20the%20dominant%20natural%20vegetation%20in%20most%20of%20Europe%2C%20covering%20up%20to%2080%20%25%20of%20the%20land%20surface.%20However%2C%20the%20current%20extent%20and%20condition%20of%20forest%20ecosystems%20are%20the%20result%20of%20the%20process%20of%20human%20appropriation%20%28domestication%29%2C%20which%20started%20more%20than%205000%20years%20ago.%20By%20the%20end%20of%20the%2017th%20century%2C%20more%20than%20half%20of%20Europe%E2%80%99s%20original%20forest%20had%20disappeared%20and%20covered%20just%20a%20few%20percent%20of%20the%20total%20land%20area%20in%20countries%20such%20as%20Denmark%20or%20Ireland.%20In%20response%20to%20forest%20depletion%2C%20stricter%20forest%20management%20practices%20emerged%20to%20replant%2C%20protect%20and%20maintain%20forest%20cover%20and%20the%20multi-functionality%20of%20forests%20in%20terms%20of%20wood%20production%20and%20protection%20against%2C%20for%20example%2C%20soil%20and%20wind%20erosion.%20"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-linkedin-square"></span></a> </li> <li> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Share on Blogger" href="https://www.blogger.com/blog-this.g?u=https%3A//www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and&n=Forest%20dynamics%20in%20Europe%20and%20their%20ecological%20consequences&t=Forests%20used%20to%20constitute%20the%20dominant%20natural%20vegetation%20in%20most%20of%20Europe%2C%20covering%20up%20to%2080%20%25%20of%20the%20land%20surface.%20However%2C%20the%20current%20extent%20and%20condition%20of%20forest%20ecosystems%20are%20the%20result%20of%20the%20process%20of%20human%20appropriation%20%28domestication%29%2C%20which%20started%20more%20than%205000%20years%20ago.%20By%20the%20end%20of%20the%2017th%20century%2C%20more%20than%20half%20of%20Europe%E2%80%99s%20original%20forest%20had%20disappeared%20and%20covered%20just%20a%20few%20percent%20of%20the%20total%20land%20area%20in%20countries%20such%20as%20Denmark%20or%20Ireland.%20In%20response%20to%20forest%20depletion%2C%20stricter%20forest%20management%20practices%20emerged%20to%20replant%2C%20protect%20and%20maintain%20forest%20cover%20and%20the%20multi-functionality%20of%20forests%20in%20terms%20of%20wood%20production%20and%20protection%20against%2C%20for%20example%2C%20soil%20and%20wind%20erosion.%20"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-bold"></span></a> </li> <li> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Share on reddit" href="https://reddit.com/submit?url=https%3A//www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and&title=Forest%20dynamics%20in%20Europe%20and%20their%20ecological%20consequences"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-reddit-square"></span></a> </li> <li> <a rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Share on StumbleUpon" href="http://www.stumbleupon.com/submit?url=https%3A//www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-stumbleupon-circle"></span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </td> <td class="action-items"> <ul class="action-buttons"> <li id="document-action-rss"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/RSS" title=""> <img src="https://www.eea.europa.eu/rss.gif" alt="RSS feed of this listing" title="RSS feed of this listing"/> </a> </li> <li id="document-action-rdf"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/@@rdf" title=""> <img src="https://www.eea.europa.eu/rdf.png" alt="RDF" title="RDF"/> </a> </li> <li id="document-action-semantic"> <a href="http://semantic.eea.europa.eu/factsheet.action?uri=http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and" title=""> <img src="https://www.eea.europa.eu/book_open.png" alt="Metadata sheet on semantic" title="Metadata sheet on semantic"/> </a> </li> <li id="document-action-download_pdf"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/download.pdf" title=""> <img src="https://www.eea.europa.eu/++resource++eea.pdf.images/download-pdf.png" alt="Download as PDF" title="Download as PDF"/> </a> </li> </ul> </td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="visualClear"></div> </div>  </div> <div class="go-top"> <a class="back-to-top-link" title="Back to Top" href="javascript:document.getElementsByTagName('body')[0].scrollIntoView()"> <span aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-arrow-up eea-icon-2x back-to-top-link-icon"></span> </a> </div> <div class="row"> <div id="footer-wrapper"> <div id="bg-wrapper"> <div id="portal-footer"> <div id="portletwrapper-706c6f6e652e666f6f7465720a636f6e746578740a2f7777772f534954450a706f72746c65745f666f6f7465725f73656374696f6e73" class="portletWrapper kssattr-portlethash-706c6f6e652e666f6f7465720a636f6e746578740a2f7777772f534954450a706f72746c65745f666f6f7465725f73656374696f6e73"> <footer> <div class="footer-wrapper"> <div class="ui container"> <div class="subfooter"> <div class="ui grid"> <div class="four wide computer six wide mobile twelve wide tablet column mobile hidden"> <div class="item"> <div class="site logo"><a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/eea-logo-white.da328514.svg" alt="EEA Logo" class="ui image"></a></div> </div> </div> <div class="four wide computer six wide mobile twelve wide tablet column mobile hidden"> <div class="item"> <div class="eionet logo"><a href="https://www.eionet.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/eionet.33f37fbf.svg" alt="EIONET Logo" class="ui image"></a></div> </div> </div> <div class="four wide computer twelve wide mobile four wide tablet column"> <div class="item"> <div class="contact-block"> <div class="contact"> <a class="bold" href="/en/about">About us</a> <div class="subcontact"><a href="/en/about/contact-us/faqs#top">FAQs</a><a href="/en/about/careers">Careers</a></div> </div> <div class="contact"> <a class="bold" href="/en/about/contact-us">Contact us</a> <div class="subcontact"></div> </div> <div class="contact"> <a class="bold" href="/en/newsroom/newsletter">Sign up to our newsletter</a> <div class="subcontact"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="social"><a href="https://twitter.com/euenvironment" aria-label="twitter link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-twitter"></i></a><a href="https://www.facebook.com/European.Environment.Agency" aria-label="facebook link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-facebook-square"></i></a><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/european-environment-agency" aria-label="linkedin link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-linkedin"></i></a><a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/EEAvideos" aria-label="youtube link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-youtube-play"></i></a><a href="https://www.instagram.com/ourplanet_eu" aria-label="instagram link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="eea-icon eea-icon-instagram"></i></a></div> </div> <div class="ui grid mobile only"> <div class="four wide computer six wide mobile twelve wide tablet column"> <div class="item"> <div class="site logo"><a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/eea-logo-white.da328514.svg" alt="EEA Logo" class="ui image"></a></div> </div> </div> <div class="four wide computer six wide mobile twelve wide tablet column"> <div class="item"> <div class="eionet logo"><a href="https://www.eionet.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/eionet.49908851.svg" alt="EIONET Logo" class="ui image"></a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="theme-sites"> <h3 class="header text-center">Environmental information systems</h3> </div> <div class="theme-sites"> <div class="logos"> <div class="ui stackable five column grid"> <div class="column logo"><a class="logo" href="https://water.europa.eu/marine"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/marine.74fbfed5.svg" alt="WISE marine" class="ui image"></a><a class="logo" href="https://water.europa.eu/freshwater"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/freshwater.d9b4b628.svg" alt="WISE freshwater" class="ui image"></a></div> <div class="column logo"><a class="logo" href="https://biodiversity.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/bise.e602ff9d.svg" alt="Biodiversity" class="ui image"></a><a class="logo" href="https://forest.eea.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/fise.5e390b08.svg" alt="Forest information system for europe" class="ui image"></a></div> <div class="column logo"><a class="logo" href="https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/observatory"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/climate-health.214ff1d0.svg" alt="European Climate and Health Observatory" class="ui image"></a><a class="logo" href="https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/cca.c65ed40e.svg" alt="Climate adapt" class="ui image"></a></div> <div class="column logo"><a class="logo" href="https://industry.eea.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/industry.79bc8b74.svg" alt="European industrial emissions portal" class="ui image"></a><a class="logo" href="https://climate-energy.eea.europa.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/energy.5a7173e6.svg" alt="Climate and energy in the EU" class="ui image"></a></div> <div class="column logo"><a class="logo" href="https://land.copernicus.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/copernicus.86ecbf6c.svg" alt="Copernicus land monitoring service" class="ui image"></a><a class="logo" href="https://insitu.copernicus.eu/"><img src="https://prod-www.eea.europa.eu/static/media/insitu.82f82030.svg" alt="Copernicus in situ" class="ui image"></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="menu"> <div class="ui grid"> <div class="six wide computer twelve wide mobile six wide tablet column"> <div class="actions"> <a href="/en/privacy">Privacy statement</a ><a href="/en/accessibility">Accessibility</a ><a href="/en/legal-notice">Legal notice</a> </div> </div> <div class="six wide computer twelve wide mobile six wide tablet column"> <div class="copyright"> <a href="/en/sitemap">Sitemap</a ><a href="https://status.eea.europa.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" >System status</a ><a href="./login_form">Login</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </footer> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="portal-colophon"> <div class="colophonWrapper"> <div class="colophon-section section-bordered"> <div class="section-centered"> <a href="https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu_en"> <div class="media mb-0"> <span class="icon-siteaction-europe-flag" alt="EU flag" title="European Union Flag"></span> <span class="europe-agency-text">The EEA is an agency of the European Union</span> </div> </a> </div> </div> <div class="colophon-section section-bordered-inversed"> <div class="section-centered eea-software-info"> <p class="colophon-links"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-tasks"></span> Engineered by: <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/help/contact-info">EEA Web Team</a> </p> <p class="colophon-links"> Software updated on <em>26 September 2023 08:13</em> from version <em>23.8.18</em> </p> <p class="colophon-links"> Software version: <a href="https://github.com/eea/eea.docker.kgs/releases">EEA Plone KGS 23.9.14</a> </p> <p class="colophon-links"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/code" title="Code for developers">Code for developers</a> </p> <p class="colophon-links"> <a href="https://status.eea.europa.eu" title="Systems Status">Systems Status</a> </p> <p class="colophon-links"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/legal/">Legal notice</a> </p> <p class="colophon-links"> <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/dk/deed.en_GB" title="Creative Commons Attribution License"> <span class="eea-icon eea-icon-creative-commons"></span> <span>Creative commons license</span> </a> </p> <p class="colophon-links"> <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/login_form" title="Log in to CMS"> <strong>CMS login</strong></a> </p> </div> </div> </div>  <noscript><p><img src="https://matomo.eea.europa.eu/piwik.php?idsite=3&rec=1" style="border:0;" alt="" /></p></noscript>  </div> <script data-diazo-keep='true' type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": { "http://schema.org/Image": "http://schema.org/ImageObject", "http://schema.org/productID": "http://schema.org/about" }, "@graph": [ { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image", "@type": "http://schema.org/MediaObject" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications#breadcrumb", "@type": "http://schema.org/Thing", "http://schema.org/image": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/image_large", "http://schema.org/name": "Publications", "http://schema.org/url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and", "@type": "http://schema.org/WebPage", "http://schema.org/productID": "AXKD1N03B5", "http://schema.org/publisher": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#organization" } }, { "@id": "BreadCrumbsListItem1", "@type": "http://schema.org/ListItem", "http://schema.org/item": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and#breadcrumb" }, "http://schema.org/position": 4 }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#author:jaeglmar", "@type": "http://schema.org/Person", "http://schema.org/name": "jaeglmar" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/logo-square.png#logo", "@type": "http://schema.org/ImageObject", "http://schema.org/height": "190px", "http://schema.org/url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/logo-square.png", "http://schema.org/width": "190px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_preview", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "400px", "http://schema.org/width": "400px" }, { "@id": "#breadcrumb", "@type": "http://schema.org/BreadcrumbList", "http://schema.org/itemListElement": [ { "@id": "BreadCrumbsListItem3" }, { "@id": "BreadCrumbsListItem2" }, { "@id": "BreadCrumbsListItem4" }, { "@id": "BreadCrumbsListItem1" } ] }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_tile", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "64px", "http://schema.org/width": "64px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_print", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "2000px", "http://schema.org/width": "2000px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_wide", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "183px", "http://schema.org/width": "325px" }, { "@id": "BreadCrumbsListItem3", "@type": "http://schema.org/ListItem", "http://schema.org/item": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications#breadcrumb" }, "http://schema.org/position": 2 }, { "@id": "BreadCrumbsListItem2", "@type": "http://schema.org/ListItem", "http://schema.org/item": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and#breadcrumb" }, "http://schema.org/position": 3 }, { "@id": "BreadCrumbsListItem4", "@type": "http://schema.org/ListItem", "http://schema.org/item": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#breadcrumb" }, "http://schema.org/position": 1 }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_mini", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "200px", "http://schema.org/width": "200px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_large", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/contentSize": 34107, "http://schema.org/height": "768px", "http://schema.org/thumbnail": [ { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_large" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_landscape" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_xlarge" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_icon" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_mini" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_wide" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_tile" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_panoramic" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_print" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_portrait" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_preview" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_listing" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_thumb" } ], "http://schema.org/url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_large", "http://schema.org/width": "768px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#breadcrumb", "@type": "http://schema.org/Thing", "http://schema.org/image": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/image_large", "http://schema.org/name": "European Environment Agency's home page", "http://schema.org/url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_thumb", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "128px", "http://schema.org/width": "128px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and#breadcrumb", "@type": "http://schema.org/Thing", "http://schema.org/image": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_large", "http://schema.org/name": "Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences", "http://schema.org/url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#organization", "@type": "http://schema.org/Organization", "http://schema.org/contactPoint": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#contact-point-0" }, "http://schema.org/logo": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/logo-square.png#logo" }, "http://schema.org/name": "European Environment Agency", "http://schema.org/sameAs": [ "https://www.facebook.com/European.Environment.Agency", "https://twitter.com/euenvironment", "https://www.youtube.com/user/EEAvideos" ] }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_icon", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "32px", "http://schema.org/width": "32px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_panoramic", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "1080px", "http://schema.org/width": "1920px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and#breadcrumb", "@type": "http://schema.org/Thing", "http://schema.org/image": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_large", "http://schema.org/name": "Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences", "http://schema.org/url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and#article", "@type": "http://schema.org/Article", "http://schema.org/author": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#author:jaeglmar" }, "http://schema.org/dateModified": "2023-03-13T23:07:46+00:00", "http://schema.org/datePublished": "2018-11-27T08:45:00+00:00", "http://schema.org/description": "forest-dynamics-in-europe-and Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences Forests used to constitute the dominant natural vegetation in most of Europe, covering up to 80 % of the land surface. However, the current extent and condition of forest ecosystems are the result of the process of human appropriation (domestication), which started more than 5000 years ago. By the end of the 17th century, more than half of Europe’s original forest had disappeared and covered just a few percent of the total land area in countries such as Denmark or Ireland. In response to forest depletion, stricter forest management practices emerged to replant, protect and maintain forest cover and the multi-functionality of forests in terms of wood production and protection against, for example, soil and wind erosion. forest depletion copernicus land monitoring forest management forest forest ecosystems ecosystem-based management One of the main land use changes in Europe over the last 200 years has been the expansion of the forest area, mainly driven by large-scale afforestation programmes in many European countries. At the same time, the rural exodus accelerated and changes in technology allowed the intensification of agricultural systems on smaller areas (Mather, 2001; Pile et al., 2012). Forests expanded through spontaneous regeneration on abandoned agricultural land. \r\n In the 50 years after the Second World War, the forest area in western Europe increased by almost 30 %. The growth was substantially lower in central and eastern as well as in southern Europe, with about 20 % and 16 % respectively (Gold, 2003). In northern Europe, forest was already the dominant land cover. The increase in forest cover continues up to the present, although it stabilised after the beginning of the 1990s, with the exception of western Europe (Forest Europe, 2015). Afforestation and deforestation are now locally concentrated in a few European countries and involve less than 0.4 % and 0.3 % of land conversions respectively. However, a stable forest area does not necessarily mean that Europe’s forests are not subject to change: forest ecosystems respond to human activities and maturing, and other natural dynamics. \r\n In recent years, the multiple functions and potential uses of forests have attracted interest. Afforestation has been found to be a means of increasing the terrestrial carbon sink and protecting unstable soils. In addition to a supply of wood, forests also provide multiple ecosystem functions and services that are vital to society and human well-being. These include providing freshwater and clean air, regulating climate and nutrient cycling, and contributing to human health and recreation (Thompson et al., 2014). \r\n Forests host a dominant part of Europe’s terrestrial biodiversity and contribute significantly to climate change mitigation. Forests remove around 430 million tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide and store 13 % of Europe’s greenhouse gas emissions (Nabuurs et al., 2015). Without forests, or in the event of inadequate forest management, these resources and services could be damaged or destroyed. \r\n The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2016) reports that less than 10 % of the forest area is intensively managed plantations. Nevertheless, their role may grow with the incentives offered under new EU policies to manage forests for, for example, regulation of land-based carbon accounting (land use, land use change and forestry) and energy. This means maximising the provision of biomass either from Europe’s forests or, as has already happened, by importing more biomass (e.g. wood pellets from North America). \r\n Forest management needs to maintain the resilience of forest ecosystems while avoiding abrupt and destructive changes. However, currently, the information available on forest management practices across Europe is too sparse and unrepresentative to give a reliable overview of the condition of forest-ecosystems and their biodiversity. Furthermore, some national statistics may not include all logging activities, some of which are for domestic heating purposes. \r\n Figure 1. Forest utilisation rates for the EU-28 countries, 1990-2012 (excluding Malta and Luxembourg) \r\n \r\n \r\n In this regard, country statistics provide information on the intensive use of Europe’s forests. Europe is one of the largest producers of roundwood in the world (Eurostat, 2017). Roundwood production has increased steadily in the most recent decades, temporarily declining in 2007/2008 because of the financial crisis. It recovered from 2010 onwards, returning to more stable production by 2013 at the pre-crisis level of around 458 million cubic metres (Eurostat, 2017). \r\n At the same time, the average forest utilisation rate (the ratio between the average annual volume felled and the volume of annual growth in the stock of living trees) stayed well below 100 %. This indicates that, although it varied by country, the production of timber remained sustainable (see Figure 1; Forest Europe, 2015; EEA, 2016). Wood production and forest management in a considerable share of European forests take place under forest certification schemes that aim to promote long-term environmental sustainability and the supply of the wide range of ecosystem services that society requires. \r\n However, the currently stable forest area and sustainable use of forests do not necessarily mean that Europe’s forests are not subject to pressures and changes that may threaten their multi-functionality. Aspects of the condition of forests give rise to concern for their long-term stability and health across Europe (EEA, 2015). Climate change impacts, such as storms, pests and pollution, and encroaching human development (infrastructure and tourism), as well as natural disturbances, are all threats to our forests. \r\n There are signs of an increasing limitation of phosphorous for the growth of trees and forest stands (e.g. Sardans et al., 2016). Several studies show nitrogen saturation in central European forests, which leads to nutrient imbalances between nitrogen and other mineral elements (e.g. Meesenburg et al., 2016) as well as phosphorous. Furthermore, sulphate — a driver of soil acidification — is still high in central and southern Europe (e.g. Waldner et al., 2014). \r\n Extreme weather severely affects forests: natural disturbances have recently caused a loss of 0.15 % of the growing stock in Europe (in some countries up to 10 % of annual fellings). Storms account for 53 % of abiotic damage and forest fires for 16 % of abiotic damage: the total burnt area in 2016 was higher than in each of the previous 3 years. \r\n Only 26 % of forest species and 15 % of the forest habitats were found to be in favourable conservation status (EEA, 2015). The EU-28 Member States report forest practices as one of the main causes of unfavourable and bad conservation status of forest habitats and species under the Habitats Directive. However, the reporting under the directives does not quantify the extent of damage caused by forest activities or the extent of the ecological consequences. \r\n Forest practices vary substantially across Europe — ranging from no management due to abandonment, through management for nature protection, to intensive short-rotation monoculture forestry managed for producing energy-related biomass. The ecological functions of forests are resilient to certain rates and degrees of disturbance, as forests evolve under the influence of natural disturbances. The current composition and structure of Europe’s forests reflects a variety of novel anthropogenic disturbances (Novàkovà et al., 2015; Thorn et al., 2017; Vacchiano et al., 2017). \r\n Intensive management operations involve overlogging, skidding damage to remaining trees and the soil, and a lack of replanting at critical sites. Unsustainable forest practices in the form of, for example, planting non-native tree species and monocultures and, in some cases, illegal logging increase the vulnerability of forests at a time when the need for biomass and many other services is growing. Examples include the tendency for non-native species to become invasive, establishing over large areas and becoming difficult to control and eliminate, e.g. after plantingPiceaorEucalyptus(Liebhold et al., 2017; Dieler et al., 2017). \r\n Other pressures on forests, e.g. the effects of nitrogen deposition, climate change, loss of top predators that control herbivore populations, may cause damage to forests. Illegal logging is increasingly reported (e.g. in the Carpathian region). Such degradation of forest ecosystems may increase the risks of eroding the biodiversity and ecological condition of forests and of forest soils due to compaction, loss of nutrients and loss of forest soils (Bengtsson et al., 2000; Frelich et al., 2018). \r\n Considering the above, it is very clear that better information and knowledge about European forest ecosystems is required if we are to meet the needs of environmental protection, and the climate and energy policies, all in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals adopted by all countries as part of the United Nations Agenda 2030. This includes accurate quantification of forest land use and land cover changes, and information on forest management practices and their impacts on forest resources. \r\n Future methodologies will provide improved information on changes in forest area and in forest managements at the European level. This will include the regular updates to the Copernicus land monitoring services, which will deliver very high-resolution forest information such as density of tree cover, forest type, and riparian and small woody tree features. Closer collaboration between the EEA member countries via the Eionet network will contribute to harmonising country information and increasing the quality of the assessments. ", "http://schema.org/headline": "Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences", "http://schema.org/image": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_large" }, "http://schema.org/mainEntityOfPage": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and" }, "http://schema.org/publisher": { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#organization" } }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu#contact-point-0", "@type": "http://schema.org/ContactPoint", "http://schema.org/availableLanguage": [ "English", "Danish" ], "http://schema.org/contactType": "customer support", "http://schema.org/telephone": "(+45) 33 36 71 00" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_xlarge", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "950px", "http://schema.org/width": "950px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_portrait", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "1370px", "http://schema.org/width": "771px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_listing", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "16px", "http://schema.org/width": "16px" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/++resource++eea.soercontent.images/icon.png", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image" }, { "@id": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/forest-dynamics-in-europe-and/image_landscape", "@type": "http://schema.org/Image", "http://schema.org/height": "771px", "http://schema.org/width": "1370px" } ] } </script> <script type="text/javascript">// commented make_nav_blend since we use volto header thus avoiding error var body = document.getElementsByTagName("body")[0]; var portal_column_two_wrapper = document.getElementById( "portal-column-two-wrapper" ); var enable_nav_blend = body.className.indexOf("mini-header-navigation") !== -1 && portal_column_two_wrapper; var content_core = document.getElementById("content-core"); var qs = document.querySelector.bind(document); // 120363 add breadcrumbs trail from right column nav to mobile nav var make_nav_blend = function() { if (!enable_nav_blend) { return; } var portlet_nav = qs(".portletNavigationTree"); var extra_nav_li = document.createElement('li'); var level = 1; var cloned_portlet_nav = portlet_nav.cloneNode(true); extra_nav_li.className = "mobile-only"; extra_nav_li.appendChild(cloned_portlet_nav); var nav_header = cloned_portlet_nav.querySelector("#firstHeader"); var submenu_headers = cloned_portlet_nav.querySelectorAll(".portletSubMenuHeader"); if (submenu_headers.length < 2) { submenu_headers[0].style.display = "none"; portlet_nav.querySelector(".portletSubMenuHeader").style.display = "none"; } var nav_header_link = nav_header.querySelector("a"); var nav_header_href = nav_header_link.href; var nav_header_list = document.createElement("li"); var global_nav = qs("#portal-globalnav"); var global_nav_root_link = Array.prototype.filter.call(global_nav.querySelectorAll("a"), function(item) { return nav_header_href.indexOf(item.href) !== -1; }); var global_nav_root_li; if (!global_nav_root_link.length) { global_nav_root_li = document.createElement("li"); global_nav_root_li.className = "mobile-only"; global_nav_root_li.appendChild(nav_header_link); cloned_portlet_nav.removeChild(nav_header); global_nav.appendChild(global_nav_root_li); global_nav_root_li.insertAdjacentElement('afterend', extra_nav_li); } else { global_nav_root_link = global_nav_root_link[0]; global_nav_root_li = global_nav_root_link.parentNode; global_nav_root_li.className = ""; // level += 1; if (global_nav_root_link.href !== nav_header_href) { nav_header_list.className = "mobile-only"; nav_header_link.className = "pl-" + level; nav_header_list.appendChild(nav_header_link); global_nav_root_li.insertAdjacentElement('afterend', nav_header_list); nav_header_list.insertAdjacentElement('afterend', extra_nav_li); } else { global_nav_root_li.insertAdjacentElement('afterend', extra_nav_li); } cloned_portlet_nav.removeChild(nav_header); } }; //make_nav_blend(); window.enlarge_content_area = function() { if (!enable_nav_blend) { return; } var window_width = window.innerWidth; if (window_width < 1280) { return; } var portal_column_two_height = portal_column_two_wrapper.clientHeight; if (portal_column_two_height > content_core.clientHeight) { content_core.style.minHeight = (portal_column_two_height - 150) + "px"; } }; window.enlarge_content_area(); </script> <script type="text/javascript">var w_inner_height = window.innerHeight; var w_inner_width = window.innerWidth; function isElementInViewport(el) { // Detect if element is in viewport var rect = el.getBoundingClientRect(); return ( rect.top > 0 && rect.left > 0 && rect.bottom <= w_inner_height && rect.right <= w_inner_width); } function enableLazy(element) { var source = element.src; var classes = element.className.length ? element.className + ' ' : ''; if (classes.indexOf('skip_lazy') === -1) { element.className = classes + 'lazy'; element.setAttribute('data-src', source); element.src = 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///wAAACwAAAAAAQABAAACAkQBADs='; return false; } return true; } window.lazyElements = []; var imgs = document.querySelectorAll('img'); /* #119674 skip lazy loading for design_ urls as it makes it easier to have * code display without any url modifications done by the lazy loading */ if (window.location.href.indexOf('/code') !== -1) { imgs = []; } Array.prototype.forEach.call(imgs, function(el) { if (isElementInViewport(el) === false) { if (enableLazy(el)) { window.lazyElements.push(el); } } }); </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.eea.europa.eu/portal_javascripts/EEADesign2006/ploneScripts1732293708349582911.js"></script> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Forest dynamics in Europe and their ecological consequences — European Environment Agency