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id="toc-Conceptual_containment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conceptual_containment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Conceptual containment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conceptual_containment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kant's_version_and_the_a_priori–a_posteriori_distinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kant's_version_and_the_a_priori–a_posteriori_distinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Kant's version and the <i>a priori</i>–<i>a posteriori</i> distinction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kant's_version_and_the_a_priori–a_posteriori_distinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_ease_of_knowing_analytic_propositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_ease_of_knowing_analytic_propositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>The ease of knowing analytic propositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_ease_of_knowing_analytic_propositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_possibility_of_metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_possibility_of_metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>The possibility of metaphysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_possibility_of_metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frege_and_the_logical_positivists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frege_and_the_logical_positivists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Frege and the logical positivists</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Frege_and_the_logical_positivists-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Frege and the logical positivists subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Frege_and_the_logical_positivists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frege_revision_of_Kantian_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frege_revision_of_Kantian_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Frege revision of Kantian definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frege_revision_of_Kantian_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_origin_of_the_logical_positivist's_distinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_origin_of_the_logical_positivist's_distinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The origin of the logical positivist's distinction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_origin_of_the_logical_positivist's_distinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logical_positivist_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logical_positivist_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Logical positivist definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logical_positivist_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two-dimensionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two-dimensionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Two-dimensionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-dimensionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carnap's_distinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carnap's_distinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Carnap's distinction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carnap's_distinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quine's_criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quine's_criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Quine's criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Quine's_criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Quine's criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Quine's_criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Responses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In other fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References_and_further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References_and_further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References and further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References_and_further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%81%D9%8A" title="تمييز تحليلي تأليفي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تمييز تحليلي تأليفي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCnteetiline_propositsioon" title="Sünteetiline propositsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sünteetiline propositsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinci%C3%B3n_anal%C3%ADtico-sint%C3%A9tico" title="Distinción analítico-sintético – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Distinción analítico-sintético" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%E2%80%93%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="گزاره تحلیلی–ترکیبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گزاره تحلیلی–ترکیبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%84%EC%84%9D-%EC%A2%85%ED%95%A9_%EA%B5%AC%EB%B6%84" title="분석-종합 구분 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="분석-종합 구분" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E2%80%93%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="विश्लेषणात्मक–संश्लेषणात्मक प्रतिज्ञप्ति भेद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विश्लेषणात्मक–संश्लेषणात्मक प्रतिज्ञप्ति भेद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analisi_e_sintesi" title="Analisi e sintesi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Analisi e sintesi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%94%D7%91%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99-%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%98%D7%99" title="ההבחנה אנליטי-סינתטי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ההבחנה אנליטי-סינתטי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisch_en_synthetisch_oordeel" title="Analytisch en synthetisch oordeel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Analytisch en synthetisch oordeel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distin%C3%A7%C3%A3o_anal%C3%ADtico-sint%C3%A9tica" title="Distinção analítico-sintética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Distinção analítico-sintética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinziuni_analiticu-sintetica" title="Distinziuni analiticu-sintetica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Distinziuni analiticu-sintetica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%95%DA%B5_%D9%88_%D8%AA%DB%8E%DA%A9%DB%95%DA%B5" title="شیتەڵ و تێکەڵ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شیتەڵ و تێکەڵ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyyttinen_ja_synteettinen" title="Analyyttinen ja synteettinen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Analyyttinen ja synteettinen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitik-sentetik_ayr%C4%B1m%C4%B1" title="Analitik-sentetik ayrımı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Analitik-sentetik ayrımı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96_%D1%96_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Аналітичні і синтетичні судження – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аналітичні і синтетичні судження" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90-%E7%B6%9C%E5%90%88%E5%8D%80%E5%88%A5" title="分析-綜合區別 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="分析-綜合區別" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90-%E7%B6%9C%E5%90%88%E5%8D%80%E5%88%A5" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Semantic distinction in philosophy</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the linguistic categories, see <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">Analytic language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">Synthetic language</a>.</div> <p>The <b>analytic–synthetic distinction</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> distinction used primarily in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> to distinguish between propositions (in particular, statements that are affirmative <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>–<a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a> judgments) that are of two types: <b>analytic propositions</b> and <b>synthetic propositions</b>. Analytic propositions are true or not true solely by virtue of their meaning, whereas synthetic propositions' truth, if any, derives from how their meaning relates to the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Rey_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rey-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the distinction was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, it was revised considerably over time, and different philosophers have used the terms in very different ways. Furthermore, some philosophers (starting with <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a>) have questioned whether there is even a clear distinction to be made between propositions which are analytically true and propositions which are synthetically true.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Debates regarding the nature and usefulness of the distinction continue to this day in contemporary <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kant">Kant</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Kant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/440px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conceptual_containment">Conceptual containment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Conceptual containment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> uses the terms "analytic" and "synthetic" to divide propositions into two types. Kant introduces the analytic–synthetic distinction in the Introduction to his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> (1781/1998, A6–7/B10–11). There, he restricts his attention to statements that are affirmative subject–predicate judgments and defines "analytic proposition" and "synthetic proposition" as follows: </p> <ul><li><i>analytic proposition</i>: a proposition whose predicate concept is contained in its subject concept</li> <li><i>synthetic proposition</i>: a proposition whose predicate concept is <i>not</i> contained in its subject concept but related</li></ul> <p>Examples of analytic propositions, on Kant's definition, include: </p> <ul><li>"All bachelors are unmarried."</li> <li>"All triangles have three sides."</li></ul> <p>Kant's own example is: </p> <ul><li>"All bodies are extended": that is, they occupy space. (A7/B11)</li></ul> <p>Each of these statements is an affirmative subject–predicate judgment, and, in each, the predicate concept is <i>contained</i> within the subject concept. The concept "bachelor" contains the concept "unmarried"; the concept "unmarried" is part of the definition of the concept "bachelor". Likewise, for "triangle" and "has three sides", and so on. </p><p>Examples of synthetic propositions, on Kant's definition, include: </p> <ul><li>"All bachelors are alone."</li> <li>"All creatures with hearts have kidneys."</li></ul> <p>Kant's own example is: </p> <ul><li>"All bodies are heavy": that is, they experience a gravitational force. (A7/B11)</li></ul> <p>As with the previous examples classified as analytic propositions, each of these new statements is an affirmative subject–predicate judgment. However, in none of these cases does the subject concept contain the predicate concept. The concept "bachelor" does not contain the concept "alone"; "alone" is not a part of the <i>definition</i> of "bachelor". The same is true for "creatures with hearts" and "have kidneys"; even if every creature with a heart also has kidneys, the concept "creature with a heart" does not contain the concept "has kidneys". So the philosophical issue is: What kind of statement is "Language is used to transmit meaning"? </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kant's_version_and_the_a_priori–a_posteriori_distinction"><span id="Kant.27s_version_and_the_a_priori.E2.80.93a_posteriori_distinction"></span>Kant's version and the <i>a priori</i>–<i>a posteriori</i> distinction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Kant's version and the a priori–a posteriori distinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></div> <p>In the Introduction to the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>, Kant contrasts his distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions with another distinction, the distinction between <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence"><i>a posteriori</i></a> propositions. He defines these terms as follows: </p> <ul><li><i>a priori proposition</i>: a proposition whose justification does <i>not</i> rely upon experience. Moreover, the proposition can be validated by experience, but is not grounded in experience. Therefore, it is logically necessary.</li> <li><i>a posteriori proposition</i>: a proposition whose justification does rely upon experience. The proposition is validated by, and grounded in, experience. Therefore, it is logically contingent.</li></ul> <p>Examples of <i>a priori</i> propositions include: </p> <ul><li>"All bachelors are unmarried."</li> <li>"7 + 5 = 12."</li></ul> <p>The justification of these propositions does not depend upon experience: one need not consult experience to determine whether all bachelors are unmarried, nor whether <span class="nowrap">7 + 5 = 12</span>. (Of course, as Kant would grant, experience is required to understand the concepts "bachelor", "unmarried", "7", "+" and so forth. However, the <i>a priori</i>–<i>a posteriori</i> distinction as employed here by Kant refers not to the <i>origins</i> of the concepts but to the <i>justification</i> of the propositions. Once we have the concepts, experience is no longer necessary.) </p><p>Examples of <i>a posteriori</i> propositions include: </p> <ul><li>"All bachelors are unhappy."</li> <li>"Tables exist."</li></ul> <p>Both of these propositions are <i>a posteriori</i>: any justification of them would require one's experience. </p><p>The analytic–synthetic distinction and the <i>a priori</i>–<i>a posteriori</i> distinction together yield four types of propositions: </p> <ul><li>analytic <i>a priori</i></li> <li>synthetic <i>a priori</i></li> <li>analytic <i>a posteriori</i></li> <li>synthetic <i>a posteriori</i></li></ul> <p>Kant posits the third type as obviously self-contradictory. Ruling it out, he discusses only the remaining three types as components of his epistemological framework—each, for brevity's sake, becoming, respectively, "analytic", "synthetic <i>a priori</i>", and "empirical" or "<i>a posteriori</i>" propositions. This triad accounts for all propositions possible. Examples of analytic and examples of <i>a posteriori</i> statements have already been given, for synthetic <i>a priori</i> propositions he gives those in mathematics and physics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_ease_of_knowing_analytic_propositions">The ease of knowing analytic propositions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The ease of knowing analytic propositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Part of Kant's argument in the Introduction to the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> involves arguing that there is no problem figuring out how knowledge of analytic propositions is possible. To know an analytic proposition, Kant argued, one need not consult experience. Instead, one needs merely to take the subject and "extract from it, in accordance with the principle of contradiction, the required predicate" (B12). In analytic propositions, the predicate concept is contained in the subject concept. Thus, to know an analytic proposition is true, one need merely examine the concept of the subject. If one finds the predicate contained in the subject, the judgment is true. </p><p>Thus, for example, one need not consult experience to determine whether "All bachelors are unmarried" is true. One need merely examine the subject concept ("bachelors") and see if the predicate concept "unmarried" is contained in it. And in fact, it is: "unmarried" is part of the definition of "bachelor" and so is contained within it. Thus the proposition "All bachelors are unmarried" can be known to be true without consulting experience. </p><p>It follows from this, Kant argued, first: All analytic propositions are <i>a priori</i>; there are no <i>a posteriori</i> analytic propositions. It follows, second: There is no problem understanding how we can know analytic propositions; we can know them because we only need to consult our concepts in order to determine that they are true. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_possibility_of_metaphysics">The possibility of metaphysics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The possibility of metaphysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After ruling out the possibility of analytic <i>a posteriori</i> propositions, and explaining how we can obtain knowledge of analytic <i>a priori</i> propositions, Kant also explains how we can obtain knowledge of synthetic <i>a posteriori</i> propositions. That leaves only the question of how knowledge of synthetic <i>a priori</i> propositions is possible. This question is exceedingly important, Kant maintains, because all scientific knowledge (for him Newtonian physics and mathematics) is made up of synthetic <i>a priori</i> propositions. If it is impossible to determine which synthetic <i>a priori</i> propositions are true, he argues, then metaphysics as a discipline is impossible. The remainder of the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> is devoted to examining whether and how knowledge of synthetic <i>a priori</i> propositions is possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Langford1949_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langford1949-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Frege_and_the_logical_positivists">Frege and the logical positivists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Frege and the logical positivists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frege_revision_of_Kantian_definition">Frege revision of Kantian definition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Frege revision of Kantian definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over a hundred years later, a group of philosophers took interest in Kant and his distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions: the <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivists</a>. </p><p>Part of Kant's examination of the possibility of synthetic <i>a priori</i> knowledge involved the examination of mathematical propositions, such as </p> <ul><li>"7 + 5 = 12." (B15–16)</li> <li>"The shortest distance between two points is a straight line." (B16–17)</li></ul> <p>Kant maintained that mathematical propositions such as these are synthetic <i>a priori</i> propositions, and that we know them. That they are synthetic, he thought, is obvious: the concept "equal to 12" is not contained within the concept "7 + 5"; and the concept "straight line" is not contained within the concept "the shortest distance between two points". From this, Kant concluded that we have knowledge of synthetic <i>a priori</i> propositions. </p><p>Although not strictly speaking a logical positivist, <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>'s notion of analyticity influenced them greatly. It included a number of logical properties and relations beyond containment: <a href="/wiki/Symmetry" title="Symmetry">symmetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transitive_relation" title="Transitive relation">transitivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonymy">antonymy</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">negation</a> and so on. He had a strong emphasis on formality, in particular formal definition, and also emphasized the idea of substitution of synonymous terms. "All bachelors are unmarried" can be expanded out with the formal definition of bachelor as "unmarried man" to form "All unmarried men are unmarried", which is recognizable as tautologous and therefore analytic from its logical form: any statement of the form "All <i>X</i> that are (<i>F</i> and <i>G</i>) are <i>F</i>". Using this particular expanded idea of analyticity, Frege concluded that Kant's examples of arithmetical truths are analytical <i>a priori</i> truths and <i>not</i> synthetic <i>a priori</i> truths. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Thanks to Frege's logical semantics, particularly his concept of analyticity, arithmetic truths like "7+5=12" are no longer synthetic <i>a priori</i> but analytical <i>a priori</i> truths in <a href="/wiki/Carnap" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnap">Carnap</a>'s extended sense of "analytic". Hence logical empiricists are not subject to Kant's criticism of Hume for throwing out mathematics along with metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-Katz_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>(Here "logical empiricist" is a synonym for "logical positivist".) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_origin_of_the_logical_positivist's_distinction"><span id="The_origin_of_the_logical_positivist.27s_distinction"></span>The origin of the logical positivist's distinction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The origin of the logical positivist's distinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The logical positivists agreed with Kant that we have knowledge of mathematical truths, and further that mathematical propositions are <i>a priori</i>. However, they did not believe that any complex metaphysics, such as the type Kant supplied, are necessary to explain our knowledge of mathematical truths. Instead, the logical positivists maintained that our knowledge of judgments like "all bachelors are unmarried" and our knowledge of mathematics (and logic) are in the basic sense the same: all proceeded from our knowledge of the meanings of terms or the conventions of language. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Since empiricism had always asserted that <i>all</i> knowledge is based on experience, this assertion had to include knowledge in mathematics. On the other hand, we believed that with respect to this problem the rationalists had been right in rejecting the old empiricist view that the truth of "2+2=4" is contingent on the observation of facts, a view that would lead to the unacceptable consequence that an arithmetical statement might possibly be refuted tomorrow by new experiences. Our solution, based upon <a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>'s conception, consisted in asserting the thesis of empiricism only for factual truth. By contrast, the truths of logic and mathematics are not in need of confirmation by observations, because they do not state anything about the world of facts, they hold for any possible combination of facts.<sup id="cite_ref-Schlipp_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schlipp-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rudolf Carnap, "Autobiography": §10: Semantics, p. 64</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logical_positivist_definitions">Logical positivist definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Logical positivist definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thus the logical positivists drew a new distinction, and, inheriting the terms from Kant, named it the "analytic-synthetic distinction".<sup id="cite_ref-Ebbs_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebbs-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They provided many different definitions, such as the following: </p> <ul><li><i>analytic proposition</i>: a proposition whose truth depends solely on the meaning of its terms</li> <li><i>analytic proposition</i>: a proposition that is true (or false) by definition</li> <li><i>analytic proposition</i>: a proposition that is made true (or false) solely by the conventions of language</li></ul> <p>(While the logical positivists believed that the only necessarily true propositions were analytic, they did not define "analytic proposition" as "necessarily true proposition" or "proposition that is true in all possible worlds".) </p><p>Synthetic propositions were then defined as: </p> <ul><li><i>synthetic proposition</i>: a proposition that is not analytic</li></ul> <p>These definitions applied to all propositions, regardless of whether they were of subject–predicate form. Thus, under these definitions, the proposition "It is raining or it is not raining" was classified as analytic, while for Kant it was analytic by virtue of its logical form. And the proposition "<span class="nowrap">7 + 5 = 12</span>" was classified as analytic, while under Kant's definitions it was synthetic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Two-dimensionalism">Two-dimensionalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Two-dimensionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Two-dimensionalism" title="Two-dimensionalism">Two-dimensionalism</a> is an approach to <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>. It is a theory of how to determine the <a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">sense and reference</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">word</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Truth-value" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth-value">truth-value</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a>. It is intended to resolve a puzzle that has plagued philosophy for some time, namely: How is it possible to discover empirically that a <a href="/wiki/Necessary_truth" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary truth">necessary truth</a> is <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">true</a>? Two-dimensionalism provides an analysis of the semantics of words and sentences that makes sense of this possibility. The theory was first developed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stalnaker" title="Robert Stalnaker">Robert Stalnaker</a>, but it has been advocated by numerous philosophers since, including <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berit_Brogaard" title="Berit Brogaard">Berit Brogaard</a>. </p><p>Any given sentence, for example, the words, </p> <dl><dd>"Water is H<sub>2</sub>O"</dd></dl> <p>is taken to express two distinct <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a>, often referred to as a <i>primary intension</i> and a <i>secondary intension</i>, which together compose its <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">meaning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chalmers_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chalmers-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The primary <a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">intension</a> of a word or sentence is its <a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">sense</a>, i.e., is the idea or method by which we find its referent. The primary intension of "water" might be a description, such as <i>watery stuff</i>. The thing picked out by the primary intension of "water" could have been otherwise. For example, on some other world where the inhabitants take "water" to mean <i>watery stuff</i>, but, where the chemical make-up of watery stuff is not H<sub>2</sub>O, it is not the case that water is H<sub>2</sub>O for that world. </p><p>The <i>secondary intension</i> of "water" is whatever thing "water" happens to pick out in <i>this</i> world, whatever that world happens to be. So if we assign "water" the primary intension <i>watery stuff</i> then the secondary intension of "water" is H<sub>2</sub>O, since H<sub>2</sub>O is <i>watery stuff</i> in this world. The secondary intension of "water" in our world is H<sub>2</sub>O, which is H<sub>2</sub>O in every world because unlike <i>watery stuff</i> it is impossible for H<sub>2</sub>O to be other than H<sub>2</sub>O. When considered according to its secondary intension, "Water is H<sub>2</sub>O" is true in every world. </p><p>If two-dimensionalism is workable it solves some very important problems in the philosophy of language. <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> has argued that "Water is H<sub>2</sub>O" is an example of the <a href="/wiki/A_posteriori_necessity" title="A posteriori necessity">necessary <i>a posteriori</i></a>, since we had to discover that water was H<sub>2</sub>O, but given that it is true, it cannot be false. It would be absurd to claim that something that is water is not H<sub>2</sub>O, for these are known to be <i>identical</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Carnap's_distinction"><span id="Carnap.27s_distinction"></span>Carnap's distinction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Carnap's distinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> was a strong proponent of the distinction between what he called "internal questions", questions entertained within a "framework" (like a mathematical theory), and "external questions", questions posed outside any framework – posed before the adoption of any framework.<sup id="cite_ref-Carnap_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carnap-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russell_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Murzi_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murzi-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "internal" questions could be of two types: <i>logical</i> (or analytic, or logically true) and <i>factual</i> (empirical, that is, matters of observation interpreted using terms from a framework). The "external" questions were also of two types: those that were confused pseudo-questions ("one disguised in the form of a theoretical question") and those that could be re-interpreted as practical, pragmatic questions about whether a framework under consideration was "more or less expedient, fruitful, conducive to the aim for which the language is intended".<sup id="cite_ref-Carnap_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carnap-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adjective "synthetic" was not used by Carnap in his 1950 work <i>Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Carnap_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carnap-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carnap did define a "synthetic truth" in his work <i><a href="/wiki/Meaning_and_Necessity" title="Meaning and Necessity">Meaning and Necessity</a></i>: a sentence that is true, but not simply because "the semantical rules of the system suffice for establishing its truth".<sup id="cite_ref-Carnap2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carnap2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The notion of a synthetic truth is of something that is true both because of what it means and because of the way the world is, whereas analytic truths are true in virtue of meaning alone. Thus, what Carnap calls internal <i>factual</i> statements (as opposed to internal <i>logical</i> statements) could be taken as being also synthetic truths because they require <i>observations</i>, but some external statements also could be "synthetic" statements and Carnap would be doubtful about their status. The analytic–synthetic argument therefore is not identical with the <a href="/wiki/Internal%E2%80%93external_distinction" title="Internal–external distinction">internal–external distinction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yablo_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yablo-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quine's_criticisms"><span id="Quine.27s_criticisms"></span>Quine's criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Quine's criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine#Rejection_of_the_analytic–synthetic_distinction" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine § Rejection of the analytic–synthetic distinction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism#Analyticity_and_circularity" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism § Analyticity and circularity</a></div> <p>In 1951, <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a> published the essay "<a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a>" in which he argued that the analytic–synthetic distinction is untenable.<sup id="cite_ref-Dogmas_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dogmas-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The argument at bottom is that there are no "analytic" truths, but all truths involve an empirical aspect. In the first paragraph, Quine takes the distinction to be the following: </p> <ul><li>analytic propositions – propositions grounded in meanings, independent of matters of fact.</li> <li>synthetic propositions – propositions grounded in fact.</li></ul> <p>Quine's position denying the analytic–synthetic distinction is summarized as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is obvious that truth in general depends on both language and extralinguistic fact. ... Thus one is tempted to suppose in general that the truth of a statement is somehow analyzable into a linguistic component and a factual component. Given this supposition, it next seems reasonable that in some statements the factual component should be null; and these are the analytic statements. But, for all its <i>a priori</i> reasonableness, a boundary between analytic and synthetic statements simply has not been drawn. That there is such a distinction to be drawn at all is an unempirical dogma of empiricists, a metaphysical article of faith.<sup id="cite_ref-Quine4_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quine4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Willard V. O. Quine, "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", p. 64</cite></div></blockquote> <p>To summarize Quine's argument, the notion of an analytic proposition requires a notion of synonymy, but establishing synonymy inevitably leads to matters of fact – synthetic propositions. Thus, there is no non-circular (and so no tenable) way to ground the notion of analytic propositions. </p><p>While Quine's rejection of the analytic–synthetic distinction is widely known, the precise argument for the rejection and its status is highly debated in contemporary philosophy. However, some (for example, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Boghossian" title="Paul Boghossian">Paul Boghossian</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Boghossian_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boghossian-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue that Quine's rejection of the distinction is still widely accepted among philosophers, even if for poor reasons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Responses">Responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a> and <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a> criticized "Two Dogmas" in their 1956 article "In Defense of a Dogma".<sup id="cite_ref-Defense_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Defense-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among other things, they argue that Quine's <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> about synonyms leads to a skepticism about meaning. If statements can have meanings, then it would make sense to ask "What does it mean?". If it makes sense to ask "What does it mean?", then synonymy can be defined as follows: Two sentences are synonymous if and only if the true answer of the question "What does it mean?" asked of one of them is the true answer to the same question asked of the other. They also draw the conclusion that discussion about correct or incorrect translations would be impossible given Quine's argument. Four years after Grice and Strawson published their paper, Quine's book <i><a href="/wiki/Word_and_Object" title="Word and Object">Word and Object</a></i> was released. In the book Quine presented his theory of <a href="/wiki/Indeterminacy_of_translation" title="Indeterminacy of translation">indeterminacy of translation</a>. </p><p>In <i>Speech Acts</i>, <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> argues that from the difficulties encountered in trying to explicate analyticity by appeal to specific criteria, it does not follow that the notion itself is void.<sup id="cite_ref-Searle_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considering the way that we would test any proposed list of criteria, which is by comparing their extension to the set of analytic statements, it would follow that any explication of what analyticity means presupposes that we already have at our disposal a working notion of analyticity. </p><p>In "'Two Dogmas' Revisited", <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> argues that Quine is attacking two different notions:<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It seems to me there is as gross a distinction between 'All bachelors are unmarried' and 'There is a book on this table' as between any two things in this world, or at any rate, between any two linguistic expressions in the world;<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Hilary Putnam, <i>Philosophical Papers</i>, p. 36</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Analytic truth defined as a true statement derivable from a <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautology</a> by putting synonyms for synonyms is near Kant's account of analytic truth as a truth whose negation is a contradiction. Analytic truth defined as a truth confirmed no matter what, however, is closer to one of the traditional accounts of <i>a priori</i>. While the first four sections of Quine's paper concern analyticity, the last two concern a-priority. Putnam considers the argument in the two last sections as independent of the first four, and at the same time as Putnam criticizes Quine, he also emphasizes his historical importance as the first top-rank philosopher to both reject the notion of a-priority and sketch a methodology without it.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jerrold_Katz" title="Jerrold Katz">Jerrold Katz</a>, a one-time associate of <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, countered the arguments of "Two Dogmas" directly by trying to define analyticity non-circularly on the syntactical features of sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-Linsky_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linsky-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Quine_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quine-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Katz1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chomsky himself critically discussed Quine's conclusion, arguing that it is possible to identify some analytic truths (truths of meaning, not truths of facts) which are determined by specific relations holding among some innate conceptual features of the mind or brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Cipriani_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cipriani-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century, Volume 1: The Dawn of Analysis</i>, <a href="/wiki/Scott_Soames" title="Scott Soames">Scott Soames</a> pointed out that Quine's circularity argument needs two of the logical positivists' central theses to be effective:<sup id="cite_ref-Soames_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soames-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>All necessary (and all <i>a priori</i>) truths are analytic.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>Analyticity is needed to explain and legitimate necessity.</dd></dl> <p>It is only when these two theses are accepted that Quine's argument holds. It is not a problem that the notion of necessity is presupposed by the notion of analyticity if necessity can be explained without analyticity. According to Soames, both theses were accepted by most philosophers when Quine published "Two Dogmas". Today, however, Soames holds both statements to be antiquated. He says: "Very few philosophers today would accept either [of these assertions], both of which now seem decidedly antique."<sup id="cite_ref-Soames_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soames-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_other_fields">In other fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In other fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This distinction was imported from philosophy into theology, with <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a> attempting to demonstrate that Kant's epistemology was compatible with Lutheranism.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holophrastic_indeterminacy" title="Holophrastic indeterminacy">Holophrastic indeterminacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">Paradox of analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failure_to_elucidate" class="mw-redirect" title="Failure to elucidate">Failure to elucidate</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Rey-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rey_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRey" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rey, Georges. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/">"The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2010 Edition)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Analytic%2FSynthetic+Distinction&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Winter+2010+Edition%29&rft.aulast=Rey&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fanalytic-synthetic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic">"The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Analytic%2FSynthetic+Distinction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fanalytic-synthetic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Langford1949-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Langford1949_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Cooper_Harold_Langford" title="Cooper Harold Langford">Cooper Harold Langford</a> (1949)'s ostensive proof: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangford1949" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cooper_Harold_Langford" title="Cooper Harold Langford">Langford, C. H.</a> (1949-01-06). "A Proof That Synthetic A Priori Propositions Exist". <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>46</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">20–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2019526">10.2307/2019526</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2019526">2019526</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+Proof+That+Synthetic+A+Priori+Propositions+Exist&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.date=1949-01-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2019526&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2019526%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Langford&rft.aufirst=C.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katz_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerrold_J._Katz2000" class="citation book cs1">Jerrold J. Katz (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=szCaXDdhID8C&pg=PA69">"The epistemic challenge to antirealism"</a>. <i>Realistic Rationalism</i>. MIT Press. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262263290" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262263290"><bdi>978-0262263290</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+epistemic+challenge+to+antirealism&rft.btitle=Realistic+Rationalism&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0262263290&rft.au=Jerrold+J.+Katz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DszCaXDdhID8C%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schlipp-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schlipp_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Reprinted in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarnap,_R.1999" class="citation book cs1">Carnap, R. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/62133298/The-Philosophy-of-Rudolf-Carnap">"Autobiography"</a>. In Paul Arthur Schilpp (ed.). <i>The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap</i>. Open Court Publishing Company. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812691535" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812691535"><bdi>978-0812691535</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Autobiography&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Rudolf+Carnap&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Open+Court+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0812691535&rft.au=Carnap%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F62133298%2FThe-Philosophy-of-Rudolf-Carnap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> This quote is found with a discussion of the differences between Carnap and Wittgenstein in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Friedman1997" class="citation book cs1">Michael Friedman (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eNA_TdDTNkMC&pg=PA29">"Carnap and Wittgenstein's <i>Tractatus</i>"</a>. In William W. Tait; <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Linsky" title="Leonard Linsky">Leonard Linsky</a> (eds.). <i>Early Analytic Philosophy: Frege, Russell, Wittgenstein</i>. Open Court Publishing. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812693447" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812693447"><bdi>978-0812693447</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carnap+and+Wittgenstein%27s+Tractatus&rft.btitle=Early+Analytic+Philosophy%3A+Frege%2C+Russell%2C+Wittgenstein&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Open+Court+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0812693447&rft.au=Michael+Friedman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeNA_TdDTNkMC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ebbs-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ebbs_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Ebbs2009" class="citation book cs1">Gary Ebbs (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCQ88ZUAoFMC&pg=PA101">"§51 A first sketch of the pragmatic roots of Carnap's analytic-synthetic distinction"</a>. <i>Rule-Following and Realism</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 101 <i>ff</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674034419" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674034419"><bdi>978-0674034419</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A751+A+first+sketch+of+the+pragmatic+roots+of+Carnap%27s+analytic-synthetic+distinction&rft.btitle=Rule-Following+and+Realism&rft.pages=101+%27%27ff%27%27&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674034419&rft.au=Gary+Ebbs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpCQ88ZUAoFMC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chalmers-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chalmers_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> For a fuller explanation see Chalmers, David. <i>The Conscious Mind</i>. Oxford UP: 1996. Chapter 2, section 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carnap-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carnap_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carnap_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carnap_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudolf_Carnap1950" class="citation journal cs1">Rudolf Carnap (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/carnap/carnap.html">"Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology"</a>. <i>Revue Internationale de Philosophie</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">20–</span>40.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+Internationale+de+Philosophie&rft.atitle=Empiricism%2C+Semantics%2C+and+Ontology&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=1950&rft.au=Rudolf+Carnap&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ditext.com%2Fcarnap%2Fcarnap.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted in the <i>Supplement to Meaning and Necessity: A Study in Semantics and Modal Logic</i>, enlarged edition (University of Chicago Press, 1956).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russell_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillian_Russell2012" class="citation web cs1">Gillian Russell (2012-11-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0044.xml">"Analytic/Synthetic Distinction"</a>. <i>Oxford Bibliographies</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-05-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Bibliographies&rft.atitle=Analytic%2FSynthetic+Distinction&rft.date=2012-11-21&rft.au=Gillian+Russell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780195396577%2Fobo-9780195396577-0044.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murzi-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Murzi_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMauro_Murzi2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Mauro Murzi (April 12, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/carnap/#H3">"Rudolf Carnap: §3. Analytic and Synthetic"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rudolf+Carnap%3A+%C2%A73.+Analytic+and+Synthetic&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2001-04-12&rft.au=Mauro+Murzi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fcarnap%2F%23H3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carnap2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carnap2_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudolf_Carnap1947" class="citation book cs1">Rudolf Carnap (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/meaningandnecess033225mbp/meaningandnecess033225mbp_djvu.txt"><i>Meaning and Necessity: A study in semantics and modal logic</i></a> (2nd ed.). University of Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226093475" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226093475"><bdi>978-0226093475</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meaning+and+Necessity%3A+A+study+in+semantics+and+modal+logic&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=978-0226093475&rft.au=Rudolf+Carnap&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fmeaningandnecess033225mbp%2Fmeaningandnecess033225mbp_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SiH15ghjVaAC">Google link to Midway reprint</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yablo-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yablo_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_Yablo1998" class="citation journal cs1">Stephen Yablo (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/courses/factual/papers/YabloMistake.pdf">"Does ontology rest upon a mistake?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume</i>. <b>72</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">229–</span>262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8349.00044">10.1111/1467-8349.00044</a>. <q>The usual charge against Carnap's internal/external distinction is one of 'guilt by association with analytic/synthetic'. But it can be freed of this association</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aristotelian+Society+Supplementary+Volume&rft.atitle=Does+ontology+rest+upon+a+mistake%3F&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E229-%3C%2Fspan%3E262&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-8349.00044&rft.au=Stephen+Yablo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyu.edu%2Fgsas%2Fdept%2Fphilo%2Fcourses%2Ffactual%2Fpapers%2FYabloMistake.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dogmas-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dogmas_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillard_v.O._Quine1951" class="citation journal cs1">Willard v.O. Quine (1951). "Main Trends in Recent Philosophy: Two Dogmas of Empiricism". <i>The Philosophical Review</i>. <b>60</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">20–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2181906">10.2307/2181906</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2181906">2181906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=Main+Trends+in+Recent+Philosophy%3A+Two+Dogmas+of+Empiricism&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2181906&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2181906%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Willard+v.O.+Quine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted in W.V.O. Quine, From a Logical Point of View (Harvard University Press, 1953; second, revised, edition 1961) On-line versions at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.calculemus.org/lect/06transl/quine1.html">http://www.calculemus.org</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.unlv.edu/jwood/wm/Quine.pdf">Woodbridge</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130228133303/http://faculty.unlv.edu/jwood/wm/Quine.pdf">Archived</a> February 28, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Quine4-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Quine4_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillard_v_O_Quine1980" class="citation book cs1">Willard v O Quine (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iaXVXYDQN1oC&pg=PA60">"Chapter 2: W.V. Quine: Two dogmas of empiricism"</a>. In Harold Morick (ed.). <i>Challenges to empiricism</i>. Hackett Publishing. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0915144907" title="Special:BookSources/978-0915144907"><bdi>978-0915144907</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+W.V.+Quine%3A+Two+dogmas+of+empiricism&rft.btitle=Challenges+to+empiricism&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0915144907&rft.au=Willard+v+O+Quine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiaXVXYDQN1oC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span> Published earlier in <i>From a Logical Point of View</i>, Harvard University Press (1953)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boghossian-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boghossian_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Artin_Boghossian1996" class="citation journal cs1">Paul Artin Boghossian (August 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/boghossian/papers/AnalyticityReconsidered.html">"Analyticity Reconsidered"</a>. <i>Noûs</i>. <b>30</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">360–</span>391. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2216275">10.2307/2216275</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2216275">2216275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=No%C3%BBs&rft.atitle=Analyticity+Reconsidered&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E360-%3C%2Fspan%3E391&rft.date=1996-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2216275&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2216275%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Paul+Artin+Boghossian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyu.edu%2Fgsas%2Fdept%2Fphilo%2Ffaculty%2Fboghossian%2Fpapers%2FAnalyticityReconsidered.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Defense-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Defense_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._P._GriceP._F._Strawson1956" class="citation journal cs1">H. P. Grice & P. F. Strawson (April 1956). "In Defense of a Dogma". <i>The Philosophical Review</i>. <b>65</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">41–</span>158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2182828">10.2307/2182828</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2182828">2182828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=In+Defense+of+a+Dogma&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E158&rft.date=1956-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2182828&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2182828%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=H.+P.+Grice&rft.au=P.+F.+Strawson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Searle-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Searle_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSearle,_John_R.1969" class="citation book cs1">Searle, John R. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t3_WhfknvF0C&pg=PA5"><i>Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521096263" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521096263"><bdi>978-0521096263</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speech+Acts%3A+An+Essay+in+the+Philosophy+of+Language&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0521096263&rft.au=Searle%2C+John+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt3_WhfknvF0C%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Putnam-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Putnam_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilary_Putnam1983" class="citation book cs1">Hilary Putnam (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HAjfSA3ir3kC&pg=PA87"><i>Realism and Reason: Philosophical Papers Volume 3, Realism and Reason</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">87–</span>97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521246729" title="Special:BookSources/9780521246729"><bdi>9780521246729</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Realism+and+Reason%3A+Philosophical+Papers+Volume+3%2C+Realism+and+Reason&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E87-%3C%2Fspan%3E97&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780521246729&rft.au=Hilary+Putnam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHAjfSA3ir3kC%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Putnam2-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Putnam2_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilary_Putnam1979" class="citation book cs1">Hilary Putnam (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_0W5ByvEPEgC&pg=PA36"><i>Philosophical Papers: Volume 2, Mind, Language and Reality</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521295512" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521295512"><bdi>978-0521295512</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Papers%3A+Volume+2%2C+Mind%2C+Language+and+Reality&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0521295512&rft.au=Hilary+Putnam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_0W5ByvEPEgC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Putnam1-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Putnam1_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Putnam, Hilary, "'Two dogmas' revisited." In Gilbert Ryle, <i>Contemporary Aspects of Philosophy.</i> Stocksfield: Oriel Press, 1976, 202–213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linsky-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Linsky_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard_Linsky1970" class="citation journal cs1">Leonard Linsky (October 1970). "Analytical/Synthetic and Semantic Theory". <i>Synthese</i>. <b>21</b> (3/4): <span class="nowrap">439–</span>448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00484810">10.1007/BF00484810</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20114738">20114738</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46959463">46959463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=Analytical%2FSynthetic+and+Semantic+Theory&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E439-%3C%2Fspan%3E448&rft.date=1970-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46959463%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20114738%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00484810&rft.au=Leonard+Linsky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_DavidsonGilbert_Harman1973" class="citation book cs1">Donald Davidson; Gilbert Harman, eds. (1973). "Analytic/Synthetic and Semantic Theory". <i>Semantics of natural language</i> (2nd ed.). pp. <span class="nowrap">473–</span>482. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-2557-7_16">10.1007/978-94-010-2557-7_16</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027703040" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027703040"><bdi>978-9027703040</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analytic%2FSynthetic+and+Semantic+Theory&rft.btitle=Semantics+of+natural+language&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E473-%3C%2Fspan%3E482&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-010-2557-7_16&rft.isbn=978-9027703040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Quine-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Quine_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillard_v_O_Quine1967" class="citation journal cs1">Willard v O Quine (February 2, 1967). "On a Suggestion of Katz". <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>64</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">52–</span>54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2023770">10.2307/2023770</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2023770">2023770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=On+a+Suggestion+of+Katz&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.date=1967-02-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2023770&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2023770%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Willard+v+O+Quine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz1-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katz1_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerrold_J_Katz1974" class="citation journal cs1">Jerrold J Katz (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psiquadrat.de/downloads/katz74.pdf">"Where Things Stand Now with the Analytical/Synthetic Distinction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Synthese</i>. <b>28</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">283–</span>319. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00877579">10.1007/BF00877579</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26340509">26340509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=Where+Things+Stand+Now+with+the+Analytical%2FSynthetic+Distinction&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E283-%3C%2Fspan%3E319&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00877579&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26340509%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Jerrold+J+Katz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psiquadrat.de%2Fdownloads%2Fkatz74.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cipriani-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cipriani_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCipriani2017" class="citation journal cs1">Cipriani, Enrico (2017). "Chomsky on analytic and necessary propositions". <i>Phenomenology and Mind</i>. <b>12</b>: <span class="nowrap">122–</span>31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phenomenology+and+Mind&rft.atitle=Chomsky+on+analytic+and+necessary+propositions&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E122-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Cipriani&rft.aufirst=Enrico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soames-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Soames_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Soames_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott_Soames2009" class="citation book cs1">Scott Soames (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yIldd9K9Rm0C&pg=PA360">"Evaluating the circularity argument"</a>. <i><span></span>'Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century, Volume 1: The Dawn of Analysis</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 360. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400825790" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400825790"><bdi>978-1400825790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evaluating+the+circularity+argument&rft.btitle=%27Philosophical+Analysis+in+the+Twentieth+Century%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Dawn+of+Analysis&rft.pages=360&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1400825790&rft.au=Scott+Soames&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyIldd9K9Rm0C%26pg%3DPA360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span> There are several earlier versions of this work.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmquist1989" class="citation journal cs1">Palmquist, Stephen (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314475752">"Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher?"</a>. <i>Faith and Philosophy</i>. <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">65–</span>75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Ffaithphil1989619">10.5840/faithphil1989619</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Faith+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+A+Christian+Philosopher%3F&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Ffaithphil1989619&rft.aulast=Palmquist&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F314475752&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References_and_further_reading">References and further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References and further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaehr,_Jason_S.2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Baehr, Jason S. (October 18, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/apriori/">"A Priori and A Posteriori"</a>. In J. Fieser; B. Dowden (eds.). <i>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Priori+and+A+Posteriori&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2006-10-18&rft.au=Baehr%2C+Jason+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fapriori%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Boghossian, Paul. (1996). "Analyticity Reconsidered". <i>Nous</i>, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 360–391. <<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/boghossian/papers/AnalyticityReconsidered.html">http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/boghossian/papers/AnalyticityReconsidered.html</a>>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCory_JuhlEric_Loomis2009" class="citation book cs1">Cory Juhl; Eric Loomis (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2yALcKePVDIC"><i>Analyticity</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415773331" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415773331"><bdi>978-0415773331</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analyticity&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0415773331&rft.au=Cory+Juhl&rft.au=Eric+Loomis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2yALcKePVDIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlockGluerKeil2003" class="citation book cs1">Glock, Hans-Johann; Gluer, Kathrin; Keil, Geert (2003). <i>Fifty Years of Quine's "Two dogmas"</i>. Rodopi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9042009486" title="Special:BookSources/978-9042009486"><bdi>978-9042009486</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifty+Years+of+Quine%27s+%22Two+dogmas%22&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-9042009486&rft.aulast=Glock&rft.aufirst=Hans-Johann&rft.au=Gluer%2C+Kathrin&rft.au=Keil%2C+Geert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kant, Immanuel. (1781/1998). <i>The Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Trans. by P. Guyer and A.W. Wood, Cambridge University Press .</li> <li>Rey, Georges. (2003). "The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction". <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Edward Zalta (ed.). <<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic</a>></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoames,_Scott2009" class="citation book cs1">Soames, Scott (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~soames/sel_pub/Quine_Carnap.pdf">"Chapter 14: Ontology, Analyticity and Meaning: The Quine-Carnap Dispute"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In David John Chalmers; David Manley; Ryan Wasserman (eds.). <i>Metametaphysics: New Essays on the Foundations of Ontology</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199546046" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199546046"><bdi>978-0199546046</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+14%3A+Ontology%2C+Analyticity+and+Meaning%3A+The+Quine-Carnap+Dispute&rft.btitle=Metametaphysics%3A+New+Essays+on+the+Foundations+of+Ontology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0199546046&rft.au=Soames%2C+Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-bcf.usc.edu%2F~soames%2Fsel_pub%2FQuine_Carnap.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_X_Ryan2004" class="citation book cs1">Frank X Ryan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KmUTkreTEQsC&pg=PA36">"Analytic: Analytic/Synthetic"</a>. In John Lachs; Robert B. Talisse (eds.). <i>American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia</i>. Psychology Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">36–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0203492796" title="Special:BookSources/978-0203492796"><bdi>978-0203492796</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analytic%3A+Analytic%2FSynthetic&rft.btitle=American+Philosophy%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0203492796&rft.au=Frank+X+Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKmUTkreTEQsC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Quine, W. V. (1951). "Two Dogmas of Empiricism". <i>Philosophical Review</i>, Vol.60, No.1, pp. 20–43. Reprinted in <i>From a Logical Point of View</i> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1953). <<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/quine/quine.html">http://www.ditext.com/quine/quine.html</a>>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Hanna2012" class="citation journal cs1">Robert Hanna (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/paper_hanna_return_of_the_analytic_synthetic_distinction_aug09.pdf">"The return of the analytic-synthetic distinction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Paradigmi</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paradigmi&rft.atitle=The+return+of+the+analytic-synthetic+distinction&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Robert+Hanna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2Fphilosophy%2Fpaper_hanna_return_of_the_analytic_synthetic_distinction_aug09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSloman1965" class="citation journal cs1">Sloman, Aaron (1965-10-01). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Necessary', 'a priori' and 'analytic'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Analysis</i>. <b>26</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">12–</span>16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fanalys%2F26.1.12">10.1093/analys/26.1.12</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analysis&rft.atitle=%27Necessary%27%2C+%27a+priori%27+and+%27analytic%27&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.date=1965-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fanalys%2F26.1.12&rft.aulast=Sloman&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/">"The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Analytic%2FSynthetic+Distinction&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fanalytic-synthetic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/quine-an">"Willard Van Orman Quine: The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Willard+Van+Orman+Quine%3A+The+Analytic%2FSynthetic+Distinction&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fquine-an&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/apriori/#H2">"Analytic–synthetic distinction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fapriori%2F%23H2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic%E2%80%93synthetic+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/idea/1328">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/the-analytic-synthetic-distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Analytic_philosophy286" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Analytic_philosophy286" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of focus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Aretaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity">Performative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviant_logic" title="Deviant logic">Deviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">Paraconsistent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Scientific structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">paradox of analysis</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">Natural kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">Supervenience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modality32" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">Possibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">Rigid designator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cambridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arif_Ahmed_(philosopher)" title="Arif Ahmed (philosopher)">Arif Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Lewy" title="Casimir Lewy">Casimir Lewy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Oxford</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harvard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notre Dame</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh School">Pittsburgh School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Adolf Grünbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Princeton</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Salmon" title="Nathan Salmon">Nathan Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">James F. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_Diamond" title="Cora Diamond">Cora Diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_School" title="Stanford School">Stanford School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Peter Galison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lwow-Warsaw</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophy" title="Category:Analytic philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_analytic_philosophy_articles" title="Index of analytic philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology363" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology" title="Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology363" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science439" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science439" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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title="Inference">Inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">Proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">Syntax</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">Informal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abduction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytic and synthetic propositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(logic)" title="Antecedent (logic)">Antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">Consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">Contradiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">Antinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_closure" title="Deductive closure">Deductive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Description" title="Description">Description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Entailment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entailment_(linguistics)" title="Entailment (linguistics)">Linguistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">Necessity and sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_(logic)" title="Substitution (logic)">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_logic_articles" title="Index of logic articles">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_logic_topics" title="List of mathematical logic topics">Mathematical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics" title="List of Boolean algebra topics">Boolean algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_set_theory_topics" title="List of set theory topics">Set theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rules_of_inference" title="List of rules of inference">Rules of inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paradoxes" title="List of paradoxes">Paradoxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">Fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logic_symbols" title="List of logic symbols">Logic symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" 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href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 355 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1961)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1986)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical 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title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_without_the_state" title="Law 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